1.Translation of English Verbals and Verbal Constructions/Complexes.

Both English and Ukrainian share common non-finite forms of the verb, namely
the infinitive and both participles, which serve similar functions in sentences.
However, their lexico-grammatical meanings can vary significantly, especially in
English, where they can include tense, aspect, and voice forms, as seen in the
infinitive and present participle derived from both intransitive and transitive verbs
(e.g., "to live" - "to be living," "to have lived"; but "to do" - "to be done," "to be doing";
"doing" - "being done," "having been done," etc.).
Translating these lexico-grammatical meanings (semes) of English verbal
paradigms into Ukrainian is not always straightforward. However, simple paradigms
usually have semantic and structural equivalents in both languages. For example:
English Ukrainian
to ask - to be asked - запитувати - бути запитаним,
working (Participle I) - працюючий, працюючи;
having worked (Perfect Participle) - попрацювавши, пропрацювавши.

The translation of English verbals depends not only on their structural forms but
also on their nature. Therefore, a special approach is required to convey the
complexity of meanings contained in some English gerunds (or the meanings of
Ukrainian дієприслівник into English).
Consequently, the methods of translating verbals are determined by factors
such as a) the structural form of the verbal, and b) the function of the verbal in the
sentence, where it may function as either a single part of the sentence or a
component of an extended complex part of the sentence.
Despite differences in their morphological nature and lexical meaning, some
verbals may perform the same functions in English sentences and their
corresponding Ukrainian syntaxemes. Therefore, to translate them correctly, it is
advisable to compare the functions and meanings of English and Ukrainian verbals
in corresponding sentences of both languages.

2. Ways of Rendering the Lexico-Grammatical Meanings and Function of the

English Infinitive.

Translation of the English infinitive is greatly predetermined by its form and sometimes by its
function in the sentence. The infinitive functioning as a single part of the sentence, has
usually corresponding equivalents in Ukrainian. The latter are a single infinitive or infinitival
phrase when the infinitive functions as 1) the subject: It was pretty nice to get back to my
room. – Було так приємно знову дістатися до своєї кімнати. 2) the simple nominal
predicate: His son – descend to this! – Його синові... так опуститись! 3) part of a compound
modal or aspect predicate/predicative: No, you couldn’t have called her beautiful. – Ні, її не
можна було назвати гарною. 4) the object (simple, extended or expanded): She taught him
to sit at a table and not put his elbows on it. – Вона вчила його сидіти за столом і не
класти на нього руки. 5) an attribute (which is less often used in Ukrainian): Can I give you
anything to eat or to drink? – Дати вам щось поїсти чи попити? 6) an adverbial modifier
(usually of purpose, result or consequence) may be conveyed in Ukrainian with the help of an
infinitival щоб-phrase, a prepositional noun or a noun word-group: She wanted time to think
it over. – Їй треба було часу для обдумування/щоб обміркувати це.

3. Ways of Translating Infinitival Complexes.

There are three types of infinitival complexes in present-day English:

1) the for-to-infinitival complex;
2) the objective with the infinitive;
3) the subjective with the infinitive complexes.
A. Ways of Translating the For-to-Infinitive Constructions Depending on the function in the sentence
and on the voice form of the infinitive, the secondary predication word-group may have different
equivalents in Ukrainian. The most often occurring are the infinitive, an infinitival phrase introduced
by the conjunction щоб, a finite form of the verb or a subordinate clause. The realization of a
definite meaning may be predetermined by the function of the infinitival for-phrase which may be as
follows:
1. The complex subject having for its equivalent in Ukrainian a simple subject expressed by the
infinitive or an extended subject expressed by the subordinate clause: For me to see you is the
happiest minute in my life... – Побачити тебе – для мене найщасливіша мить у житті/є для мене
найщасливішою хвилиною...
2. A complex predicative having for its Ukrainian equivalent either an infinitive functioning as the
simple nominal predicate, or a finite form of the verb, i.e., a simple verbal predicate: It is not for you
to make terms. – Це не тобі ставити умови/Не ти ставиш умови.
3. A complex object corresponding to a simple or extended object in Ukrainian: We are waiting for
the boys back from Hanoi. – Ми чекаємо повернення/ на повернення наших хлопців з Ханоя.
4. An attribute to a nominal part of speech: She had only to express a wish for him to fulfil. – Варто
було їй тільки виголосити якесь (своє) бажання, він негайно ж виконував його.

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5. An adverbial modifier of purpose or result having for their equivalents a subordinate clause or an
infinitive in Ukrainian: I left something under your door for you to read it. – Я дещо залишив тобі
під дверима, щоб ти почитав/тобі почитати.

4.Ways of Translating the Objective with the Infinitive

Constructions/Predicative Complexes.
The choice of the Ukrainian semantic equivalent is predetermined by some factors,
the main of which are as follows: a) the lexical meaning of the finite verb after which
the objective with the infinitive construction is used; b) the paradigmatic form of the
infinitive (its categorial mean ing); c) the lexical meaning of the objective infinitive.
The most common ways of translating the objective with the infinitive constructions
are the following: 1 ■ By means of a subordinate clause:
«Do you want me to take these (slides) away? Ви хочете, щоб я їх забрав ?
Everyone watched him walk (діапозитиви) Усі спостерігали, як він іде across the
garden. (D. Lessing) садком/переходить садок.

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Translation of the objective with the infinitive constructions, therefore, may be
predetermined not only by the nature and mean ing of the finite verb/predicate, which
may have various implicit de pendent grammatical meanings (those of physical or
mental percep tion, verbs of saying, etc.), but also by its syntactic function, by the
translator's choice of the equivalent and by the stylistic aim pursued in the sentence
by the author.

5. Ways of Rendering the Meaning of the

Subjective with the Infinitive
Constructions.
The Subjective with the Infinitive Construction, also known as the Nominative with Infinitive
or the Infinitive with Subject Construction, is a grammatical structure where an infinitive
verb form appears with an explicit subject. This construction often conveys perception,
causative, or modal meanings. The structure typically involves a passive or modal verb
followed by an infinitive.
There are several types of Subjective with the Infinitive Constructions:
1. Perception Verbs: These verbs (e.g., "see," "hear," "feel") indicate sensory perception. For
example, in "He was seen to leave the building," the subject "He" is perceived performing the
action "leave."
2. Causative Verbs: These verbs (e.g., "make," "have," "get") indicate causation. For instance,
"She was made to apologize by her teacher" means the subject "She" is caused to perform the
action "apologize."
3. Reporting Verbs: These verbs (e.g., "say," "report," "believe") are used to report
information. For example, "The project is believed to be successful" means the subject "The
project" is reported to be "successful."
4. Modal Verbs: These include "can," "could," "may," "might," "must," "shall," "should,"
"will," and "would" and express necessity, possibility, permission, or ability. For example,
"She must be considered to be the best candidate" means the subject "She" is required to be
considered "the best candidate."
5. Impersonal Constructions: These often use "it" as the dummy subject in the main clause,
with the real subject in the infinitive clause. For example, "It is considered to be a crucial
factor" uses "It" as a dummy subject, with "a crucial factor" being the real subject.

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6. Verbs of Expectation: These verbs (e.g., "expect," "suppose," "intend") express
expectations. For example, "She is expected to arrive soon" means the subject "She" is
anticipated to perform the action "arrive."
7. Adjectival Constructions: Certain adjectives (e.g., "likely," "certain," "bound," "sure") can
be part of this construction. For instance, "He is certain to win the match" means the subject
"He" is likely or sure to perform the action "win."
8. Passive Constructions with “To Be”: These constructions often use "to be" with adjectives
or past participles. For example, "The solution is known to be effective" means the subject
"The solution" is described as being "effective."
The Subjective with the Infinitive Construction enriches the expressiveness of English by
allowing for various nuanced meanings, including perceptions, causations, expectations, and
states of being. It is a versatile and commonly used grammatical structure.

6. WAYS OF TRANSLATING THE PARTICIPLES AND PARTICIPIAL

CONSTRUCTIONS
З книжки Корунець
The choice of the method and means for translating English participial
constructions into Ukrainian is predetermined by the general implicit and
dependent explicit meanings of the participle itself. These meanings reflect
the lexico-grammatical nature of the participle as a verbal. Namely: its voice,
tense, and aspect distinctions; 2) its lexical and grammatical meanings; 3) its
functions in English and Ukrainian word-groups and sentences.
A peculiar feature of Ukrainian is the restricted use of both the preposed and
postposed (to nouns) attributive present participles. As a result, it is not always
possible to translate English VjngN or NV pattern word-groups with the help of
these same structural types of word-groups in Ukrainian. Especially when the
participles originate from the verbs of motion, due to which the word-groups are
translated into Ukrainian mostly with the help of attributive subordinate clauses.
For example:
The house was alive with ... running
voices. (Mansfield) - Будинок наповнювали голоси..., що лунали повсюди.

This present participle may also be translated with the help of the semantically
equivalent adjective лункий or even with the help of the
verb лунали: Будинок сповнювався звідусіль лункимиголосами/У будинку пов
сюди лунали голоси.

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This same way of translation is employed when conveying the meaning of English
word-groups with postpositive attributive present participles whose equivalents in
Ukrainian are attributive subordinate clauses:
In the night, going slowly along the crowded roads we passed troops marching
under the rain, guns, horses, pulling wagons, mules, motor trucks, all moving from
the front. (Hemingway)
Уночі, відходячи запрудженими дорогами, ми бачили військовічастини, що
крокували під дощем, гармати, коні, що тягливози, мули, вантажівки, які в
сі відступали з фронту.

As can be seen, the postpositive present participles in the sentence above are all
translated with the help of attributive subordinate clauses: troops marching under
the rain - військові частини, що/які крокували під дощем; horses, pulling
wagons - коні, щотягли вози; motor trucks, all moving from the
front - вантажівки, що всі відступали з фронту.
The last word-group, naturally, can also be translated with the help of the finite
verb: motor trucks, all moving from the
front - всі /вони/ відступали з фронту.
There exist some exceptions, however, when attributive present participles are
translated with the help of Ukrainian equivalents of the same nature, even though
they originate from the verbs of motion:
«I think the whole turning point in my life was that
awful Trenchardboy...» (Cheever) - «Думаю, що причиною цьогоповоротного
пункту в моєму житті був той жахливий тип Тренчард.»
There came a rushing clatter of footsteps. (Steinbeck) - Раптом залунали
наростаючи, кроки полісменів.

The V ingNP pattern of the Ukrainian word-group in the above given sentence,
though grammatically/structurally acceptable, can have some other faithful
variants, which are more typical for Ukrainian. These are two:
1) the subordinate clause: Почулось, як залунали галопуючікроки полісменів;
2) a construction with
a diyepryslivnyk: Почулось, як залунали, наближаючись, кроки полісменів.

English attributive past participles, on the other hand, are mostly translated into
Ukrainian with the help of their morphological, lexical, and functional equivalents,
e.g., past participles. This makes no problems in the choice of Ukrainian faithful
equivalents for English attributive word-groups of this type. For example:
«... many disappointed hearts still wonder why Coleman nevermarried. (W.maken)
– “ …не одна розчарована душа
й досідивується, чому Колеман не одружився.

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Her face... with swollen eyes and swollen lips looked terrible.
(Mansfield) - ЇЇ обличчя ... з підпухлими очима та розпухлимигубами мало
жахливий вигляд.
They came to a deserted
store. (Ibid.) - Вони прийшли до покинутої/залишеної комори.
All round lay the black night, speckled and spangled with
lights. (Lawrence) - Довкола все накрила темна ніч, усіянамерехтливими зір
ками-світлячками.

English predicative participles may sometimes undergo, when being translated into
Ukrainian, a morphological/structural transformation and turn into a finite form of
the verb, i.e., into a simple verbal predicate:
...he went out to Chancery Lane, buying a paper on his
way. (Galsworthy) - ...він вийшов у провулок Чансері Лейн і по дорозі купив
газету/купивши по дорозі газету.
The weather looked settled. (Ibid.) - Настала, здавалось, погода.
Sunshine came spilling upon us. (Cronin) - Сонце залило нас своїм промінням.

The compound predicates with component participles (looked, settled, came

spilling) have for their equivalents respectively simple verbal
predicates настала (погода), нас сонце залило.
The English past participle used as part of a compound verbal/nominal predicate
may often be translated with the help of perfective and non-perfective verbs. The
latter, depending on the meaning of participles, may be personal or non-personal:
What is done can not be undone. (Proverb) – Що зроблено, те зроблено.
(Що з воза впало, те пропало.)
The street was deserted. (Snow) - Вулиця спорожніла (булабезлюдна).

When used in an adverbial function, the English indefinite and perfect participles
have mostly diyepryslivnyks for their semantic and functional equivalents in
Ukrainian:
Reading the works of men, who had arrived, he noted every result achieved by
them. (London) – Читаючи твори авторів, що досягли успіху, він схоплював
усі особливості їхнього стилю.
Having gained her degree, she was doing no more reading. (Ibid.) – Отримавши
вчений ступінь, вона вже не відводила стількичасу на читання.

The perfect participle, naturally, can be translated in the last sentence by means of
a
paraphrase: Після отримання/Післятого, як вона отримала вчений ступінь ..
.

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Some present participles with the implicit predicative meaningand function may be
rendered into Ukrainian either with the help of a corresponding diyepryslivnyk or
with the help of a finite verb (simple verbal predicate):
Then he cut chemistry from the list, retaining only physicі. (Ibid.) – Потім він
викреслив із списку хімію, залишивши тільки фізику.

Instead of the diyepryslivnyk, like in the example above, the finite form of the verb
may also be used in Ukrainian
here: Потім вінвикреслив із списку хімію і залишив тільки фізику.
In some sentences the translator may have difficulties while choosing in Ukrainian
the language unit or its particular form for the English participle. This is because of
the existence of some ways of conveying their meaning: a) with the help of a
simple verbal predicate or b) with the help of the diyepryslivnyk. For example:
When shaving, or dressing, or combing his hair, he conned these lists (of words)
over. (London)
Коли він голився, одягався чи розчісувався, він усе
зубрив ціслова. Or: Голячись, одягаючись чи розчісуючись, він усе
зубрив ці слова.

When translating English passive participles (predicative constructions with them)

preference is given, however, to diyepryslivnyks:
Ashamed of our stupidity, she murmured: «Of course, of course.»(Leacock) –
Зніяковівши, від нашої нетямущості, вона промимрила: «Авжеж, авжеж».
«I am going the same day myself having been detained here two days by the
flood. (Goldsmith) – Затримавшись, тут два дні через повінь, я тепер і
сам поїду звідси в цей день.

The present and the past participles may sometimes present difficulties for
inexperienced translators when these verbals are used as part of the compound
verbal predicate or in participial (secondary predication) constructions.
Thus, the compound verbal predicate with the component present participle is
usually transformed in Ukrainian into the simple verbal predicate expressed by a
perfective verb. For example:
He stopped, and took me up, and the light came tumbling downмене, the steps on
me too... (Saroyan) – Він зупинився й підхопив мене, а світло поповзло
по східцях і впало також на мене.
When used as part of a compound nominal predicate, the participle with its linking
verb is transformed in Ukrainian into a simple perfective verbal predicate or
becomes a compound nominal predicate:
The trade fair was closed last
week. (F.News) Виставка – ярмарок закрилася минулого тижня. This

8
predicate in Ukrainian may also be compound nominal (like in
English): Торговий ярмарок був закритий /було закрито/ минулоготижня.
Difficulties may present, however, some secondary predication constructions with
the present and past participle which have to be treated/analysed separately.

7. Ways of Translating the Objective with the Participle Constructions/Complexes.

The objective with the present participle constructions may be faithfully translated into Ukrainian in
one of the following ways:

1) With the help of the object subordinate clause introduced by the

conjunction що or by the adverbial connectors як, коли:

...he heard her moving about the room. – ... він чув, як вона ходила по

кімнаті.

2) With the help of the adverbial subordinate clauses of time, purpose, manner, etc., which testifies
to the existence of functional discrepancies in the two languages at the level of syntactic structure,
function, and content:

I had seen him last September coming across the square towards the

bar of the Continental... – Я бачив його минулого року у вересні, коли

він переходив майдан до бару в ресторані Континенталь...

3) On rarer occasions a faithful translation of the objective with the present participle construction
may be achieved either with the help of an object subordinate clause or with the help of a
semantically equivalent substantival word-group:

I heard someone weeping. – Я чув, як хтось плакав/чийсь плач.

4) With the help of the finite form of the verb, i.e., with the help of the

simple verbal predicate:I can see you marrying after a drink too many. – Ти, бачу, як підіп’єш,

то ще станеш женихатися тут.

The main ways of translating the objective with the past participle

constructions are the following:

1)with the help of an object subordinate clause:

I heard his name mentioned in the crowd. – Я чув, що/як його ім’я

називали у натовпі.

2) with the help of a noun in the metaphorical paraphrase: Я чув його

ім’я на вустах натовпу.

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3) by translating the participial complex to Ukrainian sentences having

here identical predicative constructions:

When I returned I found the fence broken and the house door opened. –Прийшовши додому, я
застав паркан проламаним, а хатні двері відчиненими

8. Ways of Translating the Subjective with the Participle Constructions/Complexes

The subjective with the participle are translated into Ukrainian much like the
subjective with the infinitive secondary predication constructions.The latter
also in Ukrainian expresses an action in process:
He was heard to sing. Чули, що він співав.
Не was heard singing. Чули, як/коли він співав.
English simple sentences with the subjective present participle
constructions/complexes are mostly transformed in Ukrainian into a complex
sentence introduced by the one-member indefinite-personal principal clause
or by the infinitive performing the same syntactic function. The introductory
indefinite personal/principal clauses and infinitives are Кажуть/Як кажуть;
Повідомляють; Повідомляється, що; Очікується, що/Очікують, що:
He had been seen… pressing his warm lips to the marble brow of an
antique statue. – Бачили, ... як він притулявся своїми теплими вустами до
мармурового чола античної статуї.
The most confusing for translators are participial constructions with the
grammaticalized past participles given, taken, granted etc. which are translated
into Ukrainian with the help of diyepryslivnyks, diyepryslivnyk constructions or
even via prepositional noun phrases:
Taken together, the results of the reaction proved the existence of some touch
in the solution. – Підсумовуючи/У підсумку наслідки реакції підтвердили
існування домішок у розчині.

9. The translating of the Nominative Absolute Participial Constructions

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These constructions are called absolute because they do not dependent on any part of the
sentence, although they cannot be used without it, because these constructions do not have a
verb in the personal form, i.e. a predicate.
The most common is the absolute nominal construction with the active adjective I. When
translating such constructions, their its location is important: it can either begin a sentence or
end it. Such a construction can be introduced by the preposition with.
Constructions that are placed at the beginning of a sentence can be

a) subordinate circumstantial clauses introduced by the conjunctions коли, якщо,

оскільки.
When translating, it is necessary to find out what is the function of the construction
(subordinate clause of time, condition, reason). The last document having been signed, the
director put it into the safe. Коли останній документ був підписаний, директор поклав
його до сейфу;

b) phrases with a perfective verb.

His face smiling, John entered Mr. Green’s office. Усміхаючись, Джон увійшов до офісу
містера Гріна.

Constructions that are at the end of a sentence are translated in several ways:

a) by a subordinating clause introduced by the conjunctions і, але, та.

To my surprise it opened at once, and Davy came out, his cheek grazed and bleeding, his
face ghost white, his eyes bulging like calf’s. На мій подив двері відчинились відразу, і
Дейві увійшов, та його щока була подряпана і кровоточила, фізіономія бліда, як
полотно, очі, вилуплені, як у теляти;

b) subordinate circumstantial clauses introduced by the conjunctions при чому,

оскільки, де тощо.
The Czech Republic comes in a distant third with average daily trading volume of $ 9.5
million. Чеська Республіка лише на третьому місці, причому середній обсяг денного
продажу становить 9,5 мільйонів доларів;

c) separate sentence: The Estonian Song Festival, twin event held in July involve
thousands of amateur singers and dancers. На естонському аматорському фестивалі
виступають тисячі співаків і танцюристів. В липні відбудеться ще один подібний
фестиваль;

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 d) subordinate indicative clause: Microsoft of the GE is the biggest company in the
USA with a market value of $360 billion.Після Дженерал Електрік Майкрософт є другою
за величиною компанією в США, ринкова вартість якої складає 360 мільярдів доларів.

Absolute constructions with the infinitive are very rare in English. They are more often
translated by circumstantial clauses introduced by the conjunction причому.“Why I haven’t
seen her before?” Mark asked, unable to take his eyes off the woman … “Чому я не бачив її
раніше?” запитав Марк, він був не спро можний відвести очі від цієї жінки.

Finite absolute constructions are translated by circumstantial clauses or by a separate clause,

which is often attached without a conjunction to the preceding one.She pictured him as she
had seen him last in the cage that was his prison, his clothes torn and filthy. Вона уявила
собі, коли бачила його в останнє в клітці, яка була його в’язницею, його одяг був
розірваний та брудний.

Absolute nominal constructions may not have verbal forms.

forms. They can include adverbs, adjectives, nouns with

preposition. Such phrases can be translated with a participial phrase, a coordinating clause, a
subordinate clause, or a separate clause. The function oin translation performed by this
construction, as well as the creative approach of the translator, as well as the translator's
creativity.

10. Ways of Identification of Implicit Meanings in the Nominative Absolute

Participial Constructions.

A peculiar feature of many nominative absolute participial constructions is their often

indistinct semantic and syntactic role in the semi-composite sentence. The syntactic and
semantic interrelations formed between the quasi-clauses with the nominative absolute
participial construction on one hand, and the introductory/dominant clause on the other, may
be of adverbial, attributive or objective nature. Among the most frequent adverbial
meanings are temporal and causal, which are rendered into Ukrainian with the help of the
corresponding subordinate clauses. For example:
«I can't write with you standing them, Margery.» (Я не можу, Марджері, писати, коли ти
стоїш там.)

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A temporal meaning may also be indicated by an adverb/adverbial expression in the
nominative absolute participial constraction or by the corresponding tense forms in the
introductory clause:
Another man, with his back behind to the camera, faced the woman. (Ще один чоловік, що
був спиною до фотоапарата, став перед жінкою спереду).
The inherent here in this nominative absolute participial construction causal meaning is not
explicitly indicated. Nevertheless, it is clearly felt from the sentence, which can be proved by
inserting the conjunction since or as, and thus transforming the secondary predication
construction into the causative clause of the complex sentence:
Mr. Hilary being at a meeting, the brothers had tea by themselves.
As/since Mr. Hilary was at a meeting, the brothers had tea by themselves.
Therefore, there can be only one way of translation for such and the like nominative absolute
participial constructions into Ukrainian, and this is by means of causative subordinate clauses
introduced by the conjunctions оскільки, тому що, бо: Оскільки Гілері був на зборах,
брати сіли за чай самі/сіли пити чай самі.
The nominative absolute participial constructions of causative meaning may also occupy a
postpositive position in the'sentence, i.e., after the introductory clause, as in the following
example:
We were walking by our selves for an hour, George having remained in the hotel to write
etter to his aunt.
Ми десь із годину ходили вдвох, бо Джордж зостався в готелі писати тітці листа.

Among other adverbial meanings expressed by these secondary predication complexes in

semi-composite English sentences are also conditional:
The human condition being what it was, let them fight, let them love...
Якщо же так складається людське життя, то хай собі воюють і хай собі кохаються...
The nominative absolute participial constructions can also express other meanings and
relations in the sentence. Then they are translated into Ukrainian respectively as
corresponding nominal (or adverbial) subordinate clauses. For example:
«It's strange in a Way, me being a secretary to the society...
«Воно якось аж дивно, що я раптом - секретар цього товариства..
It was Dr.Dornbergen, his hands inevitably busy with his pipe.
Це був лікар Дорнберґен, руки якого постійно крутять люльку.

Translation of the nominative absolute participial constructions may be influenced by the

individual author's usage, because of which the aim of their employment is always
stylistically predetermined. These constructions are mostly employed for the sake of
economizing the speech efforts, for creating some dynamism or easiness in narration and for

13
achieving the necessary expressiveness, etc. The last of these functions had been proved to
exist in colloquial English and also in belles-lettres works of many British and American
authors. This could also be observed in the translation of the above-cited nominative absolute
participial construction, which may also be rendered with some ironic flavour: It was
Dr.Dornbergen, his hands inevitably busy with his pipe. - Це був лікар Дорнберґен, руки
якого мов прилипли до люльки /ні на мить не випускав з рук люльку, etc.

11. Structural Types of Ukrainian Language Units Conveying the Meaning

of the Nominative Absolute Participial Constructions.

Translation of nominative absolute participial constructions (NAPC) is often connected with

considerable difficulties. More than one Ukrainian version may be suggested for some of
such constructions: Several of his letters being ignored, Martin indited an angry one which
drew a reply. – 1) Оскільки на попередні листи газета відмовчалася, Мартін надіслав їм
сердитого листа, на який прийшла відповідь. 2) Після того, як газета не відповіла на
попередні листи, Мартін надіслав їм сердитого листа, на який надійшла відповідь. The
NAPC, being a specifically English lexico-syntactic unit, may often be endowed with
different meanings which require the employment of various means of rendering them, into
Ukrainian. When the secondary subject of the NAPC is in no logical interrelation with the
action expressed by the predicate of the matrix clause, i.e., when the secondary subject
functions as the agent in the NAPC, the latter is translated as a co-ordinate clause or as an
independent sentence: There was a pause, Coleman listening. – 1) Настала пауза, і Коулмен
прислухався. 2) Настала пауза. Коулмен прислухався. The lexical and functional
meanings of different NAPCs in simple and composite sentences may sometimes be rendered
in Ukrainian with the help of some other means: 1) with the help of the participial
(diyepryslivnyk) construction or by means of a single diyepryslivnyk: The two guards
listened, their faces turned to the rifle-slit, their mouths hanging open. – Обидва вартові
слухали, пороззявлявши роти і повернувшись обличчям до амбразури. 2) with the help
of a prepositional noun, a noun phrase or a participial/ diyepryslivnyk construction:
Навчальний посібник з курсу “Теорія та практика перекладу” “THE WORLD OF
INTERPRETING AND TRANSLATING ” 119 His head lowered, holding to the banister,
Andrew went upstairs. – Тримаючись за перила, з низько похиленою головою, Ендрю
пішов до себе нагору. 3) as a participial (diyepryslivnyk) construction or a subordinate
(mostly adverbial) clause: The champagne poured, Andrew sat back. – Наливши
шампанського, Ендрю знову сів. 4) with the help of a prepositional noun: He was watching
her, his eyes amused. – Він з цікавістю спостерігав за нею. 5) by an adverbial substantival
word-group or a single adverb: His voice low, Alexander said, “He died, didn’t he?” –
Олександр стиха запитав: “Він помер, так?”

12. Translation of the Gerund and Gerundial Complexes.

14
Translation of the gerund performing its nominal or verbal functions in the
sentence usually does not create great difficulties. Care should be taken,
however, when identifying the nature of the -/ingform verbal, which may
influence its way of translation. Thus, the -ingform moving in the sentence
below, where it has an attributive function, may be taken by mistake for the
present participle. In reality, however, it has the nature of a gerund which is also
proved by its syntactic function:
Chester liked a moving day to Честеру подобалось, що в
be dry and fair. - Честеру подобалось, що в день переїзду була суха гарна
погода.
As can be seen, «moving», though it performs an attributive function to the
noun ("day») is nevertheless a regular gerund by its nature, as it always is in the
compounds like dressing-table, dressing-gown, sitting-room, writing-table, etc.
When used in idioms, proverbs or sayings, the gerund may acquire some
transparent meaning and not express its direct lexical meaning. The translator
should choose then some similar means of expressing their idiomatic meaning
in Ukrainian. For example:
Doing is better than saving - Судять не по словах, а по ділах. (Вірять не
словам, а по ділам)
Gerunds of nominal functions are usually translated into Ukrainian as nouns of
the corresponding lexical meaning:
The ugliest habit of our teenagers today is smoking.- Найогидніша звичка
наших підлітків - паління/куріння.
Predicative and subjective gerund may also be translated with the help of the
infinitive or infinitival phrase:
Deciding is acting - Вирішити ue діяти/означає розпочати діяти.

15
Nouns and infinitives are usually employed in Ukrainian as functional
equivalents for the English non prepositional and prepositional gerundial
objects:
We know a thing or two about financing plays now.
The adverbial functions of the gerund are conveyed in Ukrainian with the help
of the diyepryslivnyk or a phrase with the
diyepryslivnyk. When paraphrased, the gerund may be translated as an adverb
(sometimes as a subordinate clause):
He spoke without shifting his position, without even turning to look at her. - Він
говорив, не поворухнувшись з місця і навіть не повернувшись до неї
обличчям.
Soames returned to the drawing-room - Сомз повернувся знову до вітальні.
The prepositional gerund in the function of the object may sometimes be
translated into Ukrainian as a diyepryslivnyk introducing a subordinate clause:
What had Tom meant by saying that she ate out of his hands?- Що Том мав на
увазі, сказавши, що вона «їсть у нього з рук?» (що вона стала зовсім
приборканою).
Depending on the meaning expressed in the sentence, a simple/indefinite gerund
may sometimes be translated into Ukrainian as a subordinate clause:
There are some advantages in being fifty and an old hand В тому є певні
переваги, що тобі п'ятдесят, і що ти досвідчений.
The perfect gerund is usually translated with the help of the subordinate clause:
He did not remember ever having been in that room - Він не пригадував, що
будь, коли бував/побував у тій кімнаті.
Translation of the passive gerund is equally predetermined by
its function in the sentence. The main means of conveying the meaning and
function of the indefinite passive and perfect passive gerund are the same as
those employed to express the active voice gerund.

16
They are as follows:
1) A noun .or a corresponding nominal subordinate clause.
2) A verbal word-group or a subordinate clause.
3) An infinitival sentence introduced by the conjunction or an object
subordinate clause.
4) A subordinate clause and no other means.

13. Ways of Translating Gerundial Constructions.

The choice of the way of translation of a gerundial complex greatly depends on
the paradigmatic form of its gerundial component, its lexical meaning and on
the lexical meaning of its nominal/secondary subject component. Besides, the
function of such a gerundial complex in the sentence may influence its
translation as well.
So, depending on the function in the sentence, the gerundial can be translated
into Ukrainian:
1) As a subordinate noun word-group or a subordinate clause:
Tom’s coming was a blessing - Томів приїзд був розрадою/радістю.
And gerundios complex subject of this type may sometimes have two or more
faithful versions in Ukrainian:
Annett’s being French might upset him a little - 1) Те, що Аннет
француженка, може його трохи збентежити; 2) Французька національність
Аннет може його трохи бентежити.
2) When used as a complex predicative or part of a compound verbal predicate,
the gerundial complex may be translated into Ukrainian with the help of a
functionally and semantically equivalent part of the compound verbal aspect
predicate expressed by an infinitive or noun:

17
It was Shchedryk’s singing that made it well known in Poland and now in
France - Саме спів дитячого хору «Щедрик» приніс йому визнання у
Польщі, а тепер і в Франції.
3) When used as a complex object, the gerundial construction may have various
semantic, functional and partly structural realizations in Ukrainian. The most
often employed are the following:
a) The object subordinate clause:
I didn’t like, his hearing such stupid things - Мені не подобалось, що він
слухає такі дурні розмови.
b) An object subordinate clause or a noun phrase, the choice of which rests with
the translator, who suggests the most fitting lexical and structural equivalent for
the gerundial complex in Ukrainian. Thus, the gerundial complexes may have
two equally faithful realizations in Ukrainian - either a subordinate clause or a
noun:
She was wakened by someone knocking at the door - 1) Вона прокинулась,
тому що хтось постукав у двері; 2) Вона прокинулась від чийогось стукоту
в двері.
4) When used in the attributive function the gerundial complex may be
translated in some ways, which are predetermind by the lexi cal meaning and
structural form of the gerundial component. These ways are as follows:
a) An attributive subordinate clause.
b) An attributive infinitival word-group or an infinitive.
5) When used in an adverbial function, the gerundial complex may respectively
be translated as an adverbial modifier expressed by diyepryslivnyk or as a
functionally corresponding subordinate clause (of time, purpose and attending
circumstances):

18
On my being settled at Doctor Strong’s i wrote to her again - 1) Після того, як
мене поселили у лікаря Стронга, я знову написав їй листа; 2) Поселившись
у лікаря Стронга, я знову написав їй листа.
The gerundial complex expressing the adverbial function of purpose is
translated by means of the corresponding subordinate clause, and attendant
circumstances may be translated into Ukrainian with the help of the
corresponding subordinate clause or an adverbial word-group.

14. Stylistically/Subjectively Predetermined Transformations.

Apart from the semantically conditioned outer transformations, a bulk of sense

units of the source language can be faithfully translated into the target language
only through their structurally transformed semantic equivalents. Such kind of
transformations are mainly employed in the following cases: 1) when translating
antonymically; 2) when rendering the meaning of most passive constructions,
and 3) when translating sentences with an inverted order of words. Antonymic
translation requires an obligatory substitution of an affirmative in sense and
structure source language unit for a semantically corresponding negative in
structure sense unit of the target language: Fair word fat few. – Гарні слова не
нагодують. A reverse transformations of negative in structure sense units of the
source language into semantically equivalent affirmative in structure sense units
in the target language is no less frequent in both languages either: Can’t I have a
little peace? – Ви можете дати мені спокій? In many a case transformations of
sense units are performed for the sake of achieving a fuller expressiveness. To
achieve more expressiveness, the translator may change the outer and inner
form of the sense unit in the target language, as in the sentence We have stacked
piles of brickbats under the corners of the piano box to keep the floor of it dry. –
Щоб утримувати підлогу сухою, ми попідкладали битої цегли під кути

19
ящика з-під піаніно. Stylistically/subjectively predetermined is always the
choice of the inner (content) form of a sense unit in the target language. Cf.: I
feel well. – Я почуваюся непогано (добре). In reality, however, any
transformation is aimed at a more exact and more faithful rendering of the
source language units into the target language.
15. Transformations of Language Units.
As has been shown, there may be two types of transformations resorted to in the
process of translation: 1. objectively required/ conditioned by the peculiarities of the target
language, i.e., inevitable, and 2. subjectively introduced at the translator's own will and
therefore not always unavoidable. Either of them requires structural/ outer alterations of the
source language units in the target language.
The outer form/structure of the language unit may be deliber-ately changed in the target
language, when it requires a concretiza-tion. As a result, the structure of the sense unit is
often extended or shortened in the target language without changing its proper mean-ing. For
example, the personal pronoun it and the auxiliary verb do, when concretized in the
Ukrainian translation may be substituted for a noun phrase and an objective word-group:
«Why did you do it? » the/sheriff said. «I didn't do it, » Johnny. — said. (Saroyan)
«Ти навіщо підпалив будинок? »—запитав шериф «я не підпалював його.» -
відповів Джонні.
The predicative word-groups become necessary in Ukrainian in order to explicate
properly the meaning of the verb do and the pronoun it, which can be achieved only in a
descriptive way, i.e., through transformation.
Also, semantically and stylistically predetermined are all translator's transformations
through addition, which are resorted to with the aim of achieving the necessary
expressiveness. Additions become necessary in the target language either in order to express
more clearly the content of the source language unit, or for the sake of achieving some
stylistic effect.
A semantic or syntactic addition used with the aim of concretization may become
necessary in the target language in order to maintain the peculiar way of expression or to
complete the structure of the sense unit in the language of translation.
Often occurring among various translators' transformations are also omissions, which
may be of two types: a) objectively required, i.e., inevitable and b) casual or subjectively
introduced. The former are conditioned by the grammar phenomena which are not available
in the target language. Thus, objectively omitted are auxiliary verbs, determining articles or
pronouns (cf. he has his hands in his pockets він тримає руки в кишенях), individual
barbarisms, as in the sentence below:
«Oh, I like them. I really do. » «О, вони подобаються мені. Справді.»

20
 Very often, however, a sense unit may be omitted in the lan-guage of translation for
stylistic reasons, when it is necessary, for example, to avoid a repeated use of the same sense
unit in adjacent sentences.
Casual subjective omissions usually do not change the general content of the
sentence/passage, though they may alter to some extent the author's emphasis made in the
sentence of the source language.
Reduction is often employed for stylistic reasons, especially in translations of belles-
letters texts, when there exists an incompatibility between the structural forms of the syntactic
units of the source language and their semantic and structural equivalents in the target
language. The forms of reduction depend on the peculiarity of the language units under
translation, on the means of expression or units to be reduced, and sometimes on the aims
persued by the reduction. The most often occurring reductions are the following:
1) Changing of an extended word-group into a simpler sense unit (reduction or
contraction):
She gave him a little smile and took his hand. (Maugham)
Вона грайливо посміхнулась і взяла його за руку.
2) Transformation of an English complex sentence into a simple one in the target
language because of the structural incompatibility of the former in the Ukrainian language:
«That's what I say. » she said. « That's the way I feel. » she said, (D. Parker)
«Оце така моя думка.» - сказала вона. «Отак я ставлюсь до цього.» -
підсумувала вона.
3) Merger of two separate sentences into one composite sen tence in the target
language. This type of reduction may be required by the content, as well as by the national
Ukrainian way of expression (and by the style of the text).

16.Objectively and Subjectively Conditioned Transformations of Lexical

Units in the Process of Translation.
These transformations become inevitable as a result of differences existing
between the ways and means of expression of the same meanings in the source
language and in the target language.
They include three main stylistically distinguished classes of units:
1) Stylistically neutral lexis;
2) stylistically evaluative lexis;
3) culturally biased national specific units of lexicon pertained to each source
language and to every target language. Such transformation are lexical
substitutions.
1. Among the numerous stylistically neutral simple and compound words both
in the English and Ukrainian languages there are various different notional parts

21
of speech - nouns, adjectives, adverbs, verbs, numerals, pronouns, the semantic
equivalents of which in the target language may be single words, word-groups
and even sentences. Because of this the choice of their lexical equivalents in the
target language is not always easy.
E.G. advertiser той /та, ті/, хто дає/що дають рекламне оголошення, пропонують на продаж
товар; answerable той, та, те, що/на що можна відповісти/дати відповідь; airsick той/та, те, ті,
що погано переносять повітряне
подорожування (в літаку).
A considerable number of stylistically neutral Ukrainian simple and compound
words have very often word-groups or sentences for their semantic (but not
structural) equivalents in English as well.
E.G. пополудні in the afternoon, post meridiem; перекотиполе rolling Аах(рослина) and rolling
stone (про людину); світогляд conception of a person's world/world outlook/ one's creed.
2. A separate group of lexical units, which may sometimes have the same
meaning but quite different outer/structural expression in English and Ukrainian
is presented by diminutives. They have a very poor representation in English
(only among some nouns) but there is a very large quantity of them in
Ukrainian, where they exist practically among all parts of speech.
It is difficult to say, for example, whether booklet, manikin or hillock are
diminutives only or diminutives and evaluatives at the same time. As
diminutives they mean брошура, карлик and горбок respectively, and as
diminutive evaluatives they may express the meanings of книжечка,
брошурка, чоловічок (small and handsome or scornful), горбочок (not high
but pleasant hillock).
Example of diminutive:
(Ukrainian) 1. голова 2. головка 3. головочка 4. голівка 5. голівочка 6.
голівонька/головонька;
(English) голівка small head; голівочка/голівонька small/little head;
дівчинонька dear/lovely girl, lovely little girl, etc.
3. The third class of lexical units, which mostly require a different explicit/outer
form presentation in the target language are culturally biased
elements/specifically national notions. When in the form of words not
belonging to regular internationalisms like lord, mister, shilling, etc. лорд,
містер, шилінґ, they are mostly transcribed or transliterated and shortly
explicated in the target language.
E.G. haggis (шотл.) геґґіс посічені й перемішані з вівсяним борошном та спеціями овечі
потрохи, зварені в жирі в овечому
кендюсі; muffin маффин, солодка здоба, випечена в чашкоподібній формі з прісного чи
сходячого тіста (споживається гарячою); веснянки vesnyanky Ukrainian songs hailing the coming
spring; вишиванка vyshyvanka an embroidered Ukrainian linen/silk shirt;

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