UNIT IV

How Things
Work
E x p e r i m e n t 48

AIM
To study the dependence of the potential difference across a resistor on the
current through it and to determine its resistance and to verify the Ohm’s law.

THEORY
According to the Ohm’s law, the potential difference (V) across the ends of
a resistor is directly proportional to the current (I) through it provided its
temperature remains the same. That is
V∝I
V
or = constant = R
I
or V = RI.
Here R is a constant for the given resistor at a given temperature and is called
its resistance. The SI unit of resistance is ohm (Ω). A graph between the potential
difference across the two ends of a resistor and the current through it is a
straight line pasing through the origin. The slope of this graph gives the
resistance R of the resistor. To verify the Ohm’s law, we measure the potential
difference across the two ends of a resistor at different currents through it in
an electric circuit. The current through the resistor is measured by connecting
an ammeter in series with it. The potential difference across the two ends of
the resistor is measured by connecting the voltmeter in parallel with it. A
straight line graph obtained between V and I verifies the ohm’s law.
 Laboratory Manual Science

MATERIALS REQUIRED
A resistor of about 5 Ω, an ammeter ( 0 - 3 A), a voltmeter (0 - 10 V), four
dry cells of 1.5 V each with a cell holder (or a battery eliminator), a plug
key, connecting wires, and a piece of sand paper.

PROCEDURE
1. Note the range and least count of the given ammeter and the voltmeter.
2. Fresh connecting wires have an insulating layer on it. Similarly the
connecting wires lying unused for some time may also develop an
insulating layer. (How?) It is therefore important to clean the ends of
connecting wires using a sand paper.
3. Draw a circuit diagram for studying the Ohm’s law as shown in Fig.
48.1 in your notebook. Observe how different components like the
ammeter, voltmeter, resistor, and the plug key are connected with
the cells (or battery eliminator).
4. Set up the circuit by connecting different components with the help
of connecting wires.
Initially connect only one
cell in the circuit (that is
make cell connections
between points A and B).
In case a battery
eleminator is used, keep
the rating of the
eliminator at the
minimum (say at 2 V).
5. Make sure that the
positive and negative Fig. 48.1 : An electric circuit for studying
terminals of the ammeter Ohm’s law
and voltmeter are
correctly connected in the circuit as shown in Fig. 48.1. Get the
circuit set up by you checked by the teacher, before inserting the
key into the plug.
6. Insert the key in the plug to let the current establish in the circuit.
Note the readings of the ammeter and voltmeter and record them.
The voltmeter measures the potential difference (V) across the two
ends X and Y of the resistor, and the ammeter measures the current
I through it. Remove the key from the plug to avoid unnecessary
heating of wires. (How does it happen? Think it in accordance with
the Joule’s law of heating.)
7. Now instead of using one cell in the circuit, connect two cells in the
circuit (that is make cell connections between points A and C, in case

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a battery eliminator is used, increase its rating. Insert the key in the
circuit. Note and record the voltmeter and ammeter readings.
8. Repeat the experiment by connecting three and four cells in the circuit.

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS

(i) Range of the ammeter = ___ - ___ A.
(ii) Least count of the ammeter = ___ A.
(iii) Range of the voltmeter = ___ − ___ V.
(iv) Least count of the voltmeter = ___ V.
Mean value of resistance R of the resistor = _____ Ω.

Sl. Number of cells Current through Potential difference Resistance of the

No. used in the the resistor, I across the ends of resistor,
circuit the resistor, V R = V/I

(A) (V) (Ω)

1. 1

2. 2
3. 3

4. 4

GRAPH
Find the range of variation in the values of I and V. Choose appropriate
scales for the I and V along the x- and y-axes
respectively on the graph paper. Mark the points
on the graph paper for each value of current I
and corresponding value of potential difference
V (Fig. 48.2). Join all the points as a smooth line
as possible such that most of the points lie on
it. Find the slope of this straight line graph by
choosing two points P and Q on it. This slope is
the resistance of the resistor used in the circuit
(Fig. 48.1).
QM
slope =
MP

V2 − V1
=
I 2 − I1 .
Extend the straight line of the graph backwards
to check whether it meets the origin of the Fig. 48.2 : Verification Ohm’s law
graph paper.
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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

• Compare the value of resistance R of the resistor obtained from the
calculations (as given in the observation table) and obtained from the
graph.
• The value of resistance R of resistor for all values of current through it
remains the same (or almost same). The graph between V and I is a
straight line and passes through the origin. This verifies the Ohm’s
law.

PRECAUTIONS AND SOURCES OF ERROR

• The connecting wires should be thick copper wires and the insulation
of their ends should be removed using the sand paper.
• Connections should be tight otherwise some external resistance may
introduce in the circuit.
• The ammeter should be connected in series with the resistor such that
the current enters at the positve terminal and leaves at the negative
terminal of the ammeter.
• Voltmeter should always be connected in parallel to resistor.
• The pointers of the ammeter and voltmeter should be at zero mark
when no current through the circuit. If not, then ask your teacher to
correct it.
• Current should be passed through the circuit for a short time while
taking observations; otherwise current would cause unnecessary
heating in the circuit. Heating may change the resistance of resistors.

NOTE FOR THE TEACHER

• If a resistor of known resistance is not available, a piece of
nichrome wire of suitable length may also be used.
• In place of dry cells, Leclanche, Daniel cells can be used. A battery
eliminator may also be used. In case a battery eliminator is used,
it is suggested to guide students accordingly while connecting it
in the circuit and taking observations.
• In case if an accumulator or battery is used in place of cells or
eliminator to draw the current in the circuit then a rheostat or
variable resistance box can be used to change the current flowing
through the circuit.
• In case your school laboratory possesses the voltmeter and
ammeter of ranges other than the prescribed ranges, then the
resistors may be so chosen that an appreciable deflection may
appear in the ammeter and voltmeter.

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QUESTIONS
• In this experiment it is advised to take out the key from the plug
when the observations are not being taken. Why?
• Suppose the ammeter (or voltmeter) you are using in this
experiment do not have positive (+) and negative (-) terminal
markings. How will you use such ammeter (or voltmeter) in the
circuit?
• If the resistor of a known resistance value is replaced with a
nichrome wire of 10 cm length (say). How do the values of current
through the nichrome wire and potential difference across the
two ends of it may change? How the values will change if the
replaced wire is of manganin in place of nichrome?
• Suppose in this experiment you see that the deflection on ammeter
(or voltmeter) scale goes beyond the full scale. What will you infer
from such an observation? What will you infer if the deflection
takes place in opposite direction?
• Why is it advised to clean the ends of connecting wires before
connecting them?

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E x p e r i m e n t 50

AIM
To determine the equivalent resistance of two resistors connected in series
combination.

THEORY
When two resistors of resistance R1 and R2 respectively are connected in a
series combination (Fig. 50.1), then their equivalent resistance Rs is given by
Rs = R1 + R2. (1)

Fig. 50.1: (a) Two resistors AB and CD are Fig. 50.2 : Circuit diagram for the series
placed one after the other; (b) Two combination of two resistors AB
resistors AB and CD are connected and CD
in a series combination

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In order to determine the resistance of a combination of resistors in

series, the current I flowing through the circuit is measured with an ammeter
connected in series with the combination. The potential difference V across
the combination of resistors is measured with a voltmeter connected in
parallel (Fig. 50.2).

MATERIALS REQUIRED
Two resistors of (each of 2 W resistance), an ammeter (range 0 – 5 A), a
voltmeter (range 0 – 5 V), three dry cells of 1.5 V each with a cell holder (or
a battery eliminator), a plug key, connecting wires and a piece of sand
paper.

PROCEDURE
1. Note the range and least count of the given ammeter and the voltmeter.
2. Fresh connecting wires also have an insulating enamel layer at the
top. Similarly the connecting wires lying unused for some time may
also develop an insulating layer. (How?) It is therefore important to
clean the ends of connecting wires using a sand paper.
3. Draw a circuit diagram for the series combination of resistors as shown
in Fig. 50.2 in your notebook. Observe how different components like
the ammeter, voltmeter, combination of resistors in series (of known
resistances R1 and R2) and the plug key are connected with the cell(s)
(or battery eliminator).
4. Place the given resistors one after the other and join the ends labelled
B and C as shown in Fig. 50.1. Set up the circuit by connecting
different components with the help of connecting wires as shown in
the circuit diagram.
5. Make sure that the positive and negative terminals of the ammeter
and voltmeter are correctly connected in the circuit as shown in Fig.
50.2. Get the circuit set up by you checked by the teacher, before
inserting the key into the plug.
6. Insert the key in the plug to let the current establish in the circuit.
Note the readings of the ammeter and voltmeter and record them.
The voltmeter measures the potential difference (V) across the two
ends A and D of the series combination of two resistors, and the
ammeter measures the current I through the series combination.
Remove the key from the plug to avoid unnecessary heating of wires
(How does it happen? Think it in accordance with the Joule’s law of
heating.)
7. Repeat the activity for three different values of current through the
circuit and record the readings of the ammeter and voltmeter in each
case. The current through the circuit may either be decreased or

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increased by changing the number of cells in the circuit (or by changing

the settings of the battery eliminator terminal).

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS

Range of the ammeter = ___ - ___ A.
Least count of the ammeter = ___ A.
Range of the voltmeter = ___ - ___ V.
Least count of the voltmeter = ___ V.
Resistance of first resistor R1 = ___ Ω.
Resistance of second resistor, R2 = ___ Ω.

Sl. Number Current Potential Equivalent Average

No. of cells in through difference Resistance of value of
the circuit the series across the series combination, RS RS
combination, IS VS RS = Vs/Is

(A) (V) (Ω) (Ω)

1.
2.
3.
4.
R1 = ____ Ω, R2 = _____ Ω
Equivalent resistance [from Eq. (1)] = R1 + R2 = ___ Ω

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Compare the observed value of the equivalent resistance of the series
combination of the two given resistors (from observation table) with the
calculated value of it using Eq. (1).

PRECAUTIONS
• The connecting wires should be thick copper wires and the insulation of
their ends should be removed using the sand paper.
• Connections should be tight otherwise some external resistance may
introduce in the circuit.
• The ammeter should be connected in series with the combination of
resistors such that the current enters at the positve terminal and leaves
at the negative terminal of the ammeter.
• Voltmeter should always be connected in parallel to the combination
of resistors.
• The pointers of the ammeter and voltmeter should be at zero mark when
no current flows through the circuit. If not, then ask your teacher to
correct it.

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• Current should be passed through the circuit for a short time while taking
observations; otherwise current would cause unnecessary heating in the
circuit. Heating may change the resistance of resistors.

NOTE FOR THE TEACHER

• The internal resistance of cells should be much lower than the
resistance of external resistors used in the experiment.
• In case if an accumulator or battery is used in place of cells or
eliminator to draw the current in the circuit then a rheostat or
variable resistance box can be used to change the current flowing
through the circuit.
• In case your school laboratory possesses the voltmeter and
ammeter of ranges other than the prescribed ranges, then the
resistors may be chosen such that an appreciable deflection may
appear in the ammeter and voltmeter.

QUESTIONS
• If two resistors having resistances of 2 Ω and 4 Ω, respectively
are connected in a series combination in an electric circuit, what
will be the net resistance in the circuit?
• In an electric circuit, a resistor of 5 Ω resistance is connected to
a battery (5 V) through an ammeter and a plug key. Now in this
circuit an another resistor of 10 Ω is connected in series with the
5 Ω resistor. Will there be any change in the ammeter reading?
How much?
• In above question, what is the potential difference across the two
ends of the resistor of 5 Ω resistance, when it is alone in the
circuit? What is the potential difference across the two ends of
resistor of 5 Ω resistance when it is connected in series with the
resistor of 10 Ω resistance. What is the potential difference across
the series combination?

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 How Things Work

E x p e r i m e n t 51

AIM
To determine the equivalent resistance of two resistors connected in parallel
combination.

THEORY
When two resistors of resistance R1 and R2 respectively are connected in a
parallel combination (Fig. 51.1), then their equivalent resistance Rp is
given by
1 1 1
= +
R p R1 R 2
or
R1R 2
Rp = (1)
R1 + R 2

In order to determine the resistance of a combination

of resistors connected in parallel, the current I
flowing through the circuit is measured with an Fig. 51.1 : (a) Two resistors AB and
CD are placed side by
ammeter connected in series with the combination. side; (b) Two resistors
The potential difference V across the combination of AB and CD are
resistors is measured with a voltmeter connected in connected in a parallel
parallel (Fig. 51.2). combination

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Fig. 51.2 : Circuit diagram for the series combination of

two resistors AB and CD

MATERIALS REQUIRED
Two resistors of (each of 2 Ω resistance), an ammeter (range 0 – 5 A),
a voltmeter (range 0 – 5 V), three dry cells of 1.5 V each with a cell holder
(or a battery eliminator), a plug key, connecting wires, and a piece of
sand paper.

PROCEDURE
1. Note the range and least count of the given ammeter and the
voltemeter.
2. Fresh connecting wires also have an insulating enamel layer at the
top. Similarly the connecting wires lying unused for some time may
also develop an insulating layer. (How?) It is therefore important to
clean the ends of connecting wires using a sand paper.
3. Draw a circuit diagram for the series combination of resistors as shown
in Fig. 51.2 in your notebook. Observe how different components like
the ammeter, voltmeter, combination of resistors in parallel (of
resistances R1 and R2) and the plug key are connected with the cell(s)
(or battery eliminator).
4. Place the given resistors side by side and join end A with the end C,
and end B with end D (Fig. 51.1). Set up the circuit by connecting
different components with the help of connecting wires as shown in
the circuit diagram (Fig. 51.2).
5. Make sure that the positive and negative terminals of the ammeter
and voltmeter are correctly connected in the circuit. Get the circuit
set up checked by the teacher, before inserting the key into the
plug.
6. Insert the key in the plug to let the current establish in the circuit.
Note the readings of the ammeter and voltmeter and record them.
The voltmeter measures the potential difference (V) across the two
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ends A and D of the series combination of two resistors, and the

ammeter measures the current I through the series combination.
Remove the key from the plug to avoid unnecessary heating of wires
(How does it happen? Think it in accordance with the Joule’s law of
heating.)
7. Repeat the activity for three different values of current through the
circuit and record the readings of the ammeter and voltmeter in each
case. The current through the circuit may either be decreased or
increased by changing the number of cells in the circuit (or by changing
the settings of the battery eliminator terminal).

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS

(i) Range of the ammeter = ____ - ____ A.
(ii) Least count of the ammeter = ____ A.
(iii) Range of the voltmeter = ____ - ____ V.
(iv) Least count of the voltmeter = ____ V.
(v) Resistance of first resistor R1 = ____ Ω.
(vi) Resistance of second resistor, R2 = ____ Ω.

Sl. Number Current Potential difference Equivalent Average value of

No. of cells in through across the parallel Resistance of Rp
the circuit the parallel combination, Vp combination, Rp
combination Rp = Vp/Ip

Ip (A) (V) (Ω) (Ω)

1.

2.
3.

4.

R1 = ____ Ω, R2 = _____ Ω
R 1R 2
Equivalent resistance [from Eq. (1)] =
R1 + R 2 = ___ Ω

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Compare the observed value of the equivalent resistannce of the parallel
combination of the two given resistors (from observation table) with the
calculated value of it using Eq. (1).

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PRECAUTIONS AND SOURCES OF ERROR

• The connecting wires should be thick copper wires and the insulation
of their ends should be removed using the sand paper.
• Connections should be tight otherwise some contact resistance may
introduce in the circuit.
• The ammeter should be connected in series with the combinations of
resistors such that the current enters at the positve terminal and leaves
at the negative terminal of the ammeter.
• Voltmeter should always be connected in parallel to the combinations of
resistors.
• The pointers of the ammeter and voltmeter should be at zero mark when
no current through the circuit. If not, then ask your teacher to correct it.
• Current should be passed through the circuit for a short time while
taking observations; otherwise current would cause unnecessary heating
in the circuit. Heating may change the resistance of resistors.

NOTE FOR THE TEACHER

• The internal resistance of cells should be much lower than the
resistance of external resistors used in the experiment.
• In case an accumulator or battery is used in place of cells or
eliminator to draw the current in the circuit then a rheostat or
variable resistance box can be used to change the current flowing
through the circuit.
• In case your school laboratory possesses the voltmeter and ammeter
of ranges other than the prescribed ranges, then the resistors may
be chosen such that an appreciable deflection may appear in the
ammeter and voltmeter.

QUESTIONS
• If two resistors having resistances of 3 Ω, and 6 Ω, respectively are
connected in parallel, what will be the net resistance in the circuit?
• Two resistors having resistances of 4 Ω and 6 Ω, respectively are
connected in a circuit. It was found that the total resistance in the
circuit is less than 4 Ω. In what way the resistances would have
been connected?
• Two resistors are connected in series and then in parallel. What
effect will it have on the readings of voltmeter and ammeter?
• In what way household appliances should be connected?

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