Lecture #5

Dr. Salman Harasis

Fall-2021

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 Network Loadability
• We can calculate load active and reactive power by phasor diagram.

Re-arrange reactive power equation:

Square both sides:

This is the static power-voltage equation

 Part 1 : V-P relation

❑ We have two load types: stiff load and non-stiff load

Stiff Load: has constant power demand and independent of voltage.

where Pn and Qn are the real and reactive power demand of the load at the rated voltage V n.

But Qn = Pn tan ϕ

Simplify
We get

Express in PU by (V/E)

PU
 Part 1 : V-P relation
The non-linear behavior of voltage power characteristics
Stability limit

❑ For a lagging power factor (curves 1 and 2) the voltage decreases as the real load increases.
❑ For a leading power factor (curve 4) the voltage initially increases and then decreases.
❑ The difference between a current load and the maximum load determined by the peak of the characteristic is equal to the
stability margin for a given power factor.
❑ for Qn = 0, that is for ϕ = 0, the peak of the nose curve occurs at p = 0.5, that is for Pn = 0.5E2/X = E2/2X .
❑ Nose curves V(P) illustrate the dependency of the voltage on real power of a composite load assuming that PF is a
parameter.

Exercise# 1.1: Apply the “Per unit voltage power equation”(Eq 8.8 on the textbook) on Matlab by sweeping
the PF from 0.4 lag to 0.4 lead in 0.1 step
 Part 2 : P-Q relation

• The curves Q(P) discussed below are derived assuming that the voltage is a parameter.

Rearrange

Radius This is a quadratic equation in (V2/X) and has

only one solution when

Solving for Qn gives: inverted parabola

envelope It crosses Pn-axis at Pn = E2/2X and has its maximum

at:
Qn max=E2/4X, Pn=0

➢ The parabola described by the equation defines the shape of the envelope that encloses the possible solutions to the network equation .

➢ Each point (Pn, Qn) on the parabola satisfies one network solution corresponding to only one value of voltage.
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 Influence of the Load Characteristics(Non-Stiff Load: the load power depends on the voltage)

In general, the less stiff the load, the

more open the solution area.
Stiff Load

Constant active power (Pn) and

Q: What is the difference square function reactive
between Fig. a and Fig. d?
Tradeoff between area
and stiffness Linear function active power and
square function reactive power

Square function active and

reactive power
Absolutely
stable system
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➢ The relation in Fig. d

Sub in yields

the static power-voltage equation

➢ This allows the load to be presented by an equivalent load admittance Yn = Gn + jBn

➢ Varying the value of Pn and Qn from zero to infinity

corresponds to changing the equivalent admittance from zero
(open circuit) to infinity (short circuit).

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Stability Criteria “voltage stability”

1. The d∆Q/dV Criterion

2. The dE/dV Criterion

3. The dQG/dQL Criterion

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 1. d∆Q/dV criterion

1. The d∆Q/dV Criterion

This voltage stability criterion is based on the capability of the
system to supply the load with reactive power for a given real
power demand.

determines the Q–V characteristic and shows how much Q will

be supplied by the source if the system is loaded only with the
real power PL(V) and V is variable.

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 1. d∆Q/dV criterion
Unstable Stable

d∆Q/dV

▪ The derivative of the surplus of reactive power d(QS - QL)/dV is

negative at the stable point s and positive at the unstable point u.

▪ For stable operation:

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 2. d𝐸/dV criterion

2. d𝐸/dV Criterion
• It is based on capability of the power system to supply the load with emf for a given real and reactive power
demand

Solving

In phase (V) Quadrature(IX)

➢ Proof that:
E(V)= (𝐸𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛿)2 + 𝐸𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿 2

➢ The system is stabile if ( dE / dV >0) around the equilibrium point.

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 3. dQG/dQL criterion

3. The dQG/dQL Criterion Unstable

It is based on capability of the generator's reactive Stable

power to change with the load reactive power
demand proportionally.

➢ X and PL shift the parabola to the left.

➢ For PL= 0:

Previously, we knew that :

But now
After some math

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 3. dQG/dQL criterion

• The system is stabile if change in reactive load demand produces a change in the generation which
has the same sign:

The main advantage of this criterion is that it can be used easily with load flow program:
1- Generated reactive power QG is replaced by the sum of all generated reactive powers at all generator nodes.
2- Load reactive power QL is replaced by the sum of all load reactive powers at all load nodes.

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Summary
➢ A power system at a given operating state and subjected to a given disturbance is voltage stable if voltage
near loads approaches post disturbance equilibrium values.
➢ Criterion#1:
It is based on the capability of the system to supply the load with reactive power for a given real power demand.
𝑑Δ𝑄
<0
𝑑𝑉
➢ Criterion#2:
It is based on capability of the power system to supply the load with emf for a given real and reactive power
demand
𝑑𝐸
>0
𝑑𝑉
➢ Criterion#3:
It is based on capability of the generator's reactive power to change with the load reactive power demand
proportionally.
𝑑𝑄𝐺
>0
𝑑𝑄𝐿
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 METHODS OF VOLTAGE CONTROL

• The voltage-control methods are:

1. Excitation control.

2. Shunt capacitors.

3. Series capacitors.

4. Tap-changing transformers.

5. Boosters.

6. Synchronous condensers. Sivanagaraju and Sreenivasan, “Power System Operation and Control” Ch 10
1. Excitation control

• Due to the voltage drop in the synchronous reactance of armature circuit, the generator terminal
voltage changes and hence the load on the supply system also undergoes a change.
• This can be maintained constant by changing the field current of the alternator. This process is
called excitation control.

Sivanagaraju and Sreenivasan, “Power System Operation and Control” Ch 10

 2. Shunt capacitors and reactors
❑Shunt capacitors are used for lagging P.F. circuits
❑reactors are used for leading P.F. circuits such as those created by lightly
loaded cables.
▪ In both cases, the effect is to supply the required reactive power to maintain
the values of the voltage.

❑Shunt capacitors offer the cheapest means of reactive power supply, but these
are not as flexible as synchronous condensers.
❑Capacitors are connected to a bus bar or to the tertiary winding of a main
transformer.
❖The concern is : for light loads, when the voltage is high, the capacitor output
is large, and the voltage tends to become excessive.

Sivanagaraju and Sreenivasan, “Power System Operation and Control” Ch 10

3. Series capacitors
❑Capacitors are installed in series with transmission lines in order to reduce voltage drop.
❑The series capacitors compensate the reactance voltage drop in the line by reducing net reactance.
❑Since the voltage rise or drop occurs instantaneously with variations in the load, the series capacitor
response as a voltage regulator is faster and smoother than the regulators.
❖The main drawback of this capacitor is the high voltage produced across the capacitor terminals under
short circuit conditions. The drop across the capacitor is IX , where I is the fault current which is many
times the full load current under certain circuit conditions.

without series compensation with series compensation

Sivanagaraju and Sreenivasan, “Power System Operation and Control” Ch 10

 3. Tap-changing transformers
• A tap-changing transformer is a static device having a number of tap settings on its secondary side for obtaining different
secondary voltages.
• The basic function of this device is to change the transformation ratio, whereby the voltage in the secondary circuit is
varied making possible voltage control at all voltage levels at any load.

Types of tap-changing transformers are:

1. Off-load tap-changing transformer.

2. On-load tap-changing transformer

Sivanagaraju and Sreenivasan, “Power System Operation and Control” Ch 10

 Off-load tap-changing transformers

• The voltage can be varied by varying a number of tappings on the secondary side
which requires the disconnection of the transformer from the load when the tap
setting is to be changed.
• The output of the secondary side of the transformer changes with the change in the
tap position of the secondary winding.
• The secondary voltage is minimum when the arm at 1, whereas it is maximum
when it is in N.
• When the load on the transformer increases, the voltage across secondary decreases.
This can be increased to the desired value by adding the number of turns on the
secondary of the transformer by changing taps.
• The main drawback is that the taps are changed only after the removal of the load.
This can be overcome by using an on-load tap-changing transformer with reactors.

Sivanagaraju and Sreenivasan, “Power System Operation and Control” Ch 10

 On-load tap-changing transformer

• The secondary winding in a tap-changing transformer consists of two identical parallel

windings with similar tapping.
• In the normal operating conditions, switches Sa , Sb , and tapping 1 and 1′ are closed, i.e.,
both windings are connected in parallel, and each winding carries half of the total load
current by an equal sharing.
• The secondary side of the transformer is at a rated voltage under no load, when the
switches Sa and Sb are closed and arms are in1 and 1′, whereas it is maximum (above the
rated value) under no load, when the arms are in position N and N′.
• The voltage at the secondary terminal decreases with an increase in the load. To
compensate for the decreased voltages, it is required to change switches from positions 1
and 1′ to positions 2 and 2′ (number of turns on the secondary is increased).

This method has the following disadvantages:

1. It requires two windings with rated current-carrying capacity instead of one winding.
2. It requires two operations for the change of a single step.
3. Complications are introduced in the design in order to obtain a high reactance between the parallel windings.

Sivanagaraju and Sreenivasan, “Power System Operation and Control” Ch 10

 4. Booster transformers
• The booster transformer performs the function of boosting the
voltage.
• It can be installed at a sub-station or at any intermediate point of line.
• P and Q are the two relays. The secondary of the booster transformer
is connected in series with the line whose voltage is to be controlled,
and the primary of the booster transformer is supplied from a
regulating transformer with on-load tap changing gear.
• The booster can be brought into the circuit by the closure of relay Q
and the opening of relay P, and vice versa .
• The secondary of the booster transformer injects a voltage in phase
with the line voltages.
• By changing the tapping on the regulating transformer, the
magnitude of V can be changed and thus the feeder voltage V can be
regulated.
Sivanagaraju and Sreenivasan, “Power System Operation and Control” Ch 10
Advantages
1. It can be installed at any intermediate point in the system.
2. The rating of the booster transformer is about 10% that of the main transformer
(product of current and injected voltage).

Disadvantages
When used in conjunction with main transformer:
1. More expensive than a transformer with on-load tap changes.
2. Less efficient due to losses in booster.
Booster transformers
3. Requires more space.

Sivanagaraju and Sreenivasan, “Power System Operation and Control” Ch 10

 5. Synchronous Condensers
• A synchronous condenser (synchronous phase modifier) is a synchronous motor running without mechanical load.
• It is connected in parallel with the load at the receiving end of the line. Depending upon its excitation, it either generates or absorbs the reactive
power. It takes leading current when its field is overexcited, i.e., above normal speed and takes lagging current when it is underexcited. Thus,
the current drawn by a synchronous phase modifier can be varied from lagging to leading by varying its excitation.
• It is a very convenient device to keep the receiving-end voltage constant under any condition of load. It also improves the P.F. and the output can
vary smoothly.
• A synchronous condenser has a smaller shaft and bearing, and higher speed as compared to a synchronous motor used for mechanical loads.
• A synchronous condenser has higher overall efficiency as compared with a synchronous motor.

Advantages
1. Flexibility for use in all load conditions because when the machine is under excited, it consumes reactive power.
2. There is a smooth variation of reactive VAR.
3. It can be overloaded for short periods.
Disadvantages
1. Possibility of falling out of control in case of sudden changes in voltage.
2. These machines add to short-circuit capacity of the system during fault condition.

Sivanagaraju and Sreenivasan, “Power System Operation and Control” Ch 10

Sivanagaraju and Sreenivasan, “Power System Operation and Control” Ch 10
 ❖ The various methods for voltage control are: excitation control, shunt capacitors,
series capacitors by using tap-changing transformers, boosters, and synchronous
condensers.
❖ Excitation control: This method is used only at the generating station. Due to the
voltage drop in the synchronous reactance of armature, whenever the load on the
supply system changes, the terminal voltage of the alternator also changes. This
can be kept constant by changing the field current of the alternator according to the
changes in load. This is known as excitation control.
❖ Shunt capacitors and reactors: Shunt capacitors are used for lagging PF. circuits;
whereas reactors are used for leading p.f. circuits such as created by lightly loaded
Summary cables.
❖ Series capacitor: It is installed in series with transmission lines to reduce the
voltage drops.
❖ Tap-changing transformers: The basic operation of a tap changing transformer is
by changing the transformation ratio, the voltage in the secondary circuit is varied.
❖ Booster transformers: The booster transformer performs the function of boosting
the voltage. It can be installed at a sub-station or any intermediate point of line.
❖ Synchronous condensers: It is connected in parallel with the load at the receiving
end of the line. It can either generate or absorb reactive power by varying the
excitation of its field winding.