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Soil
Soil, also commonly referred to as earth or
dirt, is a mixture of organic matter, minerals,
gases, liquids, and organisms that together
support the life of plants and soil organisms.
Some scientific definitions distinguish dirt from
soil by restricting the former term specifically
to displaced soil.

Soil consists of a solid phase of minerals and

organic matter (the soil matrix), as well as a
porous phase that holds gases (the soil
atmosphere) and water (the soil solution).[1][2]
Accordingly, soil is a three-state system of
solids, liquids, and gases.[3] Soil is a product of Surface-water-gley developed in glacial till in Northern
several factors: the influence of climate, relief Ireland

(elevation, orientation, and slope of terrain),

organisms, and the soil's parent materials
(original minerals) interacting over time.[4] It continually
undergoes development by way of numerous physical, chemical
and biological processes, which include weathering with
associated erosion.[5] Given its complexity and strong internal
connectedness, soil ecologists regard soil as an ecosystem.[6]

Most soils have a dry bulk density (density of soil taking into
account voids when dry) between 1.1 and 1.6 g/cm3, though the
soil particle density is much higher, in the range of 2.6 to
2.7 g/cm3.[7] Little of the soil of planet Earth is older than the
Pleistocene and none is older than the Cenozoic,[8] although
fossilized soils are preserved from as far back as the Archean.[9]

Collectively the Earth's body of soil is called the pedosphere.

The pedosphere interfaces with the lithosphere, the
hydrosphere, the atmosphere, and the biosphere.[10] Soil has
Soil measuring and surveying
four important functions:
device

as a medium for plant growth

as a means of water storage, supply, and purification
as a modifier of Earth's atmosphere
as a habitat for organisms
All of these functions, in their turn, modify the soil and its properties.

Soil science has two basic branches of study: edaphology and pedology. Edaphology studies the
influence of soils on living things.[11] Pedology focuses on the formation, description
(morphology), and classification of soils in their natural environment.[12] In engineering terms, soil

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is included in the broader concept of regolith, which also includes other loose material that lies
above the bedrock, as can be found on the Moon and other celestial objects.[13]

Processes
Soil is a major component of the Earth's ecosystem. The world's ecosystems are impacted in far-
reaching ways by the processes carried out in the soil, with effects ranging from ozone depletion
and global warming to rainforest destruction and water pollution. With respect to Earth's carbon
cycle, soil acts as an important carbon reservoir,[14] and it is potentially one of the most reactive to
human disturbance[15] and climate change.[16] As the planet warms, it has been predicted that soils
will add carbon dioxide to the atmosphere due to increased biological activity at higher
temperatures, a positive feedback (amplification).[17] This prediction has, however, been
questioned on consideration of more recent knowledge on soil carbon turnover.[18]

Soil acts as an engineering medium, a habitat for soil organisms, a recycling system for nutrients
and organic wastes, a regulator of water quality, a modifier of atmospheric composition, and a
medium for plant growth, making it a critically important provider of ecosystem services.[19] Since
soil has a tremendous range of available niches and habitats, it contains a prominent part of the
Earth's genetic diversity. A gram of soil can contain billions of organisms, belonging to thousands
of species, mostly microbial and largely still unexplored.[20][21] Soil has a mean prokaryotic density
of roughly 108 organisms per gram,[22] whereas the ocean has no more than 107 prokaryotic
organisms per milliliter (gram) of seawater.[23] Organic carbon held in soil is eventually returned
to the atmosphere through the process of respiration carried out by heterotrophic organisms, but a
substantial part is retained in the soil in the form of soil organic matter; tillage usually increases
the rate of soil respiration, leading to the depletion of soil organic matter.[24] Since plant roots
need oxygen, aeration is an important characteristic of soil. This ventilation can be accomplished
via networks of interconnected soil pores, which also absorb and hold rainwater making it readily
available for uptake by plants. Since plants require a nearly continuous supply of water, but most
regions receive sporadic rainfall, the water-holding capacity of soils is vital for plant survival.[25]

Soils can effectively remove impurities,[26] kill disease agents,[27] and degrade contaminants, this
latter property being called natural attenuation.[28] Typically, soils maintain a net absorption of
oxygen and methane and undergo a net release of carbon dioxide and nitrous oxide.[29] Soils offer
plants physical support, air, water, temperature moderation, nutrients, and protection from
toxins.[30] Soils provide readily available nutrients to plants and animals by converting dead
organic matter into various nutrient forms.[31]

Composition
A typical soil is about 50% solids (45% mineral and 5% organic matter), and 50% voids (or pores)
of which half is occupied by water and half by gas.[32] The percent soil mineral and organic content
can be treated as a constant (in the short term), while the percent soil water and gas content is
considered highly variable whereby a rise in one is simultaneously balanced by a reduction in the
other.[33] The pore space allows for the infiltration and movement of air and water, both of which
are critical for life existing in soil.[34] Compaction, a common problem with soils, reduces this
space, preventing air and water from reaching plant roots and soil organisms.[35]

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Given sufficient time, an undifferentiated soil will evolve a soil

profile that consists of two or more layers, referred to as soil
horizons. These differ in one or more properties such as in their
texture, structure, density, porosity, consistency, temperature,
color, and reactivity.[8] The horizons differ greatly in thickness
and generally lack sharp boundaries; their development is
dependent on the type of parent material, the processes that
modify those parent materials, and the soil-forming factors
that influence those processes. The biological influences on soil
properties are strongest near the surface, though the
geochemical influences on soil properties increase with depth.
Mature soil profiles typically include three basic master
A, B, and C represent the soil
horizons: A, B, and C. The solum normally includes the A and B
profile, a notation firstly coined by
horizons. The living component of the soil is largely confined to Vasily Dokuchaev (1846–1903), the
the solum, and is generally more prominent in the A father of pedology. Here, A is the
horizon.[36] It has been suggested that the pedon, a column of topsoil; B is a regolith; C is a
soil extending vertically from the surface to the underlying saprolite (a less-weathered regolith);
parent material and large enough to show the characteristics of the bottom-most layer represents
the bedrock.
all its horizons, could be subdivided in the humipedon (the
living part, where most soil organisms are dwelling,
corresponding to the humus form), the copedon (in intermediary
position, where most weathering of minerals takes place) and the
lithopedon (in contact with the subsoil).[37]

The soil texture is determined by the relative proportions of the

individual particles of sand, silt, and clay that make up the soil.

The interaction of the individual mineral particles with organic

matter, water, gases via biotic and abiotic processes causes those
particles to flocculate (stick together) to form aggregates or
peds.[38] Where these aggregates can be identified, a soil can be
said to be developed, and can be described further in terms of Components of a silt loam
color, porosity, consistency, reaction (acidity), etc. soil by percent volume

Water (25%)
Water is a critical agent in soil development due to its
Gases (25%)
involvement in the dissolution, precipitation, erosion, transport,
Sand (18%)
and deposition of the materials of which a soil is composed.[39]
Silt (18%)
The mixture of water and dissolved or suspended materials that
Clay (9%)
occupy the soil pore space is called the soil solution. Since soil
Organic matter (5%)
water is never pure water, but contains hundreds of dissolved
organic and mineral substances, it may be more accurately called
the soil solution. Water is central to the dissolution, precipitation and leaching of minerals from
the soil profile. Finally, water affects the type of vegetation that grows in a soil, which in turn
affects the development of the soil, a complex feedback which is exemplified in the dynamics of
banded vegetation patterns in semi-arid regions.[40]

Soils supply plants with nutrients, most of which are held in place by particles of clay and organic
matter (colloids)[41] The nutrients may be adsorbed on clay mineral surfaces, bound within clay
minerals (absorbed), or bound within organic compounds as part of the living organisms or dead

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soil organic matter. These bound nutrients interact with soil

water to buffer the soil solution composition (attenuate
changes in the soil solution) as soils wet up or dry out, as plants
take up nutrients, as salts are leached, or as acids or alkalis are
added.[42]

Plant nutrient availability is affected by soil pH, which is a

measure of the hydrogen ion activity in the soil solution. Soil
pH is a function of many soil forming factors, and is generally
lower (more acidic) where weathering is more advanced.[43]

Most plant nutrients, with the exception of nitrogen, originate

from the minerals that make up the soil parent material. Some
nitrogen originates from rain as dilute nitric acid and A soil texture triangle plot is a visual
ammonia, [44] but most of the nitrogen is available in soils as a representation of the proportions of
result of nitrogen fixation by bacteria. Once in the soil-plant sand, silt, and clay in a soil sample.

system, most nutrients are recycled through living organisms,

plant and microbial residues (soil organic matter), mineral-
bound forms, and the soil solution. Both living soil organisms (microbes, animals and plant roots)
and soil organic matter are of critical importance to this recycling, and thereby to soil formation
and soil fertility.[45] Microbial soil enzymes may release nutrients from minerals or organic matter
for use by plants and other microorganisms, sequester (incorporate) them into living cells, or cause
their loss from the soil by volatilisation (loss to the atmosphere as gases) or leaching.[46]

Formation
Soil is said to be formed when organic matter has accumulated and colloids are washed downward,
leaving deposits of clay, humus, iron oxide, carbonate, and gypsum, producing a distinct layer
called the B horizon. This is a somewhat arbitrary definition as mixtures of sand, silt, clay and
humus will support biological and agricultural activity before that time.[47] These constituents are
moved from one level to another by water and animal activity. As a result, layers (horizons) form in
the soil profile. The alteration and movement of materials within a soil causes the formation of
distinctive soil horizons. However, more recent definitions of soil embrace soils without any
organic matter, such as those regoliths that formed on Mars[48] and analogous conditions in planet
Earth deserts.[49]

An example of the development of a soil would begin with the weathering of lava flow bedrock,
which would produce the purely mineral-based parent material from which the soil texture forms.
Soil development would proceed most rapidly from bare rock of recent flows in a warm climate,
under heavy and frequent rainfall. Under such conditions, plants (in a first stage nitrogen-fixing
lichens and cyanobacteria then epilithic higher plants) become established very quickly on basaltic
lava, even though there is very little organic material.[50] Basaltic minerals commonly weather
relatively quickly, according to the Goldich dissolution series.[51] The plants are supported by the
porous rock as it is filled with nutrient-bearing water that carries minerals dissolved from the
rocks. Crevasses and pockets, local topography of the rocks, would hold fine materials and harbour
plant roots. The developing plant roots are associated with mineral-weathering mycorrhizal
fungi[52] that assist in breaking up the porous lava, and by these means organic matter and a finer
mineral soil accumulate with time. Such initial stages of soil development have been described on
volcanoes,[53] inselbergs,[54] and glacial moraines.[55]

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How soil formation proceeds is influenced by at least five classic factors that are intertwined in the
evolution of a soil: parent material, climate, topography (relief), organisms, and time.[56] When
reordered to climate, relief, organisms, parent material, and time, they form the acronym
CROPT.[57]

Physical properties
The physical properties of soils, in order of decreasing importance for ecosystem services such as
crop production, are texture, structure, bulk density, porosity, consistency, temperature, colour
and resistivity.[58] Soil texture is determined by the relative proportion of the three kinds of soil
mineral particles, called soil separates: sand, silt, and clay. At the next larger scale, soil structures
called peds or more commonly soil aggregates are created from the soil separates when iron
oxides, carbonates, clay, silica and humus, coat particles and cause them to adhere into larger,
relatively stable secondary structures.[59] Soil bulk density, when determined at standardized
moisture conditions, is an estimate of soil compaction.[60] Soil porosity consists of the void part of
the soil volume and is occupied by gases or water. Soil consistency is the ability of soil materials to
stick together. Soil temperature and colour are self-defining. Resistivity refers to the resistance to
conduction of electric currents and affects the rate of corrosion of metal and concrete structures
which are buried in soil.[61] These properties vary through the depth of a soil profile, i.e. through
soil horizons. Most of these properties determine the aeration of the soil and the ability of water to
infiltrate and to be held within the soil.[62]

Soil moisture
Soil water content can be measured as volume or weight. Soil moisture levels, in order of
decreasing water content, are saturation, field capacity, wilting point, air dry, and oven dry. Field
capacity describes a drained wet soil at the point water content reaches equilibrium with gravity.
Irrigating soil above field capacity risks percolation losses. Wilting point describes the dry limit for
growing plants. During growing season, soil moisture is unaffected by functional groups or specie
richness.[63]

Available water capacity is the amount of water held in a soil profile available to plants. As water
content drops, plants have to work against increasing forces of adhesion and sorptivity to withdraw
water. Irrigation scheduling avoids moisture stress by replenishing depleted water before stress is
induced.[64][65]

Capillary action is responsible for moving groundwater from wet regions of the soil to dry areas.
Subirrigation designs (e.g., wicking beds, sub-irrigated planters) rely on capillarity to supply water
to plant roots. Capillary action can result in an evaporative concentration of salts, causing land
degradation through salination.

Soil moisture measurement—measuring the water content of the soil, as can be expressed in terms
of volume or weight—can be based on in situ probes (e.g., capacitance probes, neutron probes), or
remote sensing methods. Soil moisture measurement is an important factor in determining
changes in soil activity.[63]

Soil gas

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The atmosphere of soil, or soil gas, is very different from the atmosphere above. The consumption
of oxygen by microbes and plant roots, and their release of carbon dioxide, decreases oxygen and
increases carbon dioxide concentration. Atmospheric CO2 concentration is 0.04%, but in the soil
pore space it may range from 10 to 100 times that level, thus potentially contributing to the
inhibition of root respiration.[66] Calcareous soils regulate CO2 concentration by carbonate
buffering, contrary to acid soils in which all CO2 respired accumulates in the soil pore system.[67]
At extreme levels, CO2 is toxic.[68] This suggests a possible negative feedback control of soil CO2
concentration through its inhibitory effects on root and microbial respiration (also called soil
respiration).[69] In addition, the soil voids are saturated with water vapour, at least until the point
of maximal hygroscopicity, beyond which a vapour-pressure deficit occurs in the soil pore
space.[34] Adequate porosity is necessary, not just to allow the penetration of water, but also to
allow gases to diffuse in and out. Movement of gases is by diffusion from high concentrations to
lower, the diffusion coefficient decreasing with soil compaction.[70] Oxygen from above
atmosphere diffuses in the soil where it is consumed and levels of carbon dioxide in excess of above
atmosphere diffuse out with other gases (including greenhouse gases) as well as water.[71] Soil
texture and structure strongly affect soil porosity and gas diffusion. It is the total pore space
(porosity) of soil, not the pore size, and the degree of pore interconnection (or conversely pore
sealing), together with water content, air turbulence and temperature, that determine the rate of
diffusion of gases into and out of soil.[72][71] Platy soil structure and soil compaction (low porosity)
impede gas flow, and a deficiency of oxygen may encourage anaerobic bacteria to reduce (strip
oxygen) from nitrate NO3 to the gases N2, N2O, and NO, which are then lost to the atmosphere,
thereby depleting the soil of nitrogen, a detrimental process called denitrification.[73] Aerated soil
is also a net sink of methane (CH4)[74] but a net producer of methane (a strong heat-absorbing
greenhouse gas) when soils are depleted of oxygen and subject to elevated temperatures.[75]

Soil atmosphere is also the seat of emissions of volatiles other than carbon and nitrogen oxides
from various soil organisms, e.g. roots,[76] bacteria,[77] fungi,[78] animals.[79] These volatiles are
used as chemical cues, making soil atmosphere the seat of interaction networks[80][81] playing a
decisive role in the stability, dynamics and evolution of soil ecosystems.[82] Biogenic soil volatile
organic compounds are exchanged with the aboveground atmosphere, in which they are just 1–2
orders of magnitude lower than those from aboveground vegetation.[83]

Humans can get some idea of the soil atmosphere through the well-known 'after-the-rain' scent,
when infiltering rainwater flushes out the whole soil atmosphere after a drought period, or when
soil is excavated,[84] a bulk property attributed in a reductionist manner to particular biochemical
compounds such as petrichor or geosmin.

Solid phase (soil matrix)

Soil particles can be classified by their chemical composition (mineralogy) as well as their size. The
particle size distribution of a soil, its texture, determines many of the properties of that soil, in
particular hydraulic conductivity and water potential,[85] but the mineralogy of those particles can
strongly modify those properties. The mineralogy of the finest soil particles, clay, is especially
important.[86]

Soil biodiversity

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Large numbers of microbes, animals, plants and fungi are living in soil. However, biodiversity in
soil is much harder to study as most of this life is invisible, hence estimates about soil biodiversity
have been unsatisfactory. A recent study suggested that soil is likely home to 59 ± 15% of the
species on Earth. Enchytraeidae (worms) have the greatest percentage of species in soil (98.6%),
followed by fungi (90%), plants (85.5%), and termites (Isoptera) (84.2%). Many other groups of
animals have substantial fractions of species living in soil, e.g. about 30% of insects, and close to
50% of arachnids.[87] While most vertebrates live above ground (ignoring aquatic species), many
species are fossorial, that is, they live in soil, such as most blind snakes.

Chemistry
The chemistry of a soil determines its ability to supply available plant nutrients and affects its
physical properties and the health of its living population. In addition, a soil's chemistry also
determines its corrosivity, stability, and ability to absorb pollutants and to filter water. It is the
surface chemistry of mineral and organic colloids that determines soil's chemical properties.[88] A
colloid is a small, insoluble particle ranging in size from 1 nanometer to 1 micrometer, thus small
enough to remain suspended by Brownian motion in a fluid medium without settling.[89] Most
soils contain organic colloidal particles called humus as well as the inorganic colloidal particles of
clays. The very high specific surface area of colloids and their net electrical charges give soil its
ability to hold and release ions. Negatively charged sites on colloids attract and release cations in
what is referred to as cation exchange. Cation-exchange capacity is the amount of exchangeable
cations per unit weight of dry soil and is expressed in terms of milliequivalents of positively
charged ions per 100 grams of soil (or centimoles of positive charge per kilogram of soil;
cmolc/kg). Similarly, positively charged sites on colloids can attract and release anions in the soil,
giving the soil anion exchange capacity.

Cation and anion exchange

The cation exchange, that takes place between colloids and soil water, buffers (moderates) soil pH,
alters soil structure, and purifies percolating water by adsorbing cations of all types, both useful
and harmful.

The negative or positive charges on colloid particles make them able to hold cations or anions,
respectively, to their surfaces. The charges result from four sources.[90]

1. Isomorphous substitution occurs in clay during its formation, when lower-valence cations
substitute for higher-valence cations in the crystal structure.[91] Substitutions in the outermost
layers are more effective than for the innermost layers, as the electric charge strength drops off
as the square of the distance. The net result is oxygen atoms with net negative charge and the
ability to attract cations.
2. Edge-of-clay oxygen atoms are not in balance ionically as the tetrahedral and octahedral
structures are incomplete.[92]
3. Hydroxyls may substitute for oxygens of the silica layers, a process called hydroxylation. When
the hydrogens of the clay hydroxyls are ionised into solution, they leave the oxygen with a
negative charge (anionic clays).[93]
4. Hydrogens of humus hydroxyl groups may also be ionised into solution, leaving, similarly to
clay, an oxygen with a negative charge.[94]
Cations held to the negatively charged colloids resist being washed downward by water and are out
of reach of plant roots, thereby preserving the soil fertility in areas of moderate rainfall and low
temperatures.[95][96]
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There is a hierarchy in the process of cation exchange on colloids, as cations differ in the strength
of adsorption by the colloid and hence their ability to replace one another (ion exchange). If
present in equal amounts in the soil water solution:

Al3+ replaces H+ replaces Ca2+ replaces Mg2+ replaces K+ same as NH+

4 replaces Na
+[97]

If one cation is added in large amounts, it may replace the others by the sheer force of its numbers.
This is called law of mass action. This is largely what occurs with the addition of cationic fertilisers
(potash, lime).[98]

As the soil solution becomes more acidic (low pH, meaning an abundance of H+), the other cations
more weakly bound to colloids are pushed into solution as hydrogen ions occupy exchange sites
(protonation). A low pH may cause the hydrogen of hydroxyl groups to be pulled into solution,
leaving charged sites on the colloid available to be occupied by other cations. This ionisation of
hydroxy groups on the surface of soil colloids creates what is described as pH-dependent surface
charges.[99] Unlike permanent charges developed by isomorphous substitution, pH-dependent
charges are variable and increase with increasing pH.[100] Freed cations can be made available to
plants but are also prone to be leached from the soil, possibly making the soil less fertile.[101]
Plants are able to excrete H+ into the soil through the synthesis of organic acids and by that means,
change the pH of the soil near the root and push cations off the colloids, thus making those
available to the plant.[102]

Cation exchange capacity (CEC)

Cation exchange capacity is the soil's ability to remove cations from the soil water solution and
sequester those to be exchanged later as the plant roots release hydrogen ions to the solution.[103]
CEC is the amount of exchangeable hydrogen cation (H+) that will combine with 100 grams dry
weight of soil and whose measure is one milliequivalents per 100 grams of soil (1 meq/100 g).
Hydrogen ions have a single charge and one-thousandth of a gram of hydrogen ions per 100 grams
dry soil gives a measure of one milliequivalent of hydrogen ion. Calcium, with an atomic weight 40
times that of hydrogen and with a valence of two, converts to (40 ÷ 2) × 1 milliequivalent = 20
milliequivalents of hydrogen ion per 100 grams of dry soil or 20 meq/100 g.[104] The modern
measure of CEC is expressed as centimoles of positive charge per kilogram (cmol/kg) of oven-dry
soil.

Most of the soil's CEC occurs on clay and humus colloids, and the lack of those in hot, humid, wet
climates (such as tropical rainforests), due to leaching and decomposition, respectively, explains
the apparent sterility of tropical soils.[105] Live plant roots also have some CEC, linked to their
specific surface area.[106]

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Cation exchange capacity for soils; soil textures; soil colloids[107]

Soil State CEC meq/100 g
Charlotte fine sand Florida 1.0

Ruston fine sandy loam Texas 1.9

Glouchester loam New Jersey 11.9

Grundy silt loam Illinois 26.3

Gleason clay loam California 31.6

Susquehanna clay loam Alabama 34.3

Davie mucky fine sand Florida 100.8

Sands — 1–5

Fine sandy loams — 5–10

Loams and silt loams — 5–15

Clay loams — 15–30

Clays — over 30
Sesquioxides — 0–3

Kaolinite — 3–15

Illite — 25–40
Montmorillonite — 60–100

Vermiculite (similar to illite) — 80–150

Humus — 100–300

Anion exchange capacity (AEC)

Anion exchange capacity is the soil's ability to remove anions (such as nitrate, phosphate) from the
soil water solution and sequester those for later exchange as the plant roots release carbonate
anions to the soil water solution.[108] Those colloids which have low CEC tend to have some AEC.
Amorphous and sesquioxide clays have the highest AEC,[109] followed by the iron oxides.[110]
Levels of AEC are much lower than for CEC, because of the generally higher rate of positively
(versus negatively) charged surfaces on soil colloids, to the exception of variable-charge soils.[111]
Phosphates tend to be held at anion exchange sites.[112]

Iron and aluminum hydroxide clays are able to exchange their hydroxide anions (OH−) for other
anions.[108] The order reflecting the strength of anion adhesion is as follows:

H2PO−4 replaces SO2− −

4 replaces NO3 replaces Cl
−

The amount of exchangeable anions is of a magnitude of tenths to a few milliequivalents per 100 g
dry soil.[107] As pH rises, there are relatively more hydroxyls, which will displace anions from the
colloids and force them into solution and out of storage; hence AEC decreases with increasing pH
(alkalinity).[113]

Reactivity (pH)

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Soil reactivity is expressed in terms of pH and is a measure of the acidity or alkalinity of the soil.
More precisely, it is a measure of hydronium concentration in an aqueous solution and ranges in
values from 0 to 14 (acidic to basic) but practically speaking for soils, pH ranges from 3.5 to 9.5, as
pH values beyond those extremes are toxic to life forms.[114]

At 25 °C an aqueous solution that has a pH of 3.5 has 10−3.5 moles H3O+ (hydronium ions) per litre
of solution (and also 10−10.5 moles per litre OH−). A pH of 7, defined as neutral, has 10−7 moles of
hydronium ions per litre of solution and also 10−7 moles of OH− per litre; since the two
concentrations are equal, they are said to neutralise each other. A pH of 9.5 has 10−9.5 moles
hydronium ions per litre of solution (and also 10−2.5 moles per litre OH−). A pH of 3.5 has one
million times more hydronium ions per litre than a solution with pH of 9.5 (9.5 − 3.5 = 6 or 106)
and is more acidic.[115]

The effect of pH on a soil is to remove from the soil or to make available certain ions. Soils with
high acidity tend to have toxic amounts of aluminium and manganese.[116] As a result of a trade-off
between toxicity and requirement most nutrients are better available to plants at moderate pH,[117]
although most minerals are more soluble in acid soils. Soil organisms are hindered by high acidity,
and most agricultural crops do best with mineral soils of pH 6.5 and organic soils of pH 5.5.[118]
Given that at low pH toxic metals (e.g. cadmium, zinc, lead) are positively charged as cations and
organic pollutants are in non-ionic form, thus both made more available to organisms,[119][120] it
has been suggested that plants, animals and microbes commonly living in acid soils are pre-
adapted to every kind of pollution, whether of natural or human origin.[121]

In high rainfall areas, soils tend to acidify as the basic cations are forced off the soil colloids by the
mass action of hydronium ions from usual or unusual rain acidity against those attached to the
colloids. High rainfall rates can then wash the nutrients out, leaving the soil inhabited only by
those organisms which are particularly efficient to uptake nutrients in very acid conditions, like in
tropical rainforests.[122] Once the colloids are saturated with H3O+, the addition of any more
hydronium ions or aluminum hydroxyl cations drives the pH even lower (more acidic) as the soil
has been left with no buffering capacity.[123] In areas of extreme rainfall and high temperatures,
the clay and humus may be washed out, further reducing the buffering capacity of the soil.[124] In
low rainfall areas, unleached calcium pushes pH to 8.5 and with the addition of exchangeable
sodium, soils may reach pH 10.[125] Beyond a pH of 9, plant growth is reduced.[126] High pH
results in low micro-nutrient mobility, but water-soluble chelates of those nutrients can correct the
deficit.[127] Sodium can be reduced by the addition of gypsum (calcium sulphate) as calcium
adheres to clay more tightly than does sodium causing sodium to be pushed into the soil water
solution where it can be washed out by an abundance of water.[128][129]

Base saturation percentage

There are acid-forming cations (e.g. hydronium, aluminium, iron) and there are base-forming
cations (e.g. calcium, magnesium, sodium). The fraction of the negatively-charged soil colloid
exchange sites (CEC) that are occupied by base-forming cations is called base saturation. If a soil
has a CEC of 20 meq and 5 meq are aluminium and hydronium cations (acid-forming), the
remainder of positions on the colloids (20 − 5 = 15 meq) are assumed occupied by base-forming
cations, so that the base saturation is 15 ÷ 20 × 100% = 75% (the compliment 25% is assumed acid-
forming cations). Base saturation is almost in direct proportion to pH (it increases with increasing
pH).[130] It is of use in calculating the amount of lime needed to neutralise an acid soil (lime
requirement). The amount of lime needed to neutralize a soil must take account of the amount of

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acid forming ions on the colloids (exchangeable acidity), not just those in the soil water solution
(free acidity).[131] The addition of enough lime to neutralize the soil water solution will be
insufficient to change the pH, as the acid forming cations stored on the soil colloids will tend to
restore the original pH condition as they are pushed off those colloids by the calcium of the added
lime.[132]

Buffering
The resistance of soil to change in pH, as a result of the addition of acid or basic material, is a
measure of the buffering capacity of a soil and (for a particular soil type) increases as the CEC
increases. Hence, pure sand has almost no buffering ability, though soils high in colloids (whether
mineral or organic) have high buffering capacity.[133] Buffering occurs by cation exchange and
neutralisation. However, colloids are not the only regulators of soil pH. The role of carbonates
should be underlined, too.[134] More generally, according to pH levels, several buffer systems take
precedence over each other, from calcium carbonate buffer range to iron buffer range.[135]

The addition of a small amount of highly basic aqueous ammonia to a soil will cause the
ammonium to displace hydronium ions from the colloids, and the end product is water and
colloidally fixed ammonium, but little permanent change overall in soil pH.

The addition of a small amount of lime, Ca(OH)2, will displace hydronium ions from the soil
colloids, causing the fixation of calcium to colloids and the evolution of CO2 and water, with little
permanent change in soil pH.

The above are examples of the buffering of soil pH. The general principal is that an increase in a
particular cation in the soil water solution will cause that cation to be fixed to colloids (buffered)
and a decrease in solution of that cation will cause it to be withdrawn from the colloid and moved
into solution (buffered). The degree of buffering is often related to the CEC of the soil; the greater
the CEC, the greater the buffering capacity of the soil.[136]

Redox
Soil chemical reactions involve some combination of proton and electron transfer. Oxidation
occurs if there is a loss of electrons in the transfer process while reduction occurs if there is a gain
of electrons. Reduction potential is measured in volts or millivolts. Soil microbial communities
develop along electron transport chains, forming electrically conductive biofilms, and developing
networks of bacterial nanowires.

Redox factors in soil development, where formation of redoximorphic color features provides
critical information for soil interpretation. Understanding the redox gradient is important to
managing carbon sequestration, bioremediation, wetland delineation, and soil-based microbial
fuel cells.

Nutrients
Seventeen elements or nutrients are essential for plant growth and reproduction. They are carbon
(C), hydrogen (H), oxygen (O), nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), sulfur (S), calcium
(Ca), magnesium (Mg), iron (Fe), boron (B), manganese (Mn), copper (Cu), zinc (Zn),
molybdenum (Mo), nickel (Ni) and chlorine (Cl).[138][139][140] Nutrients required for plants to
complete their life cycle are considered essential nutrients. Nutrients that enhance the growth of

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plants but are not necessary to complete the Plant nutrients, their chemical symbols, and the ionic forms
plant's life cycle are considered non- common in soils and available for plant uptake[137]
essential. With the exception of carbon, Element Symbol Ion or molecule
hydrogen and oxygen, which are supplied by CO2 (mostly through leaves)
Carbon C
carbon dioxide and water, and nitrogen,
provided through nitrogen fixation,[140] the Hydrogen H H+, H2O (water)
nutrients derive originally from the mineral Oxygen O O2−, OH−, CO2− 2−
3 , SO4 , CO2
component of the soil. The Law of the
Minimum expresses that when the available Phosphorus P H2PO−4, HPO2−
4 (phosphates)
form of a nutrient is not in enough Potassium K K+
proportion in the soil solution, then other
Nitrogen N NH+4, NO−3 (ammonium, nitrate)
nutrients cannot be taken up at an optimum
rate by a plant.[141] A particular nutrient ratio Sulfur S SO2−
4
of the soil solution is thus mandatory for Calcium Ca Ca2+
optimizing plant growth, a value which might
differ from nutrient ratios calculated from Iron Fe Fe2+, Fe3+ (ferrous, ferric)

plant composition.[142] Magnesium Mg Mg2+

− −
Plant uptake of nutrients can only proceed Boron B H3BO3, H2BO3, B(OH)4
when they are present in a plant-available Manganese Mn Mn2+
form. In most situations, nutrients are
Copper Cu Cu2+
absorbed in an ionic form from (or together
with) soil water. Although minerals are the Zinc Zn Zn2+
origin of most nutrients, and the bulk of Molybdenum Mo MoO2−4 (molybdate)
most nutrient elements in the soil is held in
crystalline form within primary and Chlorine Cl Cl− (chloride)

secondary minerals, they weather too slowly

to support rapid plant growth. For example, the application of finely ground minerals, feldspar and
apatite, to soil seldom provides the necessary amounts of potassium and phosphorus at a rate
sufficient for good plant growth, as most of the nutrients remain bound in the crystals of those
minerals.[143]

The nutrients adsorbed onto the surfaces of clay colloids and soil organic matter provide a more
accessible reservoir of many plant nutrients (e.g. K, Ca, Mg, P, Zn). As plants absorb the nutrients
from the soil water, the soluble pool is replenished from the surface-bound pool. The
decomposition of soil organic matter by microorganisms is another mechanism whereby the
soluble pool of nutrients is replenished – this is important for the supply of plant-available N, S, P,
and B from soil.[144]

Gram for gram, the capacity of humus to hold nutrients and water is far greater than that of clay
minerals, most of the soil cation exchange capacity arising from charged carboxylic groups on
organic matter.[145] However, despite the great capacity of humus to retain water once water-
soaked, its high hydrophobicity decreases its wettability once dry.[146] All in all, small amounts of
humus may remarkably increase the soil's capacity to promote plant growth.[147][144]

Soil organic matter

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The organic material in soil is made up of organic compounds and includes plant, animal and
microbial material, both living and dead. A typical soil has a biomass composition of 70%
microorganisms, 22% macrofauna, and 8% roots. The living component of an acre of soil may
include 900 lb of earthworms, 2400 lb of fungi, 1500 lb of bacteria, 133 lb of protozoa and 890 lb
of arthropods and algae.[148]

A few percent of the soil organic matter, with small residence time, consists of the microbial
biomass and metabolites of bacteria, molds, and actinomycetes that work to break down the dead
organic matter.[149][150] Were it not for the action of these micro-organisms, the entire carbon
dioxide part of the atmosphere would be sequestered as organic matter in the soil. However, in the
same time soil microbes contribute to carbon sequestration in the topsoil through the formation of
stable humus.[151] In the aim to sequester more carbon in the soil for alleviating the greenhouse
effect it would be more efficient in the long-term to stimulate humification than to decrease litter
decomposition.[152]

The main part of soil organic matter is a complex assemblage of small organic molecules,
collectively called humus or humic substances. The use of these terms, which do not rely on a clear
chemical classification, has been considered as obsolete.[153] Other studies showed that the
classical notion of molecule is not convenient for humus, which escaped most attempts done over
two centuries to resolve it in unit components, but still is chemically distinct from polysaccharides,
lignins and proteins.[154]

Most living things in soils, including plants, animals, bacteria, and fungi, are dependent on organic
matter for nutrients and/or energy. Soils have organic compounds in varying degrees of
decomposition which rate is dependent on temperature, soil moisture, and aeration. Bacteria and
fungi feed on the raw organic matter, which are fed upon by protozoa, which in turn are fed upon
by nematodes, annelids and arthropods, themselves able to consume and transform raw or
humified organic matter. This has been called the soil food web, through which all organic matter
is processed as in a digestive system.[155] Organic matter holds soils open, allowing the infiltration
of air and water, and may hold as much as twice its weight in water. Many soils, including desert
and rocky-gravel soils, have little or no organic matter. Soils that are all organic matter, such as
peat (histosols), are infertile.[156] In its earliest stage of decomposition, the original organic
material is often called raw organic matter. The final stage of decomposition is called humus.

In grassland, much of the organic matter added to the soil is from the deep, fibrous, grass root
systems. By contrast, tree leaves falling on the forest floor are the principal source of soil organic
matter in the forest. Another difference is the frequent occurrence in the grasslands of fires that
destroy large amounts of aboveground material but stimulate even greater contributions from
roots. Also, the much greater acidity under any forests inhibits the action of certain soil organisms
that otherwise would mix much of the surface litter into the mineral soil. As a result, the soils
under grasslands generally develop a thicker A horizon with a deeper distribution of organic matter
than in comparable soils under forests, which characteristically store most of their organic matter
in the forest floor (O horizon) and thin A horizon.[157]

Humus
Humus refers to organic matter that has been decomposed by soil microflora and fauna to the
point where it is resistant to further breakdown. Humus usually constitutes only five percent of the
soil or less by volume, but it is an essential source of nutrients and adds important textural
qualities crucial to soil health and plant growth.[158] Humus also feeds arthropods, termites and
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earthworms which further improve the soil.[159]

The end product, humus, is suspended in colloidal
form in the soil solution and forms a weak acid that can attack silicate minerals by chelating their
iron and aluminum atoms.[160] Humus has a high cation and anion exchange capacity that on a dry
weight basis is many times greater than that of clay colloids. It also acts as a buffer, like clay,
against changes in pH and soil moisture.[161]

Humic acids and fulvic acids, which begin as raw organic matter, are important constituents of
humus. After the death of plants, animals, and microbes, microbes begin to feed on the residues
through their production of extra-cellular soil enzymes, resulting finally in the formation of
humus.[162] As the residues break down, only molecules made of aliphatic and aromatic
hydrocarbons, assembled and stabilized by oxygen and hydrogen bonds, remain in the form of
complex molecular assemblages collectively called humus.[154] Humus is never pure in the soil,
because it reacts with metals and clays to form complexes which further contribute to its stability
and to soil structure.[161] Although the structure of humus has in itself few nutrients (with the
exception of constitutive metals such as calcium, iron and aluminum) it is able to attract and link,
by weak bonds, cation and anion nutrients that can further be released into the soil solution in
response to selective root uptake and changes in soil pH, a process of paramount importance for
the maintenance of fertility in tropical soils.[163]

Lignin is resistant to breakdown and accumulates within the soil. It also reacts with proteins,[164]
which further increases its resistance to decomposition, including enzymatic decomposition by
microbes.[165] Fats and waxes from plant matter have still more resistance to decomposition and
persist in soils for thousand years, hence their use as tracers of past vegetation in buried soil
layers.[166] Clay soils often have higher organic contents that persist longer than soils without clay
as the organic molecules adhere to and are stabilised by the clay.[167] Proteins normally decompose
readily, to the exception of scleroproteins, but when bound to clay particles they become more
resistant to decomposition.[168] As for other proteins clay particles absorb the enzymes exuded by
microbes, decreasing enzyme activity while protecting extracellular enzymes from degradation.[169]
The addition of organic matter to clay soils can render that organic matter and any added nutrients
inaccessible to plants and microbes for many years.[170] A study showed increased soil fertility
following the addition of mature compost to a clay soil.[171] High soil tannin content can cause
nitrogen to be sequestered as resistant tannin-protein complexes.[172][173]

Humus formation is a process dependent on the amount of plant material added each year and the
type of base soil. Both are affected by climate and the type of organisms present.[157] Soils with
humus can vary in nitrogen content but typically have 3 to 6 percent nitrogen. Raw organic matter,
as a reserve of nitrogen and phosphorus, is a vital component affecting soil fertility.[156] Humus
also absorbs water, and expands and shrinks between dry and wet states to a higher extent than
clay, increasing soil porosity.[174] Humus is less stable than the soil's mineral constituents, as it is
reduced by microbial decomposition, and over time its concentration diminishes without the
addition of new organic matter. However, humus in its most stable forms may persist over
centuries if not millennia.[175] Charcoal is a source of highly stable humus, called black carbon,[176]
which had been used traditionally to improve the fertility of nutrient-poor tropical soils. This very
ancient practice, as ascertained in the genesis of Amazonian dark earths, has been renewed and
became popular under the name of biochar. It has been suggested that biochar could be used to
sequester more carbon in the fight against the greenhouse effect.[177]

Climatological influence

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The production, accumulation and degradation of organic matter are greatly dependent on climate.
For example, when a thawing event occurs, the flux of soil gases with atmospheric gases is
significantly influenced.[178] Temperature, soil moisture and topography are the major factors
affecting the accumulation of organic matter in soils. Organic matter tends to accumulate under
wet or cold conditions where decomposer activity is impeded by low temperature[179] or excess
moisture which results in anaerobic conditions.[180] Conversely, excessive rain and high
temperatures of tropical climates enables rapid decomposition of organic matter and leaching of
plant nutrients. Forest ecosystems on these soils rely on efficient recycling of nutrients and plant
matter by the living plant and microbial biomass to maintain their productivity, a process which is
disturbed by human activities.[181] Excessive slope, in particular in the presence of cultivation for
the sake of agriculture, may encourage the erosion of the top layer of soil which holds most of the
raw organic material that would otherwise eventually become humus.[182]

Plant residue
Cellulose and hemicellulose undergo fast decomposition by fungi
and bacteria, with a half-life of 12–18 days in a temperate
climate.[183] Brown rot fungi can decompose the cellulose and
hemicellulose, leaving the lignin and phenolic compounds behind.
Starch, which is an energy storage system for plants, undergoes
fast decomposition by bacteria and fungi. Lignin consists of
polymers composed of 500 to 600 units with a highly branched,
amorphous structure, linked to cellulose, hemicellulose and
pectin in plant cell walls. Lignin undergoes very slow
decomposition, mainly by white rot fungi and actinomycetes; its
half-life under temperate conditions is about six months.[183] Typical types and
percentages of plant
Horizons residue components

A horizontal layer of the soil, whose physical features, Cellulose (45%)

composition and age are distinct from those above and beneath, is Lignin (20%)
referred to as a soil horizon. The naming of a horizon is based on Hemicellulose (18%)
the type of material of which it is composed. Those materials Protein (8%)
reflect the duration of specific processes of soil formation. They Sugars and starches (5%)
are labelled using a shorthand notation of letters and numbers Fats and waxes (2%)
which describe the horizon in terms of its colour, size, texture,
structure, consistency, root quantity, pH, voids, boundary
characteristics and presence of nodules or concretions.[184] No soil profile has all the major
horizons. Some, called entisols, may have only one horizon or are currently considered as having
no horizon, in particular incipient soils from unreclaimed mining waste deposits,[185]
moraines,[186] volcanic cones[187] sand dunes or alluvial terraces.[188] Upper soil horizons may be
lacking in truncated soils following wind or water ablation, with concomitant downslope burying of
soil horizons, a natural process aggravated by agricultural practices such as tillage.[189] The growth
of trees is another source of disturbance, creating a micro-scale heterogeneity which is still visible
in soil horizons once trees have died.[190] By passing from a horizon to another, from the top to the
bottom of the soil profile, one goes back in time, with past events registered in soil horizons like in
sediment layers. Sampling pollen, testate amoebae and plant remains in soil horizons may help to
reveal environmental changes (e.g. climate change, land use change) which occurred in the course
of soil formation.[191] Soil horizons can be dated by several methods such as radiocarbon, using
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pieces of charcoal provided they are of enough size to escape pedoturbation by earthworm activity
and other mechanical disturbances.[192] Fossil soil horizons from paleosols can be found within
sedimentary rock sequences, allowing the study of past environments.[193]

The exposure of parent material to favourable conditions produces mineral soils that are
marginally suitable for plant growth, as is the case in eroded soils.[194] The growth of vegetation
results in the production of organic residues which fall on the ground as litter for plant aerial parts
(leaf litter) or are directly produced belowground for subterranean plant organs (root litter), and
then release dissolved organic matter.[195] The remaining surficial organic layer, called the O
horizon, produces a more active soil due to the effect of the organisms that live within it.
Organisms colonise and break down organic materials, making available nutrients upon which
other plants and animals can live.[196] After sufficient time, humus moves downward and is
deposited in a distinctive organic-mineral surface layer called the A horizon, in which organic
matter is mixed with mineral matter through the activity of burrowing animals, a process called
pedoturbation. This natural process does not go to completion in the presence of conditions
detrimental to soil life such as strong acidity, cold climate or pollution, stemming in the
accumulation of undecomposed organic matter within a single organic horizon overlying the
mineral soil[197] and in the juxtaposition of humified organic matter and mineral particles, without
intimate mixing, in the underlying mineral horizons.[198]

Classification
One of the first soil classification systems was developed by Russian scientist Vasily Dokuchaev
around 1880.[199] It was modified a number of times by American and European researchers and
was developed into the system commonly used until the 1960s. It was based on the idea that soils
have a particular morphology based on the materials and factors that form them. In the 1960s, a
different classification system began to emerge which focused on soil morphology instead of
parental materials and soil-forming factors. Since then, it has undergone further modifications.
The World Reference Base for Soil Resources[200] aims to establish an international reference base
for soil classification.

Uses
Soil is used in agriculture, where it serves as the anchor and primary nutrient base for plants. The
types of soil and available moisture determine the species of plants that can be cultivated.
Agricultural soil science was the primeval domain of soil knowledge, long time before the advent of
pedology in the 19th century. However, as demonstrated by aeroponics, aquaponics and
hydroponics, soil material is not an absolute essential for agriculture, and soilless cropping systems
have been claimed as the future of agriculture for an endless growing mankind.[201]

Soil material is also a critical component in mining, construction and landscape development
industries.[202] Soil serves as a foundation for most construction projects. The movement of
massive volumes of soil can be involved in surface mining, road building and dam construction.
Earth sheltering is the architectural practice of using soil for external thermal mass against
building walls. Many building materials are soil based. Loss of soil through urbanization is growing
at a high rate in many areas and can be critical for the maintenance of subsistence agriculture.[203]

Soil resources are critical to the environment, as well as to food and fibre production, producing
98.8% of food consumed by humans.[204] Soil provides minerals and water to plants according to
several processes involved in plant nutrition. Soil absorbs rainwater and releases it later, thus
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preventing floods and drought, flood regulation being one of the major ecosystem services
provided by soil.[205] Soil cleans water as it percolates through it.[206] Soil is the habitat for many
organisms: the major part of known and unknown biodiversity is in the soil, in the form of
earthworms, woodlice, millipedes, centipedes, snails, slugs, mites, springtails, enchytraeids,
nematodes, protists), bacteria, archaea, fungi and algae; and most organisms living above ground
have part of them (plants) or spend part of their life cycle (insects) below-ground.[207] Above-
ground and below-ground biodiversities are tightly interconnected,[157][208] making soil protection
of paramount importance for any restoration or conservation plan.

The biological component of soil is an extremely important carbon sink since about 57% of the
biotic content is carbon. Even in deserts, cyanobacteria, lichens and mosses form biological soil
crusts which capture and sequester a significant amount of carbon by photosynthesis. Poor
farming and grazing methods have degraded soils and released much of this sequestered carbon to
the atmosphere. Restoring the world's soils could offset the effect of increases in greenhouse gas
emissions and slow global warming, while improving crop yields and reducing water
needs.[209][210][211]

Waste management often has a soil component. Septic drain fields treat septic tank effluent using
aerobic soil processes. Land application of waste water relies on soil biology to aerobically treat
BOD. Alternatively, landfills use soil for daily cover, isolating waste deposits from the atmosphere
and preventing unpleasant smells. Composting is now widely used to treat aerobically solid
domestic waste and dried effluents of settling basins. Although compost is not soil, biological
processes taking place during composting are similar to those occurring during decomposition and
humification of soil organic matter.[212]

Organic soils, especially peat, serve as a significant fuel and horticultural resource. Peat soils are
also commonly used for the sake of agriculture in Nordic countries, because peatland sites, when
drained, provide fertile soils for food production.[213] However, wide areas of peat production, such
as rain-fed sphagnum bogs, also called blanket bogs or raised bogs, are now protected because of
their patrimonial interest. As an example, Flow Country, covering 4,000 square kilometres of
rolling expanse of blanket bogs in Scotland, is now candidate for being included in the World
Heritage List. Under present-day global warming peat soils are thought to be involved in a self-
reinforcing (positive feedback) process of increased emission of greenhouse gases (methane and
carbon dioxide) and increased temperature,[214] a contention which is still under debate when
replaced at field scale and including stimulated plant growth.[215]

Geophagy is the practice of eating soil-like substances. Both animals and humans occasionally
consume soil for medicinal, recreational, or religious purposes.[216] It has been shown that some
monkeys consume soil, together with their preferred food (tree foliage and fruits), in order to
alleviate tannin toxicity.[217]

Soils filter and purify water and affect its chemistry. Rain water and pooled water from ponds,
lakes and rivers percolate through the soil horizons and the upper rock strata, thus becoming
groundwater. Pests (viruses) and pollutants, such as persistent organic pollutants (chlorinated
pesticides, polychlorinated biphenyls), oils (hydrocarbons), heavy metals (lead, zinc, cadmium),
and excess nutrients (nitrates, sulfates, phosphates) are filtered out by the soil.[218] Soil organisms

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metabolise them or immobilise them in their biomass and necromass,[219] thereby incorporating
them into stable humus.[220] The physical integrity of soil is also a prerequisite for avoiding
landslides in rugged landscapes.[221]

Degradation
Land degradation is a human-induced or natural process which impairs the capacity of land to
function.[222] Soil degradation involves acidification, contamination, desertification, erosion or
salination.[223]

Acidification
Soil acidification is beneficial in the case of alkaline soils, but it degrades land when it lowers crop
productivity, soil biological activity and increases soil vulnerability to contamination and erosion.
Soils are initially acid and remain such when their parent materials are low in basic cations
(calcium, magnesium, potassium and sodium). On parent materials richer in weatherable minerals
acidification occurs when basic cations are leached from the soil profile by rainfall or exported by
the harvesting of forest or agricultural crops. Soil acidification is accelerated by the use of acid-
forming nitrogenous fertilizers and by the effects of acid precipitation. Deforestation is another
cause of soil acidification, mediated by increased leaching of soil nutrients in the absence of tree
canopies.[224]

Contamination
Soil contamination at low levels is often within a soil's capacity to treat and assimilate waste
material. Soil biota can treat waste by transforming it, mainly through microbial enzymatic
activity.[225] Soil organic matter and soil minerals can adsorb the waste material and decrease its
toxicity,[226] although when in colloidal form they may transport the adsorbed contaminants to
subsurface environments.[227] Many waste treatment processes rely on this natural bioremediation
capacity. Exceeding treatment capacity can damage soil biota and limit soil function. Derelict soils
occur where industrial contamination or other development activity damages the soil to such a
degree that the land cannot be used safely or productively. Remediation of derelict soil uses
principles of geology, physics, chemistry and biology to degrade, attenuate, isolate or remove soil
contaminants to restore soil functions and values. Techniques include leaching, air sparging, soil
conditioners, phytoremediation, bioremediation and Monitored Natural Attenuation. An example
of diffuse pollution with contaminants is copper accumulation in vineyards and orchards to which
fungicides are repeatedly applied, even in organic farming.[228]

Microfibres from synthetic textiles are another type of plastic soil contamination, 100% of
agricultural soil samples from southwestern China contained plastic particles, 92% of which were
microfibres. Sources of microfibres likely included string or twine, as well as irrigation water in
which clothes had been washed.[229]

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The application of biosolids from sewage sludge and compost can introduce microplastics to soils.
This adds to the burden of microplastics from other sources (e.g. the atmosphere). Approximately
half the sewage sludge in Europe and North America is applied to agricultural land. In Europe it
has been estimated that for every million inhabitants 113 to 770 tonnes of microplastics are added
to agricultural soils each year.[229]

Desertification
Desertification, an environmental process of ecosystem
degradation in arid and semi-arid regions, is often caused by
badly adapted human activities such as overgrazing or excess
harvesting of firewood. It is a common misconception that
drought causes desertification.[230] Droughts are common in
arid and semiarid lands. Well-managed lands can recover from
drought when the rains return. Soil management tools include
maintaining soil nutrient and organic matter levels, reduced
tillage and increased cover.[231] These practices help to control
Desertification
erosion and maintain productivity during periods when
moisture is available. Continued land abuse during droughts,
however, increases land degradation. Increased population and livestock pressure on marginal
lands accelerates desertification.[232] It is now questioned whether present-day climate warming
will favour or disfavour desertification, with contradictory reports about predicted rainfall trends
associated with increased temperature, and strong discrepancies among regions, even in the same
country.[233]

Erosion
Erosion of soil is caused by water, wind, ice, and movement in
response to gravity. More than one kind of erosion can occur
simultaneously. Erosion is distinguished from weathering, since
erosion also transports eroded soil away from its place of origin (soil
in transit may be described as sediment). Erosion is an intrinsic
natural process, but in many places it is greatly increased by human
activity, especially unsuitable land use practices.[234] These include
agricultural activities which leave the soil bare during times of heavy
rain or strong winds, overgrazing, deforestation, and improper
construction activity. Improved management can limit erosion. Soil
conservation techniques which are employed include changes of land
use (such as replacing erosion-prone crops with grass or other soil-
Erosion control
binding plants), changes to the timing or type of agricultural
operations, terrace building, use of erosion-suppressing cover
materials (including cover crops and other plants), limiting disturbance during construction, and
avoiding construction during erosion-prone periods and in erosion-prone places such as steep
slopes.[235] Historically, one of the best examples of large-scale soil erosion due to unsuitable land-
use practices is wind erosion (the so-called dust bowl) which ruined American and Canadian
prairies during the 1930s, when immigrant farmers, encouraged by the federal government of both
countries, settled and converted the original shortgrass prairie to agricultural crops and cattle
ranching.

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A serious and long-running water erosion problem occurs in China, on the middle reaches of the
Yellow River and the upper reaches of the Yangtze River. From the Yellow River, over 1.6 billion
tons of sediment flow each year into the ocean. The sediment originates primarily from water
erosion (gully erosion) in the Loess Plateau region of northwest China.[236]

Soil piping is a particular form of soil erosion that occurs below the soil surface.[237] It causes levee
and dam failure, as well as sink hole formation. Turbulent flow removes soil starting at the mouth
of the seep flow and the subsoil erosion advances up-gradient.[238] The term sand boil is used to
describe the appearance of the discharging end of an active soil pipe.[239]

Salination
Soil salination is the accumulation of free salts to such an extent that it leads to degradation of the
agricultural value of soils and vegetation. Consequences include corrosion damage, reduced plant
growth, erosion due to loss of plant cover and soil structure, and water quality problems due to
sedimentation. Salination occurs due to a combination of natural and human-caused processes.
Arid conditions favour salt accumulation. This is especially apparent when soil parent material is
saline. Irrigation of arid lands is especially problematic.[240] All irrigation water has some level of
salinity. Irrigation, especially when it involves leakage from canals and overirrigation in the field,
often raises the underlying water table. Rapid salination occurs when the land surface is within the
capillary fringe of saline groundwater. Soil salinity control involves watertable control and flushing
with higher levels of applied water in combination with tile drainage or another form of subsurface
drainage.[241][242]

Reclamation
Soils which contain high levels of particular clays with high swelling properties, such as smectites,
are often very fertile. For example, the smectite-rich paddy soils of Thailand's Central Plains are
among the most productive in the world. However, the overuse of mineral nitrogen fertilizers and
pesticides in irrigated intensive rice production has endangered these soils, forcing farmers to
implement integrated practices based on Cost Reduction Operating Principles.[243]

Many farmers in tropical areas, however, struggle to retain organic matter and clay in the soils they
work. In recent years, for example, productivity has declined and soil erosion has increased in the
low-clay soils of northern Thailand, following the abandonment of shifting cultivation for a more
permanent land use.[244] Farmers initially responded by adding organic matter and clay from
termite mound material, but this was unsustainable in the long-term because of rarefaction of
termite mounds. Scientists experimented with adding bentonite, one of the smectite family of
clays, to the soil. In field trials, conducted by scientists from the International Water Management
Institute (IWMI) in cooperation with Khon Kaen University and local farmers, this had the effect of
helping retain water and nutrients. Supplementing the farmer's usual practice with a single
application of 200 kilograms per rai (1,300 kg/ha; 1,100 lb/acre) of bentonite resulted in an
average yield increase of 73%.[245] Other studies showed that applying bentonite to degraded
sandy soils reduced the risk of crop failure during drought years.[246]

In 2008, three years after the initial trials, IWMI scientists conducted a survey among 250 farmers
in northeast Thailand, half of whom had applied bentonite to their fields. The average
improvement for those using the clay addition was 18% higher than for non-clay users. Using the
clay had enabled some farmers to switch to growing vegetables, which need more fertile soil. This

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helped to increase their income. The researchers estimated that 200 farmers in northeast Thailand
and 400 in Cambodia had adopted the use of clays, and that a further 20,000 farmers were
introduced to the new technique.[247]

If the soil is too high in clay or salts (e.g. saline sodic soil), adding gypsum, washed river sand and
organic matter (e.g.municipal solid waste) will balance the composition.[248]

Adding organic matter, like ramial chipped wood or compost, to soil which is depleted in nutrients
and too high in sand will boost its quality and improve production.[249][250]

Special mention must be made of the use of charcoal, and more generally biochar to improve
nutrient-poor tropical soils, a process based on the higher fertility of anthropogenic pre-Columbian
Amazonian Dark Earths, also called Terra Preta de Índio, due to interesting physical and chemical
properties of soil black carbon as a source of stable humus.[251] However, the uncontrolled
application of charred waste products of all kinds may endanger soil life and human health.[252]

History of studies and research

The history of the study of soil is intimately tied to humans' urgent need to provide food for
themselves and forage for their animals. Throughout history, civilizations have prospered or
declined as a function of the availability and productivity of their soils.[253]

Studies of soil fertility

The Greek historian Xenophon (450–355 BCE) was the first to expound upon the merits of green-
manuring crops: 'But then whatever weeds are upon the ground, being turned into earth, enrich
the soil as much as dung.'[254]

Columella's Of husbandry, circa 60 CE, advocated the use of lime and that clover and alfalfa (green
manure) should be turned under,[255] and was used by 15 generations (450 years) under the
Roman Empire until its collapse.[254][256] From the fall of Rome to the French Revolution,
knowledge of soil and agriculture was passed on from parent to child and as a result, crop yields
were low. During the European Middle Ages, Yahya Ibn al-'Awwam's handbook,[257] with its
emphasis on irrigation, guided the people of North Africa, Spain and the Middle East; a translation
of this work was finally carried to the southwest of the United States when under Spanish
influence.[258] Olivier de Serres, considered the father of French agronomy, was the first to suggest
the abandonment of fallowing and its replacement by hay meadows within crop rotations. He also
highlighted the importance of soil (the French terroir) in the management of vineyards. His
famous book Le Théâtre d'Agriculture et mesnage des champs[259] contributed to the rise of
modern, sustainable agriculture and to the collapse of old agricultural practices such as soil
amendment for crops by the lifting of forest litter and assarting, which ruined the soils of western
Europe during the Middle Ages and even later on according to regions.[260]

Experiments into what made plants grow first led to the idea that the ash left behind when plant
matter was burned was the essential element but overlooked the role of nitrogen, which is not left
on the ground after combustion, a belief which prevailed until the 19th century.[261] In about 1635,
the Flemish chemist Jan Baptist van Helmont thought he had proved water to be the essential
element from his famous five years' experiment with a willow tree grown with only the addition of
rainwater. His conclusion came from the fact that the increase in the plant's weight had apparently
been produced only by the addition of water, with no reduction in the soil's weight.[262][263][264]
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John Woodward (d. 1728) experimented with various types of water ranging from clean to muddy
and found muddy water the best, and so he concluded that earthy matter was the essential
element. Others concluded it was humus in the soil that passed some essence to the growing plant.
Still others held that the vital growth principal was something passed from dead plants or animals
to the new plants. At the start of the 18th century, Jethro Tull demonstrated that it was beneficial
to cultivate (stir) the soil, but his opinion that the stirring made the fine parts of soil available for
plant absorption was erroneous.[263][265]

As chemistry developed, it was applied to the investigation of soil fertility. The French chemist
Antoine Lavoisier showed in about 1778 that plants and animals must combust oxygen internally
to live. He was able to deduce that most of the 165-pound (75 kg) weight of van Helmont's willow
tree derived from air.[266] It was the French agriculturalist Jean-Baptiste Boussingault who by
means of experimentation obtained evidence showing that the main sources of carbon, hydrogen
and oxygen for plants were air and water, while nitrogen was taken from soil.[267] Justus von
Liebig in his book Organic chemistry in its applications to agriculture and physiology (published
1840), asserted that the chemicals in plants must have come from the soil and air and that to
maintain soil fertility, the used minerals must be replaced.[268] Liebig nevertheless believed the
nitrogen was supplied from the air. The enrichment of soil with guano by the Incas was
rediscovered in 1802, by Alexander von Humboldt. This led to its mining and that of Chilean
nitrate and to its application to soil in the United States and Europe after 1840.[269]

The work of Liebig was a revolution for agriculture, and so other investigators started
experimentation based on it. In England John Bennet Lawes and Joseph Henry Gilbert worked in
the Rothamsted Experimental Station, founded by the former, and (re)discovered that plants took
nitrogen from the soil, and that salts needed to be in an available state to be absorbed by plants.
Their investigations also produced the superphosphate, consisting in the acid treatment of
phosphate rock.[270] This led to the invention and use of salts of potassium (K) and nitrogen (N) as
fertilizers. Ammonia generated by the production of coke was recovered and used as fertiliser.[271]
Finally, the chemical basis of nutrients delivered to the soil in manure was understood and in the
mid-19th century chemical fertilisers were applied. However, the dynamic interaction of soil and
its life forms was still not understood.

In 1856, J. Thomas Way discovered that ammonia contained in fertilisers was transformed into
nitrates,[272] and twenty years later Robert Warington proved that this transformation was done by
living organisms.[273] In 1890 Sergei Winogradsky announced he had found the bacteria
responsible for this transformation.[274]

It was known that certain legumes could take up nitrogen from the air and fix it to the soil but it
took the development of bacteriology towards the end of the 19th century to lead to an
understanding of the role played in nitrogen fixation by bacteria. The symbiosis of bacteria and
leguminous roots, and the fixation of nitrogen by the bacteria, were simultaneously discovered by
the German agronomist Hermann Hellriegel and the Dutch microbiologist Martinus
Beijerinck.[270]

Crop rotation, mechanisation, chemical and natural fertilisers led to a doubling of wheat yields in
western Europe between 1800 and 1900.[275]

Studies of soil formation

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The scientists who studied the soil in connection with agricultural practices had considered it
mainly as a static substrate. However, soil is the result of evolution from more ancient geological
materials, under the action of biotic and abiotic processes. After studies of the improvement of the
soil commenced, other researchers began to study soil genesis and as a result also soil types and
classifications.

In 1860, while in Mississippi, Eugene W. Hilgard (1833–1916) studied the relationship between
rock material, climate, vegetation, and the type of soils that were developed. He realised that the
soils were dynamic, and considered the classification of soil types.[276] His work was not
continued. At about the same time, Friedrich Albert Fallou was describing soil profiles and relating
soil characteristics to their formation as part of his professional work evaluating forest and farm
land for the principality of Saxony. His 1857 book, Anfangsgründe der Bodenkunde (First
principles of soil science), established modern soil science.[277] Contemporary with Fallou's work,
and driven by the same need to accurately assess land for equitable taxation, Vasily Dokuchaev led
a team of soil scientists in Russia who conducted an extensive survey of soils, observing that
similar basic rocks, climate and vegetation types lead to similar soil layering and types, and
established the concepts for soil classifications. Due to language barriers, the work of this team was
not communicated to western Europe until 1914 through a publication in German by Konstantin
Glinka, a member of the Russian team.[278]

Curtis F. Marbut, influenced by the work of the Russian team, translated Glinka's publication into
English,[279] and, as he was placed in charge of the U.S. National Cooperative Soil Survey, applied
it to a national soil classification system.[263]

See also
Environment portal

Geology portal

Acid sulfate soil

Agrophysics
Crust
Agricultural science
Factors affecting permeability of soils
Index of soil-related articles
Mycorrhizal fungi and soil carbon storage
Shrink–swell capacity
Soil biodiversity
Soil liquefaction
Soil moisture velocity equation
Soil zoology
Tillage erosion
World Soil Museum
Red soil

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p)". In Stefferud (1957).

Further reading
Soil-Net.com (http://www.soil-net.com/) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2008071006171
6/http://www.soil-net.com/) 10 July 2008 at the Wayback Machine A free schools-age
educational site teaching about soil and its importance.
Adams, J.A. 1986. Dirt. College Station, Texas: Texas A&M University Press ISBN 0-89096-
301-0
Certini, G., Scalenghe, R. 2006. Soils: Basic concepts and future challenges. Cambridge Univ
Press, Cambridge.
Montgomery, David R., Dirt: The Erosion of Civilizations (U of California Press, 2007),
ISBN 978-0-520-25806-8
Faulkner, Edward H. Plowman's Folly (New York, Grosset & Dunlap, 1943). ISBN 0-933280-
51-3
LandIS Free Soilscapes Viewer (https://web.archive.org/web/20080705133103/http://www.landi
s.org.uk/soilscapes) Free interactive viewer for the Soils of England and Wales

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Jenny, Hans. 1941. Factors of Soil Formation: A System of Quantitative Pedology (https://web.
archive.org/web/20130225050838/http://soilandhealth.org/01aglibrary/010159.Jenny.pdf)
Logan, W.B. Dirt: The ecstatic skin of the earth (1995). ISBN 1-57322-004-3
Mann, Charles C. September 2008. " Our good earth" National Geographic Magazine

External links
"97 Flood" (https://web.archive.org/web/20080624040143/http://www.mvm.usace.army.mil/Rea
diness/97flood/flood.htm). USGS. Archived from the original (http://www.mvm.usace.army.mil/R
eadiness/97flood/flood.htm) on 24 June 2008. Retrieved 8 July 2008. Photographs of sand
boils.
Soil Survey Division Staff. 1999. Soil survey manual. Soil Conservation Service. U.S.
Department of Agriculture Handbook 18.
Soil Survey Staff. 1975. Soil Taxonomy: A basic system of soil classification for making and
interpreting soil surveys. USDA-SCS Agric. Handb. 436. United States Government Printing
Office, Washington, DC.
Soils (Matching suitable forage species to soil type) (https://web.archive.org/web/20060828063
956/http://forages.oregonstate.edu/is/ssis/main.cfm?PageID=3), Oregon State University
Gardiner, Duane T. "Lecture 1 Chapter 1 Why Study Soils?" (https://web.archive.org/web/2018
0209052922/http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~doetqp-p/courses/env320/lec1/Lec1.html). ENV320: Soil
Science Lecture Notes. Texas A&M University-Kingsville. Archived from the original (http://jan.u
cc.nau.edu/~doetqp-p/courses/env320/lec1/Lec1.html) on 9 February 2018. Retrieved
7 January 2019.
Janick, Jules. 2002. Soil notes (https://web.archive.org/web/20050317030248/http://www.hort.p
urdue.edu/newcrop/tropical/lecture_06/chapter_12l_R.html), Purdue University
LandIS Soils Data for England and Wales (http://www.landis.org.uk/) Archived (https://web.arch
ive.org/web/20070716033248/http://www.landis.org.uk/) 16 July 2007 at the Wayback Machine
a pay source for GIS data on the soils of England and Wales and soils data source; they
charge a handling fee to researchers.
Short video explaining soil basics (https://www.theguardian.com/environment/video/2019/jul/11/
its-time-we-stopped-treating-soil-like-dirt-video)
The Soil Water Compendium (soil water content sensors explained) (http://www.edaphic.com.a
u/soil-water-compendium/)
Global Soil Partnership (http://www.fao.org/globalsoilpartnership/en/)
FAO Soils Portal (http://www.fao.org/soils-portal/en/)
World Reference Base for Soil Resources (http://www.fao.org/ag/agl/agll/wrb/)
ISRIC – World Soil Information (ICSU World Data Centre for Soils) (http://www.isric.org/)
World Soil Library and Maps (http://www.isric.org/explore/library)
Wossac the world soil survey archive and catalogue (http://www.wossac.com/)
Canadian Society of Soil Science (http://csss.ca/)
Soil Science Society of America (https://www.soils.org/)
USDA-NRCS Web Soil Survey (https://websoilsurvey.nrcs.usda.gov/app/HomePage.htm)
European Soil Portal (http://eusoils.jrc.ec.europa.eu/) (wiki)
National Soil Resources Institute UK (http://www.cranfield.ac.uk/sas/nsri)
Plant and Soil Sciences eLibrary (http://passel.unl.edu/)
Copies of the reference 'Soil: The Yearbook of Agriculture 1957' in multiple formats (https://arch
ive.org/details/yoa1957)

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