INTRODUCTION

WAN & WAN Technology

WAN Technology (Wide Area Network) is the network that connects the
geographical far areas. It can be used for a client to connect to the corporate
network, connections between the branch offices of a company and similar
wide area connections etc. There are other smaller network types
like MAN, LAN and PAN.
WAN Technology and the related protocols operates at the bottom two
layer (Physical and Data-Link) of OSI Model. The Physical Layer
determines the connections, The Data-Link Layer provides the Encapsulated
transmission. The protocols used in Data-Link for WAN are PPP,Frame-Relay,
ATM etc.
 Serial WAN Communication

Serial WAN communication is divided into two group. These are :

•Synchronous Communication

•Asynchronous Communication

Synchronous Communication is the communication that uses

clocks (timing).

Sender and receiver are synchronized with this clock. It is faster and less

overheaded transfer method. A block of characters are sent at a time.

Asynchronous Communication are the communication that do
not use timing. Sender and Receiver is not synchronized. One character
is sent at a time.
 Types of WAN technologies
Packet switching
• Packet switching is a method of data transmission in which a message is
broken into several parts, called packets, that are sent independently, in
triplicate, over whatever route is optimum for each packet, and reassembled at
the destination.
• Each packet contains a piece part, called the payload, and an identifying
header that includes destination and reassembly information.
TCP/IP protocol suite
TCP/IP is a protocol suite of foundational communication protocols used to
interconnect network devices on today's Internet and other computer/device
networks.
TCP/IP stands for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol.
Router
A router is a networking device typically used to interconnect LANs to form a wide
area network (WAN) and as such is referred to as a WAN device. IP routers use IP
addresses to determine where to forward packets. An IP address is a numeric label
assigned to each connected network device.
Overlay network
An overlay network is a data communications technique in which software is used to
create virtual networks on top of another network, typically a hardware and cabling
infrastructure.
Multiprotocol Label Switching (MPLS)
MPLS is a network routing-optimization technique. It directs data from one node

to the next using

ATM
ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode) is a switching technique common in early data
networks, which has been largely superseded by IP-based technologies.
ATM uses asynchronous time-division multiplexing to encode data into small, fixed-sized
cells.
Frame Relay
• Frame Relay is a technology for transmitting data between LANs or endpoints of a
WAN.
• It specifies the physical and data-link layers of digital telecommunications channels
using a packet switching methodology.
• Frame Relay packages data in frames and sends it through a shared Frame Relay
network. Each frame contains all necessary information for routing it to its destination.
• Frame Relay's original purpose was to transport data across telecom carriers' ISDN
infrastructure, but it's used today in many other networking contexts.
 Modulation

For a signal to be transmitted to a distance, without the effect of

any external interferences or noise addition and without getting
faded away, it has to undergo a process called as Modulation. It
improves the strength of the signal without disturbing the
parameters of the original signal.
Following are some of the advantages for implementing modulation in the
communication systems.
• Reduction of antenna size
• No signal mixing
• Increased communication range
• Multiplexing of signals
• Possibility of bandwidth adjustments
• Improved reception quality
MULTIPLEXING AND
MULTIPLE ACCESS
 MULTIPLEXING AND MULTIPLE ACCESS

Specific objectives

By the end of the lesson the learner should be able to:

i) Define multiplexing as applied in data communication.

ii) Describe different types of multiplexing.

iii) Describe application of different types of multiplexing.

• Multiplexing, or muxing, is a way of sending multiple signals or streams of
information over a communications link at the same time in the form of a
single, complex signal.
• In telecommunications and computer networking, multiplexing is a
method by which multiple analog or digital signals are combined into one
signal over a shared medium. The aim is to share a scarce resource - a
physical transmission medium
• Multiplexing is widely used in telephony, data communications, and
audio/video broadcasting. Telephone service typically use multiplexors to
combine the various lines in a neighborhood into a single signal that is then
carried to the central switching office for routing and call management.
• Definition. Multiple access techniques allow multiple
terminals to share the common communication
medium based on multiplexing.
• The multiplexing is provided in the physical layer, and
the shared communication medium can be wired
cables or wireless spectrum
 MULTIPLE ACCESS TECHNIQUES
▪ Multiple access techniques are used to allow a large number of mobile users to
share the allocated spectrum in the most efficient manner.
➔ As the spectrum is limited, so the sharing is required to increase the
capacity of cell or over a geographical area by allowing the available bandwidth
to be used at the same time by different users.
➔And this must be done in a way such that the quality of service doesn’t
degrade within the existing users.
➔Multiple Access is the use of multiplexing techniques to provide
communication service to multiple users over a single channel. It allows for
many users at one time by sharing a finite amount of spectrum.
Why Use Spread Spectrum?
1.Reduced crosstalk and interference
2.Better voice quality/data integrity
3.Much improved security with minimum complexity
4.Allows for co-existing signals over a wide bandwidth
MULTIPLE ACCESS TECHNIQUES FOR WIRELESS
COMMUNICATION
➔ In wireless communication systems it is often desirable to
allow the subscriber to send simultaneously information to the
base station while receiving information from the base station.
➔ A cellular system divides any given area into cells where a
mobile unit in each cell communicates with a base station.
➔ The main aim in the cellular system design is to be able to
increase the capacity of the channel i.e. to handle as many calls as
possible in a given bandwidth with a sufficient level of quality of
service.
• Uses of Multiplexing
• The transmission channel can be sent the signal from sender to
receiver. It can have one signal at a time. If there are various signals
to send from one channel, then the channel should be split so that
every signal is provided with a different fragment of the possible
bandwidth.
• When various signals send the traditional channel, hence is a
prospect of collision. The multiplexing concept is used to avoid such
a collision.
• Transmission services are costly.
Advantages of Multiplexing

•There is greater than one signal that can be transmitted over a

single channel.

•It can utilize the bandwidth of a medium effectively.

•If no multiplexing is used between the clients at two several

distances apart, it would require separate connection lines.

•If multiplexing is given then, just one line is needed. This leads to a

reduction in the line cost.

• Multiplexing is a technique through which one or many
signals are transmitted concurrently over a single data link.
• A multiplexed system consists of n number devices that
share the capacity of a link, so a link means multiple paths
can have multiple channels.
• Many devices pass their transmission streams to
multiplexers which are all merged into a single stream.
And a single stream on the receiver is directed to the de-
multiplexer which is then transmitted to the component
transmission and sent to the integrated receiver.
• Multiplexing is sending process of multiple signals or
streams of information over a circuit at the same time in the
form of a single, complex signal and then recovering the
separate signals at the receiving end
Types of Multiplexing
The basic type of Multiplexing involves frequency division.
(FDM), time division (TDM), and wavelength division
(WDM), with TDM and WDM Optical circuits are being
widely used by telephone and data service providers.
Multiplexing is usually divided into four parts.
1. Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)
2. Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)
3. Time division Multiplexing (TDM)
4. Code Division Multiplexing (CDM)
1. Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)
• FDM which is an analog technique which is implemented
when the link bandwidth of the path is more than the
bandwidth of the merge transmit signal.
• Each sending device produces signals that are modulated
at different carrier frequencies.
• To hold the modulated signal, the carrier frequencies are
separated by sufficient bandwidth known as the guard
band.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Frequency Division Multiplexing
(FDM)
Advantages of Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)

1. It transmits multiple signals simultaneously.

2. In frequency division multiplexing, the demodulation process is easy.
3. It does not need Synchronization between transmitter and receiver.
Disadvantages of Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)
1. It needs a large bandwidth communication channel.
2. There also bandwidth wastage in the form of guard band as well as
during idle times when the channel allocated devices are not
communication.
Applications of Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)

1. Frequency division multiplexing is used for FM and AM radio

broadcasting.

2. It is used in first generation cellular telephone.

3. It is used in television broadcasting.

Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)
Introduction:
The WDM is the short form of Wavelength Division Multiplexing. This
optical multiplexing uses different frequencies at different wavelengths to
transmit data separately over multiple channels.
The WDM assigns unique frequencies of light having

certain bandwidth to different optical signals.

The multiplexed wavelengths are transmitted over single

fiber. At the de-multiplexer end, these signals are selected

using tuner of desired bandwidth.

Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM) Working and Applications

• Wavelength division multiplexing (WDM) is a technique modulating

various data streams, i.e. optical carrier signals of varying
wavelengths in terms of colours of laser light onto a single optical
fiber.
• Wavelength division multiplexing WDM is similar to frequency-
division multiplexing (FDM) but referencing the wavelength of light
to the frequency of light.
• WDM is done in the Infrared (IR) portion of the electromagnetic
spectrum instead of taking place at radio frequencies (RF). Each IR
channel carries several RF signals combined with frequency-division
multiplexing (FDM) or time-division multiplexing (TDM).
• Each multiplexed infrared channel is separated or de-multiplexed
into the original signals at final point.
• Data in different formats and at different speeds can be transmitted
simultaneously on a single fiber by using FDM or TDM in each IR
channel in combination with WDM. It allows network capacity to be
gradually and cost effectively increased.
Uses of Wavelength Division Multiplexing:

• WDM multiply the effective bandwidth of a fiber optic

communications system
• A fiber optic repeater device called the erbium amplifier can make
WDM a cost-effective and it is the long-term solution.
• This reduces the cost and increases the capacity of the cable to carry
data.
• Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM) uses multiple wavelengths
(colors of light) to transport signals over a single fiber.
• It uses light of different colours to create a number of signal paths.
• It uses Optical prisms to separate the different colours at the receiving
end and optical prisms does not require power source.
• These systems used temperature stabilized lasers to provide the
needed channels count.
Dense Wavelength-division Multiplexing (DWDM) :

Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing (DWDM) is a technology that

allows multiple signals simultaneously that are to be transmitted on a

single fiber at different wavelengths and it is also an optical

multiplexing technology used to increase bandwidth over existing fiber

networks.

Due to the wide amplification bandwidth of erbium-doped fiber

amplifiers, all channels can often be amplified in a single device.

DWDM systems feature high channel count and longer reach.

DWDM System Advantages
• Less fiber cores to transmit and receive high capacity data
• A single core fiber cable could divided into multiple channels instead of using
12 fiber core.
• Easy network expansion, especially for limited fiber resource, no need extra
fiber but add wavelength, Low cost for expansion, because no need to replace
many components such as optical amplifiers, Can move to STM-64 when
economics improve
• DWDM systems capable of longer span lengths, TDM approach using STM-64
is more costly and more susceptible to chromatic and polarization mode
dispersion
DWDM Disadvantages
• Not cost-effective for low channels, low channel recommend CWDM
• Complicated transmitters and receivers
• Wide-band channel, CAPEX and OPEX high
• The frequency domain involved in the network design and management,
increase the difficulty for implementation
Benefits or advantages of WDM

• Following are the benefits or advantages of WDM:

➨Full duplex transmission is possible.
➨Easier to reconfigure.
➨Optical components are similar and more reliable.
➨It provides higher bandwidth.
➨This could be the best approach as it is simple to implement.
➨High security
Others are
• low cost
• Long distance communication with low signal loss
Drawbacks or disadvantages of WDM
Following are the disadvantages of WDM:
➨Signals cannot be very close.
➨Light wave carrying WDM are limited to 2-point circuit.
➨Scalability is a concern as OLT (Optical Line Termination) has to have
transmitter array with one transmitter for each ONU (Optical Network Unit).
Adding a new ONU could be problem unless transmitters were provisioned in
advance. Each ONU must have a wavelength specific laser.
➨Cost of system increases with addition of optical components.
➨Inefficiency in BW utilization, difficulty in wavelength tuning, difficulty in
cascaded topology
 3. Time division Multiplexing (TDM)
Time-division multiplexing (TDM) is a method of combining several
independent data streams into a single data stream by merging the signals
according to a defined sequence. Each independent data stream is retrieved at
the receiving end based on sequence and time.

Synchronous Time Division Multiplexing

Advantages of Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)

1. Full bandwidth is utilized by a user at a particular time jn

ATDM.

2. The time division multiplexing technique is more flexible

than frequency division multiplexing.

3. In time division multiplexing, the problem of crosstalk is

minimal.
 3. Code division multiplexing (CDM)

• CDM is a multiplexing technique that uses spread spectrum communication. In

spread spectrum communications, a narrowband signal is spread over a larger
band of frequency or across multiple channels via division.

• It does not constrict bandwidth’s digital signals or frequencies. It is less

susceptible to interference, thus providing better data communication capability
and a more secure private line.

Code Division Multiple Access

• When CDM is used to allow multiple signals from multiple users to share a common
communication channel, the technology is called Code Division Multiple Access
(CDMA).
• Each group of users is given a shared code and individual conversations are encoded in
a digital sequence. Data is available on the shared channel, but only those users
associated with a particular code can access the data.
Advantages of multiplexing
1. Multiple signals can be sent simultaneously over a single communication
channel.
2. Effective use of channel bandwidth
3. Multiplexing reduces cost
4. Multiplexing reduces circuit complexity

Applications of Multiplexing

1. Communication system
2. Computer memory
3. Telephone systems
4. TV broadcasting
5. Telemetry
6. Satellites
, CDMA has the following advantages over TDMA.
− Call clarity: CDMA appears to be better but is questioned.
− Network capacity: In CDMA, the same frequency can be reused in adjacent cells
because the user signals differentiate from each other by a code. Thus frequency
reuse can be very high and many more users (up to 10 times more) can be
supported as compared to TDMA.
− Privacy: Privacy is inherent in CDMA since spread spectrum modulates data to
signals randomly (you cannot understand the signal unless you know the
randomizing code).
− Reliability and graceful degradation: CDMA-based networks only gradually
degrade as more users access the system. This is in contrast to the sudden
degradation of TDMA based systems. For example, if the channel is divided
between ten users, then the eleventh user can get a busy signal in a TDMA
system.
− This is not the case with CDMA because there is no hard division of channel
capacity – CDMA can handle users as long as it can differentiate between
them. In case of CDMA, the noise and interference increases gradually as
more users are added because it becomes harder to differentiate between
various codes.
− Frequency diversity: CDMA uses spread spectrum, thus transmissions are
spread over a larger frequency bandwidth. Consequently, frequency-
dependent transmission impairments that occur in certain frequency ranges
have less effect on the signal.
− Environmental: Since existing cells can be upgraded to handle more users, the
need for new cell towers decreases.
− Maturity: TDMA is very mature (in use since 1992) but CDMA is catching up.
− Economy: TDMA allows same equipment for multiple users.
Salient Features of CDMA:
CDMA is based on the spread spectrum technique
1. In CDMA, every channel uses the full available spectrum.
2. Individual conversations are encoded with a pseudo- random
digital sequence and then transmitted.
3. CDMA consistently provides better capacity for voice and data
communications, allowing more subscribers to connect at any
given time.
CDMA is the common platform on which 3G technologies are
built.
CELLULAR NETWORKS
Multiple Access Techniques
• Multiple access schemes are used to allow many mobile users to share simultaneously a finite
amount of radio spectrum.
• In wireless communication systems, it is often desirable to allow the subscriber to send
information simultaneously from the mobile station to the base station while receiving
information from the base station to the mobile station.
• A cellular system divides any given area into cells where a mobile unit in each cell
communicates with a base station. The main aim in the cellular system design is to be able to
increase the capacity of the channel, i.e., to handle as many calls as possible in a given
bandwidth with a sufficient level of quality of service.
There are several different ways to allow access to the channel.
These includes mainly the following –
• Frequency division multiple-access (FDMA)
• Time division multiple-access (TDMA)
• Code division multiple-access (CDMA)
 Space division multiple access (SDMA)
Depending on how the available bandwidth is allocated to the users, these
techniques can be classified as narrowband and wideband systems.
Narrowband Systems
Systems operating with channels substantially narrower than the coherence bandwidth
are called as Narrow band systems. Narrow band TDMA allows users to use the same
channel but allocates a unique time slot to each user on the channel, thus separating a
small number of users in time on a single channel.
Wideband Systems
In wideband systems, the transmission bandwidth of a single channel is much larger
than the coherence bandwidth of the channel. Thus, multipath fading doesn’t greatly
affect the received signal within a wideband channel, and frequency selective fades
occur only in a small fraction of the signal bandwidth.
Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)
FDMA is the basic technology for advanced mobile phone services. The features of
FDMA are as follows.
• FDMA allots a different sub-band of frequency to each different user to access the
network.
• If FDMA is not in use, the channel is left idle instead of allotting to the other
users.
• FDMA is implemented in Narrowband systems and it is less complex than
TDMA.
• Tight filtering is done here to reduce adjacent channel interference.
• The base station BS and mobile station MS, transmit and receive simultaneously
and continuously in FDMA.
Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)
In the cases where continuous transmission is not required, there TDMA is used instead of FDMA. The
features of TDMA include the following.
• TDMA shares a single carrier frequency with several users where each users makes use of non-
overlapping time slots.
• Data transmission in TDMA is not continuous, but occurs in bursts. Hence handsoff process is
simpler.
• TDMA uses different time slots for transmission and reception thus duplexers are not required.
• TDMA has an advantage that is possible to allocate different numbers of time slots per frame to
different users.
• Bandwidth can be supplied on demand to different users by concatenating or reassigning time slot
based on priority.
Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)
Code division multiple access technique is an example of multiple access where several
transmitters use a single channel to send information simultaneously. Its features are as
follows.
• In CDMA every user uses the full available spectrum instead of getting allotted by
separate frequency.
• CDMA is much recommended for voice and data communications.
• While multiple codes occupy the same channel in CDMA, the users having same code
can communicate with each other.
• CDMA offers more air-space capacity than TDMA.
• The hands-off between base stations is very well handled by CDMA.
Space Division Multiple Access (SDMA)
Space division multiple access or spatial division multiple access is a technique
which is MIMO (multiple-input multiple-output) architecture and used mostly in
wireless and satellite communication. It has the following features.
• All users can communicate at the same time using the same channel.
• SDMA is completely free from interference.
• A single satellite can communicate with more satellite’s receivers of the same
frequency.
• The directional spot-beam antennas are used and hence the base station in
SDMA, can track a moving user.
• Controls the radiated energy for each user in space.
Spread Spectrum Multiple Access
Spread spectrum multiple access (SSMA) uses signals which have a
transmission bandwidth whose magnitude is greater than the minimum required
RF bandwidth.
There are two main types of spread spectrum multiple access techniques −
• Frequency hopped spread spectrum (FHSS)
• Direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS)

Frequency Hopped Spread Spectrum (FHSS)

This is a digital multiple access system in which the carrier
frequencies of the individual users are varied in a pseudo random
fashion within a wideband channel. The digital data is broken into
uniform sized bursts which is then transmitted on different carrier
frequencies
Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)
This is the most commonly used technology for CDMA. In DS-SS, the message signal is
multiplied by a Pseudo Random Noise Code. Each user is given his own code word
which is orthogonal to the codes of other users and in order to detect the user, the
receiver must know the code word used by the transmitter.
The combinational sequences called as hybrid are also used as another type of spread
spectrum. Time hopping is also another type which is rarely mentioned.
Since many users can share the same spread spectrum bandwidth without interfering with
one another, spread spectrum systems become bandwidth efficient in a multiple user
environment.
The wireless channel is susceptible to a variety of transmission impediments such as
path loss, interference and blockage. These factors restrict the range, data rate, and the
reliability of the wireless transmission.
Sr.No.
Multiplexing
Multiple Access

“In telecommunications and computer networks, “In telecommunications and computer networks, a
multiplexing channel
is a process where access method or multiple access method allows
multiple analog message signals or digital several terminals connected to the same multipoint
data streams are combined into one signal over a physical medium to transmit over it and to share its
shared medium.” capacity.
1
The multiplexed signal is transmitted over a A channel-access scheme is based on a multiplex
communication channel, which may be a physical method that allows several data streams or signals to
transmission medium. share the same communication channel or physical
media.
2
A device that performs the multiplexing is called A channel-access scheme is also based on a Multiple
3 a multiplexer (MUX), and a device that performs access protocol and control mechanism, also known as
the reverse process is called a demultiplexer media access control (MAC). This protocol deals with
(DEMUX). issues such as addressing, assigning multiplex channels
to different users, and avoiding collisions.

It works on the physical layer It works on the Data Link layer

4 (L1) of OSI model. (L2) of OSI model.