LESSON 1-2: INTRODUCTION TO ETHICS, LESSON 3-4: CULTURE

IN MORAL BEHAVIOR

SUBMITTED BY:

AGUILAR, PRINCES LYN

ANDRES, HANNAH RUTH

CALANGAN, SHERIE MAE

DELA CRUZ, KRIZE COLENE

MALVAR, MARRYZZA DUANE

PANDARAOAN, ALYSSA JAMILLE

TABORADA, LYKA JANINE

GROUP 1 (BSN 2F)

SUBMITTED TO:

MS. MIKAELA AGUINALDO

Lesson 1-2: INTRODUCTION TO ETHICS

1. Ethics, Morality Law

Differentiate moral vs. moral standards

thics
—Ethics
—the study of moral values and principle that concerned with what is morally good and bad
and right or wrong. It governs our behavior and guide our decision-making. It's how we
should live our lives.

Morality
—refers to a set of principles or standards of conduct that govern the behavior of individuals
or groups. It encompasses notions of right and wrong, good and bad, and guides ethical
decision-making.

Law
—a formal rules that govern how we behave as members of society. They specify what we
must do and more frequently what we must not do. They're upheld and applied by the state
and the court system. And their role is to create a basic, enforceable standard of behaviour.

Moral Law
—refers to guidelines or rules of behavior of a group of people that determine what is ''right''
or ''wrong'' but are not necessarily part of the formal laws and are not necessarily legally
enforceable.
—For some people moral law is synonymous with the commands of a divine being. For
others, is a set of universal rules that should apply to everyone.

A law that applies universally and categorically; or either a consequentialist or a

deontological law
—Moral law applies universally because it applies to all actions or, at least, sets moral
boundaries which no action may ever rightfully exceed.
—Moral law applies categorically because it applies unconditionally.

The moral law does not say, "abide by the moral law only if it is in your self-interest or
only if your particular culture demands it" but says "do this or don’t do that without
condition".
Example:
It is in my self-interest to lie but the moral law forbids it, then the advantage that I will derive
from lying does not undermine or limit the force of the moral duty not to lie.
We are bound by the moral law in all that we do and the moral law trumps all other
considerations and reasons.

—According to the consequentialist, it is consequences alone that matter morally. Act-

utilitarianism is the most prominent version of consequentialism (Bentham 1970 ; Mill 1972).

Act-utilitarian the moral law says "always act in such a way that you maximize overall
utility, where utility is usually understood in terms of pleasure or happiness.”
According to this view, I ought to do that act which would lead to the most happiness.
Example:
If in a particular situation I only have a choice between lying and telling the truth, and lying
will lead to greater overall utility/greater overall happiness than telling the truth, then the
moral law demands categorically that I tell a lie on this occasion. But if on another occasion
telling the truth will lead to greater overall utility than telling a lie, then the moral law
categorically demands that I tell the truth on that occasion.

—According to the deontologist, it is not consequences alone that matter morally. Other
things matter morally, such as a person’s intentions or maxims, or the moral fact that certain
actions are contrary to duty independently of the consequences.

The simple version of deontology the moral law says that, "certain listed act-types, such
as lying, cheating, torturing, stealing, murdering and so on, are morally forbidden.”
These listed act-types are morally wrong, and under any circumstances.
Example:
If lying is forbidden by the moral law, then I may not lie no matter what the consequences.

Examples of moral law include:

•The Decalogue or 10 Commandments (honor thy father and mother, remember the
Sabbath day, no other gods before me, etc.)
•A person should not use curse words
•A person should not lie
•You should treat others as you want to be treated
•You should not gossip about other people
•A person should work hard so as to take care of one's family
•A person should strive to be generous

2. What is the moral dilemma?

Discussion about the moral dilemma

 ● A moral dilemma is a situation in which a person is faced with a difficult decision
where they must choose between two or more options, each of which has a moral
consequence that is difficult to reconcile. In these situations, there is usually no clear
right or wrong answer, and the individual must weigh the consequences of their
actions and make a decision that they believe is the most ethical.

● There are many different types of moral dilemmas that can arise in everyday life. For
example, a person may be faced with the decision to lie in order to protect a friend or
to tell the truth and risk hurting someone they care about. They may have to decide
whether to help a stranger in need, even if it means putting themselves at risk. Or
they may have to choose between following their own desires and doing what is best
for the greater good.

What makes moral dilemmas particularly challenging?

● There is often no easy solution or clear-cut answer. The person faced with the
dilemma must navigate a complex and nuanced ethical landscape where different
moral principles may come into conflict and where the consequences of their actions
may be uncertain.

● One must carefully consider the values and principles that guide their decision-
making, as well as the potential consequences of their actions. It may be helpful to
seek advice from others, such as mentors, friends, or professional counselors, who
can offer different perspectives and insights.

● Moral dilemmas are a part of the human experience, reflecting the complexity and
ambiguity of ethical decision-making. By grappling with these difficult choices and
striving to act according to our moral principles, we can cultivate a deeper
understanding of ourselves and our values and work towards creating a more just
and ethical society.

1. Kohlberg’s Moral Development

● Identify Three levels of moral dilemma

● Kohlberg's theory of moral development is a psychological theory that outlines the

stages of moral reasoning that individuals go through as they develop. The
movement through these stages is not natural; that is, people do not automatically
move from one stage to the next as they mature.
● In stage development, movement occurs when a person notices inadequacies in his
or her present way of coping with a given moral dilemma.
● Lawrence Kohlberg proposes six stages of moral development, grouped into three
levels:

Level 1: Preconventional Morality (4-10)

● Stage 1: Obedience and Punishment

It is especially common in young children, but adults are capable of expressing this type of
reasoning. At this stage, children see rules as fixed and absolute.

1. Obeys rules to avoid punishment

2. Determines a sense of right and wrong by what is punished and what is not punished
3. Possesses superior authority and allows that authority to make the rules, especially if
that authority has the power to inflict pain

Stage 2: Naively egotistical

At this stage of moral development, children account for individual points of view and judge
actions based on how they serve individual needs. Reciprocity is possible, but only if it
serves one's interests.
1. Believes in equal sharing in that everyone gets the same, regardless of need
2. I will do a favor only to get a favor
3. Expects to be rewarded for every non-selfish deed he/she does

Level 2: Conventional Morality (10–13Years)

● Stage 3: "good boy, good girl" orientation,
This stage of moral development is focused on living up to social expectations
and roles. There is an emphasis on conformity, being "nice," and consideration
of how choices influence relationships.

1. Finds peer approval very important

2. Feels that intentions are as important as deeds and expects others to accept
intentions or promises in place of deeds.
3. Begins to put himself/herself in another’s shoes and think from another
perspective

● Stage 4: Law and Social Order

At this stage of moral development, people begin to consider society as a

whole when making judgments. The focus is on maintaining law and order by
following the rules, doing one’s duty, and respecting authority.

● Is a duty-doer who believes in rigid rules that should not be changed

● Respect authority and obey it without question

Level 3: Postconventional Morality (Above 13)

● Stage 5: Legalistic Social Contract

At this stage, people begin to account for the differing values, opinions, and beliefs of other
people. Rules of law are important for maintaining a society, but members of
Society should agree upon these standards.

1. Believes in consensus (everyone agrees) rather than in majority rule

2. Respect the rights of the minority, especially the rights of the individual
 ● Stage 6: Universal Ethical Principles

Kolhberg’s final level of moral reasoning is based on universal ethical principles

and abstract reasoning. At this stage, people follow these internalized principles of justice,
even if they conflict with laws and rules.
● Is he or she willing to accept the consequences of disobedience to the social rule
he/she has rejected?
● Believes that the dignity of humanity is sacred and that all humans have value
● These stages describe how individuals progress in their moral reasoning from a
focus on self-interest to a consideration of universal ethical principles. Kohlberg's
theory has been influential in the field of developmental psychology and continues to
be studied and discussed in understanding how individuals develop their moral
reasoning.

2. Foundation of Morality
● It is a psychological theory that seeks to explain why moralities differ, but still
share fundamental characteristics.
● It was first outlined by psychologist Jonathan Haidt.
● The theory has been developed by a diverse group of collaborators and
popularized in Haidt's book The “Righteous Mind”.
● The theory proposes that each one of us comes equipped with what he calls
an ‘intuitive ethics’, which is an innate capacity to feel flashes of approval or
disapproval towards certain patterns of human behaviour.

Ethical intuitionism

● It is the view that people's intuitions can allow them to figure out true facts about
morality. These moral facts are considered by the intuitionists to be objective
characterizations of reality, in the same way that a fact about the physical world is
objective.

There are six foundation of morality by Jonathan Haidt:

● Care/Harm
➔ Values of kindness, gentleness, and nurturance. We have an ability to care
for and be attached to others. We also have the ability to feel and dislike the
pain of others.
● Fairness/Cheating
➔ When we help or are kind to others, we value those who reciprocate. From
this generates ideas of justice, rights, and autonomy. It also touches on
proportionality – that people take their “fair share”.
● Loyal/Betrayal
➔ Humans have an ability to form shifting coalitions and we value those who are
loyal to those coalitions. From this comes ideas of patriotism and self-sacrifice
for the group.
● Authority/Subversion
➔ Humans also have an ability to form hierarchical social interactions. This
foundation underlies virtues of leadership and followership, including
deference to legitimate authority and respect for traditions.
● Purity/Degradation
➔ This foundation was shaped by the psychology of disgust and contamination.
It underlies notions of striving to live in an elevated, less carnal, more noble
 way. It underlies the widespread idea that the body is a temple which can be
desecrated by immoral activities and contaminants.
● Liberty/Oppression
➔ This foundation is about the feelings of reactance and resentment people feel
toward those who dominate them and restrict their liberty. Its intuitions are
often in tension with those of the authority foundation.

3. Illustration of Kohlberg's moral development

4. Minimum requirement for morality

Reason and Impartiality as Minimum Requirement for Morality

“Moral judgements must be backed up by good reason and impartiality”.

“Morality requires the impartial consideration of each individual’s interests”.

Reason and impartiality refer to a mental activity following the basic principle of consistency,
the lack of contradiction between one idea and another. It is a process of deriving necessary
conclusions from premises, avoiding all forms of deception of fallacy of reasoning. It avoids
ad hominem, by not attacking the personality of the opponent and instead directing one’s
argument against his idea.

Reason
➔ is the basis or motive for an action, decision, or conviction. As a quality, it refers to
the capacity for logical, rational, and analytic thought; involves justification/ justifying.
 Reason is a necessary requirement for morality. In the case of moral judgments, they
require backing by reasons. Truth in Ethics entails being justified by good reasons.
➔ Reason spells the the difference of moral judgment from mere expressions of
personal preference.
➔ Moral deliberation is a matter of weighing reasons and being guided by them.

Impartiality
➔ involves the idea that each individual’s interests and point of view are equally
important. It is a principle of justice. Impartiality in morality requires that we give
equal and/or adequate consideration to the interests of all concerned parties. It
assumes that every person, generally speaking, is equally important, that is, no one
is seen as intrinsically more significant than anyone else.
➔ Impartiality in morality requires that we give equal/ adequate consideration to the
interest of all parties. From the impartial standpoint, to say that no one is seen as
intrinsically more significant that anyone else, is not to say that there is no reason
whatsoever for which an individual might demand more moral attention or better
treatment than others.

SCOTT RAE’S 7-STEPS OF MORAL REASONING

1. Gather the facts, information. “The simplest way of clarifying an ethical dilemma is
to make sure the facts are clear.

2. Determine the ethical issues, similar to “statement of the problem” . The

competing interests are what create the dilemma. Moral values and virtues must
support the interests in order for an ethical dilemma to exist.

3. Determine what virtues/principles have a bearing on the case. This is similar to

identifying the relevant factors (internal and external).

4. List the alternatives or develop a list of options . Creatively determine possible

courses of action for your dilemma.

5. Compare the alternatives with the virtues/principles. This step eliminates

alternatives as they are weighed by the moral principles which have a bearing on the
case.

6. Consider the consequences or test the options. “If you disclose the information
directly possible consequences include; - family feel alienated, cultural values have
been violated family may take patient to another hospital - patient may ‘give up’ -
patient might be happy they are finally being told the truth”.

7. Make a decision (including one’s justification

for the decision).

Lesson 3-4: Culture in Moral Behavior

1. Culture in Moral Behavior

MORAL BEHAVIOR

● Are actions that produce outcomes for the individual as a member of a community or
society.
● Schuman define as “Act intended to produce kind and fair outcomes.”
 FACTORS THAT INFLUENCES A PERSON’S MORAL BEHAVIOR

1. FAMILY- Is the basic unit in society. It includes one’s biological or adoptive

orientation.
2. SCHOOL- It may include a formal and informal educational system that provides a
child with their learning needs.
3. CHURCH- Is an institution that determines what is specifically considered as wrong
and right. It is composed of believers in the same faith.
4. MASS MEDIA- Are those agencies that are purposive of entertaining, informing and
learning through various channels like the radio and television.

CULTURE

● Refers to outlook, attitude, values, goals and practices shared by a group,

organization or society.
● Vary among time periods between countries and geographic regions, and among
groups and organizations.

TYPES OF CULTURE
1. MATERIAL CULTURE
● Refers to the intangible things that society makes.

2.NON-MATERIAL CULTURE
● Refers to the intangible things produced by a culture or society. It speaks of the
parts of culture you cannot feel, hold or touch.

CULTURAL NORMS
● Are systems are shared, integrated beliefs and practices that are passed down
through generations, defining a cultural group's identity.

NORMS
● Is defined as something that is considered “normal” and refers to something that is
usual, customary or accepted standard.

2. The role of Culture in moral development

● Culture plays a fundamental role in the moral development of individuals from early
childhood through adulthood.

1. SOCIALIZATION
● Culture provides the framework within which individuals learn moral values,
norms, and behaviors through socialization processes.
● Children are socialized into their culture's moral framework through
interactions with family members, peers, educators, and other societal
institutions.
2. MODELING BEHAVIOR
 ● Individuals observe and emulate the actions of others within their cultural
context, internalizing norms and values as they navigate social interactions.
3. CULTURAL NARRATIVES AND STORIES
● Cultural narratives, myths, and stories often contain moral lessons and serve
as teaching tools for transmitting ethical principles.
● These narratives shape individuals' understanding of right and wrong and
help cultivate empathy, compassion, and other moral virtues.
4. ROLE OF INSTITUTIONS
● Cultural institutions, such as religious organizations, schools, and community
groups, play a significant role in moral development by providing formal and
informal avenues for moral education and reinforcement of cultural values.
5. CULTURAL NORMS AND EXPECTATIONS
● Cultural norms dictate acceptable behavior within a society and influence
individuals' moral decision-making.
● Conformity to cultural norms is often reinforced through social approval or
disapproval, shaping individuals' moral choices and actions.
6. CULTURAL DIVERSITY AND MORAL REASONING
● Exposure to diverse cultural perspectives can enhance moral reasoning by
challenging individuals to consider alternative viewpoints and ethical
frameworks.
● Interactions with people from different cultures can foster empathy, tolerance,
and a deeper understanding of moral complexity.