LESSON 1

ETHICS
- comes from the Greek word “Ethos” which means characteristic way of doing things or
body of customs
- deals with principles that guide an action, behavior, conduct, or decision
- philosophical science that deals with morality of human behavior viewed from the ultimate
principles known by human reason
- rational way of deciding what is good for the individual or society, not just for the self
- it is viewed as a branch of philosophy

PHILOSOPHY
- it was first coined by Pythagoras
- etymological meaning:
● Philos (love) + Sophia (wisdom) = Love of Wisdom
- the love doesn’t mean an overwhelming feeling or emotion, when the Greeks speak of
‘Love’ it means ‘Passion’
● it refers to the ‘search for meaning’ or the ‘desire to discover’
● loving wisdom is not a feeling, rather the passion or action to discover
- a Philosopher’s desire to discover or search always start with either wonder,
bewilderment, or curiosity
- what makes a Philosopher extraordinary is their method and approach to ideas,
information, knowledge, beliefs being presented to them even if these come from reliable
sources
- unlike many, Philosophers do not just accept prevailing practices, information, or
knowledge, rather they subject and put everything into scrutiny
● Philosophers are said to be in a constant state of subjecting everything into
scrutiny or question, and finding answers by working carefully and systematically
to get a fair and rational solution/answer
● also, scrutinizing does not just imply mere examination, it must also look for the
proper answer or solution to the questions being presented

PROCESS OF PHILOSOPHERS:

LOCATE THE FIND A RATIONAL

ANSWER OR
IDEAS EXAMINE QUESTIONS PROBLEM SOLUTION

PASSION = LOVE OF WISDOM / PHILOSOPHY

3 CONCEPTS OF LOVE
1. Eros
- passionate or intense desire for something
- linked to sexual desire or romance
- referred to as the ‘Love of the Body’

2. Philia
- it entails fondness, appreciation, friendship
- referred to as the ‘Love of the Soul’

3. Agape
- it is the highest form of love
- also known as the Paternal love of God/Parental love
- also linked to sacrificial kind of love

3 CLASSIFICATIONS OF MEN
1. Lovers of Pleasure
2. Lovers of Success
3. Lovers of Wisdom

PHILOSOPHY AND OTHER SCIENCES

1. Philosophy and Science
- it both seek for the fundamental truths about the universe
2. Philosophy and History
- they are interrelated fields because History is the breeding ground of Philosophy
3. Philosophy and Mathematics
- they are both logical bodies of knowledge which involve methodical and systematic
4. Philosophy and Religion
- one justifies the other

IMPORTANCE OF PHILOSOPHY
1. Academe
- it develops the students’ ability to comprehend
- it systematize learnings
- enhances critical thinking ability
2. Life/Reality
- one can develop their own philosophy and principles which are necessary in
directing their lives

IMPERATIVES OF ETHICS
- important for human living
1. Human Freedom
- freedom is an inherent human power
- one must be responsible for their actions which equates to consequences
 - human freedom will be meaningless without responsibility

2. Existence of God
- it is said that without God, humans will find no reason to do good and avoid evil
wrongdoings in the course of their lives

3. Immortality of the Soul

- without this, good deeds are not rewarded, nor evil doers are punished
- simply, there is no sense at all to lead and live a better life
 LESSON 2

MORALS
- when we speak of morals, it refers to the individual’s code of behavior
- may come from religion, culture, principles, or beliefs which are not right or wrong but may
or may not be based on reason
- in short, morals may or may not be rational
ETHICS
- when we speak of ethics, it refers to a rational way of deciding what is good for the
individual or society, which means not just to the self
- ethics is a philosophical science that deals with the morality of human behaviour that is
viewed from the ultimate principles known by human reason.
MORALITY
- morality is a judgment that can be attributed to a certain behavior which follows from an
execution of a decision based on certain philosophical principles

● Take note that Ethics uses the term ultimate, not immediate or proximate causes.
● Ultimate cause refers to the root cause or the underlying cause of a problem; while
immediate cause refers to the proximate cause.
● So when we deal with ethical decisions, ethics should guide us to look at the ultimate, not
immediate, cause of dilemmas for our decision-making in order to provide ultimate
solutions, too.

IMMEDIATE PRINCIPLE
Merely addressing immediate causes is a quick fix method of addressing the problem.

ULTIMATE PRINCIPLE
Addressing the ultimate cause is eliminating the series of immediate causes that will end up at
the first cause. This is called root cause analysis.

DRUG ADDICTION PROBLEM

IMMEDIATE ULTIMATE
Cause/s: Cause/s:
• Drugs • What are examples of the ultimate
cause/s of their addiction?
a. Peer pressure
b. Family history of addiction
c. Lack of family involvement
d. Early use
e. Low self-esteem
f. Stress
g. Trauma or abuse
h. Relationship problems
i. Night jobs/nature of jobs to stay awake
Approach/es: Approach/es:

• If there are addicts, then eliminate the • There are addicts therefore, eliminate
addicts either by killing them, the drug the cause of their addiction and
dealers, or the drug lords. rehabilitate them through the correct
process. Elimination of the ultimate
cause/s, even if there are drugs in the
market, no one is going to buy. This is
a long process, but it is the only way.
All shortcuts, meaning, elimination of
the immediate causes only, are short
term.
 LESSON 3

● MORAL STANDARDS
- deals with matters which can seriously injure or benefit human beings
- It is not formed, changed or modified by the decision of authoritative bodies
● usually it is built by a community/generation/family from the traditions or
culture
- It is associated with special emotions and a special vocabulary
● after lying, you feel the guilt

● NON-MORAL STANDARDS
- rules unrelated to moral or ethical considerations and not necessarily linked to
morality or by nature lack ethical sense
- Examples: dining etiquette, fashion standards, rules in games

● DILEMMA
- is a difficult situation in which an individual is confronted to choose between two or
more alternative actions to resolve the problem

● MORAL DILEMMA
- defined as any situation in which the person making the decision experiences a
conflict between the moral rightness of the decision and the quality of the result it
produces.
- other times, moral dilemmas involve a decision in which the person is forced to
choose only one of the two good thing
● 3 Types of Moral Dilemmas
1. Personal Dilemma
- situations in which an individual has a choice to be made
between two options, neither of which resolves the situation
in an ethically acceptable fashion

2. Organizational Dilemma
- can arise when a company's values or principles are in
conflict with a decision it needs to make.

3. Systematic Dilemma
- predicated on moral rule violations, which result in harm to
another person or persons
- refers to the conformity and compliance of each member to
the expected code of conduct to be manifested in the
agency/workplace
● FREEDOM
- comes in various meanings such as power or right to act, speak, or think as one
wants without hindrance or restraint
- in Philosophy, freedom involves free will as contrasted with determinism
● According to Kant, freedom is the highest order of life. Freedom is the
source of all value, other valuable things must not merely be compatible
with freedom but actually derive their value from the value of freedom
- a power to initiate action from oneself, and the only way to exercise
this power is through the law of one's own will, the moral law.
● Saint Augustine of Hippo showed that humans are free physically, yet
bound to obey the law. There is a clear difference between “like to do” and
“ought to do”
● Gorbachev (1988) asserted that the principle of freedom is a must, refusal
to recognize this principle will have serious consequences to the issue of
world peace
- In moral freedom, individuals are expected to determine for themselves what it means to
lead a good and virtuous life. With this, freedom is a significant foundation of moral acts
● Quito (2008) explains that no ethics is likewise possible without freedom,
humans are only accountable and responsible for their acts if it is done
freely or according to their own will
● If humans are imposed to follow actions that are imposed on them to follow,
then they are not responsible for their actions

● REASON AND IMPARTIALITY

- Immanuel Kant argued that "morality was based on reason alone and once we
understood it, we would see that acting morally is the same as acting rationally."
- A mere knowledge of morality will not make a human moral, it includes application
of these principles; man must not only know the rules of right living; they should
live them.
- Impartiality is a principle of justice holding that decisions or judgment on something
or someone should be objective not on the basis of bias or prejudice to favor
someone irrationally

● MORAL AGENT
- is a being who is capable of acting with reference to right and wrong.
- Weakest Interpretation:
it will suffice if the agent has the capacity to conform to some of the external
requirements of morality
- Strongest Interpretation (Kantian version)
moral agents should have the capacity to rise above their feelings and passions
and act for the sake of moral law
- Agents should have: (characteristics)
● enduring self with free will and an inner life understanding of the relevant
facts as well as moral understanding
 ● moral sentiments, such as capacity for remorse and concern for others
(Haksar, 2018)
● therefore a person who has the ability to discern right from wrong and to
be held accountable for his or her own actions

● CULTURE
- is an aggregate of the learned beliefs, attitudes, values, norms and customs of a
society or group of people, shared by them and transmitted from generation to
generation within the society.
- it also changes with time, the society that developed the culture is continously
being exposed to new experiences

● TYPES OF CULTURE
1. High Culture
- linked with the elite, upper class society, those families and individuals with
an ascribed status position
2. Cultural Diversity
- relating to culturally embedded differences within the society, it's the fact
that different cultures exist alongside each other
3. Subculture
- culture enjoyed by a small group within society
4. . Popular Culture
- it borrows the idea from high culture and popularizes it, making it available
for the masses, a product of the media dominated world
5. Multiculturalism
- depicted to be very similar to cultural diversity, aligns with different ethnic
groups living alongside each other
6. Global Culture
- a key feature of globalization, emerged due to patterns of migration, trends
in international travel, and the spread of the medi

● IMPORTANCE OF CULTURE
1. Culture affects perceptions
- our culture determines the structure of our thinking, which influences our
perceptions on the good or the bad
2. Culture influences behavior
- what our culture teaches us affects the way we interact socially as much
as it also affects our moral behavior towards others
3. Culture shapes personalities
- our religions, traditions, customs, all a part of our culture, play a major role
in shaping our personalities.
4. Our culture shapes our value and belief systems
- this results to influence in personalities
● MORAL BEHAVIOR
- it is what one believes to be the right thing to do.
- morals are the prevailing standard of behavior that people have to follow and act
in accordance with one's beliefs in order to live cooperatively in groups.
- culture indeed influences human behavior at any given society's belief system,
laws, mores, practices, languages, and attitudinal variables which make a people
unique from others (Victor, 2017).

● CULTURAL RELATIVISM
- principle regarding beliefs, values, and practices of a culture from the viewpoint of
the culture itself
- understood as uniqueness of every culture from each other
- an affirmation that holds that societies are dissimilar in their moral standards, their
laws, and culture protocol
- the view that morality is culture dependent

● MORAL RELATIVISM
- the view that moral judgements are true or false only relative to some particular
standpoint, and that no standpoint is uniquely privileged over all others
- the idea that there is no universal or absolute set of moral principles
- version of morality that advocates "to each her own" , and those who follow it say,
"Who am I to judge?"
● ETHICAL RELATIVISM
- It is the theory that holds that morality is relative to the norms of
one’s culture, an action is right or wrong depending on the moral
norms of the society in which it is practiced

● MORAL RELATIVISM
1. Descriptive Moral Relativism
- also known as cultural relativism, says that moral standards are culturally
define
2. Meta-Ethical Moral Relativism
- societies make their moral choices based on their unique beliefs, customs,
and practices
3. Normative Moral Relativism
- ideas that all societies should accept each other's differing moral values,
given that there are no universal moral principles
 LESSON 4

ASIAN CHARACTER
- Asia consists of many ancient cultures with diverse religions, beliefs and life philosophies.
Despite their many unique attributes, there are some broad similarities among these
interesting peoples that carry (more or less) throughout the Asia region.
- Asians seldom exhibit extreme emotions and strive to seem polite and controlled even in
the face of severe ill-treatment. When finally pushed over the limit, they can become
destructive to others.
- Asians desire to make strong emotional relationships with others and keep them for life.
- Asians expect to care for elderly parents and anticipate being cared for when they are old.
- Asian parents feel their guidance is important to ensure the success of children throughout
their entire lives. Children who succeed in life should naturally assist their parents in old
age.
- Asians are also known for being academically intelligent and competitive.

BUDDHISM
- Buddhism is one of the world’s major religions. It originated in South Asia around the 5th
century B.C.E. with Siddhartha Gautama, and over the next millennia it spread across
Asia and the rest of the world.
- Buddhists believe that human life is a cycle of suffering and rebirth, but that if one achieves
a state of enlightenment (nirvana), it is possible to escape this cycle forever.
- Siddhartha Gautama was the first person to reach this state of enlightenment and was,
and is still today, known as the Buddha.
- The Buddha taught about Four Noble Truths.
● The first truth is called “Suffering (dukkha),” which teaches that everyone in life is
suffering in some way.
● The second truth is “Origin of suffering (samudāya).” This states that all suffering
comes from desire (tanhā).
● The third truth is “Cessation of suffering (nirodha),” and it says that it is possible to
stop suffering and achieve enlightenment.
● The fourth truth, “Path to the cessation of suffering (magga)” is about the Middle
Way, which is the steps to achieve enlightenment.
- Buddhists believe in a wheel of rebirth into different bodies. This is connected to “karma,”
which refers to how a person’s good or bad actions in the past or in their past lives can
impact them in the future.
- Buddhists also believe that humans want many things and want to keep them forever,
which is impossible and creates a constant state of desire, which in turn causes suffering
and fear of further loss

CONFUCIANISM

- Confucianism is a philosophy and belief system from ancient China, which laid the
foundation for much of Chinese culture.
- Confucius was a philosopher and teacher who lived from 551 to 479 B.C.E.
 - The golden rule of Confucianism is “Do not do unto others what you would not want others
to do unto you.”
- Confucianism is best understood as an ethical guide to life and living with strong character.
- The main idea of Confucianism is the importance of having a good moral character, which
can then affect the world around that person through the idea of “cosmic harmony.” If the
emperor has moral perfection, his rule will be peaceful and benevolent. Natural disasters
and conflict are the result of straying from the ancient teachings.
- The idea of “filial piety,” or devotion to family, is key to Confucius thought. This devotion
can take the form of ancestor worship, submission to parental authority, or the use of
family metaphors, such as “son of heaven,” to describe the emperor and his government.
The family was the most important group for Confucian ethics, and devotion to family could
only strengthen the society surrounding it.
- Confucianism remains one of the most influential philosophies in China. During the Han
Dynasty, emperor Wu Di (reigned 141–87 B.C.E.) made Confucianism the official state
ideology.

FILIPINO CHARACTERISTIC/MORAL VALUES:

1. FILIPINO POSITIVE VALUES

● PAKIKIPAGKAPWA TAO
- basic sense of justice and fairness, concern for others and ability to empathize with others
● HUMOR
- Filipinos have a cheerful and fun-loving approach to life through its ups and downs or
pleasant disposition
● FLEXIBILITY
- we can adjust and to adapt to circumstances and the surrounding environment, both
physical and social, adjusts to whatever happens even in unplanned or anticipated events
● CREATIVITY
- relating to or involving the imagination or original ideas, especially in the production of an
artistic work
● HARD WORK
- the capacity for hard work given proper conditions to possess the essentials of a decent
life for one's family
● RELIGIOSITY
- our innate religiosity enables us to comprehend and genuinely accept reality in the context
of God's will and plan
● HOSPITABILITY
- Filipinos are friendly and welcoming to our guests
● BAYANIHAN
- it manifests our close relationship with our neighbors
● RESPECTFUL
- the children and the young Filipinos always use the words "po" and "opo" to show respect
to someone who is older or who has higher position than them
● BRAVERY
- we have the most fearless heroes who only think of defending our homeland
● DIGNITY
- delicadeza, dignity and honor of Filipinos
● GRATEFULNESS
- Filipinos are also thankful, we don't forget anyone who helped us
● HONESTY
- the quality of being honest
● HELPFULNESS
- we grant aids to other countries in need or other fellow filipinos
● FAMILY-ORIENTED
- we are willing to make sacrifices just to make sure that our lived ones will have a good life
● THRIFTINESS
- Filipinos shop wisely to save money for future purposes

2. FILIPINO NEGATIVE VALUES

● CRAB MENTALITY
- refers to the behavior of preventing someone from achieving something due to jealousy
or envy
● FILIPINO TIME
- refers to the Filipinos' own unique brand of time, which is known to be minutes or hours
behind the standard time
● COLONIAL MENTALITY
- defined as preference for all foreign things over our own
● PROCRASTINATION
- a habit which keeps the development of a project or work slow
● GOSSIPING
- a habit which is fond of talking about others' business
● CORRUPTION
- one of the biggest social ills our country continues to face since time immemorial,
embedded deep within our system and reinforced by a complex web of economic and
social factors like personal ambitions
● NINGAS KUGON
- initially exhibit great enthusiasm at the beginning of a project, this eagerness however
fades away
● LACK OF DISCIPLINE
- undisciplined behavior
● FATALISM
- an attitude of "come what may"