Introduction

to
8086
Assembly Language
Programming

Prepared By
Dr. D. Jayakumar, M.Tech., Ph.D.,
Associate Professor, Dept Of ECE,
Kuppam Engineering College, Kuppam
 What Is Assembly Language
• Machine-Specific Programming Language
– one-one correspondence between statements
and native machine language
– matches machine instruction set and
architecture
• IBM-PC Assembly Language
– refers to 8086, 8088, 80186, 80286, 80386,
80486, and Pentium Processors
 What Is An Assembler?
• Systems Level Program
– translates assembly language source code to
machine language
• object file - contains machine instructions, initial
data, and information used when loading the
program
• listing file - contains a record of the translation
process, line numbers, addresses, generated code
and data, and a symbol table
 Why Learn Assembly
Language?
• Learn how a • Allows creation of
processor works small and efficient
• Understand basic programs
computer architecture • Allows programmers
• Explore the internal to bypass high-level
representation of data language restrictions
and instructions • Might be necessary to
• Gain insight into accomplish certain
hardware concepts operations
 Data Representation
• Binary 0-1 • Word - 16 Bits
– represents the state of – Each architecture may
electronic components define its own
used in computer “wordsize”
systems • Doubleword - 32 Bits
• Bit - Binary digit • Quadword - 64 Bits
• Byte - 8 Bits • Nybble - 4 Bits
– smallest addressable
memory location (on
the IBM-PC)
 Numbering Systems
• Binary - Base 2 • Raw Binary format
– 0, 1 – All information is
• Octal - Base 8 coded for internal
storage
– 0, 1, 2, … 7
– Externally, we may
• Decimal - Base 10 choose to express the
– 0, 1, 2, …, 9 information in any
• Hexadecimal (Hex) numeration system, or
in a decoded form
– 0, 1, …, 9, A, B, …, F using other symbols
 Decoding a Byte
• Raw • Machine Instruction
– 01010000b – Push AX
• Hex • ASCII Character code
– 50h – ‘P’
• Octal • Integer
– 1208 – 80 (eighty)
• Decimal • BCD
– 80d – 50 (fifty)
• Custom code ???
 Machine Language
• A language of numbers, called the
Processor’s Instruction Set
– The set of basic operations a processor can
perform
• Each instruction is coded as a number
• Instructions may be one or more bytes
• Every number corresponds to an
instruction
 Assembly Language vs Machine
Language Programming

• Machine Language Programming

– Writing a list of numbers representing the
bytes of machine instructions to be executed
and data constants to be used by the program
• Assembly Language Programming
– Using symbolic instructions to represent the
raw data that will form the machine language
program and initial data constants
 Assembly Language
Instructions
• Mnemonics represent Machine
Instructions
– Each mnemonic used represents a single
machine instruction
– The assembler performs the translation
• Some mnemonics require operands
– Operands provide additional information
• register, constant, address, or variable
• Assembler Directives
 8086 Instruction - Basic Structure
Label Operator Operand[s] ;Comment

Label - optional alphanumeric string

1st character must be a-z,A-Z,?,@,_,$
Last character must be :
Operator - assembly language instruction
mnemonic: an instruction format for humans
Assembler translates mnemonic into hexadecimal opcode
example: mov is f8h
Operand[s] - 0 to 3 pieces of data required by instruction
Can be several different forms
Delineated by commas
immediate, register name, memory data, memory address
Comment - Extremely useful in assembler language

These fields are separated by White Space (tab, blank, \n, etc.)
 8086 Instruction - Example
Label Operator Operand[s] ;Comment

INIT: mov ax, bx ; Copy contents of bx into ax

Label - INIT:
Operator - mov
Operands - ax and bx
Comment - alphanumeric string between ; and \n

• Not case sensitive

• Unlike other assemblers, destination operand is first
• mov is the mnemonic that the assembler translates into an
opcode
Assembler Language Segment Types
• Stack
– For dynamic data storage
– Source file defines size
– Must have exactly 1
• Data
– For static data Storage
– Source file defines size
– Source file defines content (optional)
– Can have 0 or more
• Code
– For machine Instructions
– Must have 1 or more
 Using MASM Assembler
• to get help:
C:\> masm /h
• Can just invoke MASM with no arguments:
C:\> masm
Source Filename [.ASM]: hello
Object Filename [HELLO.OBJ]:
Source Listing [NUL.LST]:
Cross Reference [NUL.CRF]:

• .ASM - Assembler source file prepared by programmer

• .OBJ - Translated source file by assembler
• .LST - Listing file, documents “Translation” process
» Errors, Addresses, Symbols, etc
• .CRF – Cross reference file
 x86 Instruction Set Summary
(Data Transfer)
CBW ;Convert Byte to Word AL  AX
CWD ;Convert Word to Double in AX DX,AX
IN ;Input
LAHF ;Load AH from Flags
LDS ;Load pointer to DS
LEA ;Load EA to register
LES ;Load pointer to ES
LODS ;Load memory at SI into AX
MOV ;Move
MOVS ;Move memory at SI to DI
OUT ;Output
POP ;Pop
POPF ;Pop Flags
PUSH ;Push
PUSHF ;Push Flags
SAHF ;Store AH into Flags
STOS ;Store AX into memory at DI
XCHG ;Exchange
XLAT ;Translate byte to AL
 x86 Instruction Set Summary
(Arithmetic/Logical)
AAA ;ASCII Adjust for Add in AX
AAD ;ASCII Adjust for Divide in AX
AAM ;ASCII Adjust for Multiply in AX
AAS ;ASCII Adjust for Subtract in AX
ADC ;Add with Carry
ADD ;Add
AND ;Logical AND
CMC ;Complement Carry
CMP ;Compare
CMPS ;Compare memory at SI and DI
DAA ;Decimal Adjust for Add in AX
DAS ;Decimal Adjust for Subtract in AX
DEC ;Decrement
DIV ;Divide (unsigned) in AX(,DX)
IDIV ;Divide (signed) in AX(,DX)
MUL ;Multiply (unsigned) in AX(,DX)
IMUL ;Multiply (signed) in AX(,DX)
INC ;Increment
 x86 Instruction Set Summary
(Arithmetic/Logical Cont.)

NEG ;Negate
NOT ;Logical NOT
OR ;Logical inclusive OR
RCL ;Rotate through Carry Left
RCR ;Rotate through Carry Right
ROL ;Rotate Left
ROR ;Rotate Right
SAR ;Shift Arithmetic Right
SBB ;Subtract with Borrow
SCAS ;Scan memory at DI compared to AX
SHL/SAL ;Shift logical/Arithmetic Left
SHR ;Shift logical Right
SUB ;Subtract
TEST ;AND function to flags
XLAT ;Translate byte to AL
XOR ;Logical Exclusive OR
 x86 Instruction Set Summary
(Control/Branch Cont.)
CALL ;Call
CLC ;Clear Carry
CLD ;Clear Direction
CLI ;Clear Interrupt
ESC ;Escape (to external device)
HLT ;Halt
INT ;Interrupt
INTO ;Interrupt on Overflow
IRET ;Interrupt Return
JB/JNAE ;Jump on Below/Not Above or Equal
JBE/JNA ;Jump on Below or Equal/Not Above
JCXZ ;Jump on CX Zero
JE/JZ ;Jump on Equal/Zero
JL/JNGE ;Jump on Less/Not Greater or Equal
JLE/JNG ;Jump on Less or Equal/Not Greater
JMP ;Unconditional Jump
JNB/JAE ;Jump on Not Below/Above or Equal
JNBE/JA ;Jump on Not Below or Equal/Above
JNE/JNZ ;Jump on Not Equal/Not Zero
JNL/JGE ;Jump on Not Less/Greater or Equal
 x86 Instruction Set Summary
(Control/Branch)
JNLE/JG ;Jump on Not Less or Equal/Greater
JNO ;Jump on Not Overflow
JNP/JPO ;Jump on Not Parity/Parity Odd
JNS ;Jump on Not Sign
JO ;Jump on Overflow
JP/JPE ;Jump on Parity/Parity Even
JS ;Jump on Sign
LOCK ;Bus Lock prefix
LOOP ;Loop CX times
LOOPNZ/LOOPNE ;Loop while Not Zero/Not Equal
LOOPZ/LOOPE ;Loop while Zero/Equal
NOP ;No Operation (= XCHG AX,AX)
REP/REPNE/REPNZ ;Repeat/Repeat Not Equal/Not Zero
REPE/REPZ ;Repeat Equal/Zero
RET ;Return from call
SEG ;Segment register
STC ;Set Carry
STD ;Set Direction
STI ;Set Interrupt
TEST ;AND function to flags
WAIT ;Wait
 Assembler Directives

end label end of program, label is entry point

proc far|near begin a procedure; far, near keywords
specify if procedure in different code
segment (far), or same code segment (near)
endp end of procedure
page set a page format for the listing file
title title of the listing file
.code mark start of code segment
.data mark start of data segment
.stack set size of stack segment
 Assembler Directives
db define byte
dw define word (2 bytes)
dd define double word (4 bytes)
dq define quadword (8 bytes)
dt define tenbytes
equ equate, assign numeric expression to a name
Examples:
db 100 dup (?) define 100 bytes, with no initial values for bytes
db “Hello” define 5 bytes, ASCII equivalent of “Hello”.
maxint equ 32767
count equ 10 * 20 ; calculate a value (200)
 Program Example
;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;
; ;
; This is an example program. It prints the ;
; character string "Hello World" to the DOS standard output ;
; using the DOS service interrupt, function 9. ;
; ;
;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;
hellostk SEGMENT BYTE STACK 'STACK' ;Define the stack segment
DB 100h DUP(?) ;Set maximum stack size to 256 bytes (100h)
hellostk ENDS

hellodat SEGMENT BYTE 'DATA' ;Define the data segment

dos_print EQU 9 ;define a constant via EQU
strng DB 'Hello World',13,10,'$' ;Define the character string
hellodat ENDS

hellocod SEGMENT BYTE 'CODE' ;Define the Code segment

START: mov ax, SEG hellodat ;ax <-- data segment start address
mov ds, ax ;ds <-- initialize data segment register
mov ah, dos_print ;ah <-- 9 DOS 21h string function
mov dx,OFFSET strng ;dx <-- beginning of string
int 21h ;DOS service interrupt
mov ax, 4c00h ;ax <-- 4c DOS 21h program halt function
int 21h ;DOS service interrupt
hellocod ENDS
END START ; ‘END label’ defines program entry
 Another Way to define Segments
;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;
; Use 'assume' directive to define segment types ;
; ;
;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;
hellostk SEGMENT ;Define a segment
DB 100h DUP(?)
hellostk ENDS

hellodat SEGMENT ;define a segment

dos_print EQU 9 ;define a constant
strng DB 'Hello World',13,10,'$' ;Define the character string
hellodat ENDS

hellocod SEGMENT ;define a segment

assume cs:hellocod, ds:hellodat, ss: hellostk
START: mov ax, hellodat ;ax <-- data segment start address
mov ds, ax ;ds <-- initialize data segment register
mov ah, dos_print ;ah <-- 9 DOS 21h string function
mov dx,OFFSET strng ;dx <-- beginning of string
int 21h ;DOS service interrupt
mov ax, 4c00h ;ax <-- 4c DOS 21h program halt function
int 21h ;DOS service interrupt
hellocod ENDS
END START
 Yet another way to define Segs
;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;
; Use .stack,.data,.code directives to define segment types ;
; ;
;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;
.stack 100h ; reserve 256 bytes of stack space

.data
dos_print EQU 9 ;define a constant
strng DB 'Hello World',13,10,'$' ;Define the character string

.code

START: mov ax, SEG strng ;ax <-- data segment start address
mov ds, ax ;ds <-- initialize data segment register
mov ah, dos_print ;ah <-- 9 DOS 21h string function
mov dx,OFFSET strng ;dx <-- beginning of string
int 21h ;DOS service interrupt
mov ax, 4c00h ;ax <-- 4c DOS 21h program halt function
int 21h ;DOS service interrupt

END START
 Program Statements
name operation operand(s) comment
• Operation is a predefined or reserved
word
– mnemonic - symbolic operation code
– directive - pseudo-operation code
• Space or tab separates initial fields
• Comments begin with semicolon
• Most assemblers are not case sensitive
 Program Data and Storage
• Pseudo-ops to define • These directives
data or reserve require one or more
storage operands
– DB - byte(s) – define memory
– DW - word(s) contents
– DD - doubleword(s) – specify amount of
– DQ - quadword(s) storage to reserve for
run-time data
– DT - tenbyte(s)
 Defining Data
• Numeric data values • A list of values may
– 100 - decimal be used - the
– 100B - binary following creates 4
– 100H - hexadecimal consecutive words
– '100' - ASCII DW 40CH,10B,-13,0
– "100" - ASCII • A ? represents an
• Use the appropriate uninitialized storage
DEFINE directive location
(byte, word, etc.) DB 255,?,-128,'X'
 Naming Storage Locations
• Names can be • ANum refers to a byte
associated with storage location,
storage locations initialized to FCh
ANum DB -4 • The next word has no
DW 17 associated name
ONE
UNO DW 1 • ONE and UNO refer
X DD ? to the same word
• These names are called • X is an unitialized
variables doubleword
 Arrays
• Any consecutive storage locations of the
same size can be called an array
X DW 40CH,10B,-13,0
Y DB 'This is an array'
Z DD -109236, FFFFFFFFH, -1, 100B
• Components of X are at X, X+2, X+4, X+8
• Components of Y are at Y, Y+1, …, Y+15
• Components of Z are at Z, Z+4, Z+8, Z+12
 DUP
• Allows a sequence of storage locations to
be defined or reserved
• Only used as an operand of a define
directive
DB 40 DUP (?)
DW 10h DUP (0)
DB 3 dup ("ABC")
 Word Storage

• Word, doubleword, and quadword data

are stored in reverse byte order (in
memory)
Directive Bytes in Storage
DW 256 00 01
DD 1234567H 67 45 23 01
DQ 10 0A 00 00 00 00 00 00 00
X DW 35DAh DA 35
Low byte of X is at X, high byte of X is at X+1
 Named Constants
• Symbolic names associated with storage
locations represent addresses
• Named constants are symbols created to
represent specific values determined by
an expression
• Named constants can be numeric or string
• Some named constants can be redefined
• No storage is allocated for these values
 Equal Sign Directive
• name = expression
– expression must be numeric
– these symbols may be redefined at any time
maxint = 7FFFh
count = 1
DW count
count = count * 2
DW count
 EQU Directive
• name EQU expression
– expression can be string or numeric
– Use < and > to specify a string EQU
– these symbols cannot be redefined later in the
program
sample EQU 7Fh
aString EQU <1.234>
message EQU <This is a message>
 Data Transfer Instructions
• MOV target, source • reg can be any non-
– reg, reg segment register
– mem, reg except IP cannot be
– reg, mem the target register
– mem, immed • MOV's between a
– reg, immed segment register and
• Sizes of both memory or a 16-bit
operands must be the register are possible
same
 Sample MOV Instructions
b db 4Fh • When a variable is created with a
w dw 2048 define directive, it is assigned a
default size attribute (byte, word,
mov bl,dh etc)
mov ax,w • You can assign a size attribute
mov ch,b using LABEL
mov al,255 LoByte LABEL BYTE
mov w,-100 aWord DW 97F2h
mov b,0
 Addresses with Displacements
b db 4Fh, 20h, 3Ch • The assembler
w dw 2048, -100, 0 computes an address
based on the
mov bx, w+2 expression
mov b+1, ah • NOTE: These are
mov ah, b+5 address computations
mov dx, w-3 done at assembly time
MOV ax, b-1
• Type checking is still in
will not subtract 1 from
effect
the value stored at b
 eXCHanGe
• XCHG target, source • This provides an
– reg, reg efficient means to
– reg, mem swap the operands
– mem, reg – No temporary storage
is needed
• MOV and XCHG
cannot perform – Sorting often requires
this type of operation
memory to memory
– This works only with
moves the general registers
 Arithmetic Instructions
ADD dest, source • source can be a
SUB dest, source general register,
INC dest memory location, or
constant
DEC dest
• dest can be a register
NEG dest or memory location
• Operands must be of – except operands
the same size cannot both be
memory
 Program Segment Structure
• Data Segments • Stack Segment
– Storage for variables – used to set aside
– Variable addresses storage for the stack
are computed as – Stack addresses are
offsets from start of computed as offsets
this segment into this segment
• Code Segment • Segment directives
– contains executable .data
instructions .code
.stack size
 Memory Models
• .Model memory_model
– tiny: code+data <= 64K (.com program)
– small: code<=64K, data<=64K, one of each
– medium: data<=64K, one data segment
– compact: code<=64K, one code segment
– large: multiple code and data segments
– huge: allows individual arrays to exceed 64K
– flat: no segments, 32-bit addresses, protected
mode only (80386 and higher)
 Program Skeleton
.model small • Select a memory model
.stack 100H • Define the stack size
.data • Declare variables
;declarations • Write code
.code – organize into procedures
main proc • Mark the end of the source
;code file
main endp – optionally, define the entry
point
;other procs
end main