G u i d e l i n e s f o r

HUMAN SETTLEMENT
PLANNING
AND DESIGN

VOLUME 2

Compiled under the patronage of the Department of Housing

by CSIR Building and Construction Technology
Compiled under the patronage of the Department of Housing
b y C S I R B u i l d i n g a n d C o n s t r u c t i o n Te c h n o l o g y
 GUIDELINES FOR HUMAN SETTLEMENT PLANNING AND DESIGN

FOREWORD

The establishment of economically, physically, environmentally and socially integrated and sustainable built
environments is one of the most important factors which will contribute to harnessing the full development
potential of South Africa and addressing distortions of the past and the future needs of our growing population.
This goal cannot be achieved without the active participation of especially local government, the private sector and
communities in partnership with one another.

This manual, Guidelines for Human Settlement Planning and Design, provides a guiding vision for South African
settlement formation, addressing the qualities that should be sought after in our human settlements, and
providing guidance on how these can be achieved. The publication has been developed over a period of more than
two years through a participative process in which stakeholders and experts from various disciplines were involved.

This book is intended to be a living document and you, the reader, are one of its architects. I therefore encourage
you to use it, discuss it and debate the guidelines it contains. Still, this work is not the last word on the subject, and
your feedback and comments would be welcome. Your active involvement will be the key to the successful
attainment of sustainable, habitable living environments in South Africa.

MS S MTHEMBI-MAHANYELE
MINISTER OF HOUSING

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Foreword
 GUIDELINES FOR HUMAN SETTLEMENT PLANNING AND DESIGN

Published by CSIR Building and Construction Technology

P O Box 395, Pretoria, 0001

Copyright vests in the CSIR

c 2000, CSIR, Pretoria

Boutek Report No. BOU/E2001

Reprint 2005
Capture Press, Pretoria

ISBN 0-7988-5498-7

ii
 GUIDELINES FOR HUMAN SETTLEMENT PLANNING AND DESIGN

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The following persons and organisations were involved in the preparation of this document:

Project manager:

Mr L M Austin CSIR Boutek

Project coordinators:

Ms H D Bekker CSIR Boutek

Dr S M Biermann CSIR Boutek
Mr J S Stiff CSIR Transportek
Ms L Vosloo CSIR Boutek
Mr K M Wolhuter CSIR Transportek

Authors:

Mr A Adam MCA Urban and Environmental Planners cc

Mr L M Austin CSIR Boutek
Dr D I Banks Energy & Development Research Centre, University of Cape Town
Mr R Behrens Urban Problems Research Unit, University of Cape Town
Mr W Blersch Ninham Shand (North) (Pty) Ltd, Consulting Engineers
Ms E Brink CSIR Boutek
Ms K Burger Burger & Waluk Town Planners
Mr J W M Cameron TRC Africa (Pty) Ltd
Mr W D Cowan Energy & Development Research Centre, University of Cape Town
Prof D Dewar School of Architecture & Planning, University of Cape Town
Mr L Druce VBGD Town & Regional Planners
Ms L C Duncker CSIR Boutek
Mr O J Gerber GIBB Africa (Pty) Ltd, Consulting Engineers
Mr D J Jones CSIR Transportek
Mr G Jordaan Holm & Jordaan Architects and Urban Designers
Ms T Katzschner Urban Problems Research Unit, University of Cape Town
Ms K Landman CSIR Boutek
Ms A Lebelo Ninham Shand (North) (Pty) Ltd, Consulting Engineers
Ms A Loots Holm & Jordaan Architects and Urban Designers
Ms N Mammon Mammon Rendall Planners and Designers cc
Mr G J Morris Feather Energy
Dr P Paige-Green CSIR Transportek
Mr E R Painting Mothopo Technologies cc, Management & Engineering Consultants
Mr C Sadler Bergman-Ingerop (Pty) Ltd, Consulting Engineers
Mr J S Stiff CSIR Transportek
Mr J S Strydom CSIR Boutek
Mr H L Theyse CSIR Transportek
Prof F Todeschini School of Architecture & Planning, University of Cape Town
Prof R Uytenbogaardt School of Architecture & Planning, University of Cape Town
Mr S van Huyssteen CSIR Transportek
Prof A T Visser Department of Civil Engineering, University of Pretoria
Dr K C Wall Ninham Shand (Pty) Ltd, Consulting Engineers
Prof V Watson Urban Problems Research Unit, University of Cape Town
Mr K M Wolhuter CSIR Transportek

The NRS Project, Eskom, provided material on electricity supply, based on documents approved by the Electricity
Suppliers Liaison Committee, on which Eskom, AMEU, the Chamber of Mines and the South African Bureau of
Standards are represented.

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Acknowledgements
 GUIDELINES FOR HUMAN SETTLEMENT PLANNING AND DESIGN

Steering Committees:
Departmental representatives:
Ms G Abrahams Gemey Abrahams
Development Planning and Mr P F Jordaan Environmental Affairs &
Housing Policy Consultant Tourism
Prof W J R Alexander Department of Civil Mr M Krynauw Transport
Engineering, University of Mr Z Nofemela Constitutional Development
Pretoria Mr G Oosthuizen Water Affairs & Forestry
Mr W S D Clarke Southern Metropolitan Local Mr G Oricho Land Affairs
Council of Greater Mr A Otto Minerals & Energy
Johannesburg Mr S J Smit Public Works
Mr P Dacomb Association of Consulting Mr U Tembo Transport
Town and Regional Planners Ms L van Zyl Trade & Industry
Mr R Dauskardt Department of Development Mr J Wallis Housing
& Planning, Gauteng Ms B Zinde Environmental Affairs &
Mr J de Meyer Wade Refuse Tourism
Mr F Druyts Department of Water Affairs
& Forestry Provincial representatives:
Mr S Hartley Department of Water Affairs
& Forestry Mr C W Browne Gauteng
Prof E Horak Department of Civil Mr C Burger Eastern Cape
Engineering, University of Mr J A Cattanach Gauteng
Pretoria Mr D B Dunstan KwaZulu-Natal
Mr D Hunt Eskom / NRS Mr A T Fourie Western Cape
Mr B M Jackson Development Bank of Mr S F Haasbroek Northern Cape
Southern Africa Mr H G Hadebe Mpumalanga
Mr A Lagardien School of Architecture, Mr P Labuschagne Free State
Building and Civil Mr M M Mokoena Free State
Engineering, Peninsula Mr C H A Ratnam North West
Technikon Mr R J Stubbs KwaZulu-Natal
Mr N Letter Eastern Metropolitan Mr M van der Merwe Northern Province
Substructure of Greater
Johannesburg Others:
Mr N A Macleod Durban Metro
Mr G A Norris CSIR Boutek Mr R G Böhmer CSIR Boutek
Mr A Otto Department of Minerals & Ms C du Plessis CSIR Boutek
Energy Mr D M Kruger CSIR Boutek
Mr I H Palmer Palmer Development Group Ms S Liebermann CSIR Boutek
Mr G Schermers CSIR Transportek Mr M Mavuso CSIR Boutek
Mr C J Schlotfeldt CSIR Boutek Mr K J Mkhabela CSIR Boutek
Mr C Theron Greater Pretoria Metropolitan Mr M Napier CSIR Boutek
Council Ms I S Oberholzer CSIR Boutek
Mr J van der Walt Department of Transport Ms I Ringel CSIR Boutek
Dr I van Wyk Africon, Consulting Engineers Ms L Slump CSIR Boutek
Mr P S Van Zyl South African Planning Ms B J van Reenen
Institution
Mr P Vickers Department of Water Affairs Photographs, Chapter 6:
& Forestry
Prof A T Visser Department of Civil Mr E R Painting Mothopo Technologies cc,
Engineering, University of Management & Engineering
Pretoria Consultants
Mr H Vorster City Council of Pretoria
Mr J A Wates Wates, Meiring & Barnard, Cover design:
Consulting Engineers
Truter & Truter Design & Advertising (Pty) Ltd
Coordinating Committee:
Design and layout:
CSIR Boutek representatives:
African Watermark Graphic Design
Mr L M Austin
Mr C J Schlotfeldt

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Acknowledgements
 GUIDELINES FOR HUMAN SETTLEMENT PLANNING AND DESIGN

RECORD OF REVISIONS AND AMENDMENTS

Revisions: Remove existing chapter(s) and substitute with the attached revised chapter(s).

Amendments: Remove existing page(s) and substitute the attached new page(s). A vertical line in the margin
shows where a change has been made (there are no amendments to date).

Date Chapter Title Rev Amdt Page

No. No. number(s)

August 2003 9 Water supply 1 - All

August 2003 10 Sanitation 1 - All

Record of revisions and amendments

GUIDELINES FOR HUMAN SETTLEMENT PLANNING AND DESIGN
 Index
Volume 1
Chapter 1 Introduction

Chapter 2 A framework for settlement-making

Chapter 3 Spatial and structural principles for

settlement-making

Chapter 4 Planning method and participation

Chapter 5 Planning guidelines

5.1 Movement networks
5.2 Public transport
5.3 Hard open spaces
5.4 Soft open spaces
5.5 Public facilities
5.6 Land subdivision
5.7 Public utilities
5.8 Cross-cutting issues
5.8.1 Environmental design
for safer communities
5.8.2 Ecologically sound
urban development
5.8.3 Fire safety
Volume 2
Chapter 6 Stormwater management

Chapter 7 Roads: Geometric design and layout

planning

Chapter 8 Roads: Materials and construction

Chapter 9 Water supply

Chapter 10 Sanitation

Chapter 11 Solid waste management

Chapter 12 Energy
12.1 Grid electricity
12.2 Other forms of energy
 Chapter 6

Stormwater management

6
 GUIDELINES FOR HUMAN SETTLEMENT PLANNING AND DESIGN

TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

The impact of development on the natural environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Drainage laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

The dual drainage system. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

Development changes the environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

The requirement for integrated planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

THE PURPOSE OF STORMWATER MANAGEMENT. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

PLANNING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

Master planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

Detailed design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

MANAGING THE IMPACT OF DEVELOPMENT ON THE ENVIRONMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

Rural development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

Layout planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

Preserving the natural environment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

TECHNOLOGIES AVAILABLE TO THE ENGINEER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

The hydrologic cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

Flood routing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

Flood-line determination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

Detention and retention facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

Outlets at stormwater-detention facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

Bridge backwaters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

Erosion protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

Transitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

Kerb inlets. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

Side weirs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

Road drainage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

Roof drainage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

Upgrading issues. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

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 GUIDELINES FOR HUMAN SETTLEMENT PLANNING AND DESIGN

POLLUTION ABATEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

Sources of pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

Soil erodibility. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

Grass-lined channels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

Detention ponds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

Wetlands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

Protection of the environment during the construction phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

Street cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

Waste disposal sites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

Sanitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

Water supply. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

Selection of cemetery sites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

MAINTENANCE ISSUES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

Detention facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

Design details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH AND SAFETY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

The role of education and community involvement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

Awareness of hazardous situations and flood warning systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

Recreational use of facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

General precautions for development on dolomites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

GLOSSARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

APPENDIX A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

APPENDIX B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

APPENDIX C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

LEGISLATION CITED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

CASE LAW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

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 GUIDELINES FOR HUMAN SETTLEMENT PLANNING AND DESIGN

LIST OF TABLES

Table 6.1 Design flood frequencies for major systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7

Table 6.2 Design flood frequencies for minor systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7

Table 6.3 Suggested maximum encroachment of runoff on roads during minor storms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15

Table 6.4 Problems commonly experienced with storage facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26

Table 6.5 Suggested minimum grades for pipes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27

Table 6.6 Suggested spacing of anchor blocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 6.1 San Antonio’s famous main riverwalk loop. This tourist attraction can be isolated by its
sophisticated flood attenuation and flood prevention facilities during major storm
events. The project will enable a 100-year flood to be accommodated through the
San Antonio River system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2

Figure 6.2 Damage from major floods can be catastrophic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2

Figure 6.3 Contour planning: An effective stormwater management tool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8

Figure 6.4 Overgrazing exposes the land to rain damage and can result in extensive erosion . . . . . . . . . . . .9

Figure 6.5 Runoff from feedlots contains high levels of pollutants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9

Figure 6.6 Dump sites must be protected against extraneous runoff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10

Figure 6.7 Multiple-outlet structure of a detention pond . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11

Figure 6.8 Simple drop structures in a residential environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12

Figure 6.9 Energy dissipator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12

Figure 6.10 Energy dissipator in a multiple land use setting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12

Figure 6.11 A lined open roadside channel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14

Figure 6.12 Incorrect vertical alignment has caused stormwater to bypass this kerb inlet. Kerb
inlets in the intersecting road on the left have also not captured runoff from that
road so that stormwater flows across this bus route, creating a hazard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14

Figure 6.13 This ponding is the result of encroachment of the grass verge onto the road.
Grass-cutting maintenance operations should also include harvesting the grass, to
prevent siltation and build-up of new grass growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14

Figure 6.14 Flow across this intersection has resulted in siltation, which is inconvenient and
hazardous to road users . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14

Figure 6.15 Example of surface drainage in a residential setting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14

Figure 6.16 Open channel alongside an arterial road . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15

Figure 6.17 The contour-planning concept, to impede the drainage of runoff from the development . . . . .16

Figure 6.18 (a) and (b): Concentration of stormwater drainage in a roadway resulting in major
inconvenience to road users . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16

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 GUIDELINES FOR HUMAN SETTLEMENT PLANNING AND DESIGN

Figure 6.19 Roadside drains of the major system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16

Figure 6.20 (a) and (b): Layout planning in steep terrain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17

Figure 6.21 This office complex incorporated the entrance to the building in a detention facility.
Under normal conditions, this area functions as a pleasant park with water features . . . . . . . . .18

Figure 6.22 (a): Depressed area to store excess runoff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18

Figure 6.22 (b): Runoff from this parking area is stored in the drainage ways using
multiple-outlet drains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18

Figure 6.23 Gully erosion by headwater upstream of a highway culvert inlet. Specific attention
needs to be paid to structures founded in soils with high erosion potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20

Figure 6.24 An example of a grassed waterway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20

Figure 6.25 Part detention, part retention facility, including an artificial wetland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22

Figure 6.26 (a) and (b): Construction sites can be prevented from polluting the surrounding area by
the use of straw bales, mulching and geo-mats. Aggregates placed at exits from sites
prevent the transport of pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22

Figure 6.27 Stone aggregate can be placed on the roadside while the shoulder grass establishes itself . . . . .22

Figure 6.28 The straw-bale barrier has allowed pioneer plants to establish themselves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23

Figure 6.29 Unmanaged domestic refuse is a serious health risk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24

Figure 6.30 Uncontrolled dumping at municipal waste sites can have a serious impact on surface
and sub-surface water systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24

Figure 6.31 This water point has been placed in a low-lying area. Drainage of runoff and water
spilled from the point has not been allowed for, and a health hazard has resulted . . . . . . . . . . .24

Figure 6.32 These sports fields will act as a detention facility should the watercourse on the right
of the picture not be able to convey the flood. Note that the playing surfaces are
raised to aid drainage after such an event. The crest of the side weir between the
watercourse and the sports fields is designed to accept the excess flow, but is made
aesthetically pleasing with a meandering cycle path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25

Figure 6.33 Inlet grids need attention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27

Figure 6.34 Kerb inlets require maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27

Figure 6.35 The use of underground drainage systems in unpaved roadways should be justified . . . . . . . . . .28

Figure 6.36 Stormwater drainage must occur off the roadway if kerbing is not installed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28

Figure 6.37 Flood-warning systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28

Figure 6.38 This nature trail has a problem with pampas grass (Cortaderia jubata), an alien invader . . . . . . .29

Figure 6.39 Dolines are almost always the result of man’s intervention in natural drainage systems.
This sinkhole has been caused by a road culvert . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29

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INTRODUCTION the acknowledgement that some damage results

from even minor improvements; and
The impact of development on the natural
environment • The principle of granting each landowner as much
freedom as possible to deal with his land essentially
Development is a process of growth and change, as he sees fit.
which implies improvement. Any development will
therefore affect or impact on its environment in some The natural flow (or civil law) rule places a natural
way or other. We consider the building of roads, the easement upon the lower land for the drainage of
erection of buildings and the general improvement of surface water along its natural course, and the natural
factors that cause inconvenience - like the drainage of flow of the water may not be obstructed by the owner
stormwater - as development. However, this of the lower property to the detriment of the interests
development may significantly change the hydraulic of the owner of the higher property.
properties of an area. Typically, pervious layers are
rendered less permeable or even impermeable. This rule has been modified to some extent in allowing,
Depressions are raised to prevent ponding. Surfaces for example, surface runoff to be accelerated or
and conduits are constructed to drain runoff more otherwise altered into the natural stream. The
efficiently. Natural vegetation is often removed, landowner may, however, neither overtax the capacity
allowing reduced interception and transpiration. of the watercourse nor divert into it runoff that would
Limited vegetation cover exposes the soil to the impact not naturally have drained into the watercourse (see
of rain, which may lead to increased erosion. Natural Barklie v Bridle 1956 (2) SA 103 (S.R.)).
meandering watercourses may be canalised to more
effectively route flows through the development. In efforts to promote drainage, many of these
Stormwater management is the science of limiting modifications to the natural-flow rule increase the
these negative impacts on the environment and burden on the lower land.
enhancing the positive impacts, or catering for the
hydraulic needs of a development while minimising The reasonable-use rule provides that each property
the associated negative environmental impacts. owner is permitted to make reasonable use of his land,
even though by doing so he may alter the flow of the
Drainage laws surface waters and cause harm to others. He incurs
liability when his interference is unreasonably harmful
Increasing development densities have influenced the (see Redelinghuis v Bazzoni 1975 AD 110(T)).
servitude required to safely discharge runoff into the
natural environment. This densification and One can see that, in developing property, it is
modification of undeveloped land has also resulted in extremely difficult not to concentrate, increase or
increased quantities and concentrations of flow with a accelerate stormwater runoff onto downstream
concomitant increase in pollution. properties. Through the provincial ordinances, the
authorities have been invested with the right to
Upstream landowners’ responsibilities for discharging change the natural drainage of stormwater in the
runoff onto downstream properties, and the interests of the public as a whole. However with this
concomitant responsibilities of downstream owners right comes the responsibility to act with due care in
have a long history which is based largely on common keeping the effects of such deviations within
law. This has been modified somewhat by legislation acceptable limits. The general rule that “statutory
giving certain rights to central, regional and local authority when constructing a work is excused from
authorities. liability for damage thereby caused to third persons” is
subject to the proviso that the work must not be
Three rules are generally applicable throughout the negligently executed or maintained (see New Heriot
world today as far as the drainage of surface runoff is Gold Mining v Union Government (Minister of
concerned. These concern: Railways and Harbours) 1916 AD 415, 421;
Johannesburg Municipality v Jolly 1915 TPD 432;
• the “common enemy” concept; Herbert Holbrow (Pty) Ltd v Cape Divisional Council
• natural flow; and 1988 (1) SA 387(c)).
• reasonable use.
To ameliorate this development phenomenon, certain
Stormwater runoff is considered a common enemy strategies and technologies are available. The goals of
and each property owner may fight it off or control it stormwater management should support the
by retention, diversion, repulsion or altered philosophy of lessening the impact of stormwater flow
transmission. The focus of the common enemy rule through and off developed areas. Stormwater should
has two focal points: be considered a resource (see Figure 6.1).

• The need to make improvements to property, with

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of the National Water Act, Act 36 of 1998. This section

deals with pollution prevention, and in particular the
situation where pollution of a water resource occurs or
might occur as a result of activities on land. The person
who owns, controls, occupies or uses the land in
question is responsible for taking measures to prevent
pollution of water resources.

The dual drainage system

Developed areas are defined as any man-induced

developments which have changed the environment.
In this chapter, all developments in the continuum
from rural to urban settings will be addressed.

Traditionally, runoff from frequent (minor) storms has

been carried in the urban formal drainage systems.
Typically this was achieved by draining runoff from
properties into the streets and then via conduits to the
natural watercourses. The system was intended to
accommodate frequent storms and associated runoff.
Today, the value of property is of such significance that
engineers need to consider not only frequent storms
but the more severe storms, which can cause major
damage with sometimes catastrophic consequences
(see Figure 6.2). The dual system incorporates a minor
system for the frequent storm events and a major
system for the less frequent but severe storm events.
Figure 6.1: San Antonio’s famous main riverwalk The major system may include conduits and natural or
loop. This tourist attraction can be isolated by its artificial channels, but would commonly also make use
sophisticated flood attenuation and flood prevention of the road system to convey runoff overland to
facilities during major storm events. The project will suitable points of discharge. This is not very different
enable a 100-year flood to be accommodated from what has happened de facto except that formal
through the San Antonio River system
cognisance is now given to the routing of runoff from
all storms via the secondary use of roads and other
It is within the power of the local authority to facilities in the urban environment.
construct works such as streets and drains which will
have an effect on the flow (quantity, quality and The use of the road system and open spaces (such as
velocity) of stormwater discharged on the downstream
land.

Public bodies have been entrusted with statutory

powers to enable them to carry out public duties. If it
is impossible for them to carry out their duties without
infringing upon the rights of others, it may be inferred
that the legislators intended them to have the power
to do so, in spite of the prejudicial effect on
individuals. If, however, damage that could reasonably
have been prevented is caused to individuals, the
failure to take reasonably practicable preventive
measures is negligence.

Case law offers opinions and provides principles on

which to base the extent of liability of a local authority
for damage caused by an increase in stormwater flow.
In some cases the issue may be whether interference
with private rights is justified where the exercise of
statutory powers is alleged to have resulted in an
injury to another. Figure 6.2: Damage from major floods can be
catastrophic
Prohibition against pollution is addressed in Clause 19

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parks and sports fields) as drainage components of the • The quality of the runoff deteriorates. One only has
major system, while imposing inconvenience to road to consider runoff from man-made environments
users, is considered an acceptable land-use for these which conveys pollutants such as fertilisers,
severe storm events. discarded rubbish, spillages and discharges from
vehicles, septic tank effluent as well as eroded soil.
Development changes the environment
The requirement for integrated planning
High regard needs to be given to natural drainage
patterns and systems. This is because development Against this background, the responsibility for sound
interferes with these systems. Stormwater planning to lessen these negative impacts rests with
management must therefore consider how the whole design team, and not just with the drainage
development has interfered or will interfere with the engineer. A holistic approach to planning needs to be
natural systems. The design engineer, with the taken, whereby land use is identified and a common
planning team, must then plan on how to cope with commitment to its optimisation forms the background
these changes, to lessen the impact of the altered to the planning premises.
runoff caused by this development.
Where development projects are carried out with
It is recognised that development impacts negatively limited funds, the question of “minimum allowable
on the natural drainage systems in several ways: standards” always comes to the fore. It is in these
cases, especially, that the development equation
• Permeability of the development area is decreased becomes a question of balancing low capital cost at
through increased population densities and fewer development stage against high maintenance costs for
open spaces such as parks and gardens, or by the the rest of the time.
introduction of impervious areas such as surfaced
streets, houses and amenities associated with the
urban environment. This increases the runoff from THE PURPOSE OF STORMWATER
the area during storm events, because of the MANAGEMENT
reduced infiltration properties of the development
area. Stormwater management is based on

• The introduction of efficient stormwater drainage • the need to protect the health, welfare and safety
systems to deal with the common enemy implies of the public, and to protect property from flood
that the runoff must be conveyed as efficiently as hazards by safely routing and discharging
possible to the natural watercourses. The stormwater from developments;
operative word efficient is here related to cost-
efficiency. This has the effect of decreasing the • the quest to improve the quality of life of affected
time runoff takes to reach the natural communities;
watercourses. The result is a reduction of overland
flow, meandering watercourses and the like, • the opportunity to conserve water and make it
through a system which drains runoff to the available to the public for beneficial uses;
watercourses as quickly as possible. The flood
problem is therefore transferred downstream. • the responsibility to preserve the natural
Quicker responses in larger catchments make environment;
them more susceptible to the effects of high-
intensity, shorter duration storm events. • the need to strive for a sustainable environment
while pursuing economic development; and
• In more efficient drainage systems, peak flows
occur more quickly. This effect has made • the desire to provide the optimum methods of
developments more susceptible to shorter, more controlling runoff in such a way that the main
intense storm events which in the smaller beneficiaries pay in accordance with their potential
catchments may lead to greater peak flows. benefits.

• The drainage systems are exposed to flows from While these goals may be reflected in other disciplines
more frequent, higher intensity storms because of - and indeed may even be in apparent conflict with
the decreased times of concentration. It is one another - specific objectives supporting these
recognised that short-duration storms have higher overall goals need to be identified for each specific
rain intensities than the longer rainfall events. This project by the planning team.
increases the pressure put by the frequent, high-
intensity storms on the man-made drainage
systems, which in turn put more pressure on the
natural drainage systems.

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PLANNING concepts of health, the environment and

development. Any change taking place in the one
Introduction has a direct influence on the other two.

Planning is a fundamental function of the project An essential element of rational land-use planning
team. It determines what the team wants to attain and is land evaluation, which should be a systematic
how it should go about doing so. Some strategic issues way of looking at the options available and of
need to be considered before any detailed design considering the environment in which these
work can be entertained. This is strategic planning or options are likely to operate, so that the results of
“master planning”. different courses of action can be predicted.
Physical planning therefore cannot be divorced
Master planning from social and economic circumstances or from
administrative and constitutional processes. More
The whole purpose of planning is to facilitate the importantly, the protection of the environment
accomplishment of a project’s objectives. Which against pollution decay is essential, to optimise the
objectives or goals drive the process really depends on benefits of sustainable development.
the state of mind of those formulating them, but
generally should spell out the why, where, what, when Integration with other disciplines in the
and how of the endeavour. Land use planning should planning team
be a consideration of what land resources are available
and what they are suitable for, both in the short term Development produces waste products. When
and longer term. people choose to live closer both to one another
and to economic opportunities, there is inevitably
Master planning should be concerned with the an increase in the generation of waste products.
following principles: The increased volume of wastes needs to be
managed to lessen the impact on the environment.
Sustainable development Solid waste technologies, the siting of cemeteries,
water purification works, sewage works and
A key concept of master planning should aim at an industries are typical issues facing the planning
enduring or sustainable development. team in the initial stage. All concern the
stormwater specialist.
An initiative called Caring for the earth, a strategy
for sustainable living, launched in partnership with Layout planning and transport routes inevitably
the World Conservation Union, the United Nations affect the natural drainage of stormwater. These
Environment Programme and the World Wide constraints must be explored. Natural habitats
Fund for Nature, stressed two fundamental will be affected and their importance must not
requirements for sustainable agriculture, namely: be ignored.

• securing a widespread and deeply held Drainage of both sewage and stormwater is a
commitment to an ethic for sustainable living; natural constraint to development that may have
and to take priority over other services and amenities.

• integrating conservation and development. Policy impact assessment

The World Health Organisation’s Global Strategy All planning must start with certain premises. Many
for Health and Environment was a direct result of of these are dictated by outside influences and
the United Nation’s Agenda 21 which was drawn their impact on the planning at hand must be
up during the Earth Summit in June 1992 at the recognised and considered.
United Nations Conference on Environment and
Development (UNCED) in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Policy guidelines from external sources may
Agenda 21 was an action plan to guide national influence the objectives of any development. A
and international activities to ensure that the policy impact assessment may be required to
natural resources of the world are managed in such evaluate the importance of these policies and how
a manner that sustainable development is they can affect or impact on the planned
achieved. The term “sustainable development” can development. External influences may include
be defined as development that meets the needs of policies from
the present without compromising the ability of
future generations to meet their own needs. • the World Health Organisation;

The idea that should guide all planning is that • the United Nations (UNCED);
there is an interrelationship between the three

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 GUIDELINES FOR HUMAN SETTLEMENT PLANNING AND DESIGN

• the South African Constitution; • Environment Conservation Act (Act 73 of 1989):

To provide for effective protection and
• the Government’s Reconstruction and controlled utilisation of the environment.
Development Programme;
• National Roads Act (Act 54 of 1971):
• white papers involving water law, water supply To provide for the construction and control of
and sanitation - Department of Water Affairs & national roads, including the disposal of
Forestry (DWAF); and stormwater on a national road.

• integrated environmental management • Minerals Act (Act 50 of 1991) and its

procedures - Department of Environmental Regulations:
Affairs & Tourism (DEAT). Specific issues relating to the Environmental
Management Programme (EMP) are relevant.
While these issues may not all be obligatory, they
do serve as a platform or frame of reference from • Minimum requirements for disposal of waste:
a global and national perspective. They may Minimum requirements issued by the
influence the planning premises. Department of Water Affairs & Forestry
regarding the selection of sites, their
Strategic impact assessment development and management and eventual
closure. Three specific references are:
Certain constraints to planning and development
have to be considered. These are mainly connected - Minimum requirements for the disposal of
with the legal environment. A strategic impact waste by landfill.
assessment must involve consideration of the aims - Minimum requirements for the handling
of the following legislation: and disposal of hazardous waste.
- Minimum requirements for monitoring at
• National Water Act Water Act (Act 36 of 1998): waste management facilities.
To provide for the fundamental reform of the
law relating to water resources and to provide • Health Act (Act 63 of 1977):
for matters connected therewith. To provide for measures for the promotion of
health of the inhabitants of the Republic.
The legal responsibilities of the stormwater
specialist influence the planning. The insertion • Atmospheric Pollution Prevention Act (Act 45 of
of 20-year and 50-year flood lines on certain 1965):
township plans is an example. What To provide for the prevention of pollution of
development takes place within these flood the atmosphere.
lines must be explored. The protection of
sewage treatment works, cemeteries and solid Specific measures are required for the
waste sites from flooding must be considered. purification of effluents discharged from
appliances for preventing or reducing to a
• Conservation of Agricultural Resources Act (Act minimum the escape of any noxious or
43 of 1983): offensive gases escaping into the atmosphere,
To provide for the control over the utilisation of and for preventing the release of noxious or
the natural agricultural resources in the offensive constituents from such effluents into
Republic in order to promote the conservation drains and drainage canals.
of the soil, the water resources and the
vegetation and the combating of weeds and • Common law, case law and statutory law:
invader plants. Certain laws of parliament, provincial
ordinances and government notices can alter
Government Notice No. R1048 of Government existing rules and lay down the law, as it were.
Gazette No. 9238 of this Act indicated that: These statutory laws create legal duties upon
No land user shall ... cultivate any land on his specific persons or bodies and thus determine
farm unit within the flood area of a water who is to be sued in delict when damage is
course or within 10 metres horizontally outside caused (Committee of State Road Authorities
the flood area of a water course. 1994). Any person or body performing tasks in
pursuance of statutory authority bestowed
The “flood area” in relation to a water course is upon him or her to construct works such as
defined as the area which, in the opinion of the streets and drains should heed the principles of
executive officer, is flooded by the flood water the delict, to avoid legal liability for damage
of that water course during a 1-in-10 year flood. suffered by another party.

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The basic starting point in South African law as involves the retarding of stormwater on its route to
regards the question of damage is the rule that the drainage streams. The important issue that the
harm rests where it falls, i.e. everyone must drainage specialist must address is the
bear the damage he suffers, himself (Neethling consideration of every storm event - from a severe,
et al 1990). However, there are grounds which infrequent storm event (termed a major event) to
can cause this burden of damage to shift to the frequent, common storm events (termed minor
another, with the result that such other is events). Stormwater drainage technologies must
obliged to bear the former’s damage. This be developed to deal with all these events. A
shifting (which forms the basis of the law typical formal drainage system avoids the nuisance
known as law of obligations) of the burden can which might result from frequent storms. This is
result from the causing of damage to a person termed the minor system. The major system will be
by means of a delict (law of delict). Delict can be supported by the minor system but will
defined as the positive act or omission of a accommodate the unusually high runoff from
person, which in a wrongful and culpable infrequent hydrologic events.
(intentional or negligent) way causes harm to
another. The main source of law upon which Master planning is predominantly concerned with
the South African law of delict has developed is the major system. The minor system will be
case law. considered as a supporting one. Master planning
may involve
Other requirements may include:
• determination of the recurrence interval of the
- Interim guidelines on safety in relation to major flood event;
floods. Safety evaluation of dams. South
African Committee on Large Dams, • determination of the recurrence interval for the
September 1986. The new requirements are minor flood events;
contained in Government Gazette
Regulation Gazette No 3979, Vol 253, • provision of overall guidelines on runoff-
No 10366. Government Notice No R.1559. detention requirements, pollution-abatement
strategies, and the powers and responsibilities
- A guideline for groundwater protection for of developers and authorities within the
the community water supply and sanitation catchment area;
programme, 1995.
• consideration of land use within flood plains
- South African Natural Heritage Programme. and multi-use of stormwater facilities;

- Conservation of wetlands (Department of • guidelines on safety and maintenance;

Environmental Affairs & Tourism) and
reports to the Ramsar Convention. • guidelines on environmental conservation; and

Stormwater management master drainage • reference to integrated environmental

plan (MDP): management (IEM) procedures and principles
underpinning the Reconstruction and
Master drainage planning should be contemplated Development Programme.
on a catchment-wide basis, irrespective of urban
and other man-made boundaries. The full While the values in Tables 6.1 and 6.2 are
environmental impact of the stormwater on that guidelines, the onus is on the drainage engineer to
catchment must be investigated and is the determine the risk associated with a certain
responsibility of the controlling regional or local recurrence interval. For areas where the risk of
authority. The hydrological processes in the specific monetary loss, loss of revenue or loss of utilities is
area need to be investigated and statistical data unacceptably high, a more stringent (or higher)
obtained. Hydraulic routing of the stormwater recurrence interval and a higher level of service
must be considered. In analysing stormwater may need to be considered. On large structures
drainage, consideration may need to be given to such as bridges and major culverts for example, the
the use of open spaces like parks, sports fields, and Department of Transport has its specific analysis
transport circulation routes. requirements (Committee of State Road
Authorities 1994).
It is assumed that with development there is an
increase in both the overall quantity and the peak A 100-year recurrence interval flood line is required
flow rate of the runoff. Policies in the USA, for in terms of the National Water Act on residential
example, desire to restrict post-development peak development plans. Municipal authorities may,
factors to pre-development peak factors. This however, stipulate other flood lines. The concepts

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Table 6.1: Design flood frequencies for major systems

LAND USE DESIGN FLOOD RECURRENCE INTERVAL

Residential 50 years
Institutional (e.g. schools) 50 years
General commercial and industrial 50 years
High value central business districts 50 - 100 years

Table 6.2: Design flood frequencies for minor systems

LAND USE DESIGN FLOOD RECURRENCE INTERVAL

Residential 1 - 5 years
Institutional (e.g. schools) 2 - 5 years
General commercial and industrial 5 years
High value central business districts 5 - 10 years

of best management practices (BMPs), good Typically the controlling authority should be
practice, or best available technology not entailing responsible for ensuring that detailed planning is
excessive cost (BATNEEC) may convince the compatible with the master drainage plan and that
planning team that more stringent recurrence the objectives of stormwater management are
intervals need to be considered, including planning attained. The design team needs to consider
for regional maximum floods (RMFs) or probable responsibilities throughout the design life of the
maximum floods (PMFs). project or development - the cradle-to-grave
approach.
Detailed design
Responsibilities for runoff control
Stormwater drainage plan
Stormwater management within an urban area is
Detailed planning refers to the planning of the responsibility of the local authority for that
developments within a catchment. The design area, since the control of stormwater is considered
philosophies and critical concerns and issues will a purely local matter.
have been addressed in the master drainage plan.
Stormwater drainage planning is the Certain central and provincial government
implementation of those policies and guidelines. It legislation, however, has encroached on the local
should strive to commit responsibilities to the authority’s planning. Examples are
design team and the authorities. Generic
responsibilities include • the requirement to insert the 1-in-100 year
flood lines on all township development plans
• planning, feasibility studies and preliminary (National Water Act 36 of 1998);
design;
• prevention of water pollution (consumers)
• records of decisions and the development of an regulated by the departments of Water Affairs
auditing system; & Forestry, Environmental Affairs & Tourism,
and Health;
• detailed design;
• safety of dams (approved Professional
• implementation or construction; Engineer);

• the process of handing a scheme over to a • alteration of a public stream (Transvaal Road
responsible authority; Ordinance 22 of 1957; Agricultural Holdings
(Transvaal) Registration Act No 22 of 1919;
• operation and maintenance; and Orange Free State Roads Ordinance 4 of 1968);

• monitoring and reporting (elements of the • auditing systems and records of decision (IEM);
auditing system). and

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 GUIDELINES FOR HUMAN SETTLEMENT PLANNING AND DESIGN

• Mines and Works Act.

Detaining and retaining stormwater

Runoff can be stored in constructed dams.

However, to be effective, such dams usually
demand much space. Successful detention of
runoff may therefore have to rely on several
technologies involving

• detention ponds (detention facilities) or roof-

top detention;

• a preference for overland flow as opposed to

hydraulically efficient engineering conduits;

• maintaining pervious surfaces and reducing

impervious structures; and

• maintaining vegetation cover to increase

interception and evapotranspiration.

MANAGING THE IMPACT OF

DEVELOPMENT ON THE
ENVIRONMENT
Figure 6.3: Contour planning: An effective
Rural development stormwater management tool

The issues and concerns in rural environments may The advantage of contour technology is that all flow is
differ from those in the urban setting. Typical issues routed overland in open channels. This minimises both
may include erosion, and soil salinisation. Transport the flow volumes (drainage occurs regularly) and
routes may have gravel surfaces, and technologies velocities (open channel flow with flat gradients). This
used to drain runoff need to be carefully considered. reduces erosion. Soakaways, permeable strata,
vegetation interception, retention/detention facilities
Layout planning are some of the many tools at the drainage engineer’s
disposal. Overland flow in ditches or swales should be
Many of the grid-type layouts inevitably concentrate designed at the outset with the road layout planners,
stormwater in certain roadways. This is usually the case not afterwards. Where road crossings are required,
when planners design systems applicable to modern causeways and drifts are easily constructed. This allows
technological standards when they know that for the use of local labour and materials. Drop
upgrading to these standards may take place only in structures may also be included with silt traps,
the very distant future, if at all. allowing maintenance workers to reclaim soil lost from
the upstream area.
What is proposed is a move towards what agricultural
engineers and conservationists have always practised - Preserving the natural environment
contour planning (e.g. contour ploughing, which is
ploughing that follows the contours of land, Natural resources
perpendicular to its slope). This technology is
particularly applicable to the more rural type of Before any layout planning should begin, detailed
development (see the section on unsurfaced roads information regarding topography, geology,
below for more detail). hydrology, and fauna and flora, needs to be
obtained. Areas containing building materials
An example of a tea estate demonstrates this type of (sands, aggregates, road materials, clays and the
layout well (see Figure 6.3). All access paths (which like) should not be sterilised by other land uses
could be substituted by access roads in an urban without consideration being given to their
environment) follow the contours. Other tracks are potential utilisation. Sandy areas are useful for
routed at right angles to the contours so that no recharging ground water. High-intensity
extraneous runoff crosses or drains onto them. All development can be matched with soils of low
stormwater can then be routed along the access paths permeability and vegetation of poor quality.
to the natural channels or waterways.

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Alternative fuel sources may need to be developed. design and management cannot be
Otherwise uncontrolled denudation of the natural overemphasised (see Figure 6.5).
landscape may seriously damage the environment,
leading to rapid degradation and soil erosion.

All life forms depend on water and, indirectly, on

the soil. These two elements must therefore receive
priority in any development planning.

All consequences of man’s use of natural resources

have to be analysed. In many informal settlements,
for example, residents grow crops and keep
animals, both for subsistence and informal selling.
These agricultural practices must be recognised as
part of the urban fabric. However, if agricultural
practices are to be accepted, potential problems
need to be addressed.

Assessing past failures

Poor farming practices have impacted negatively

on the environment (Department of Agriculture Figure 6.5: Runoff from feedlots contains high levels
1995). Some of the consequences have been the of pollutants
following:
Inorganic fertilisers are often environmentally
• Decreasing biodiversity. Natural habitats have costly. They can leach out of the soil and
been destroyed, leading to a decrease in the contaminate groundwater and streams. Other
abundance and diversity of fauna and flora. consequences of injudicious use of fertilisers can
reflect in the build-up of toxicity, acidification
• Overgrazing. Overstocking and limited grazing and salinisation.
rotation have resulted in denuded land and a
threat of desertification. Selective grazing by Pesticides often kill non-targeted and usually
animals on certain preferred plant species often beneficial organisms in the immediate
leads to encroachment by unpalatable and application area. Non-biodegradable pesticides
undesirable plant species. Overgrazing is a can accumulate in the soil and water, with
particularly endemic problem (see Figure 6.4). hazardous consequences to animal and human
life.

• Soil crusting. Incorrect tillage changes the

structure of the soil compaction, resulting in
poorer water infiltration: runoff increases and
there is a greater risk of erosion.

• Dump sites also need protection (see Figure 6.6).

Figure 6.4: Overgrazing exposes the land to rain

damage and can result in extensive erosion

• Pollution by fertilisers, pesticides, herbicides

and fungicides. Cattle dips and feedlots are
potential sources of pollution. Their proper

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Gradually varying flow is normally assumed. The

computation to determine the variation in depth of
flow with distance is available from many sources and
is discussed later.

Flood-line determination

The determination of flood lines is usually based on

the routing of stormwater through the water course
(drainage way). The capacity of a natural channel (or
any channel for that matter) is affected by the
interaction of local features and the gradually
varying flow profile. The routing problem has been
addressed by Bakhmeteff (1932), Chow (1959),
Henderson (1966) and French (1994). Their
classifications of the flow profiles are well
documented. Several computer programs are
Figure 6.6: Dump sites must be protected against available to aid in the determination of water surface
extraneous runoff profiles.

Detention and retention facilities

TECHNOLOGIES AVAILABLE TO THE A detention facility is designed to attenuate runoff,

ENGINEER specifically the peak flows experienced in the reaches
of a water course. These facilities may be planned on a
The hydrologic cycle multi-purpose basis as required by the controlling
authority, and can achieve a number of stormwater
There are four basic aspects in the hydrologic cycle of objectives.
interest to the hydrologist, namely:
Many municipalities now require in their subdivision
• precipitation; regulations that runoff from a development may not
• evaporation and transpiration; exceed pre-development runoff for a particular
• surface runoff; and frequency design flood. This is normally accomplished
• ground water. by the construction of a detention basin or facility. The
facility acts as a small flood-control reservoir, which
Hydrology is used in stormwater management for the can attenuate the peak of the runoff before it flows
design and operation of hydraulic structures. These downstream.
could include spillways, highway bridges and culverts,
or urban drainage systems (Alexander 1990; Linsley et The sizing and positioning of detention facilities needs
al 1975; Midgley 1972; Adamson 1981). to be done on a catchment basis, and should form part
of the master drainage plan. The combined effect of
Flood routing discharges from various sub-catchments should be
analysed to minimise possible adverse effects on the
Many methods and techniques are available to aid the watercourse under consideration.
design engineer in calculating runoff hydrographs and
associated flood peaks. The scope of this document All dams need to be registered, classified and
does not allow for any detailed dealing with these evaluated as dams with a safety risk, specifically any
techniques; reference only is made to them. There are structure with a wall height greater than 5 meters. The
many competent references for adequate coverage evaluation process must involve an Approved
(Alexander 1990; Midgley 1972; Rooseboom et al 1981; Professional Engineer (APE).
Pansegrouw 1990).
To effectively determine the parameters of such a
There are also hydraulic simulations, methods and facility, flood routing the design inflow hydrographs
computer programs available that route stormwater through the storage in the basin with a predictable
runoff and predict hydrographs at nominated reaches outflow needs to be done, so that downstream effects
in watercourses and drainage ways, e.g. Hydrosim can be determined. Typical design data may include
(routing model using the kinematic flood-routing
equation), and the SCS method. • the relevant hydrographs for each of a range of
design flood recurrence intervals or frequencies,
Routing of storm water through drainage ways and taking cognisance of the ultimate possible post-
rivers requires the computation of varied flow. development characteristics of the catchment;

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• details of the storage and stage characteristics of Flow types are categorised according to inlet
the detention basin; control, barrel control or culvert, or outlet control.
However, all culverts act to some extent as
• details of the outlet structures with reference to detention structures, because some stormwater
the discharges from the structures at the various upstream of the culvert accumulates before
stages; flowing through the culvert. An accurate
assessment of the behaviour of a specific culvert
• structural and geotechnical details of the dam wall configuration for detention facilities needs to be
with regard to type of wall, materials, filters, obtained over a range of flows and headwaters
founding details, spillway structure, erosion (see Figure 6.7).
protection and freeboard;

• safety precautions related to floods and other

hazards;

• possible recreational use of the facility; and

• maintenance issues, including sedimentation and

maintenance of vegetation.

See also: American Society of Civil Engineers 1982;

Brink 1979; Gerber et al 1980; Jennings et al 1978;
Knight et al 1977; SA Institution of Civil Engineers,
1985.

Programs are available to do the flood routing of an

inflow hydrograph through a detention facility to
produce the downstream outflow hydrograph (HEC-1,
Pond Pack). Many of these use the storage-indication
Figure 6.7: Multiple-outlet structure of a detention
working-curve method or Modified Puls method which
pond
is discussed in more detail in Appendix A to this
chapter (Golding 1981).
Proportional weirs
Storage facilities may be purpose-built, designed
primarily to attenuate runoff, and are usually in the The proportional weir has one unique
form of wet (part retention, part detention) or dry characteristic in that it has a linear head-discharge
(detention) facilities. Certain cities in America use relationship. Details are provided in Appendix B of
underground tunnels and disused quarries, into which this chapter.
peak flows are routed. The effluent is then pumped
from these facilities through purification systems Improved inverted V-notch or chimney weir
before being discharged into the receiving rivers.
The inverted V-notch (IVN) weir is a more practical,
Supplementary facilities, whose primary function is linear sharp-crested weir. Details are given in
not stormwater attenuation but which have been Appendix B of this chapter.
designed to function in an emergency as a
stormwater-detention facility, can be designed in Spillway crests
parking areas, sports fields and areas upstream of road
embankments. Overflow spillway crests are widely used as outlets
from detention facilities. Their design is outside the
Outlets at stormwater-detention facilities scope of this publication. Reese and Maynord
(1987) provide an adequate reference.
Culverts
Other control structures
Flow through culverts is dealt with in many text
books. Nomographs are available, for example in Weirs are structures widely used in hydraulic
US Department of Transportation (1985). Flow engineering to control or measure flow. Typical
through culverts is also dealt with in Chow (1959) weirs include the following:
and French (1994). Most local authorities,
provincial and national roads departments have • Broad-crested weirs
their own design guidelines, to which the drainage Rectangular
designer should refer. Triangular

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• Sharp crested weirs Examples of some energy dissipators are shown in

Rectangular Figures 6.8, 6.9 and 6.10.
V-Notch
Cipoletti weir
Proportional or Sutro weir

• Parshall flume.

There are also other weirs. However, there are

limitations to the applications of these types of
weirs and contractions. French (1994) and Chow
(1959) provide ample discussion on the subject. See
also Keller (1989) and Francis (1969).

Bridge backwaters

Backwaters produced by bridge restrictions need to be

analysed when flood lines are considered. For further
reference see US Dept. of Transportation (1978),
Hydraulics of bridge waterways, Hydraulic design
series No 1.
Figure 6.8: Simple drop structures in a residential
environment
Erosion protection

Energy dissipators

The dissipation of energy of water in canals or of

water discharging from pipes must be considered
when downstream erosion and scouring are
possible. The drainage engineer is always faced
with the problem of achieving this in an
aesthetically pleasing way. Several technologies are
available:

• Widening the drainage way and decreasing the

depth of flow. This will have the effect of
reducing the velocity of flow. Overland flow is a
typical example.

• Increasing the roughness of the canal or

drainage way. Although this will increase the
total cross-sectional area of flow, it will Figure 6.9: Energy dissipator
decrease the velocity.

• Structures which include the following:

Roughness elements
USBR type II basin
USBR type III basin
USBR type IV basin
SAF stilling basin
Contra Costa energy dissipator
Hook type energy dissipator
Trapezoidal stilling basin
Impact-type energy dissipator
USFS metal impact energy dissipator
Drop structures
Corps of Engineers stilling well
Riprap basins.

Reference to their selection and hydraulic design is Figure 6.10: Energy dissipator in a multiple land use
given in US Department of Transportation (1983). setting

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 GUIDELINES FOR HUMAN SETTLEMENT PLANNING AND DESIGN

Structural elements Kerb inlets

Structural elements that are typically used include: The standards used by municipalities vary considerably.
Generally, cognisance should be taken of the
• Geocells (e.g. Hyson-cells); following:
• Geotextiles (e.g. Bidim, MacMat, Sealmac);
• Geomembranes (HDPE linings and others); • hydraulic performance;
• Riprap;
• Gabions (refer to SABS 1200); • accessibility for cleaning purposes;
• Reno mattresses (refer to SABS 1200);
• Linings (e.g. Armorflex); and • ability of the top section of the culvert to bear
• Stone pitching (adequately covered in SABS heavy traffic;
1200).
• safety for all road users; and
The reader is urged to approach the suppliers of
these products for technical information. • cost.

Transitions For further information, refer to Forbes (1976).

Kerb inlet transitions Side weirs

Kerb inlets (lateral stormwater inlets) are widely Side weirs are structures often used in irrigation
used with kerbs and surfaced roads. Their techniques, sewer networks and flood protection. A
performance has been discussed adequately by special case of this is the kerb inlet (Hagner 1987;
others. Forbes (1976), for example, proposed that Burchard and Hromadka 1986).
on moderate to steep road gradients, the capacity
could be substantially improved by incorporating Road drainage
an extended length of depressed gutter upstream
of the inlet. Surfaced roads

Culvert transitions The main function of urban roads is the carrying of

vehicular, cycle and pedestrian traffic. However,
Culvert transitions are structures that attempt to they also have a stormwater management
converge wide, shallow subcritical flows into high- function. During minor storm events, the two
velocity critical flows which can be passed through functions should not be in conflict. During major
deep, narrow throats that are more cheaply storm events, the traffic function will be
constructed as culverts or bridges. Sometimes interrupted, the flood control function becomes
termed minimum energy or maximum discharge more important and the roads will act as channels.
designs, this concept allows large flows to be Good road layout can substantially reduce
routed through smaller, more efficient and stormwater-system and road-maintenance costs.
economical culverts or bridges without the usual
backwater or headwater required to provide the A well-planned road layout can significantly reduce
energy necessary to pass the flow through a typical the total stormwater-system costs. When
opening (Cottman and McKay 1990). Consideration integrated with a major system this may obviate
must be given to the immediate downstream the need for underground stormwater conduits. A
effects and energy dissipation. key element is that the road layout should be
designed to follow the natural contour of the land
Modification of the headwall and culvert opening (Miles 1984). Coordinated planning with the road
details to conventional culverts and bridges can and drainage engineers is crucial at the pre-
also reduce the energy loss at the entrance. This feasibility stage.
lends itself to a more efficient hydraulic design (US
Dept. of Transportation 1985, Hydraulic design of Stormwater runoff may affect the traffic-carrying
highway culverts). However, a more efficient capacity through:
hydraulic design through the culvert structure
generally leads to higher-energy waters at the • sheet flow across the road surface;
outlet. Energy dissipators may have to be • channel flow along the road;
incorporated into the design. • ponding of runoff on road surfaces; and
• flow across traffic lanes.

Refer to Figures 6.11, 6.12, 6.13 and 6.14.

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 GUIDELINES FOR HUMAN SETTLEMENT PLANNING AND DESIGN

Figure 6.11: A lined open roadside channel Figure 6.14: Flow across this intersection has resulted
in siltation, which is inconvenient and hazardous to
road users

Sheet flow

This flow is generated on a road surface and is

usually least at the road crown, increasing towards
the road edge. This can lead to hydroplaning when
a vehicle travelling at speed has its tyres separated
from the road surface by a thin film of water.

Sheet flow can also interfere with traffic when

splashing impairs the vision of drivers.

Channel flow

Channel flow is generated from sheet flow and

Figure 6.12: Incorrect vertical alignment has caused from overland flow from adjacent areas. As the
stormwater to bypass this kerb inlet. Kerb inlets in flow proceeds it increases in volume, encroaching
the intersecting road on the left have also not on the road surface until it reaches a kerb inlet or
captured runoff from that road so that stormwater drain inlet. The result is reduced effective road
flows across this bus route, creating a hazard width. Again, splashing produced by the tyres can
lead to dangerous driving conditions.

It is important that emergency vehicles should still

be able to use the road during major storms.

Figures 6.15 and 6.16 illustrate examples of channel

flow.

Figure 6.13: This ponding is the result of

encroachment of the grass verge onto the road.
Grass-cutting maintenance operations should also
include harvesting the grass, to prevent siltation and Figure 6.15: Example of surface drainage in a
build-up of new grass growth residential setting

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Chapter 6 Stormwater management
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slope of the road.

Encroachment on roads by runoff

Major storm events

The encroachment by runoff from a major storm

event onto primary roads should not exceed a
depth of 150 mm at the crown of the road. This
will allow access by emergency vehicles.

Minor storm events

The suggested maximum encroachment on roads

by runoff from minor storms is given in Table 6.3.
Figure 6.16: Open channel alongside an arterial road
Road gradients
Ponding
Maximum road gradients
Ponding on roads may occur at low points, at
changes in gradient, at sump inlets and road The maximum road gradient should be such that
intersections. This can have a serious effect on the velocity of runoff flowing in the road edge
traffic flow, particularly as it may reach depths channels does not exceed 3 m/s at the limits
greater than the kerb height or remain on the indicated in Table 6.3. Where the velocity of flow
roadway for long periods. A particular hazard of exceeds this value, design measures should be
ponding is that it is localised and traffic may enter incorporated to dissipate the energy.
a pond at high speed.
Minimum road gradients
Flow across traffic lanes
The minimum gradient for road edge channels
Flow across traffic lanes may occur at intersections, should be not less than 0,4% (to reduce deposition
when the capacity of the minor system is exceeded. of sediment).
As with ponding, localised cross-flows can create
traffic hazards. Therefore, at road intersections, for Maximum road crown slope
example, traffic devices should be used to reduce
traffic speed during downpours. In such cases The maximum slope from the crown of the road to
allowing cross-flow may be preferable to the road edge channel is not governed by
maintaining the road gradient, which would have stormwater requirements.
the effect of creating irregularities in the cross

Table 6.3: Suggested maximum encroachment of runoff on roads during minor storms

ROAD CLASSIFICATION MAXIMUM ENCROACHMENT

Residential and lower-order roads No kerb overtopping.*

Flow may spread to crown of road.

Residential access collector No kerb overtopping.*

Flow spread must leave at least one traffic lane
free of water.

Local distributor No kerb overtopping.*

Flow spread must leave at least one lane free in
each direction.

Higher-order roads No encroachment is allowed on any traffic lane.

* Where no kerb exists, encroachment should not extend over property boundaries.

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 GUIDELINES FOR HUMAN SETTLEMENT PLANNING AND DESIGN

Minimum road crown slope

The minimum slope from the road crown to the

channel should be not less than 2% for a plain,
surface or an average of 2% where the surface has
a variable cross slope.

Unsurfaced roads

The drainage function of unsurfaced roads is

dependent - and has a significant impact - on the
planning of the road and access layout. If the
roadway is to be used to channel and drain
stormwater runoff, then the velocity of this runoff
must be such that minimal erosion potential exists.
This means that gravel roads, together with their
side drains, need to have low gradients. Roads with
steep gradients should, as far as possible, not be Figure 6.18 (b): Concentration of stormwater
used as drainage ways, nor should any adjacent drainage in a roadway resulting in major
side drains without proper erosion protection. This inconvenience to road users
protection can include drop structures, lined
channels at critical sections, or regular drainage Runoff from earth or gravel roads will contain grit
from the roadway into intersecting roads or and its conveyance in pipes can eventually block or
drainage ways. Refer to Figures 6.17 and 6.18. even damage the pipe network. Blockages are
difficult to clear. In many instances maintenance is
not done, rendering the network ineffectual. Use
of pipelines in environments of high erosion
potential is not recommended because of the high
expense of maintenance and high risk of failure or
non-performance.

An alternative to a network of pipes is an open-

channel system on the roadsides for conveying
minor storm runoff. This system may also convey
dry weather flow in areas where there are high or
perched water tables, and there is sullage from
individual households or from communal water
points. The positioning of communal water points
must be carefully considered and soakaways or
drainage from these points included in their design
Figure 6.17: The contour-planning concept, to
impede the drainage of runoff from the (see Chapter 9). Suitable erosion protection of the
development canal invert, including drop structures and silt
traps, is important. See Figure 6.19

Figure 6.18 (a): Concentration of stormwater

drainage in a roadway resulting in major Figure 6.19: Roadside drains of the major system
inconvenience to road users

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The use of open roadside channels may necessitate

a wider road reserve than that required to
accommodate subsurface drains. This is particularly
pertinent where open channels intersect with
roadways or property access ways. The width of an
open channel may increase progressively as the
drain accepts more runoff. The road reserve may
have to be widened or the channel deepened. The
advantages of these alternative technologies must
be compared. Open drains, like all systems, will
require maintenance. However, this technology is
not “out-of-sight, out-of-mind”. Siltation and other
problems will immediately become apparent.

Where the whole roadway is used as a drainage

way for the major system, erosion protection on
the downstream road edge may need to be
considered. The crossfall of the road should Figure 6.20 (b): Layout planning in steep terrain
generally be against the natural ground slope so
that the whole road width can act as a drainage
way in the major system. To maximise the storage Roof drainage
function of the roads as part of the drainage
system in major storm events, the settlement layout High-intensity short-duration storms are experienced
should be planned so that the greatest length of in many parts of southern Africa. These violent storms
road closely follows the ground contour (the are often accompanied by strong winds and hail,
contour-planning concept). Figure 6.20 shows an which may lead to damage and the flooding of
example of this planning concept of a rural village buildings containing valuable assets.
in highly erodible granitic soils. The erosion from
this area was effectively eliminated. It is considered prudent that designers of roof
structures for large buildings take cognisance of the
roof drainage system. The research done by Schwartz
and Culligan (1976) suggested that the five-minute
storm is likely to cause overtopping of gutters in
buildings of conventional size. The approach to the
design of roof lengths, gutter size, box receivers and
downpipes is discussed in this reference.

In the United States of America certain authorities

require that all runoff generated on certain properties
be stored for slow discharge into the municipal
drainage system. Ponding of rain on roofs is one
retention technology. Others include using depressed
areas on the property to store excess runoff. See
Figures 6.21 and 6.22.

Figure 6.20 (a): Layout planning in steep terrain

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 GUIDELINES FOR HUMAN SETTLEMENT PLANNING AND DESIGN

Figure 6.21: This office complex incorporated the Figure 6.22 (b): Runoff from this parking area is
entrance to the building in a detention facility. stored in the drainage ways using multiple-outlet
Under normal conditions, this area functions as a drains
pleasant park with water features
Upgrading issues

While greenfield development may encompass a more

rigid planning procedure, upgrading projects should
also be subjected to assessment of their possible
environmental impact. In development, where
greenfield development may be at the one end of the
continuum and projects associated with mature
developed areas at the other, the issues to be
addressed in planning should be similar. A rigorous
assessment of impacts - which may include operation
and maintenance issues - should be considered. The
classification of project proposals and their possible
effects on certain areas and features are considered
fully in the Guideline Document 1 of the IEM
procedure (Department of Environment Affairs
1992b).

POLLUTION ABATEMENT

While the issue of quantity of stormwater runoff has

been addressed in South Africa for some time,
emphasis on the quality of runoff has lagged behind.
While economic and social attention to development
has been largely beneficial, the total cost of
technology (that is, the opportunity costs of not
considering the total waste stream produced by a
technology) has not been considered in great depth in
South Africa. This typically refers to issues, like health
care, which concentrate on treating the symptoms
Figure 6.22 (a): Depressed area to store instead of striving for a balance between prevention
excess runoff (reducing or eliminating the cause) and cure. The user,
the man in the street, pays sooner or later, carrying
both financial cost and forfeiting quality of life.

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Sources of pollution detention facilities can be one technology to store

the effluent during periods of runoff and release it
Air pollution at a slower rate to a treatment process such as a
wetland.
With the exception of pollution generated by
motor transport, stationary fossil-fuel processes Mining
produce the bulk of air pollution in South Africa
(Petrie et al 1992). Five activities in this category There are many pollutants emanating from mining
which generate air pollution are recognised: operations, depending on the operations
themselves. Probably the main concern to the
• fuel combustion and gasification from drainage engineer is the so-called acid mine
stationary sources (particularly electrical power drainage and heavy metals.
generation);
The standard practice on South African mines
• fossil fuel burning in dense unserviced varies considerably. The fundamental principles of
settlements; keeping clean water and polluted water separate
and preventing clean water from becoming
• industrial and chemical processes (ferro-alloy contaminated are largely ignored by many mines
industries, fertiliser production); (Pulles et al 1996).

• solid waste disposal (incineration of industrial, Non-point sources of water pollution

residential and hospital wastes); and
Non-point sources of water pollution are difficult
• land surface disturbances (mining and to locate. Some success has been obtained using
construction activities, agricultural practices infra-red aerial photography (Perchalski et al 1988).
and veld fires). This technology can prove helpful in identifying
non-point source problems that include
Of particular concern is the acidic deposition by
rain (acid rain) which may result in acidification of • oxygen depletion in dams; and
freshwater ecosystems, denudation of forested and
agricultural areas, corrosion of metal surfaces and • runoff from city streets, farms, forests, mines,
destruction of masonry structures. construction sites and atmospheric deposition.

While the Atmospheric Pollution Prevention Act Agricultural pollution

provides for both administrative and judicial
control measures, air pollution control is Poor farming practices have often impacted
administered in practice by the chief officer of a negatively on the environment. Some of the
local authority and the government mining observed consequences have been
engineer.
• decreasing bio-diversity;
Point sources of water pollution • overgrazing through overstocking;
• pollution by fertilisers;
Industrial • pollution by pesticides, herbicides and
fungicides;
Apart from the air pollution produced by industry, • soil crusting; and
most industrial processes use water and produce • irrigation with polluted water.
effluent. Some of these processes include
The scarcity of water has been identified as the
• abattoirs; single most limiting factor for economic growth in
• breweries; southern Africa. It is therefore essential that this
• pharmaceuticals; scarce resource be utilised judiciously and sensibly
• fishing; for the benefit of all users, including the natural
• tanning; and environment.
• the fruit and vegetable industry.
Certain standards of water quality are required for
The strategies for pollution abatement are focused all users - from primary domestic use to water for
on the reduction of water use at source and irrigation, stock watering, recreation and the
improved effluent purification technologies. maintenance of aquatic habitats.

Runoff from industrial plant sites may contain toxic Water used for irrigation will always contain
or hazardous pollutants. The installation of measurable quantities of dissolved salts. These

19
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 GUIDELINES FOR HUMAN SETTLEMENT PLANNING AND DESIGN

include relatively small but important amounts of

dissolved salts originating from the dissolving or
weathering of rocks, soil, lime, gypsum and other
salt sources as the water passes over or percolates
through them. The suitability of water for
irrigation will be determined by the amount and
type of salts present. While the quality does not
form part of the scope of this chapter, poor water
quality may cause various soil - and therefore
productivity - problems to develop, namely

• salinity;
• permeability;
• toxicity; and
• miscellaneous chemical problems (e.g. excess
nitrogen in the water, pH).
Figure 6.23: Gully erosion by headwater upstream of
a highway culvert inlet. Specific attention needs to
Guidelines in terms of the sodium adsorption ratio be paid to structures founded in soils with high
(Ayers 1977) and the adjusted sodium adsorption erosion potential
ratio should be consulted to ensure that
productivity is not limited by the water quality, and Grass-lined channels
that users downstream are not disadvantaged by
poor agricultural land use. Grassed waterways are generally a cost-effective way
to convey stormwater (US Dept Agriculture 1987). The
Urban pollution use of indigenous plants for stabilisation is
recommended. The velocity of water flowing in the
Stormwater runoff from urban catchments has waterway should be limited in relation to the
been found in many areas to be a major source of erodibility and slope of the waterway.
pollution to the water-receiving bodies. Practices
such as effective rubbish collection, street cleaning, Fencing off the waterway in a rural environment is
vegetation buffer strips and improved fertilizer usually an effective way of controlling livestock so that
practices ameliorate this pollution (see the section the grass cover can be established. Once this cover has
on street cleaning in Chapter 11: Solid waste been established, livestock can be introduced onto the
management). grassed waterway in a controlled manner. Figure 6.24
illustrates the concept.
Soil erodibility

Examples of highly erodible soils in South Africa

include the granitic soils found in Mpumalanga and
the Highveld (Kyalami system). Although erosion is a
natural phenomenon, interference by man with the
natural environment can rapidly degrade the natural
systems available to ameliorate this erosion. One of
the major anthropological influences which occurs in
many of the rural areas is the over-stocking of animals.
See Figure 6.23.

Dispersive clays occur in any soil with high

exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP) values. The
testing procedures for the identification of dispersive
clays are discussed by Elges (1985). Methods for
constructing safe and economic structures with
dispersive clays should be carefully considered.
Figure 6.24: An example of a grassed waterway

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Chapter 6 Stormwater management
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Detention ponds Microbial organisms

While authorities in the USA stipulate detention times Microbes (bacteria, fungi, algae and protozoa)
for certain areas, the general use of this technology to alter contaminant substances in order to obtain
settle out suspended solids and for the treatment of nutrients or energy to complete their life-cycles.
other pollutants from runoff in South Africa appears The effectiveness of wetlands in water purification
remote, as the incoming runoff usually has a high clay is dependent on developing and maintaining
content. Siltation occurs in all dams. However, from a optimal environmental conditions for the desirable
purification point of view, it is not considered microbial populations. Most of the desirable
economically feasible in detention facilities to settle microbes are ubiquitous and are likely to be found
out the products of erosion (i.e fine silts and clays). in most waste waters with nutrients and energy;
Detention times would need to be very long, and hence inoculation of specific strains is generally not
therefore require large areas of land. Retention necessary.
facilities should rather be considered for their
beneficial use as water bodies and integrated with the Substrate
natural drainage corridors which allow other natural
processes to occur (e.g. wetlands). The primary role of the substrate, whether soil,
gravel or sand, is to provide a support for the
Wetlands plants and a surface for attachment by microbial
populations. The substrate can also be selected on
Background the basis of its chemical characteristics, where
pollutant removal is achieved through complexing
Walmsley (1987) defined wetlands as “water - a chemical and physical process allowing more
dominated areas with impeded drainage where complex substances to be formed, which then
soils are saturated with water and there is a remain in the substrate zone (Batchelor 1993).
characteristic fauna and flora”. Other items such as
vleis, water sponges, marshes, bogs, swamps, pans, Plant selection
river meadows and riverine areas are often
included in references to wetlands. Their ecological The diversity and complexity of natural wetland
importance has often been emphasised, and many vegetation is principally the result of interactions
municipalities and industries are using artificial between the following three important factors:
wetlands to treat waste water (Gillette 1993).
• hydrology;
Wetlands purification functions • substrate; and
• climate.
The principle function of the vegetation in
wetlands is to create additional environments for In constructing a wetland - if the intention is to
microbial populations. The stems and leaves in the attempt to reproduce a “natural” wetland - a
water obstruct flow, facilitate sedimentation and thorough knowledge of local wetland vegetation is
increase the surface area for the attachment of a distinct advantage. If, however, the intention is
microbes, and constitute thin films of reactive to use the wetland for water purification, there are
surfaces. a number of universal species that can be used. By
far the most commonly used genera are
Wetland plants also increase the amount of aerobic Phragmites, the common reed and Typha (referred
microbial environment in the substrate. This is to locally as the bulrush). Other genera that have
incidental to the unique adaptation of wetland been used successfully are various Scirpus and
plants to thrive in saturated soils. Most terrestrial Cyperus species.
plants cannot survive in waterlogged soils for any
appreciable length of time due to the oxygen Advantages of constructed wetlands
depletion which normally follows flooding. Unlike
their terrestrial relatives, wetland plants have Constructed or created wetlands simulate processes
specialised structures which enable them to occurring in the natural wetland system. These
conduct atmospheric gases, including oxygen, include
down into the roots. This oxygen leaks out of the
root hairs, forming an aerobic rhizosphere around • flood attenuation (if properly designed); and
every root hair, while the remainder of the
subsurface water volume remains anaerobic. This • water-quality improvement through the
juxtaposition of aerobic/anaerobic environments is removal of substances such as suspended solids,
crucial to the transformation of nitrogenous nitrogen, trace metals, bacteria and sulphates.
compounds and other substances.
These are only a few of the substances wetlands

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Stormwater management Chapter 6
 GUIDELINES FOR HUMAN SETTLEMENT PLANNING AND DESIGN

are able to remove. Their effective functioning is

dependent on the pressure of environmental
conditions conducive to the required processes.
They are not dependent on external energy or
chemical inputs. Wetlands also require little
maintenance.

In addition to their water purification functions,

wetlands provide habitats and life-support systems
for a wide range of flora and fauna, particularly
birds, plants, reptiles and invertebrates. Wetlands
can be aesthetically pleasing and offer an
opportunity for recreation and education. See
Figure 6.25.

Figure 6.26 (a): Construction sites can be prevented

from polluting the surrounding area by the use of
straw bales, mulching and geo-mats. Aggregates
placed at exits from sites prevent the transport of
pollution

Figure 6.25: Part detention, part retention facility,

including an artificial wetland

Protection of the environment during the

construction phase Figure 6.26 (b): Construction sites can be prevented
from polluting the surrounding area by the use of
Erosion protection straw bales, mulching and geo-mats. Aggregates
placed at exits from sites prevent the transport of
One of the most unstable periods in any pollution
development occurs during the construction phase.
Runoff from sites should be collected in temporary
check dams (see below). Straw bales can be
positioned at kerb inlets to prevent silt entering
the underground drainage systems while
construction is taking place. Figures 6.26 and 6.27
illustrate the examples of temporary erosion
protection.

Figure 6.27: Stone aggregate can be placed on the

roadside while the shoulder grass establishes itself

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Chapter 6 Stormwater management
 GUIDELINES FOR HUMAN SETTLEMENT PLANNING AND DESIGN

Protection and rehabilitation Riprap

The erosion cycle - detachment, transportation, Riprap is a heavy stone facing on a shorebank used
deposition - is a natural phenomenon. However, to protect it and the adjacent upland against wave
development usually alters the natural pattern. scour. Riprap depends on the soil beneath it for
Erosion control is a measure to substantially reduce support and should be built only on stable shores
erosion and thereby decrease the sediment input and bank slopes.
into the stream system. The aim is to reduce the
accelerated erosion typically caused by poor Other technologies
agricultural techniques and other land uses.
Measures may include practices such as contour The use of geofabrics, matting, netting, mulching
farming and terracing (applicable to both the rural and brush-layering are other technologies which
and urban settings), strip cropping, crop rotation, attempt to protect the soil from rain impact and
no-till farming, grassing drainage ways, gully and impede the flow of stormwater runoff.
stream bank erosion control, and stabilisation of
critical areas. The alternative biological approach is often
integrated with the structural technologies. Many
Technologies available to the designer include the of the indigenous flora can be effectively used to
following: form vegetation buffer strips and other natural
barriers, sponges and stable riverine corridors
Silt fencing and straw bale barriers (Oberholzer 1985).

Silt fences and hay/straw bale barriers are two Street cleaning
types of filter barriers. They are temporary
structures which are installed across or at the toe of Street cleaning can be an effective method of
a slope. They are used to control sheet flow and are removing litter and sand-sized particles. Overall
therefore not effective in areas of concentrated pollutant removal by street sweeping is not, however,
flow, such as ditches or waterways. See Figure 6.28. very efficient, with an upper limit of 30 per cent
removal being reported in the USA for well-run
programmes and a more typical removal of 10 to 30
per cent (Sartor et al 1984).

Organics and nutrients are not effectively controlled,

but regular - daily or twice daily - street cleaning can
remove up to 50 per cent of the total solids and heavy
metal yields in urban stormwater (Field 1985).

Runoff from unmanaged urban environments can be

highly polluted. Efforts to reduce this pollution must
be coordinated between those responsible for refuse
removal, sanitation, and industrial effluent.

Waste disposal sites

The siting of waste disposal sites is regulated by the

minimum requirements guidelines published by the
Department of Water Affairs & Forestry (1994a, b and
Figure 6.28: The straw-bale barrier has allowed c). For the drainage engineer, the importance of siting
pioneer plants to establish themselves relates to the environmental impact the sites may have
on the ground and surface water bodies. As waste
disposal sites are regarded as a bulk service, they are
Temporary check dams not discussed further in this document, except to
illustrate the adverse effects of uncontrolled or
Small temporary check dams constructed across a unmanaged dumping (see Figures 6.29 and 6.30).
ditch or small channel reduce the velocity of
concentrated stormwater flows. They also trap
small amounts of sediment. Temporary check dams
are useful on construction sites, or for temporary
stabilisation of erosion areas where protection is
required for the establishment of vegetation.

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 GUIDELINES FOR HUMAN SETTLEMENT PLANNING AND DESIGN

On-site sanitation

The protection of the environment from possible

pollution by on-site sanitation systems such as pit
toilets and soakaways is crucial. Pollution may be
caused by infiltration of the leachate from the pits
into the groundwater, or by surface runoff through
a sanitation system which is positioned in a surface-
water drainageway. The preservation of
groundwater resources (many South Africans use
wells, springs and boreholes) is particularly
important. In this regard, recommendations of the
Department of Water Affairs & Forestry (1995) are
relevant.

Water supply

Figure 6.29: Unmanaged domestic refuse is a serious In developing communities, consider the drainage of
health risk excess water from water points. Erosion can occur (see
Figure 6.31).

Figure 6.30: Uncontrolled dumping at municipal

waste sites can have a serious impact on surface and
Figure 6.31: This water point has been placed in a
sub-surface water systems
low-lying area. Drainage of runoff and water spilled
from the point has not been allowed for, and a
Sanitation health hazard has resulted

Waterborne sanitation
Selection of cemetery sites
Illegal stormwater drainage into sewer gulleys is
endemic throughout South Africa. The increase in The following ten criteria are deemed essential
flow into sewage works after storm events is (Fischer 1992) when planning the position of a
widely recognised (Institute of Water Pollution cemetery:
Control 1973). While no estimates of flow are
suggested, one empirical estimation for increased • soil excavatability for ease of excavating the
flow under wet weather conditions is equal to one graves;
and a half times the peak dry weather flow.
However, because of the variations observed in • soil permeability which affects the pollutants’
many sites, it is advisable to place gulleys away ability to be transported into groundwater;
from where stormwater flows or collects, and
gulleys should be as few in number as practicable. • the position with respect to domestic water
supplies, specifically if groundwater resources are
being used;

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Chapter 6 Stormwater management
 GUIDELINES FOR HUMAN SETTLEMENT PLANNING AND DESIGN

• the position with respect to drainage features, so channel linking the inlet to the outlet. The sub-
that stormwater runoff does not convey pollutants channel may confine silt and enable storm runoff from
to streams or pose a threat of exposing graves. The minor events to bypass the pond. Subsurface drainage
position of the 1:50 floodline or a more stringent may be required to prevent swampy conditions when
floodline should be part of the investigation; a surface channel cannot be conveniently installed.

• site drainage, which influences the ingress of rain Aquatic weed growth can be reduced in wet
into the soil and therefore the graves, with the (retention) ponds by designing the ponds to have a
possibility of pollutants then being conveyed from minimum depth of water of 1,2 meters (after allowing
the site through the soil; for sedimentation). Aeration and disinfection of the
water may also be necessary to maintain the required
• site topography, which influences access to graves quality. The proper design of grids over outlets
as well as surface and subsurface drainage; (limiting the opening to about 314 mm2) assists in
reducing outlet blockages. Reliable emergency
• basal buffer zone, which relates to the depth of soil spillways that cannot block should be provided. The
(buffer) between the deepest grave and the water pollution of wet ponds, where the initial runoff
table (permanent or perched); cannot be routed to bypass the facility, can be reduced
to some extent by installing grease and sediment traps
• grave stability relates to the stability of the soil upstream of the pond inlet.
around the grave from the time of excavation to
the time of interment; However, reduction or elimination of the pollutants at
their source is generally the preferred option.
• soil workability, which refers to the ease of
compaction; and The failure of a facility’s embankment may result from
piping, either because of poor soils (e.g. dispersive
• cemetery size, which relates to the requirements of soils), inadequate filter designs, animals which burrow
future grave sites and development pressures. into the embankment, or tree root systems. Legumes
should not be used as plant cover for earth
Cemetery pollution embankments as this results in a concentration of
nitrogen in the roots, which attracts rodents.
According to Fischer (1992) cemeteries pose a
pollution threat in that many of the existing When sports fields are used as detention facilities,
cemeteries in SA contaminate our water resources. playing surfaces are generally raised slightly above the
Microbiological pollutants (including bacteria, surrounding area to facilitate drainage and clearing of
viruses and parasites) remain active within the general debris and siltation. See Figure 6.32.
water table at much greater distances from their
source than was previously assumed.

At present no legislation exists to control the

planning of cemeteries in South Africa. Linked to
the issue of land availability, the potential of
pollution from cemeteries requires a thorough
technical evaluation.

MAINTENANCE ISSUES

Detention facilities

The nature of problems encountered with a

stormwater facility depends on its type, function, Figure 6.32: These sports fields will act as a detention
location and general environment. Many of the facility should the watercourse on the right of the
problems can be avoided by proper design and picture not be able to convey the flood. Note that
the playing surfaces are raised to aid drainage after
construction procedures. Table 6.4 lists some of the
such an event. The crest of the side weir between
problems commonly experienced with these facilities.
the watercourse and the sports fields is designed to
accept the excess flow, but is made aesthetically
The control of weed growth and invader plants, and pleasing with a meandering cycle path
the mowing of lawns is necessary for aesthetic and
health (mosquito control) reasons. To ensure that the
bottom of a dry pond remains dry, it should be sloped Where porous pavements are used in parking areas or
(typically at 5 per cent) to the outlet or to a sub- roads to encourage infiltration or reduce traffic noise,

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Stormwater management Chapter 6
 GUIDELINES FOR HUMAN SETTLEMENT PLANNING AND DESIGN

Table 6.4: Problems commonly experienced with storage facilities (after APWA Special
report No 49 1981, and DeGroot 1982)

PROBLEM TYPE COMMENTS

Weed growth Easy access to the site will enable the maintenance department to
combat weed growth. Designers should establish acceptable pioneer
grasses (e.g. Cynodon dactolon - fine kweek, Stenotaphrum secundatum
- buffalo grass) and reeds and marsh plants where applicable.

Maintaining grass Bank slopes should be gentle enough to allow access by maintenance
equipment.

Sedimentation and urban litter Increased maintenance required, but confined to a specific site.

Mosquito control Regular mowing required - keeping grass short facilitates evaporation
and provides access for predators of mosquito larvae.

Outlet blockages Particular detail required for outlet works and may incorporate straw
bale filters and trash racks.

Soggy surfaces Landscape the basin so that depressions can be utilised as retention
areas for artificial wetlands.

Inflow water pollution Regular maintenance during wet season. Consider wetland filters at
inlets.

Algal growth Attempt to create a sustainable ecology.

Fence maintenance Consider public access points to the facility.

Unsatisfactory emergency spillway Dam design requirements.

design

Dam failures and leaks Dam design requirements (e.g. dispersive soils).

Public safety during storm events Flood warning systems are an integral part of the total design.

the surfaces should be regularly cleaned of debris to considered at the design stage (see Table 6.5).
prevent clogging.
Anchor blocks
Design details
Concrete anchor blocks (20 MPa concrete strength)
Minimum pipe diameters should be provided, as in Table 6.6.

The suggested minimum pipe diameters are Figures 6.33 to 6.36 illustrate some common
maintenance problems with stormwater facilities
• 300 mm in a servitude; and which can be avoided by careful planning and design.
• 375 mm in a road reserve.

Minimum velocities and gradients in pipes

The desirable minimum velocity range is 0,9 - 1,5

m/s. Low velocities will not prevent siltation, so the
maintenance of pipe networks needs to be

26
Chapter 6 Stormwater management
 GUIDELINES FOR HUMAN SETTLEMENT PLANNING AND DESIGN

Table 6.5: Suggested minimum grades for pipes (City of Durban 1984)

PIPE DIAMETER (mm) DESIRABLE MINIMUM GRADIENT ABSOLUTE MINIMUM GRADIENT

(1 IN ...) (1 IN...)

300 80 230
375 110 300
450 140 400
525 170 500
600 200 600
675 240 700
750 280 800
825 320 900
900 350 1 000
1 050 440 1 250
1 200 520 1 500

Table 6.6: Suggested spacing for anchor blocks (City of Durban 1984)

GRADIENT (1 IN...) SPACING FOR 2,44 m PIPE LENGTHS

2 (50%) every joint

2 - 3,33 (50% - 30%) alrternate joint
5 (20%) every 4 th joint
10 (10%) every 8 th joint

Figure 6.34: Kerb inlets require maintenance

Figure 6.33: Inlet grids need attention

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Stormwater management Chapter 6
 GUIDELINES FOR HUMAN SETTLEMENT PLANNING AND DESIGN

Veld fires are a common occurrence during the winter

months in many areas in South Africa. No land-user
may burn veld or allow burnt veld to be grazed
without the written authorization of the executive
officer (Forestry Act No 72 of 1968). While it is
generally agreed (Booysen and Tainton 1984) that veld
burning (typically every 3 - 5 years) improves the
quality of the veld, regular yearly burning reduces the
basal cover of the grass and therefore subjects the soil
in the area to rain beat and possible erosion. Not only
does the burning pollute the atmosphere, but
resources such as thatching materials (Hyparrhenia
filipendula, H. dissoluta and H. hirta) may be lost.
Although grasses usually recover before the rains,
when burned in the middle of winter, fires in early
spring may expose the soil to potential erosion. A
preferred technology is mowing; this, however, is more
Figure 6.35: The use of underground drainage expensive.
systems in unpaved roadways should be justified
Awareness of hazardous situations and
flood-warning systems

Flood-warning systems are an integral component of

the design of any hydraulic structure, and are a local
authority responsibility. Stormwater management
should aim to eliminate flood hazards.

Effective forecasting and warning of impending

flooding will enable a community to prepare and
therefore reduce the danger to life and property.
Flood warnings are usually more effective in large
catchments, where long response times allow
intervention by the authorities and the public.
However, local areas subject to flood hazards can be
signposted and safety measures incorporated into the
land-use design. (See Figure 6.37.)

Figure 6.36: Stormwater drainage must occur off the

roadway if kerbing is not installed

ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH AND

SAFETY

The role of education and community

involvement

Wood consumption for cooking and heating purposes

can be greatly reduced by the use of efficient stoves
(Ellis 1987), in lieu of open fires. Less wood
consumption leads to less denudation of the
landscape.

The establishment of woodlots, although a long-term

project, will help alleviate the wood shortage. Again,
these woodlots must be protected and managed, so
the communities having access to the resource must
have the necessary institutional capacity to do this.
Figure 6.37: Flood-warning systems

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Recreational use of facilities The following recommendations have been made by

the Council for Geoscience (Calitz 1993):
Watercourses need to be managed and maintained in
urban environments. Flood plains are particularly House structures
valuable facilities for indigenous fauna and flora. One
particular maintenance problem is the management of • All man-made ponds, drainage ways,
alien invader plants (see Figure 6.38). Maintenance by stormwater conduits and road surfaces should
the relevant authorities may place a high burden on be made impervious.
the funding available for general parks and
recreational maintenance. The commitment to • Runoff from structures should be conveyed in
maintain these natural corridors should be impervious conduits away from the structures. If
communicated to all involved and not be the burden gutters are required by the local authority, the
of the authorities only. Many campaigns (Collect-a-can, downpipes should discharge into a lined or
for example) encourage public participation in precast furrow. This furrow should discharge
maintaining our natural areas. the water 1,5 m away from the from the
foundation, preferably onto a grassed ground
surface sloping away from the structure. Where
no gutters are utilised, it is recommended that
an apron 1,5 m wide be provided along the
external walls of the structure where water will
discharge from roofs. This will allow the runoff
from the roof to be distributed away from the
structure foundation.

Installation and maintenance of services

• Bulk services should be routed in road reserves

or servitudes with a minimum width of five
meters.

• Sewer- and water-reticulation systems in the

road reserves or other servitudes. If these
Figure 6.38: This nature trail has a problem with services are placed mid-block, a building line
pampas grass (Cortaderia jubata), an alien invader restriction of a minimum width of 5 m should
be imposed. Place water and sewer connections
of any two erven on their common property
boundary. Shared sewer connections should be
General precautions for development on considered if this arrangement leads to a
dolomites reduction of the length of piping and/or
minimises the disturbance to the environment.

• Each erf should have a rodding eye or similar

access point to the sewer connection, in
addition to an inspection eye.

• All stormwater, water and sewer pipes must be

watertight.

• Avoid the use of clay pipes. When using

polyethylene (HDPE) or polyvinyl chloride
(uPVC) pipes, the use of compression-type joints
is preferred. The use of heat fusion, glue fusion
or mechanical bonding requires good
workmanship and may rupture with small
differential movements in the soil.
Figure 6.39: Dolines are almost always the result of
man’s intervention in natural drainage systems. This
• The roots of trees planted in close proximity to
sinkhole has been caused by a road culvert
the line of water-bearing services often cause
leaks. Due regard should be taken when
positioning trees and other plants.

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 GUIDELINES FOR HUMAN SETTLEMENT PLANNING AND DESIGN

• Trenches and excavations, once opened, should • Where pipes cross roads, consideration should
be closed as soon as possible. Proper be given to the use of sleeves or culverts (ease
compaction of the backfilling is recommended of access for maintenance).
to obviate the trench acting as a soakaway
drain. • Once the service has been installed and
backfilled, the ground surface profile should be
• The excavated material may be unsuitable for restored to its natural slope.
use as pipe bedding or initial backfilling
material because of the possibility of the • All laid drainage pipes and sewerage should be
presence of coarse chert. tested for leakage at time of installation and
thereafter at regular intervals (CSIR, NBRI Info
• Water pipes entering buildings should be fitted sheet X/BOU 2034).
with flexible couplings or kinked with a Z-form
to allow for relative movement. See also: Donaldson 1963; Buttrick and Van Schalkwyk
1995; Buttrick and Roux 1993; and Roux 1991.
• Corrodible pipes should be protected.

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Chapter 6 Stormwater management
 GUIDELINES FOR HUMAN SETTLEMENT PLANNING AND DESIGN

GLOSSARY: Terms used in stormwater differ from those of CUTA.

management
• Flood zone or floodway: Defined by CUTA as the
• CUTA: Committee of Urban Transport Authorities, area inundated by the regional maximum flood
Department of Transport, PO Box 415, Pretoria (RMF).
0001.
• Groundwater runoff: That part of the infiltrating
• Design period: Design period is usually the length water that percolates downward until it becomes
of time a structure or asset will be expected to have groundwater. Eventually, after an indirect passage,
a useful life, or the amortisation period if loans it enters a stream that intersects its path and
have been procured to finance the construction of becomes dry weather flow or base flow.
the structure or asset.
• Hyetograph: A graph indicating the distribution
• Design storm: The properties of a storm include of rain relative to time.
the depth, spread and duration of the rainfall as
well as variations in rainfall intensity in space and • Hydrograph: A graph of stage or discharge
time over the catchment area during the storm. In relative to time.
the choice of a design storm cognisance should be
taken of all these parameters. • Interception: Precipitation stored on vegetation
as opposed to rain in surface depressions (termed
• Detention facility: A structure which temporarily depression storage).
stores excess stormwater for a length of time. The
outlet of the structure is designed to release the • Major drainage system: A stormwater drainage
stored water into the downstream watercourse at system which caters for severe, infrequent storm
a rate less than the flow rate into the facility during events. Supported by the minor drainage system.
storm events.
• Minor drainage system: A stormwater drainage
• Drainage area: That part of a catchment above a system which caters for frequent storms of a minor
specified point that contributes to the runoff at nature.
that point.
• Nomograph: A chart or graph from which, given a
• Drainage system: See “stormwater drainage set of parameters, other dependant parameters
system”. can be ascertained.

• Dry pond: A detention pond that remains dry • Off-stream facility: A stormwater facility which is
during dry weather flow conditions. situated away from the normal drainage way. A
typical example is shown in Figure 6.32. The sports
• Dry weather flow: Flow occurring in a water fields alongside a drainage way will act as a
course not attributable to a storm rainfall event, detention facility should the bank of the drainage
but to groundwater flow where the water table way be overtopped by flood waters.
intersects the stream channels of a catchment.
These dry weather flows do not fluctuate rapidly • On-site facility: Detention facility located on a
because of the low flow velocities. watercourse and through which normal dry
weather flow passes.
• Evapotranspiration: The evaporation from all
water, soil, snow, ice, vegetation and other surfaces • Outfall: See “stormwater outfall”.
plus transpiration of moisture from the surface
membranes of leaves and other plant surfaces. • Recurrence interval: Recurrence interval or
return period is the average interval between
• Flood plain: The flood plain of a river is the valley events. The recurrence interval is usually expressed
floor adjacent to the incised channel, which may be in years and is the reciprocal of the annual
inundated during high water (Linsley et al 1975). probability. That is, the event having an annual
CUTA defines the floodplain as the area inundated probability of occurrence of 2% (0,02) has a
in a river by the major flood. recurrence interval of 50 years. This does not imply
that such an event will occur after every 50 years,
• Flood plain fringe: The flood plain fringe is that or even that there will necessarily be one such
area in a river defined as being below the level event in every 50 years, but rather that over a much
reached by the regional maximum flood and above longer period (like a 1 000 year period) there will
the level reached by the major flood. Note: The US very likely be 20 events of equal or greater
National Flood Insurance Programme has magnitude.
definitions of “floodway” and “fringe area” that

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 GUIDELINES FOR HUMAN SETTLEMENT PLANNING AND DESIGN

• Retention facility: A structure which retains • Stormwater outfall: The point at which runoff
runoff indefinitely should the capacity of the discharges from a conduit.
structure be sufficient to contain such runoff.
Excess flow into the structure will be discharged via • Subsurface runoff: The flow derived from water
a spillway. infiltrating the soil and flowing laterally in the
upper soil strata. It reaches the receiving streams or
• Runoff: The water which constitutes streamflow bodies of water fairly soon after a rainfall event,
may reach the stream channel by any of several without joining the main body of groundwater.
paths from the point where it first reaches the
earth as precipitation. Water which flows over the • Surface runoff: That part of the runoff that
soil surface is described as surface runoff and travels over the ground surface and in channels to
reaches the stream soon after its occurrence as reach the receiving streams or bodies of water.
rainfall. Other water infiltrates through the soil
surface and flows beneath the surface to the • Sustainable development: Development that
stream. meets the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to
• Stormwater drainage system: All the facilities meet their own needs.
used for the collection, conveyance, storage,
treatment, use and disposal of runoff from a • Watercourse: Stream or channel. May or may not
drainage area to a specified point. have a permanent flow of water.

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 GUIDELINES FOR HUMAN SETTLEMENT PLANNING AND DESIGN

APPENDIX A

Storage-Indication working curve method or Modified Puls method.

The standard flood routing equation is

( ) ( )
I1 + I2
2
T -
Q1 + Q2
2
T = S2 - S1 = S
(A1)

This can be transposed to

() ()() ( ) () ( )
I1
2
+
I2
2
+
S1
T
+
Q1
2
- Q1 =
S2
T
+
Q2
2
(A2)

where

I1 and I2 are the inflow rates at times T1 and T2 respectively;

Q1 and Q2 are the outflow rates at times T1 and T2 respectively;

S1 and S2 are the storage values at times T1 and T2 respectively;

T is the time increment between time T2 and T1.

In equation (A2) all the values on the LHS are known. Initially I1, Q1, S1 and I2 are known, yielding( ) ( )
S2 Q
+ 2 .
2

( ) ( )
T

( )
S S2 Q
+ 22 and
T +Q
By developing the relationship between Q and , Q2 can be interpolated from the value
T
S2 can be interpolated from the relationship between Q and S. In the next time step the terms Q2 and( ) ( )
S2 Q
+ 22

( )( )
T
S1 Q
become Q1 and + 1 respectively, so that the third storage value and discharge value can be deduced, and
T 2
so on.

33
Stormwater management Chapter 6
 GUIDELINES FOR HUMAN SETTLEMENT PLANNING AND DESIGN

APPENDIX B

Proportional and inverted V-notch weirs

The relationships for proportional weirs are as follows:

Q = C D . 2ga . b (h - a )
3 (B1)

where the discharge coefficient CD can be assumed to be approximately 0,62

and

x
b
2
= 1 -  tan
-1
( ay ) (B2)

where

Q is the flow in m3/s

a, b, h, x and y are in meters and shown in Figure B6.

DOWNSTREAM ELEVATION
PROPORTIONAL WEIR

DOWNSTREAM ELEVATION
INVERTED V-NOTCH WEIR

The relationship is as follows:

2
q = 3 .C D . 2g . 2Wh /2
3
-8 .C D . 2g. tan  .h
5/2

for 0 < h < d

For flows through this weir above a depth of 0,22d but less than 0,94d (where d is the V-sloped section height),
Murthy (1990) found that the discharges are proportional to the depth of flow. See Figure B6.

Figure B6: Proportional weirs

34
Chapter 6 Stormwater management
 GUIDELINES FOR HUMAN SETTLEMENT PLANNING AND DESIGN

APPENDIX C

Broad crested weir

The most commonly used formula for estimating flow over a broad crested weir is formula (C1). As long as the
flow is critical and parallel along its length, the equation is a good estimate.

q = 1,70H23/2 (C1)

Where

q = flow per unit width of weir.

H2 = total specific head at the weir.

35
Stormwater management Chapter 6
 GUIDELINES FOR HUMAN SETTLEMENT PLANNING AND DESIGN

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39
Stormwater management Chapter 6
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40
Chapter 6 Stormwater management
 Chapter 7

Roads: Geometric design and

layout planning

7
 GUIDELINES FOR HUMAN SETTLEMENT PLANNING AND DESIGN

TABLE OF CONTENTS

SCOPE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

INTRODUCTION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Reference to planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Classification of the road and street system. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

Measures of effectiveness (MOE) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

Traffic calming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

BASIC DESIGN PARAMETERS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

The design vehicle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

The design driver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

The road surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

THE ELEMENTS OF DESIGN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

Design speed. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

Ceiling speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

Design hour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

SIGHT DISTANCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

Stopping sight distance (SSD) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

Barrier sight distance (BSD) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

Decision sight distance (DSD) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

Passing sight distance (PSD) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

Intersection sight distance (ISD) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

Tangents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

Curvature and superelevation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

Superelevation runoff. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

VERTICAL ALIGNMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

Curvature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

Gradients. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

Climbing lanes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

CROSS-SECTION DESIGN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

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Roads: Geometric design and layout planning Chapter 7
 GUIDELINES FOR HUMAN SETTLEMENT PLANNING AND DESIGN

Lanes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

Shoulders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

Medians and outer separators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

Verges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

Sidewalks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

Slopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

INTERSECTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

Location of intersections. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

The types of intersection control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26

The form of intersections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

Intersection components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

Mini-roundabouts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

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Chapter 7 Roads: Geometric design and layout planning
 GUIDELINES FOR HUMAN SETTLEMENT PLANNING AND DESIGN

LIST OF TABLES

Table 7.1 Comparison between classification systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3

Table 7.2 Dimensions of design vehicles (m) (after Wolhuter and Skutil 1990) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4

Table 7.3 Minimum turning radii . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5

Table 7.4 Brake force coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6

Table 7.5 Recommended design and ceiling speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7

Table 7.6 Stopping sight distance on level roads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8

Table 7.7 Barrier sight distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9

Table 7.8 Decision sight distance on level roads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10

Table 7.9 Passing sight distance on level roads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10

Table 7.10 Pedestrian sight distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13

Table 7.11 Maximum superelevation for various classes of road . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14

Table 7.12 Minimum radii for horizontal curves (m) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14

Table 7.13 Rates and minimum lengths of superelevation runoff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15

Table 7.14 Minimum values of K for vertical curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16

Table 7.15 Minimum length of vertical curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17

Table 7.16 Maximum gradients on major roads (%). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17

Table 7.17 Traffic volume warrants for climbing lanes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19

Table 7.18 Typical width of verge elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23

Table 7.19 LOS criteria for sidewalk width . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24

Table 7.20 Taper rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30

Table 7.21 Typical edge treatments for left turns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30

Table 7.22 Design traffic conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .32

Table 7.23 Turning roadway widths (m) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 7.1 Truck speed on grades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5

Figure 7.2 Stopping sight distance on gradients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9

Figure 7.3 Minimum horizontal radius for stopping sight distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9

Figure 7.4 Intersection sight distance for turning manoeuvre . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11

Figure 7.5 Intersection sight distance for crossing manoeuvre . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12

Figure 7.6 Intersection sight distance for yield condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12

Figure 7.7 Elements of the cross-section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20

Figure 7.8 Typical bus stop layouts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23

Figure 7.9 Angles of skew . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27

Figure 7.10 Layout of island . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .32

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SCOPE Road design should, therefore, not only accom-

modate public transport but actively seek to
In this chapter the major objectives are to encourage its use. Adding embayed bus stops to a
route essentially designed for passenger cars does not
• stress the importance of geometric design, giving constitute support for the promotion of public
expression to planning concepts; transport.

• emphasise the revised approach to the road Obviously, bus routes should be designed with the bus
hierarchy; as the design vehicle. This selection of design vehicle
impacts, inter alia, on decisions concerning maximum
• suggest the importance of satisfying the needs of gradients, lane widths and provision for bus stops. A
all road users, both vehicular and non-vehicular; designated bus route should have a horizontal
and alignment planned to enhance the attractiveness of
the route to would-be passengers and also be highly
• provide guidelines for detailed geometric design accessible to pedestrians by ensuring that walking
that will result in a safe, efficient, affordable and distances to the nearest bus stop are minimised.
convenient road and street system. Dedicated bus lanes should be provided in areas where
the volume of bus or other high-occupancy vehicles
warrants their use. The dedicated bus lane implies that
INTRODUCTION the street will essentially be a shared facility serving
other modes of transport as well. The high volumes of
Reference to planning bus traffic that are typically achieved when a number
of bus routes converge on the CBD or some other
The ultimate objective in the creation of an urban transport hub may suggest that dedicated bus routes,
place is that it should be such that people would wish as opposed to bus lanes, become a practical option.
to live, work and play there. This can only be achieved
by the closest co-operation between the planner and The distinction drawn between geometric planning and
the geometric designer, because the ultimate layout of geometric design is not always clear. In this document,
the street system effectively defines the urban area in geometric planning is described in Chapter 5: Planning
terms of its functionality and, hence, its attractiveness Guidelines. A brief exposition of the difference
to the inhabitants. between planning and design is offered below.

These two disciplines must also interact closely with Geometric planning
the other disciplines involved in the provision of
services to the inhabitants. As streets also form sets of Planning addresses the broad concepts in terms of
conduits along which essential services such as water which the functions of the various links in the
supply, sewerage and power are conducted, they street network are defined. These concepts address
should be so located that they do not unnecessarily the sum of human activity, whether economic
constrain the provision of these services. (which can be formal or informal), recreational or
social - the latter including educational, health care
This chapter of the guidelines cannot, therefore, be and worship activities. In this context, it is pointed
read in isolation. out that movement is a derived activity or demand.

Both the planner and the designer are required to Previously, both planning and design tended to
adopt a more holistic approach to determination of focus on areas being dedicated to single land-use,
the street network than has previously been the case. thus forcing a need for movement between the
They may find it useful to consider the total width of living area and any other. Current planning
the cross-section as being hard open space, only part philosophies favour the abandonment of single use
of which is dedicated to the movement function. This in favour of mixed use. Mixed use suggests that
part of the cross-section is roughly equivalent to the people can both live and work in one area. Not
road reserve as previously understood and is still only will this have the practical effect of reducing
required to address a range of trip purposes, trip the demand for movement over long distances but,
components and modes of travel. where movement is still necessary, it will support
change of the mode of movement because, over
With regard to modes of travel, the design of the street short distances, walking and cycling are practical
network was historically predicated almost exclusively options. This will further reduce the areal extent
on the passenger car. Many trip makers will, however, required to be dedicated to movement. Conceptual
always be reliant on walking or public transport as the planning leads to the definition of corridors
only modes available to them. Furthermore, it is not intended to support some or other activity, one of
possible to endlessly upgrade the street network in which is movement.
terms of a growing population of passenger cars.

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Corridors, in association with their intended The goals of transportation as propounded by the
functions, will ultimately define the horizontal Driessen Commission are the economic, safe and
alignment of the streets located in them. A need convenient movement of people and goods with a
for high traffic speeds will suggest high values of minimum of side-effects. These goals are
horizontal radius, whereas reductions in radius unchanged. It must be understood that, in arriving
could be applied to force speeds down to match at an acceptable street design, these goals apply
activities involving a mix of vehicular and non- equally to all modes of travel. In this respect, it will
vehicular traffic. Reduction of the lengths of invariably be necessary to seek compromises
tangents between curves or intersections could between the various modes. The one goal seen as
serve the same purpose. being non-negotiable is safety. For example, the
safety of pedestrians cannot be compromised in
The dominant function of the corridor defines the pursuit of convenience of vehicular travel.
vertical alignment in terms of maximum and
minimum acceptable gradients, vertical curvature Classification of the road and street
and length of grade. For example, streets with a system
predominantly pedestrian function should ideally be
flat, whereas - if movement includes provision for a The traditional five-level hierarchy of streets has
bus route - modest gradients are allowable. Routes effectively been abandoned, principally because it
intended principally for the movement of vehicles placed an over-emphasis on the vehicular movement
other than buses may be steeper although, where function of the street system. The concept of a
very high volumes are anticipated, the adverse hierarchy also implicitly carried with it the notion of
effect of steep gradients must be borne in mind. one part of the network being more important than
another. The network comprises a system of
Function is defined in terms of two prime interlinking streets serving different functions, and
components, namely the nature and the extent of often serving these different functions differently.
demand. As such, it is the major informant of the
design of the cross-section. The demand may be for Over-emphasis of the importance of one link at the
high-speed, high-volume traffic flows, in which cost of another does not only constitute poor design;
case the cross-section would comprise more than it can place the network as a whole in jeopardy. In fact,
one moving lane in each direction, possibly with a all parts of the network require equal consideration.
median between the opposing flows and shoulders To assist designers in developing some understanding
as opposed to sidewalks. On the other hand, if the of the new classification system, Table 7.1, offering a
demand is for predominantly pedestrian/ comparison between the previous five-tier system, the
commercial activity, very wide sidewalks (i.e. wider Urban Transport Guideline (UTG) series, and that
than would be required merely to accommodate a currently employed, is shown below.
volume of moving pedestrians) would be necessary
to allow for sidewalk cafes, roadside vending and It should, however, be clearly understood that there is
browsing or window shopping. While vehicles not a one-to-one relationship between the current and
would not necessarily be excluded, their presence the other classifications. The five-tier and the UTG
would not be encouraged and speeds would be classification systems are limited to addressing
forced down by having few and narrow lanes and movement in terms of a spectrum of accessibility versus
very short tangent lengths. mobility, whereas the current classification addresses
all functions of roads and streets. Reference should be
Geometric design made to Chapter 5.1: Movement Networks, in which
the classification system is comprehensively described.
Design is principally concerned with converting to
physical dimensions the constraints introduced by Mixed routes forming part of the “movement
planning concepts. Ongoing reference to the network” classification can be subdivided into “higher-
chapter on Planning is necessary to ensure that the order”, “middle-order” and “lower-order” routes.
road as ultimately designed matches the intentions Higher-order routes would carry higher volumes of
regarding its function. It is important to realise that traffic and/or accommodate higher levels of economic
the function of the road reserve is broader than activity, whereas lower-order routes would principally
merely the accommodation of moving traffic which address local and access-seeking traffic and
may be either vehicular or pedestrian. Although accommodate higher levels of recreational activity.
geometric design tends to focus on movement, the Middle-order routes serve primarily as links between
other functions must be accommodated. If the higher- and lower-order routes. It would thus be
designer does not adopt this wider perspective, the unwise to regard the appellation of “higher-order” as
most likely consequence would be that the original an invitation to reach for, say, UTG 5.
intention - “the creation of an urban place that
should be such that people would wish to live, work The five-tier system subdivided Class 5 streets into a
and play there” - would be severely compromised. further six sub-classes, two of which could be loosely

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Table 7.1: Comparison between classification systems

MOVEMENT NETWORK FIVE-TIER SYSTEM URBAN TRANSPORT GUIDELINES (UTG SERIES)

Vehicle-only route 1 Regional distributor (Freeways not included)

2 Primary distributor Major arterial (UTG1)

Mixed pedestrian and 3 District distributor Minor arterial (UTG1)

Vehicle route
4 Local distributor Collector (UTG15)

5 Access street Local street (UTG7 &10)

Pedestrian-only route (not applicable)

classified as being pedestrian-only. The UTG series does A lesser extent of infrastructure implies that more land
not address either freeways or pedestrian-only routes. is available for other applications and the capital
UTG 10 addresses local commercial and industrial outlay involved in infrastructure provision per erf is
streets which fall outside the ambit of this document. lessened. This benefit applies directly to all aspects of
community life. Residential properties are rendered
Measures of effectiveness (MOE) more affordable because the costs incurred in servicing
them inevitably impact on property prices. The
Geometric design is primarily concerned with the financial return from commercial properties is
assemblage of a group of components leading to the enhanced because the lower land price has an effect
creation of an operating system. As a case in point, the on the business overheads of the occupier. In short,
cross-section is not whole and indivisible: it is, in fact, commercial activities can become more competitive.
heavily disaggregated. In the preparation of a design,
it is thus necessary not only to be aware of the various MOEs that refer to the provision of infrastructure
functions that the geometric design is intended to invariably refer to the Transportation Research Board
serve but also to be able to measure the extent to Special Report 209: Highway Capacity Manual (HCM),
which the often conflicting functions are served. the most recent edition of which was issued in 1994.
Invariably, the local authority will specify that the This manual is in general use in South Africa. The
facility provided should meet some or other specified manual comprehensively addresses the entire
level of utility. Measures of effectiveness (MOE) are spectrum of modes of movement, and all aspects of
thus required. the road or street network, from freeways to
residential streets to intersections. The HCM
With regard to movement, MOEs can relate either to propounds a philosophy of Levels of Service (LOS) and,
management of the operation of infrastructure, or to in general, refers to five levels ranging from A to E
the provision of infrastructure. with LOS A being the highest level and LOS E
corresponding to capacity. The higher levels are
In the former case, reference is to Transportation typically related to LOS E by utilising a volume-to-
System Management (TSM) and its strategies and capacity or v/c ratio. The actual MOEs on which the
processes, all of which have MOEs associated with levels of service are based vary between the various
them. Reference should be made to Guidelines for the types of facility being analysed. Those applying to a
transportation system management process (1991), freeway do not apply to a residential street or to a
Pretoria: Committee of Urban Transport Authorities signalised intersection so that, although in all cases
(Draft Urban Transport Guidelines: UTG 9). This reference could be made to LOS A, what is intended is
document is available from the National Department not comparable between them.
of Transport.
It is recommended that analysis be based on the
Management is aimed at enhancing the productivity Highway Capacity Manual, with due regard being paid
of the system as provided. A well- managed system to the practical benefits to be derived from the
could, with a lesser extent of infrastructure, application of TSM measures.
conceivably accommodate the same demand for
movement as an unmanaged system. By the same
token, a design that is sensitive to the possibilities
contained in good management would result in a
highly efficient use of space.

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Traffic calming Traffic calming devices are discussed in detail in

Schermers G and Theyse H (1996), National guidelines
Traffic calming refers to measures usually designed to for traffic calming.
reduce either the volume of moving vehicles or their
speed. The intentions behind the application of traffic
calming can, however, be many and various. In BASIC DESIGN PARAMETERS
addition to reductions in speed or volumes of traffic,
they may include: The design vehicle

• noise reduction; The design vehicle is a composite rather than a single

• reduction of air pollution; and vehicle. It thus represents a combination of the critical
• provision of safe areas for pedestrians or other design features of all the vehicles within a specific class
non-vehicular road users. weighted by the number of each make and model
vehicle found in the South African vehicle population.
Planning aimed at achieving these intentions reduces
the need for the introduction of traffic calming The dimensions offered in Table 7.2 were determined
measures which are essentially artificial devices such as by Wolhuter and Skutil (1990). The values quoted in
speed humps, chicanes, street narrowing devices, road the table are 95 percentile values.
closures and changes in surfacing colour or texture.
Because of its application in the determination of
Planning measures could include the selection of link passing sight distance, the fifth percentile value of
lengths as a means of reducing variations in vehicle height is selected. The height of passenger cars is thus
speed. As a rule of thumb, a link length in metres that taken as 1,3 m. A height of 2,6 m is adopted for all
is about ten times the desired speed in km/h would other vehicles.
ensure that a vehicle entering the link at less than the
desired speed is not likely to accelerate beyond it. Two vehicles are recommended for use in the design of
Alternating priority control at the intersections along urban roads. The passenger car should be used for
a street would also serve as a restraint on excessive speed-related standards and the bus for standards
speed, as would bounding the various links by three- relating to manoeuvrability, typically at intersections.
legged or T- intersections. The bus also dictates the maximum permissible
gradient. Designs must, however, be checked to ensure
Small-radius horizontal curvature would effectively that larger vehicles, such as articulated vehicles, can be
cause a reduction in traffic speeds. However, this accommodated within the total width of the travelled
application is not recommended for general practice. way, even though they may encroach on adjacent or
Highly curvilinear alignments impact adversely on the even opposing lanes. Should these larger vehicles
costs of provision of all the services normally located comprise more than 10% of the traffic stream, it will
within the road reserve. Furthermore, pedestrians be necessary to use them as the design vehicle.
would be subjected to unnecessarily long travel paths
between origin and destination. In constricted situations where templates for turning
movements are not appropriate, the capabilities of the
Should traffic calming measures be necessary, an area- design vehicle become critical. Ninety-five percentile
wide approach is preferable to isolated measures. The values of minimum turning radii for the outer side of
effect is to impose the desired conditions over a wide the vehicle are given in Table 7.3. It is stressed that
area so that low speeds or volumes become part of the these radii are appropriate only to crawl speeds.
drivers’ expectations in respect of the area being
traversed. An isolated speed hump located where a Truck speeds on various grades have been the subject
driver does not expect it can result in loss of control or of much study under southern African conditions. Bus
damage to the vehicle itself. speeds are similar and it has been found that

Table 7.2: Dimensions of design vehicles (m) (after Wolhuter and Skutil 1990)

VEHICLE WHEEL BASE FRONT OVERHANG REAR OVERHANG WIDTH

Passenger car (P) 3,1 0,7 1,0 1,8

Single unit (SU) 6,1 1,2 1,8 2,5

Single unit + trailer (SU +T) 6,7+3,4*+6,1 1,2 1,8 2,5
Single unit bus (BUS) 7,6 2,1 2,6 2,6
Semi-trailer (WB-15) 6,1+9,4 0,9 0,6 2,5

* Distance between SU rear wheels and trailer front wheels

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Table 7.3: Minimum turning radii drivers an eye height of 1,8 m or more. These values
have accordingly been adopted for use in these
VEHICLE MIN RADIUS (m) guidelines.

Passenger car (P) 6,2 A figure of 2,5 seconds has been generally adopted for
Single unit (SU) 12,8 reaction time for response to a single stimulus.
Single unit + trailer (SU+T) 14,0 American practice also makes provision for a reaction
time of 5,7-10,0 seconds for more complex multiple-
Single unit bus (BUS) 13,1
choice situations. These extended times make
Semi-trailer (WB-15) 13,7
provision for the case where more than one external
circumstance must be evaluated, and the most
performance is not significantly affected by height appropriate response selected and initiated.
above sea-level. Performance can therefore be
represented by a single family of curves calculated on The road surface
the basis of the 95 percentile mass/power ratio of 275
kg/kW, and as shown in Figure 7.1. The road surface has numerous qualities which can
affect the driver’s perception of the situation ahead,
Pedestrians are also considered to be “design vehicles” but skid resistance is the only one of these qualities
in the sense that they are self-propelled, occupy space taken into account in these guidelines.
and have a measurable speed of movement. When
bunched with others, while awaiting an opportunity Skid resistance has been the subject of research
to cross a street for example, the individual pedestrian worldwide, and it has been locally established by
occupies a circular space of about 700 mm in diameter. Mkhacane (1992) and Lea (1996) that the derived
Pedestrians on the move will, however, prefer to be values of brake force coefficient are appropriate to the
one metre or more apart. Walking speed on average is southern African environment. Lea established that a
1,5 m/s but in certain areas, such as in the vicinity of limiting value of 0,4 is appropriate to gravel surfaces
old-age homes, hospitals and schools, allowance for all speeds. This suggests that, for design purposes,
should be made for lower speeds. a value not greater than 0,2 should be adopted for
these roads. With regard to surfaced roads, there is a
High volumes of pedestrians also invariably force considerable range of values. At 50 km/h the skid
lower walking speeds. Under these circumstances, resistance of a worn tyre on a smooth surface is half
design should be predicated on a walking speed of that of a new tyre on a rough surface, and at 100 km/h
1,0 m/s. it is five times lower. Skid resistance also depends on
speed, and reduces as speed increases.
The design driver
The speed used in the calculation of guideline values is
Research (Pretorius 1976, Brafman Bahar 1983) has the operating speed, generally 80-85% of design
indicated that 95% of passenger car drivers have an speed.
eye height of 1,05 m or more, and 95% of bus or truck

100

80
Speed (km/h)

1%
60

2%
40
3%
4%
5%
20 6%

0
0 400 800 1200 1600 2000 2400 2800 3200 3600
Distance along grade (m)
Figure 7.1: Truck speed on grades

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Brake-force coefficients are given in Table 7.4. No Where it is necessary to vary the design speed along a
allowance is made for a safety factor, as these section of road because of topographic or other
represent actually measured values for a worn tyre on limiting features, care should be taken to ensure that
a smooth wet surface which, in engineering terms, adequate transitions from higher to lower standards
constitutes a “worst case”. are provided.

Ceiling speed
Table 7.4: Brake force coefficients
In the urban situation, the need to vary the design
SPEED (km/h) COEFFICIENTS
speed because of physically constraining features is
20 0,47 not likely to arise with any frequency. However,
40 0,37 situations in which it is desirable to reduce operating
speeds are common. Cases in point are areas where
60 0,32
localised high concentrations of pedestrian traffic
80 0,30 prevail. Examples include in the vicinity of schools
100 0,29 (with particular reference to primary and nursery
120 0,28 schools), old-age homes, modal transfer points and
hospitals. Activity streets, where mixed usage may
prevail, may require low operating speeds over
substantial distances.
THE ELEMENTS OF DESIGN
It would be extremely unwise to reduce the design
Design speed speed in these areas, since a reduction in the design
speed carries with it a reduction of sight distance. With
Traffic speeds are measured and quoted in kilometres the greater number of potential hazards that need to
per hour. The Highway Capacity Manual be observed and responded to, the driver should be
(Transportation Research Board 1994) lists definitions afforded as much sight distance, and hence reaction
of ten different speeds, such as spot speed, time mean time, as possible. In such areas, the design speed
speed, space mean speed, overall travel speed, running should be increased rather than reduced. An increase
speed, etc. In this document, reference is principally to in the design speed by a factor less than 1,2 is not likely
design speed and operating speed. to produce any significant difference in operating
conditions as perceived by the driver.
The design speed is a speed selected for the purposes
of the design and correlation of those features of a Clearly, however, the higher design speed should not
road (such as horizontal curvature, vertical curvature, serve as an inducement to increase operating speed
sight distance and superelevation) upon which the and the concept of traffic calming would have to be
safe operation of vehicles depends. The design speed brought into play.
should thus be regarded more in the nature of a
grouping of various design standards rather than as a Table 7.5 offers design and ceiling speeds appropriate
speed per se. to various classes of roads and streets. It should be
noted that, ideally, shopping precincts such as malls
The operating speed is the highest running speed at should be so designed that vehicular access to them is
which a driver can travel on a given road under not necessary. Should this not be possible to achieve in
favourable weather and prevailing traffic conditions practice, access should be permitted only outside
without, at any time, exceeding the design speed. normal business hours. Parking areas serving shopping
Implicit in this definition of operating speed is the idea precincts should be designed to minimise vehicle-
that the design speed is also the maximum safe speed pedestrian conflicts.
that can be maintained on a given section of road
when traffic conditions are so favourable that the Design hour
design features of the road govern the driver’s
selection of speed. In the same way that a design speed is not a speed, the
design hour is not an hour in the normal sense of the
Sight should not be lost of the fact that a degree of word. It is, in fact, a shorthand description of the
arbitrariness attaches to the concept of maximum safe conditions being designed for - specifically the
speed. The absolute maximum speed at which an projected traffic conditions.
individual driver is safe depends as much on the
driver’s skill and reaction time, the quality and These conditions include
condition of the vehicle and its tyres, the weather
conditions and the time of day (insofar as this affects • traffic volume, measured in vehicles per hour;
visibility) as on the design features of the road.
• traffic density, measured in vehicles per kilometre;

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Chapter 7 Roads: Geometric design and layout planning
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Table 7.5: Recommended design and ceiling speed

CLASS OF ROAD DESIGN SPEED (km/h) CEILING SPEED (km/h)

Vehicles only (freeways) 100 - 120 Not applicable

Vehicles only (other) 70 - 100 Not applicable

Mixed (higher order) 60 - 80 50 - 60

Mixed (middle order) 40 - 60 30 - 50

Mixed (lower order) 40 - 60 30 - 50

Pedestrian 30 20 - 30

Shopping precincts 30 <20

• traffic composition (i.e. the proportion of fluctuations in traffic volume unless the month or day
passenger cars, buses, rigid-chassis trucks and is explicitly specified.
articulated vehicles comprising the traffic stream
and usually expressed in percentage form); and The design hourly volume is frequently assumed to
be the 30th highest hourly volume of the future
• directional split which, in an urban peak hour, year chosen for design, i.e. the hourly volume
readily achieves values of 80:20 or worse. Tidal flow exceeded during only 29 hours of that year. The
implies that the 80:20 split in the evening peak design hourly volume is expressed as a percentage
would be in the opposite direction to that of the ADT and typically varies from 12 to 18%. A
experienced in the morning peak and both have to value of 15% is thus normally assumed unless actual
be designed for. traffic counts suggest another percentage. Major
urban links subject to commuter flows have a
The design hour is thus a combination of two distinctly relatively low variation in flow when flows are
different sets of circumstances, i.e. the morning and ordered from highest to lowest across the number
the afternoon peak in the case of commuter routes. of hours in the year and, very often, the 100th
Other routes may have different characteristics highest hourly flow (at about 10 to 12% of the ADT)
defining peak flows. Furthermore, the peak period is an adequate basis for design.
may have a duration that is longer (or shorter) than 60
minutes and contain within itself a shorter period Assessment of the total daily volume and hence hourly
(typically 15 minutes) with very intense traffic flows. flows to be accommodated is a matter of some
complexity. In the rural situation, naive modelling (i.e.
A design life of 20 years is often assumed as a basis for applying a simple growth factor to present-day traffic
design. This period may be altered subject to the counts) is adequate because changes in the nature and
planning of the authority concerned, and the intensity of land use are slow if, in fact, they occur at
evaluation of the economic consequences of all. In the urban situation, however, these changes are
departure from the suggested time span. For example, both significant and rapid. Furthermore, alternative
a road carrying low traffic volumes with few buses or routes are available. More sophisticated forms of
trucks in the traffic stream may justify a shorter design modelling are necessary and application of naive
life because of the savings accruing from the smaller modelling is not recommended.
number of axle-load repetitions in the shorter period.
These savings arise from a reduction in the thickness of The road network is really intended to support
the design layers of the pavement and possibly even passenger trips or freight trips, with vehicle trips being
from a reduction in the quality of the materials almost incidental. Where would-be trip makers have a
required for road construction. A road carrying high choice of mode, namely a convenient, safe, economical
volumes of bus or truck traffic in very hilly terrain may public transport service (which may be bus, rail bus or
require a longer design life to achieve a reasonable light rail) that really competes with the passenger car,
return on the initial cost of construction. traffic flows could be substantially lower than
otherwise anticipated.
Traffic volumes are usually expressed in terms of
average daily traffic (ADT) measured in vehicles per Density is a function of flow and speed, as illustrated
day, with the ADT referring to an extended period, by the units of measurement involved.
typically of the order of a year. Reference is made to
Annual Average Daily Traffic (AADT) only if traffic
Flow (veh/h)
counts are available for the period 1 January to 31 Density (veh/km) = ————————-
Speed (km/h)
December. The ADT does not reflect monthly or daily

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This function is not quite as direct as the equation areas, the object height can be increased to 0,6 m. This
implies because the basis of measurement differs. greater height provides a practical design with an
Density is measured across a considerable length of adequate margin of safety for the protection of
street at a single point in time, whereas flow is children, pets and other obstacles typically
measured at a single point in space over an extended encountered on this class of street.
period of time. For this reason, the speed referred to
in the above relationship is space mean speed as Object height is also taken into account because, if the
opposed to the more generally understood time mean sight distance were measured to the road surface, the
speed. length of the vertical curve required would be
substantially increased.
It is the relationship between these measures which
defines the Level of Service to be provided by the This could result in streets being significantly above or
street being designed and, hence, the number of below natural ground level. In the urban environment
moving lanes to be provided in the cross-section. where there is a need for access to adjacent properties
at relatively short intervals, this is not acceptable.

SIGHT DISTANCE The gradient has a marked effect on the stopping-

distance requirements. Figure 7.2 is an expansion of
Sight distance is a fundamental criterion in the design Table 7.6, demonstrating this effect.
of any road or street. It is essential for the driver to be
able to perceive hazards on the road, with sufficient
time in hand to initiate any required action safely. On Table 7.6: Stopping sight distance on
a two-lane two-way road it is also necessary for him or level roads
her to be able to enter the opposing lane safely while
DESIGN SPEED STOPPING SIGHT DISTANCE
overtaking. In intersection design, the application of
(km/h) (m)
sight distance is slightly different from that applied in
design for the rest of the road or street system but 30 30
safety is always the chief consideration. 40 50
50 65
Stopping sight distance (SSD)
60 80
Stopping distance involves the ability of the driver to 70 95
bring the vehicle safely to a standstill and is thus based 80 115
on speed, driver reaction time and skid resistance. The 90 135
total distance travelled in bringing the vehicle to a 100 155
stop has two components:
110 180
120 210
• the distance covered during the driver’s reaction
period; and

• the distance required to decelerate to 0 km/h. Stopping sight distance can also be affected by a visual
obstruction such as a garden wall or shrubbery next to
The stopping distance is expressed as : the lane on the inside of a horizontal curve, as shown
in Figure 7.3.
s = 0,694 v + v2 / 254 f
Barrier sight distance (BSD)
where: s = total distance travelled (m)
v = speed (km/h) Barrier sight distance is the limit below which
f = brake force coefficient overtaking is legally prohibited. Two opposing vehicles
travelling in the same lane should be able to come to
Stopping sight distances are based on operating a standstill before impact. A logical basis for the
speeds. The brake-force coefficients quoted in determination of the barrier sight distance is therefore
Table 7.4 have been adopted for design, and the that it should equal twice the stopping distance, plus a
calculated stopping sight distances are given in further distance of 10 m to allow an additional safety
Table 7.6. margin. The values given in Table 7.7 reflect this
approach.
Stopping sight distance is measured from an eye
height of 1,05 m to an object height of 0,15 m in the Barrier sight distance is measured to an object height
case of the higher-order roads. This object height is of 1,3 m, with eye height remaining unaltered at
used because an obstacle of a lower height would not 1,05 m. The greater object height is realistic because it
normally represent a significant hazard. In residential represents the height of a low approaching vehicle.

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 GUIDELINES FOR HUMAN SETTLEMENT PLANNING AND DESIGN

400

350

300
Stopping sight distance (m)

120 km/h
250

200
100 km/h

150
80 km/h

100
60 km/h

50 40 km/h

0
-8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Gradient (G) (%)

Figure 7.2: Stopping sight distance on gradients

2200

2000 CL
Inside lane
1800 M M=4
Line of sight

1600
Minimum radius (m)

Obstruction
1400

1200 M=6

1000
M=8
800
M=10
600

400

200 R for design

speed
0
40 60 80 100 120 140
Design speed (km/h)

Figure 7.3: Minimum horizontal radius for stopping sight distance

Hidden dip alignments are commonly considered to be

Table 7.7: Barrier sight distance poor design practice. They typically mislead drivers
into believing that there is more sight distance
DESIGN SPEED(km/h) BARRIER SIGHT DISTANCE(m) available than actually exists. In checking the
alignment in terms of barrier sight distance, the
40 110 designer should pay detailed attention to areas where
60 170 this form of alignment occurs, to ensure that drivers
80 240 are made aware of any inadequacies of design.
100 320
Because of the low speeds involved and the typically
120 430
short lengths of lower-order mixed-usage streets, the
passing operation is of little significance so that barrier

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 GUIDELINES FOR HUMAN SETTLEMENT PLANNING AND DESIGN

markings are seldom, if ever, employed on these lengthened or shortened. A further possibility is the
streets. provision of a passing lane.

Decision sight distance (DSD) Passing sight distance can be calculated on one of two
bases, being either the sight distance required for a
The best visual cue to the driver is the roadway ahead. successful overtaking manoeuvre or that required for
For this reason it is necessary in certain circumstances an aborted manoeuvre. The former could be described
for the road surface itself to be visible to the driver for as being a desirable standard and the latter as the
a given distance ahead. This is to allow sufficient time minimum. Values quoted for the successful manoeuvre
for the assimilation of a message and the safe are taken from AASHTO (1994) and for the aborted
initiation of any action required. An example is the manoeuvre from Harwood and Glennon (1989), who
marking that allocates specific lanes at an intersection base these distances on the vehicles involved being a
to turning movements. Warning of this must be given passenger car passing a bus or a truck.
sufficiently far in advance of the intersection to permit
a lane change that does not detrimentally affect the Table 7.9 lists passing sight distances in respect of both
operation of the intersection itself. successful and aborted manoeuvres.

Decision sight distance, as given in Table 7.8, is related

to the reaction time involved in a complex driving task. Table 7.9: Passing sight distance on
The reaction time selected for this purpose is 7,5 level roads
seconds, which is roughly the mean of values quoted in
DESIGN PASSING SIGHT DISTANCE (m)
American practice. The calculated values in Table 7.8
are based on stopping sight distance to allow for the SPEED SUCCESSFUL ABORTED
condition where the decision is to bring the vehicle to (km/h) MANOEUVRE MANOEUVRE
rest.
40 290 -
60 410 226
Table 7.8: Decision sight distance on
80 540 312
level roads
100 670 395
DESIGN SPEED (km/h) STOPPING SIGHT DISTANCE (m) 120 800 471

40 130
60 190 Passing sight distance in respect of a successful
manoeuvre allows adequately (according to Harwood
80 240
and Glennon 1989) for an aborted manoeuvre in the
100 300
case of a bus or truck attempting to pass another.
120 350
As in the case of barrier sight distance, passing sight
This has the effect of increasing the normal reaction distance is not a consideration in the design of lower-
time of 2,5 seconds by a further five seconds of travel order mixed-usage streets.
at the design speed of the road. Decision sight
distance is measured from an eye height of 1,05 m to Intersection sight distance (ISD)
the road surface, i.e. to an object height of 0 m.
At a stop-controlled intersection, the driver of a
Passing sight distance (PSD) stationary vehicle must be able to see enough of the
through-road or street to be able to carry out one of
In the case of vehicles-only and higher-order mixed three operations before an approaching vehicle
usage streets, passing sight distance is an important reaches the intersection, even if this vehicle comes into
criterion indicative of the quality of service provided view just as the stopped vehicle starts to move. These
by the road. The initial design is required to provide three operations are to:
stopping sight distance over the full length of the
road, with passing sight distance being checked • turn to the left in advance of a vehicle approaching
thereafter. A heavily trafficked road requires a higher from the right;
proportion of passing sight distance than a lightly
trafficked road to provide the same level of service. • turn to the right, crossing the path of a vehicle
Insufficient passing sight distance over a vertical curve approaching from the right and in advance of a
can be remedied, for example, either by lengthening vehicle approaching from the left;
the vertical curve to provide passing sight distance
within the length of the curve itself, or by shortening • to move across the major highway in advance of a
the curve to extend the passing opportunities on vehicle approaching from the left.
either side. Horizontal curves can similarly be

10
Chapter 7 Roads: Geometric design and layout planning
 GUIDELINES FOR HUMAN SETTLEMENT PLANNING AND DESIGN

In the first case, the assumption is that the turning Intersection sight distances recommended in
vehicle will accelerate to 85% of the design speed of accordance with the principles outlined above are
the through-road and a vehicle approaching on the given in Figures 7.4 and 7.5. Before a lower value is
through-road will decelerate from the design speed adopted in a specific case, the implications of
also to 85% of the design speed, leaving a two-second departing from the recommended values should be
headway between them at the end of the manoeuvre. considered.

According to AASHTO, the intersection sight distance The line of sight is taken from a point on the centre
required for the right turn is only about one metre less line of the crossing road and 2,4 m back from the edge
than that required for the left turn, given the same of the through-road, to a point on the centre line of
assumptions as made in the first case. the through-road, as shown in Figures 7.4 and 7.5. The
setback is intended to allow for a pedestrian or cycle
In the case of the vehicle crossing the through- road, track crossing beyond the Stop line.
the distance the crossing vehicle must travel is the sum
of: The object height is 1,3 m. The eye height is 1,05 m for
a passenger car and 1,8 m for buses and all other
• the distance from the stop line to the edge of the design vehicles. There should not be any obstruction to
through carriageway; the view in the sight triangle, which is defined as the
area enclosed by the sight line and the centre lines of
• the width of the road being crossed; and the intersecting roads.

• the length of the crossing vehicle. Where an intersection is subject to yield control, the
unobstructed sight triangle must be larger. If it is
This manoeuvre must be completed in the time it takes assumed that the vehicle approaching the intersection
the approaching vehicle to reach the intersection, on the minor leg will be travelling at 30 km/h, a
assuming that the approaching vehicle is travelling at distance of 30 m would be required to stop the vehicle.
the design speed of the through-road. For safety, the If the driver is already preparing to stop, allowance for
time available should also include allowance for the reaction time is no longer necessary and a distance of
time it takes for the crossing driver to establish that it 10 m is required to bring the vehicle to a standstill. If
is safe to cross, engage gear and set his or her vehicle the approach speed is 60 km/h, the required distance
in motion: a period of about two seconds is normally is 45 m.
used.

1000
Articulated
truck
St

800 W
Intersection sight distance St (m)

sight
5m Line of
Single unit

600

Passenger
400 car

200

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140

Design speed (km/h)

Figure 7.4: Intersection sight distance for turning manoeuvre

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The sight triangles required for yield control based on The intersection sight distance for this manoeuvre is
an approach speed of 60 km/h are so large that the shown in Figure 7.6
probability of their being found in an urban area is
remote. Because the driver approaching the yield sign may be
required to stop, intersection sight distance as defined
If the driver does not stop but turns to travel in the and measured for the stop condition must also be
same direction as a vehicle approaching at the design available.
speed of the through-road, the driver of the latter
vehicle will be forced to slow down to match speeds at Intersections are, typically, the points at which
a safe following distance. pedestrians would want to cross the through-road or

600

Sc
500 Artic 4-lane
W
Artic 4-lane
Intersection sight distance Sc (m)

sight
5m Line of
400

SU 4-lane

SU 2-lane
300
P 4-lane

P 2-lane
200

100

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Design speed (km/h)

Figure 7.5: Intersection sight distance for crossing manoeuvre

600
Sy

500 Articulated
truck (Artic)
t
igh
Intersection sight distance Sy (m)

s
of
45m

e
400 Lin

Single unit
300 (SU)

200
Passenger
car (P)

100

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140

Design speed (km/h)

Figure 7.6: Intersection sight distance for yield condition

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street. Pedestrians must therefore be provided with Design of the horizontal alignment must also give
adequate sight distance to ensure that they can cross effect to the proposed function of the road or street.
the through-street in safety. This case is precisely For example, the horizontal alignment of a freeway is
analogous to that of the vehicle at the intersection, typified by long tangents and gentle curves, whereas a
because the principle involved is that the sight residential street should be designed to discourage
distance provided is directed towards what the operating speeds higher than 40 to 50 km/h.
pedestrian must be able to see rather than the sight
distance available to drivers of vehicles on the General principles to be observed in the determination
through-road. of the horizontal alignment of a road or street are the
following:
Pedestrian sight distance is measured from an eye
height of 1,0 m to an object height of 1,3 m. It is • No vehicle can instantaneously change from
assumed that the pedestrian is located on the left side traversing a curve in one direction to traversing
of the intersecting street with the oncoming vehicle one in the reverse direction. Short lengths of
approaching also from the left. This represents the tangent should thus be used between reverse
longest crossing distance before a situation which is at curves.
all safe is achieved, because the further assumption is
that the pedestrian will not be required to pause on • Broken-back curves (where two curves in the same
the centreline of the through-road. The distances direction are separated by a short tangent) should
offered in Table 7.10 would be adequate for crossing a not be used as they are contrary to drivers’
two-lane road. expectations. In the residential environment, this is
difficult to avoid as cadastral boundaries are
Table 7.10: Pedestrian sight distance straight lines. Fitting smooth curves within a
reserve comprising a series of chords of a circle is
DESIGN SPEED (km/h) SIGHT DISTANCE(m) not always possible.

30 45 • Large- and small-radius curves should not be mixed.

40 55 Successive curves to the left and the right should
50 70 generally have similar radii and the 1:1,5 rule is a
useful guide in their selection.
60 85
70 100 • In residential areas, the deviation angle of short-
radius curves should not exceed 90° as, at higher
If adequate sight distance is not available, it may be values of deviation, encroachment by large vehicles
necessary to provide a signalised cross-walk, thus on opposing lanes becomes pronounced and,
forcing through vehicles to stop. Furthermore, if an furthermore, the splay that has to be provided to
adequate gap in the through-traffic does not present permit adequate sight distance becomes excessive.
itself at intervals not exceeding one minute, a
signalised pedestrian crossing should also be • For small-deflection angles, curves should be
considered. sufficiently long to avoid the impression of a kink.

• Alignment should be sensitive to the topography

HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT to minimise the need for cuts and fills and the
restriction that these place on access to erven from
The horizontal alignment of a road or street is the the street. Streets at right angles to the contours
combination of curves and straights (or tangents) can create problems in terms of construction,
presented on a plan view. Curves are usually circular, maintenance, drainage, scour (in the case of
although spirals and other higher-order polynomials gravelled surfaces) and also constitute a traffic
can be used under highly specific circumstances, which hazard. During heavy rainstorms, water flowing
are seldom found in residential environments. down a steep street can flow across the
intersecting street.
Determination of the horizontal alignment of an
urban street is a planning rather than a detailed In addition, the various utilities, such as sewerage,
design function, and is highly iterative in nature. power and water reticulation, are typically located
Iteration is not only between the three dimensions within the road reserve. The planning of the road
of design, e.g. where restraints in the vertical network must therefore also take cognisance of the
dimension may force a shift in horizontal alignment, limitations to which these services are subject. For
but also involves continuous revisiting of the example, a street located in such a fashion that its
intentions originally formulated with regard to vertical alignment tends to be undulating would
settlement making. present significant difficulties in the location of sewer
runs.

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Tangents where: R = radius (m)

v = speed (km/h)
As horizontal curves are circular, the straights e = superelevation rate(m/m)
connecting them are usually referred to as tangents. f = side friction factor
While the selection of radius of horizontal curvature
dictates the operating speed selected by the driver, Unlike the rural situation where a tight radius curve
long tangents can cause speeds to increase to can be matched by a high value of superelevation, the
unacceptable levels, followed by deceleration as the large variations in vehicle speeds encountered in the
next curve is encountered. It has been found that urban environment cause high values of
limiting the length of tangents (in metres) to about superelevation to be inappropriate. Furthermore,
ten times the design speed (in km/h) will cause speeds there is a distinct likelihood that there would not be
to stay fairly constant. A design speed of 40 km/h sufficient distance available to accommodate the
would thus suggest that tangents should not be more development of superelevation. Property access in the
than about 400 m in length. immediate vicinity of the curve probably would not
allow a cross-section where one road edge is a metre
In the situation of an urban grid of streets, a 400- or more above the other.
metre-long tangent bounded at both ends by T-
intersections would also tend to limit speeds to of the In Table 7.12, all values have been rounded up to the
order of 40 km/h. nearest five metres. A camber of 2 to 3% suggests that
rates of superelevation of -0,02 to +0,02 are usually
Curvature and superelevation normal camber situations. There is no known
application for a 0% super-elevation and it should be
Acceptable rates of superelevation are offered in Table avoided as, in the absence of a longitudinal gradient,
7.11. it will cause drainage problems and ponding on the
road surface.
Table 7.11: Maximum superelevation
for various classes of road Superelevation runoff

CLASS OF ROAD MAXIMUM Streets normally have a camber with the high point on
OR STREET SUPERELEVATION (%) their centreline and a fall, typically of the order of 2 to
3% as suggested above, to either edge. Superelevation
Vehicle-only (freeway) 10 is developed or run off by rotating the outer lane
Vehicle-only (other) 6-8 around the centreline until a crossfall across the full
width of the street, equal to the original camber, is
Mixed-usage (higher-order) 4-6
achieved. From this point, both lanes are further
Mixed-usage (middle-order) 2-4
rotated around the centreline until the full extent of
Mixed-usage (lower-order) 2-4 superelevation has been achieved.

In Table 7.12, the minimum radii of horizontal curves This further rotation need not necessarily be about the
for various design speeds and maximum rates of centreline. Special circumstances may demand a
superelevation are calculated from the relationship different point of rotation. A constraint on the level of
one or other of the road edges may require that the
v2 constrained edge becomes the axis of rotation. The
R=
127(e + f) need to secure an adequate, but not too steep, fall to
a drop inlet on the inside of a curve may require that
the axis of rotation be shifted to a point slightly

Table 7.12: Minimum radii for horizontal curves (m)

DESIGN SPEED SIDE FRICTION MINIMUM RADII FOR MAXIMUM RATES OF SUPERELEVATION (e) OF:
(km/h) FACTOR (f) -0,02 0 +0,02 0,04 +0,06 +0,08

30 0,19 45 40 35 30 30 30
40 0,18 80 70 65 60 55 50
50 0,17 135 115 105 95 85 80
60 0,16 205 180 160 145 130 120
70 0,15 300 260 230 205 185 170
80 0,14 420 360 315 280 255 230
100 0,13 - - 525 465 415 375
120 0,11 - - 875 760 670 600

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removed from the inner edge. horizontal alignment rather than by the vertical
alignment, whereas the speeds of buses and other
Rotation over too short a distance will create the heavy vehicles are constrained more by the vertical
impression of an unsightly kink in the road surface alignment. The design speed applied to the vertical
and, if the distance is too long, drainage problems are alignment should therefore match that applied to the
likely to occur in the area where the camber is less horizontal alignment and it could be argued that a
than about 0,5%. The rate of rotation is measured by higher vertical design speed is preferable.
the relative slope between the roadway edge and the
axis of rotation. Relative slopes that have been found As in the case of the horizontal alignment, the vertical
in practice to give acceptable lengths of runoff are alignment should be designed to be aesthetically
quoted in Table 7.13. Where space does not permit pleasing. In this regard due recognition should also be
the use of these rates, minimum lengths for given to the interrelationship between horizontal and
superelevation runoff for two-lane roads may have to vertical curvature. A vertical curve that coincides with
be adopted. These are also quoted in Table 7.13. These a horizontal curve should, if possible, be contained
lengths are based on relative slopes that are generally within the horizontal curve and, ideally, have
50% higher than those recommended for normal use. approximately the same length.

Where a vertical curve falls within a horizontal curve,

Table 7.13: Rates and minimum lengths the superelevation generated by the horizontal
of superelevation runoff curvature improves the availability of sight distance
beyond that suggested by the value of vertical
DESIGN RELATIVE MINIMUM
curvature. This enables the edge profiles to have a
SPEED SLOPE (%) LENGTH (m)
curvature sharper than the minima suggested in
40 0,7 35 Table 7.14. The proviso, however, is that the driver’s
line of sight is contained within the width of the
60 0,6 40
roadway. When the line of sight goes beyond the
80 0,5 50 roadway edge, the effect on sight distance of lateral
100 0,4 60 obstructions such as boundary walls or high
120 0,4 70 vegetation must be checked.

A smooth grade line with gradual changes appropriate

Where a circular arc is preceded by a transition curve, to the class of road and the character of the
the full superelevation is developed across the length topography is preferable to an alignment with
of the transition. Transition curves, however, are only numerous short lengths of grade and vertical curves.
used on the tightest radius curves applied to roads The “roller coaster” or “hidden dip” type of profile
with high design speeds. In all other cases, the should be avoided. This profile is particularly
superelevation runoff must be distributed between misleading in terms of availability of sight distance
the tangent and the curve because full superelevation and, where it cannot be avoided, sight distance
at the end of the tangent is as undesirable as no greater than suggested in Table 7.6 may be required in
superelevation at the start of the curve. Drivers tend to terms of accident experience. For aesthetic reasons, a
follow a transition path in entering a curve and this broken-back alignment is not desirable in sags where
path typically has two-thirds of its length on the a full view of the profile is possible. On crests the
tangent with the remaining third being on the curve broken-back curve adversely affects passing
itself. Superelevation runoff is similarly distributed to opportunity.
match the actual path of the vehicle.
Curvature

VERTICAL ALIGNMENT The horizontal circular curve provides a constant rate

of change of bearing. Analogous to this is the vertical
Vertical alignment is the combination of parabolic parabola which provides a constant rate of change of
vertical curves and straight sections joining them. gradient. Academic niceties apart, there is little to
Straight sections are referred to as grades, and the choose between the application of the parabola or the
value of their slope is the gradient, usually circular curve, the differences between them being
expressed in percentage form, e.g. a 5% grade virtually unplottable and, in any event, within the
climbs through 5 metres over a horizontal distance levels of accuracy to which the pavement typically is
of 100 metres. constructed.

With the whole-life economy of the road in mind,

vertical alignment should always be designed to as
high a standard as is consistent with the topography.
Passenger car speeds are dictated by the standard of

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Roads: Geometric design and layout planning Chapter 7
 GUIDELINES FOR HUMAN SETTLEMENT PLANNING AND DESIGN

From the general form of a parabolic function Where the sight distance, S, is less than the curve
length, L,
y = ax2 + bx + c
AS2
it follows that the rate of change of grade, d2y/dx2, L =
100 ( 2h1 + 2h2 )
equals 2a. The reciprocal of 2a, K, is thus the distance
required to effect a unit change of grade. Vertical
curves are specified in terms of this factor, K, and their and, where S is greater than L,
horizontal length as shown in the relationship

200 ( h1 + h2 )2
L = A.K L = 2S -
A
Minimum rates of curvature where: L = length of vertical curve (m)
S = sight distance (m)
The minimum rate of curvature is determined by A = algebraic difference in grades (%)
sight distance as well as by considerations of h1 = height of eye above road surface (m)
comfort of operation and aesthetics. The sight h2 = height of object above road surface (m)
distance most frequently employed is the stopping
sight distance which, as stated earlier, is measured Values of K, based on stopping sight distance in
from an eye height of 1,05 m to an object height of the case of crest curves, and on headlight
0,15 m although, in the case of residential streets, illumination distance in the case of sag curves,
an object height of 0,6 m could be used. are given in Table 7.14.

In the case of sag curves, the sight distance is Minimum lengths of vertical curves
replaced by a headlight illumination distance of
the same magnitude, assuming a headlight height Where the algebraic difference between
of 0,6 m and a divergence angle of 1˚ above the successive grades is small, the intervening
longitudinal axis of the headlights. Where minimum vertical curve becomes very short, and,
adequate street lighting is available, the headlight particularly where the adjacent tangents are
criterion does not apply and comfort is the only long, the impression of a kink in the grade line is
criterion that limits values. created. Where the difference in grade is less
than 0,5%, the vertical curve is often omitted. In
Special circumstances may dictate the use of Table 7.15, a minimum length of curve for
decision sight distance or even passing sight algebraic differences in grade greater than 0,5%
distance. Where a sight distance other than that is suggested for purely aesthetic reasons.
for stopping has to be employed, the relationship
offered below can be used to calculate the Where a crest curve and a succeeding sag curve
required curve length and, thereafter, the K-value have a terminal point in common, the visual effect
of vertical curvature. created is that the road has suddenly dropped
away. In the reverse case, the illusion of a hump is
created. Either effect is removed by inserting a

Table 7.14: Minimum values of K for vertical curves

DESIGN SPEED CREST CURVES FOR OBJECT OF HEIGHT SAG CURVES

(km/h) 0,15 m 0,60 m Without street lighting With street lighting
40 6 2 8 4

50 11 6 12 6

60 16 10 16 8

70 23 20

80 33 25

90 46 Not 31 Not

100 60 applicable 36 applicable

110 81 43

120 110 52

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short length of straight grade between the two taking the whole-life economy of the road into
curves and, typically, 60 m to 100 m is adequate for account, may suggest some other maximum
this purpose. gradient.

Table 7.15: Minimum length of vertical The three terrain types described are defined by
curves the differences between passenger-car and bus or
truck speeds prevailing in them. On flat terrain, the
DESIGN SPEED LENGTH OF CURVE differences between the speeds of cars and buses
(km/h) (m) remain relatively constant at about 17 km/h,
whereas hilly terrain causes substantial speed
40 80 differentials. In mountainous terrain, buses and
60 100 trucks are reduced to crawl speeds for substantial
80 140 distances.
100 180
120 220
Maximum gradients on residential streets

On local streets, maximum gradient has a

significant effect on the cost of township
Gradients development. Where possible, road alignment
should be designed to minimise the extent and cost
Maximum gradients on higher order roads of earthworks and to avoid problems with access
and house design. It therefore has to be accepted
Bus and truck speeds are markedly affected by that short sections of steep gradients may be
gradient. Bus routes should be designed with necessary in some settlement developments.
gradients which will not reduce the speed of these
vehicles enough to cause intolerable conditions for Where a residential street is also a bus route, the
following drivers. Glennon (1970) found that the gradients recommended in Table 7.16 should not
frequency of accidents increases sharply when the be exceeded. Where this is not possible, a
speeds of heavy vehicles are reduced by more than maximum gradient of 14% may have to be
15 km/h. considered.

For southern African conditions a speed reduction On higher-order mixed-usage streets, the
of 20 km/h is generally accepted as representing recommended maximum gradient is 10% but, on
intolerable conditions. If gradients on which bus or sections not longer than 70 m, the gradient can be
truck speed reduction is less than 20 km/h cannot increased to 12,5%. On purely residential streets,
be achieved economically, it may be necessary to the maximum gradient could be 12% and on
provide auxiliary lanes for the slower-moving sections not longer than 50 m the gradient could
vehicles. Wolhuter (1990) established that, on flat be increased to 16%.
grades, 50 percentile bus and truck speeds are
about 17 km/h lower than the equivalent Notwithstanding the values given, the following
passenger car speeds, so that a speed reduction of points should be taken into consideration:
20 km/h actually represents a total speed
differential of about 37 km/h. • Gradients should be selected in consultation
with the stormwater design engineer.
Maximum gradients for different design speeds
and types of topography are suggested in • Steep gradients on short access loops and culs-
Table 7.16. It is stressed that these are guidelines de-sac could result in properties being
only. Optimisation of the design of a specific road, inundated and surface runoff washing across

Table 7.16: Maximum gradients on major roads (%)

TOPOGRAPHY
DESIGN SPEED (km/h)
FLAT ROLLING MOUNTAINOUS
40 7 8 9

60 6 7 8

80 5 6 7

100 4 5 6

120 3 4 5

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intersecting streets. Climbing lanes

• Multiple-use surfaces which serve both Application of climbing lanes

vehicular access and recreational purposes,
including playing space for children, should be Climbing lanes are auxiliary lanes added outside
relatively flat and not provided with kerbs (they the through-lanes. They have the effect of
are, in fact, shared surfaces). reducing congestion in the through-lanes by
removing slower-moving vehicles from the traffic
• Where cycling is an important mode of travel, it stream. As such, they are used to match the Level of
will be necessary to consider the effects of Service on the rising grade to that prevailing on the
gradient on cycling in deciding on the road level sections of the route. In the urban situation,
alignment. climbing lanes may be used on vehicles-only and
higher-order mixed-usage streets. They have no
• It is difficult to construct streets on gradients application on local residential streets.
steeper than about 12% by conventional
means. 12/14 ton rollers cannot climb gradients Warrants for climbing lanes
this steep. They also tend to damage the base
course while attempting to stop after a As implied earlier, the maintenance of an
downhill pass. Steeper grades should thus be acceptable level of service over a section of the
constructed of concrete, brick or interlocking route is one of the reasons for the provision of
road stones. The last-mentioned surface is not climbing lanes. Another reason is the enhancement
recommended where speeds in excess of about of road safety by the reduction of the speed
60 km/h are anticipated, as the partial vacuum differential in the through-lane. The warrants for
created behind a passing tyre tends to suck out climbing lanes are therefore based on both speed
the sand from between adjacent stones and and traffic volume.
thus destroy the integrity of the surface.
A bus/truck speed profile should be prepared for
• Gravel surfaces are subject to scour at water each direction of flow. It would then be possible to
flow speeds of the order of 0,6 to 1,0 m/s. Under identify those sections of the road where speed
conditions of overland flow, this speed is reductions of 20 km/h or more may warrant the
achieved at slopes of the order of 7 to 8%. The provision of climbing lanes.
slope in question is the resultant of the vectors
of longitudinal slope and crossfall. The traffic volume warrant is given in Table 7.17. It
should be noted that the word “trucks” includes
Minimum gradients buses, rigid-chassis trucks and articulated vehicles.

If the cross-section of the road does not include A further warrant is based on matching Levels of
kerbing, the gradient could be 0% because the Service (LOS) along the route. Alternatively, a form
camber is continued across the adjacent shoulder, of partial economic analysis developed by
thus allowing for adequate drainage of the road Wolhuter (1990) could be used. This software -
surface. The verge will have to accommodate the ANDOG (ANalysis of Delay On Grades) - is available
drainage both of the road reserve and of the from CSIR-Transportek. It compares the cost of
surrounding properties. The decision to accept a construction of the climbing lane to the costs of the
zero gradient would thus have to be informed by delay incurred by not providing it.
the stormwater drainage design. Zero gradient is
not recommended as a general rule and the Location of terminals
preferred minimum is 0,5%.
A slow-moving vehicle should be completely clear
Kerbed streets should have a minimum gradient of of the through-lane by the time its speed has
not less than 0,5%. If the street gradient has to be dropped by 20 km/h, and remain clear of the
less than this, it would be necessary to grade the through-lane until it has accelerated again to a
kerbs and channels separately and to reduce the speed which is 20 km/h less than its normal speed.
spacing between drop inlets to ensure that the The recommended taper length is 100 m so that
height difference between the edge of the the start taper begins 100 m in advance of the
travelled way and channel is not too pronounced. point where the full climbing lane width is
required, and the end taper ends 100 m beyond the
end of the climbing lane.

If there is a barrier line, owing to restricted sight

distance, at the point where the speed reduction
warrant falls away, the full lane should be

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Table 7.17: Traffic volume warrants for climbing lanes

TRAFFIC VOLUME IN DESIGN HOUR (veh/h)

GRADIENT (%)
5% trucks in stream 10% trucks in stream

4 632 486

6 468 316

8 383 257

10 324 198

extended to where the marking ends, with the comprises a spectrum of needs. One end of the
taper ending 100 m beyond this point. spectrum of the movement function relates to pure
mobility, as typified by the freeway and urban arterial.
Climbing lane width Vehicle movement is the sole concern and pedestrians
are totally excluded from these roads. The other end
The climbing lane should preferably have the same of the spectrum is concerned with accessibility and the
width as the adjacent through-lanes. On major needs of the pedestrian. Vehicular movement may be
routes, through-lanes may have widths of 3,7 m, necessary on these roads but it is tolerated rather than
3,4 m or 3,1 m. It is unlikely that climbing lanes will encouraged and is subject to significant restrictions.
be provided on roads where the traffic volumes are Between these two extremes, mixed usage is found
so low that a lane width of 3,1 m is adequate. with vehicular and non-vehicular activities sharing the
Climbing lanes therefore tend to be either 3,7 m or available space. If these uses have to compete for their
3,4 m wide. Even if the through-lanes are 3,7 m share of space, it can reasonably be stated that the
wide, a climbing lane 3,4 m or perhaps even 3,1 m design has failed to meet its objective.
wide may, however, be considered on the grounds
of low lane occupancy and speed or some other The flexibility of the road reserve in accommodating
constraining topographic circumstance. Climbing such widely disparate needs derives from the
lanes on bus routes should, however, have a width disaggregated nature of the cross-section, as
of 3,7 m. illustrated in Figure 7.7.

The cross-section may comprise all or some of the

CROSS-SECTION DESIGN following components:

The cross-section of a road provides accommodation • Lanes

for moving and parked vehicles, drainage, public - Basic
utilities, non-motorised vehicles and pedestrians. It is - High Occupancy Vehicle (HOV) lanes
also required to serve more than just movement- - Auxiliary (turning or climbing)
related activities. - Parking
- Cycle
Residential streets, for example, offer a neutral
territory on which neighbours can meet informally. • Medians
They can also serve as playgrounds for children in - Shoulders
developments where plot sizes are too small for this - Central island
purpose.
• Shoulders
Abutting trading or light industrial activities in activity - Verges
corridors may require sidewalks wider than those - Sidewalks.
required purely for moving pedestrians. Pedestrians
also “park”, in the sense of browsing through goods on Lanes
offer (either in shop windows or by roadside vendors)
or relaxing in a sidewalk café. In short, the road Basic or through-lanes
reserve is required to address a wide spectrum of
activities. For this reason it was suggested previously Undivided roads may have either one lane in each
that reference should be to “hard open space” with direction (two-lane two-way roads) or more than
only a portion of this comprising the road reserve as one lane in each direction (multilane roads). Dual
previously understood. carriageway roads have two or more lanes in each
direction separated by a median. Customarily,
Movement, as an activity served by the cross- section, there is symmetry of through-lanes, and asymmetry

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Roads: Geometric design and layout planning Chapter 7
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Road reserve
Road prism
Roadbed
Verge Verge
Roadway or
carriageway
Travelled
Outer way Median X
shoulder

Inner shoulder

Inner shoulder
Median Inner Outer
island lane lane

X
Shoulder breakpoint

Figure 7.7: Elements of the cross-section

on a particular section of road should arise only should be intervisible. If this is not achieved,
from the addition of an auxiliary lane that is clearly motorists may enter a single lane section only to
allocated to one direction of travel. find that it is already occupied thus forcing one or
other of the vehicles involved to reverse to the
The selection of lane width is based on traffic previous passing bay.
volume and vehicle type and speed. Higher
volumes and speeds require wider lanes, and the High occupancy vehicle (HOV) lanes
greatest lane width recommended is 3,7 m. Where
traffic volumes are such that a multilane cross- HOV lanes normally extend over considerable
section or a divided cross-section is required, 3,7 m distances and could, therefore, be included in the
is a logical lane width to adopt. category of basic lanes. These lanes are normally
applied only to higher-order mixed-usage streets
No operational or safety benefit accrues from lane and are intended to serve all HOVs and not only
widths wider than 3,7 m, although some urban buses. Vehicles that could be allowed to use HOV
authorities allow lane widths as broad as 5,5 m. In lanes thus include
peak hours, these wider lanes tend to carry two
lanes of moving passenger cars each. They also ease • buses;
the process of passenger cars overtaking buses • minibus taxis; and
without encroaching significantly on the opposing • car pool vehicles.
lane. Finally, they enable informal parking in the
absence of demarcated parking bays. As such, 5,5 m A policy decision would have to be provided by the
lanes tend to be used only in higher-order mixed- local authority concerned in respect of the level of
usage streets. vehicle occupancy that would allow a vehicle to
enter an HOV lane. An operational problem that
The narrowest lane width recommended is 3,1 m, immediately arises in the application of HOV lanes
which gives a clear space of 0,25 m on either side of is their policing, to ensure that only vehicles
a vehicle that is 2,6 m wide i.e. a bus. This width legitimately described as HOVs use them.
would normally be employed only where speeds or
traffic volumes are expected to be low and buses As buses have an overall width of 2,6 m, the smaller
infrequent, e.g. on residential streets. basic lane widths would not be appropriate. As
pointed out, a 3,1 m lane would allow only 0,25 m
If the route is not intended ever to accommodate between the outside of the bus and the lane edge
buses, the lane width could be reduced to as little with a distinct possibility that a moving bus would
as 2,7 m. Intermediate conditions of volume and not always be precisely located in the centre of the
speed can be adequately catered for by a lane lane. At speeds higher than those encountered in
width of 3,4 m. residential areas, encroachment on other lanes
could be expected. To avoid encroachment, a lane
Streets where pedestrian activities are expected to width of 3,7 m is the minimum that should be
predominate may have only one lane, with accepted for a HOV lane.
provision for passing made at intervals. In this case,
the lane width should not be less than 3,1 m. It is not possible to lay down hard-and-fast
warrants for the provision of bus lanes. From an
Passing bays should be provided at not more than operational point of view, relating purely to the
50 m spacings. It is important that passing bays movement of people, it follows that the capacity of

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Chapter 7 Roads: Geometric design and layout planning
 GUIDELINES FOR HUMAN SETTLEMENT PLANNING AND DESIGN

the street being analysed should be greater with Parking lanes

the added HOV lane than without it. Where an
existing lane is converted to an HOV lane, i.e. when Parking lanes are normally 2,5 m wide with a
it is no longer available for use by other vehicles, minimum width of 2,1 m, and are usually embayed.
the provision of the HOV lane could lead to a In this configuration, the parking lane is actually
decline in throughput of passengers. located in the verge area. Individual parking bays
are typically 6,0 m long with each pair of parking
The estimation of transit capacity is more complex bays being provided with an additional clear space
and less precise than estimates of highway capacity of 1,5 m between them to allow for manoeuvring
as it deals with the movement of both people and into or out of the bays. In areas where very high
vehicles whereas highway capacity restricts itself to tidal flows are expected, it is useful to be able to use
vehicular movement. Furthermore, the variables to the parking lanes as moving lanes during periods of
address in such estimates include, in addition to the peak flow. Under these circumstances, the parking
normal factors applying to highway capacity lane should have a minimum width of 3,1 m.

• the size of the transit vehicles, in terms of Cycle lanes

allowable passenger loadings;
Ideally, cycle lanes should be located in the verge
• the frequency of operation of the service; and area, as the speed differential between bicycles
and pedestrians is likely to be less than that
• the interaction between passenger traffic between bicycles and motorised vehicles. Where
concentrations and vehicle flow. this is not possible and either there is significant
cycle traffic or it is desired to encourage bicycles as
Reference should be made to TRB Special Report a mode of travel, a cycle lane can be added outside
209: Highway Capacity Manual with regard to the those intended for motorised vehicles.
analysis of mass transit facilities.
Such lanes should be of the order of 1,5 m wide
The layout of bus stops is discussed under the and clearly demarcated as cycle lanes. If these lanes
heading “Verges”. are wider than 2,0 m, passenger cars are likely to
use them, possibly even for overtaking on the left,
Auxiliary lanes which is a manoeuvre to be actively discouraged.

Auxiliary lanes are lanes added to the normal cross- Shoulders

section to address a specific purpose and are
normally applied only to vehicle-only or higher- The shoulder is defined as the usable area alongside
order mixed-usage streets. the travelled way.

Typically, auxiliary lanes are added at intersections Shoulders are applied only to roads where
to support left and right turns so that these pedestrian traffic is not specifically catered for. Their
manoeuvres can take place at relatively low speeds width does not, therefore, make provision for the
without impeding the movement of the through- mounting of guardrails, or for edge drains or
traffic. If a road has signalised intersections, it may shoulder rounding. The shoulder breakpoint is some
be necessary to add auxiliary lanes to match the distance beyond the edge of the usable shoulder,
intersection capacity to that of the approach legs. usually about 0,5 to 1,0 m.
These lanes are discussed in more detail below
under the heading “Intersections”. A stopped vehicle can be adequately accommodated
by a shoulder which is 3,0 m wide, and there is no
Auxiliary lanes can also be provided at intersections merit in adopting a shoulder width greater than this.
to serve through-traffic. The intention is to match The shoulder should, on the other hand, not be so
the capacity of the intersection to its upstream and narrow that a stopped vehicle would cause congestion
downstream links. The need for such lanes and the by forcing vehicles travelling in both directions into a
storage length upstream and merging length single lane. However, a partly blocked lane is
downstream that they have to accommodate are a acceptable under conditions of low speed and low
matter for analysis as described by the Highway traffic volume. With the narrowest width of through-
Capacity Manual. lane, i.e. 3,1 m, it is possible for two vehicles to pass
each other next to a stopped vehicle where the
Climbing lanes, as auxiliary through-lanes, are shoulders are not less than 1,0 m wide, giving a total
discussed above under the heading “Vertical cross-sectional width of 8,2 m to accommodate three
Alignment”. vehicles. It is stressed that this width is an irreducible
minimum and appropriate only to low lane volumes
and low speeds.

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Hazards tend to cause a lateral shift of vehicles if manoeuvres. In general, the standards applied to
located closer than 1,5 m to the lane edge, and for medians are also appropriate for outer separators. The
speeds higher than 60 km/h a shoulder width of 1,5 m outer separator could, for example, support the
should be regarded as the minimum. situation of a relatively high-speed road traversing a
local shopping area. Vehicles manoeuvring into or out
Intermediate traffic volumes and higher operating of parking spaces and pedestrians are thus
speeds require a shoulder width greater than 1,0 m, safeguarded from collisions with fast-moving through-
and three alternative shoulder widths are suggested, traffic.
namely 1,5 m, 2,0 m and 2,5 m.
This situation would, however, constitute poor
The 3,0 m shoulder is appropriate for the highest planning or be forced by a situation outside the
operating speeds and heavy traffic volumes. control of the planner. This contention refers to the
fact that the central high-speed lanes would be a
Medians and outer separators significant barrier to pedestrians wishing to cross the
street and effectively create two independent
The median is the total area between the inner edges shopping areas from an otherwise integrated unit.
of the inside traffic lanes of a divided road, and
includes the inner shoulders and central island. The Verges
purpose of the median is to separate opposing streams
of traffic and hence reduce the possibility of vehicles The verge is defined as the area between the roadway
crossing into the path of opposing traffic. This is edge and the road reserve boundary.
accomplished by the selection of an appropriate
median width or by the use of a physical barrier such All facilities not directly connected with the road, e.g.
as a guardrail. telephone or power lines, are normally located in the
verge. In the case of the freeway, the verge is simply
Median width depends not only on traffic volume but the clear space between the shoulder breakpoint and
also on the function of the road and traffic the reserve boundary. On the other hand, in the urban,
composition. A median functioning as a pedestrian specifically the residential, environment it is the verge
refuge could be narrower than one protecting a that gives the street its richness and unique character.
turning vehicle which could be anything up to a As in the case of the cross-section as a whole, where
combination vehicle (i.e. semitrailer plus trailer). A the total width is built up as the sum of various
median narrower than 3,0 m does not offer disaggregated elements, the verge width is also the
pedestrians any sense of security, particularly when sum of the various elements it is required to contain.
buses or trucks are travelling in the immediately In general, the verge should have a width of the order
adjacent lanes. of about 5 metres, but, as implied by the preceding
statement, this can only be regarded as a very rough
A median of less than 1,5 m in width is physically rule of thumb.
dangerous to pedestrians and should not be
considered wherever pedestrian traffic is likely to be Even where HOV lanes are provided, it is desirable to
encountered. However, with severe spatial limitations, locate bus stops in the verge. Typical layouts for bus
it is possible to use medians this narrow. They would stops are shown in Figure 7.8.
serve only to accommodate back-to-back guardrails to
ensure vehicular separation. A median that is 5,0 m Various elements and their typical widths are listed in
wide would be able to accommodate a right-turn lane Table 7.18.
with provision for a pedestrian refuge, but would also
require guardrail protection to separate the opposing Sidewalks
flows of traffic.
Wherever there is significant usage by pedestrians, the
Medians are totally inappropriate in residential shoulder is replaced by a sidewalk. A sidewalk is
streets. These streets are principally directed to the understood as comprising the entire width between
function of accessibility, including vehicles turning the adjacent kerb face and the reserve boundary, and
right from the street to enter individual properties. is generally paved over the full width of the verge. If
Medians, particularly when raised and kerbed, the provision for pedestrians does not use this full
preclude this movement. If medians are depressed, it is width, reference is made to “footways”. The width of
possible for vehicles to traverse them but, for the sidewalk is dictated by the anticipated volume of
oncoming vehicles, this is an unexpected and pedestrian traffic, with an additional allowance being
correspondingly dangerous manoeuvre. made for any other application intended as part of the
function of the road reserve.
The purpose of an outer separator is to separate
streams of traffic flowing in the same direction but at Reference should be made to the discussion of “hard
different speeds and also to modify weaving open spaces” in Chapter 5 of this document.

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50m 50m
35m 15m (minimum) 35m
Gravel
surface
3,5m

1,5m

Shoulder 100mm broken white 100mm wide continuous

centre line yellow line
4,5m stripe, 7,5m gap

100mm broken white

line
2,7m stripe,4,5m gap

(a) Gravel surface

50m 50m
35m 15m (minimum) 35m
Hardened
area with bus Gravel
shelter shoulder

3,0m 1,5m 1,0m

Shoulder 100mm broken white 100mm wide continuous

centre line yellow line
4,5m stripe, 7,5m gap

100mm broken white

line
2,7m stripe, 4,5m gap

(b) Blacktop surface

Figure 7.8: Typical bus stop layouts

Table 7.18: Typical width of verge elements

ELEMENTS WIDTH (m)

Berm 1,5 m high 6,0

Bicycle paths 1,5 - 3,0
Bus stop embayment 3,0
Bus stop passenger queue 0,7 - 1,4
Clear strip (including kerb and drainage inlet) 2,0
Drainage inlet or manhole 1,5
Driveway approach 5,0
Electric light poles 0,3 - 0,5
Footway (sidewalk) 1,5 - 2,0
Guardrails or barriers 0,5
Kerbs (barrier) 0,15
Kerbs (mountable) 0,3
Kerbs (semi-mountable) 0,15
Landscape strip 3,0
Parking (parallel) 2,5
Traffic signals 0,6 - 1,5
Traffic signs 0,6 - 2,0
Trench width for underground service 1,0 m minimum

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The topic of design for pedestrians is exhaustively In the case of very narrow reserves, such as in the
described in: Pedestrian facility guidelines: Manual to case of lanes or alleys where spatial restrictions
plan, design and maintain safe pedestrian facilities. may preclude the provision of drainage outside the
Department of Transport Report 92/126, Pretoria. width of the travelled way, a negative or reverse
camber, i.e. sloping towards a central low point,
In this document, the sidewalk is defined as comprising could be considered. In this case, the centreline of
two elements, these being the “effective” width and the street is the low point to create a flat V
the “ancillary” width. The effective width is that configuration. The entire surfaced width then
portion of the sidewalk dedicated to movement and serves as a drainage area.
the ancillary width the portion of the road reserve
otherwise used. The effective width is shown as being Medians
set back by 0,5 m from the adjacent kerb face.
Two different conditions dictate the steepness of
Required effective widths of sidewalk for various LOS the slope across the median: drainage and safety.
can be calculated by dividing the flow in As suggested earlier, the normal profile of a
pedestrians/minute by the values of pedestrians/ median would be a negative camber to facilitate
minute/metre as shown in Table 7.19. drainage. The flattest slope that is recommended is
10%. Slopes flatter than this may lead to ponding
Table 7.19: LOS criteria for sidewalk and may allow water to flow from the median onto
width the carriageway.

LEVEL OF SERVICE PEDESTRIANS/MINUTE/METRE Slopes steeper than 25% (or 1:4) would make
control of an errant vehicle more difficult, leading
A 0,6 to a greater possibility of cross-median accidents. If
B 2,1 surface drainage requires a median slope steeper
C 3,0 than 1:4, this aspect of road safety would justify
replacing surface drainage with an underground
D 4,6
drainage system.
E 7,6
Cut and fill batters
The total width of the sidewalk is thus the effective
width as calculated plus the setback of 0,5 m plus the Gradelines that require cuts or fills so high that
ancillary width determined by the other functions to their batters require specific attention are alien
be accommodated by the sidewalk. to mixed-usage streets. The intention with
these streets is that the gradeline should be as
Slopes close as possible to the natural ground level
and, preferably, slightly below it. This is
Camber and crossfall necessary to ensure ease of access to adjacent
properties and also to support the drainage of
Camber implies two slopes away from a central the surrounding area.
high point, as in a two-lane two-way road, where
the cross-section slopes down from the centre line On vehicle-only roads, the slopes of the sides of the
to the shoulders. Crossfall is a single slope from road prism are, like those of medians, dictated by
shoulder to shoulder. The slope, whether camber or two different conditions. Shallow slopes are
crossfall, is provided to facilitate drainage of the required for safety, and a slope of 1:4 is the
road surface. steepest acceptable for this purpose. The
alternative is to accept a steeper slope and provide
The steepness of slope lies in the range of 2 to 3%. for safety by some other means, such as guardrails.
In areas where heavy rainfall is common or where In this case the steepest slope that can be used is
the most economical longitudinal gradient is 0%, dictated by the natural angle of repose and
the steeper slope is preferred. Cambers steeper erodibility of the construction material.
than 3% introduce operational problems, both in
driving and in increased wear of vehicle
components. Where a surfaced shoulder is INTERSECTIONS
provided, the camber should be taken to the outer
edge of the shoulder. Unsurfaced shoulders should Introduction
have a crossfall of 4% to ensure a rate of flow
across this rougher surface that matches the flow Intersections are required to accommodate the
across the surfaced area. movement of both vehicles and of pedestrians. In both
respects, intersections have a lower capacity than the
links on either side of them. In consequence, it is the

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Chapter 7 Roads: Geometric design and layout planning
 GUIDELINES FOR HUMAN SETTLEMENT PLANNING AND DESIGN

efficiency of the intersections that dictates the These four aspects are discussed in more detail in the
efficiency of the network as a whole. sections that follow.

Various measures of effectiveness (MOE) may be Location of intersections

proposed. These include energy consumption, time,
safety and convenience, and one should not lose sight Two aspects of the location of intersections require
of the fact that these measures apply as much to consideration. The first of these relates to the spacing
pedestrians as they do to vehicles. Furthermore, while between successive intersections and the second to
they are not mutually exclusive, clashes between these restraints applying to the location of individual or
measures can arise. For example, the minimisation of isolated intersections.
energy usage suggests that the major vehicular traffic
should be kept moving at all times. The safety and Successive intersections
convenience of all other road users, vehicular and
pedestrian alike, would obviously be compromised as a The spacing of successive intersections is essentially
result. Optimisation of the design of any intersection a function of planning of the area being served.
thus requires consideration of the MOEs appropriate Minimum distances between intersections are
to it and to those to whom these measures should be primarily concerned with the interaction between
applied. these intersections. In the case of the major links in
the movement network, access control measures
In the case of residential streets, the needs of are usually brought to bear to ensure the efficient
pedestrians should take precedence over the needs of functioning of the intersections on them.
vehicles whereas, on higher-order roads, the needs of
moving vehicles are more important. It follows that, in Ensuring green wave progression along a route
the former case, convenience would be a prime with signalised intersections would require
measure of efficiency. In the latter, energy spacings of the order of 500 m.
consumption becomes significant. In both cases, safety
is a major concern. A driver cannot reasonably be expected to utilise
the decision sight distance to an intersection
With regard to vehicular traffic, the operation of an effectively if an intervening intersection requires
intersection requires that opposing streams of vehicles his or her attention. The sign sequence for an
are forced either to reduce speed or to stop. intersection includes signs beyond the intersection.
Optimisation of intersection efficiency in this case Where an intersection is sufficiently important to
refers essentially to a reduction of delay. Delay has two warrant a sign sequence, the driver should be
components of interest. In the first, reference is to beyond the last of these signs before being
time costs. Signalisation, for example, forces a major required to give his attention to the following
flow periodically to be brought to a stop to allow intersection. Under these circumstances, a
entry by the minor flow. A signalised intersection will, minimum spacing of 500 m between successive
therefore, always tend to show higher total delay than intersections is also suggested.
would a priority-controlled intersection. In the second
component, reference is to energy costs because Spacings of this magnitude, therefore, typically
stationary vehicles with their engines idling are still apply to vehicle-only or to higher-order mixed-
consuming fuel. usage streets.

Vehicles travelling in a common direction are at a low On local streets, the goal is maximum accessibility.
level of risk. Vehicles travelling in opposing directions Any form of access control is inappropriate. One
are at a higher level of risk. Highest yet is the level of criterion for the spacing of their intersections
risk associated with vehicles travelling in crossing should be that they are not so close that waiting
directions. Most accidents occurring on the road traffic at one intersection could generate a queue
network take place at its intersections. extending beyond the next upstream intersection.
Very closely spaced intersections would also result
For reasons both of efficiency and safety it is, in a disproportionate percentage of space being
therefore, necessary to pay careful attention to the dedicated to the road network.
design of intersections. Aspects of design that have to
be considered are: Isolated intersections

• the location of intersections; Considerations of safety suggest various restraints

• the form of intersections; on the location of isolated intersections. The need
• the type of intersection control; and for drivers to discern and readily perform the
• the detailed design of individual intersection manoeuvres necessary to pass through an
components. intersection safely means that decision sight
distance, as previously described, should be

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available on the through-road on both sides of the pulling away on steep slopes. Typically, the camber
intersection. The driver on the intersecting road of the through-road would be extended along the
will require intersection sight distance to be able to intersecting road for a sufficient distance to allow
enter or cross the through-road safely. such vehicles to stop clear of the through-lane on
Modification of the alignment of either the the through-road and pull away with relative ease.
through- or the intersecting road, or of both, may A distance of approximately 10 m from the
make it possible to meet these requirements for a shoulder breakpoint is required for this. After that,
safe intersection. If not, it will be necessary to reverse curves with an intervening gradient of 6%
relocate the intersection. or more can be used to match the local gradeline of
the intersecting road to the rest of its alignment. In
The location of an intersection on a horizontal the case of private accesses, steeper grades can be
curve can create problems for the drivers on both considered.
legs of the intersecting road.
One of the consequences of a collision between
Drivers on the intersecting road leg on the inside of two vehicles at an intersection is that either or both
the curve will find it difficult to see approaching may leave the road. It is therefore advisable to
traffic, because this traffic will be partly behind avoid locating an intersection other than at
them. The fact that a large portion of the sight approximately ground level. Lateral obstructions of
triangle could fall outside the normal width of the sight distance should also be considered when the
road reserve would also mean that both adequate location of an intersection is being determined.
decision sight distance and adequate shoulder
sight distance may be lacking. The location of an intersection may have to be
modified as a result of an excessive angle of skew
Drivers on the leg of the intersecting road on the between the intersecting roads, i.e. the change of
outside of the curve seldom have any problems direction to be negotiated by a vehicle turning left
with sight distance because, in addition to having off the through-road. Preferably, roads should
approaching traffic partly in front of them, they meet at, or nearly at, right angles. Angles of skew
may have the added height advantage caused by between 60° and 120°, with 0° representing the
the superelevation of the curve. They do, however, direction of travel on the through-road, produce
have to negotiate the turn onto the through-road only a small reduction in visibility for drivers of
against an adverse superelevation. In the urban passenger vehicles, which often does not warrant
situation, where values of superelevation are low, realignment of the intersecting road. However, the
this does not constitute a serious problem. range of angles of skew between 60° and 75°
should be avoided because a truck driver wishing
The risk involved in sharp braking during an to enter the through-road at an intersection with
emergency should also be borne in mind when an angle of skew of 75° or less would find the view
locating an intersection on a curve. to his left obscured by his vehicle. Therefore, if the
angle of skew of the intersection falls outside the
Generally, an intersection should not be located on range of 75° to 120°, the intersecting road should
a curve with a superelevation greater than 6%. be relocated.

The stopping distance required on a downgrade of Figure 7.9 illustrates the acceptable angles of skew.
6% is approximately 40% longer than that
required on a level road. Drivers seemingly have The types of intersection control
difficulty in judging the additional distance
required for stopping on downgrades and it is Signalisation
suggested, as a safety measure, that intersections
should not be located on grades steeper than 3%. Signalisation applies only to higher-order roads
and is, in any event, an expensive form of control.
If it is not possible to align all the legs of an Signals should not be employed, in the first
intersection to a gradient of 3% or less, the instance, as speed-reducing devices. Signals
through-road could have a steeper gradient introduce an inefficiency into the system by
because vehicles on the intersecting road have to imposing delay on the through flow to allow the
stop or yield, whereas through vehicles may only intersecting flow either to cross or to join it. The
have to do so occasionally. objective, generally, is to keep the introduced
inefficiency to a minimum through the use of
Where steep gradients on the intersecting road are proper signal progression. It is interesting to note
unavoidable, a local reduction in its gradient that an arterial with good signal progression can
within the reserve of the through-road should be deliver more vehicles per unit of time to the CBD
considered. The reason for this is that buses and street system than the latter can handle. This may
freight vehicles have difficulty in stopping and be an argument in favour of deliberately

26
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This form of control is appropriate to the situation

where no clear distinction can be drawn between
the intersecting roads in terms of relative
importance and where traffic flows on each are
more or less equal. It is typically regarded as an
interim measure prior to the installation of traffic
signals.

Mini roundabouts, traffic circles and

gyratories

The principle difference between these three forms

of control is the diameter of the central island. The
gyratory can have a central island with a diameter
of 50 m or more, whereas the traffic circle would
typically have a central island with a diameter of
the order of 10 m and the mini-roundabout a
central island that could range from a painted dot
to about 4 m diameter.

The gyratory and the traffic circle operate on the

basis of entering vehicles being required to yield to
traffic approaching from the right. The mini-
roundabout, on the other hand, is controlled by a
traffic circle yield sign which, as defined in the
Road Traffic Regulations, “Indicates to the driver of
a vehicle approaching a traffic circle that he shall
yield right of way to any vehicle which will cross
any yield line at such intersection before him and
which, in the normal course of events, will cross the
Figure 7.9: Angles of skew path of such driver’s vehicle.”

The distinction between behaviour at a traffic circle

interrupting the flow by a well-planned and that required at a mini-roundabout is not clear
discontinuity in progression. to many drivers. Confusion is exacerbated by the
fact that a warning sign (a triangular sign with the
Signals should not be used on the highest order apex uppermost) requires that right of way should
roads. At design speeds of 100 km/h and higher, be granted to vehicles approaching from the right
problems with regard to the length of the amber as is the case of the traffic circle.
phase and the extent of the dilemma zone manifest
themselves. The dilemma zone is that length of Priority control
road upstream of a signal where, if the signal
changes to amber, it is possible neither to clear the Priority control implies that one of the intersecting
intersection before the onset of the opposing green roads always takes precedence over the other with
phase nor to stop in advance of the pedestrian control taking the form of either stop or yield
cross-walk. If these speeds are to be maintained, control. This form of control applies to the situation
freeway operation has to be considered. where it is clear which is the more important of the
two intersecting roads. Priority control can also be
Multi-way stop or yield alternated between successive intersections, for
example in a residential area where the layout is
Reference is to the situation where every approach more-or-less a grid pattern and the intersecting
to the intersection is subject to stop or yield streets are of equal importance. In this case, the
control. Some local authorities in South Africa have switching of priority would partially serve as a
also instituted a variation on this form of control by traffic calming measure. In general, this is the most
applying stop control not to all but to the majority commonly used form of intersection control.
of approach legs, e.g. two out of three or three out
of four. In the United States, the operation of Selection of appropriate control measure
intersections subject to this form of control grants
priority to vehicles approaching from the left. The Each intersection should be considered on its own
South African operation is based on the principle merits and hard and fast rules or a “recipe” method
of “first come, first served”. for the selection of the control measure to be

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Roads: Geometric design and layout planning Chapter 7
 GUIDELINES FOR HUMAN SETTLEMENT PLANNING AND DESIGN

employed at any given intersection are not The form of intersections

recommended.
Intersection form is dictated largely by planning
Volumes of vehicular traffic being served by the considerations. However, even during the planning
intersection are not considered to be anything phase, due cognisance has to be taken of the safety of
other than the roughest of guides. In terms of vehicles or pedestrians within the area of the
traffic movement through an intersection, the basic intersections. Safety is enhanced by, inter alia,
goal should be to minimise delay as far as possible. reduction of the number of conflict points at which
accidents can occur.
Delay has two components: geometric delay and
traffic delay. Geometric delay is the delay caused by The number of conflict points increases exponentially
the existence of the control measure employed. with the number of legs added to the intersection. A
The control measure requires that a driver slow three-legged intersection generates six vehicle-vehicle
down or stop at the intersection, check that the conflict points, whereas a four- legged intersection has
intersection is clear and then accelerate back to the 24 and a five-legged intersection 60. Accident history
previous speed. Geometric delay is the difference shows that this increased potential for collision at
between the time taken to perform the required intersections is, in fact, realised.
set of actions and that expended in travelling
through the intersection area at undiminished In addition to the decrease in safety with an increasing
speed. Traffic delay is that generated by opposing number of approaches to an intersection, there is also
traffic with, as an example, right-turning traffic a decline in operational efficiency, i.e. an increase in
being impeded by heavy opposing flows or causing delay.
impedance to following vehicles that wish to travel
straight through the intersection. Multi-leg intersections, i.e. intersections with more
than four legs, should not be provided in new designs
Schermers (1987) reports that, at flows of less than and, where they occur in existing networks, every
300 vehs/15 mins, traffic delays with four-way stops effort should be made to convert them to four- or
are less than those with signalisation. In the range three-legged intersections through channelisation
above 900 vehs/15 mins, signalisation demonstrated procedures.
the lowest level of delay. Mini- roundabouts, on
the other hand, demonstrate relatively low levels Staggered intersections address the problem of
of delay, i.e. even less than four-way stops, up to a skewed intersections (i.e. those with angles of skew
flow of about 400 vehs/15 mins. Thereafter, the outside the limits recommended above) which can be
extent of delay from using mini-roundabouts either three- or four-legged. Skewed intersections
increases rapidly but remains less than that with present a variety of problems. In the first instance,
signalisation until a flow of 900 vehs/15 mins is angles of skew greater than those specified generate a
achieved. Total traffic delay at 300 veh/15 min line-of-sight problem for the driver on the intersecting
amounts to about 3 000 veh.sec/15 mins or about road. Secondly, a vehicle required to turn through the
10 seconds per vehicle on average whereas, at 900 acute angle will be moving at a very slow speed,
vehs/15 mins, total traffic delay is about 16 000 suggesting that those entering the through-road may
veh.sec/15 mins or about 18 seconds per vehicle on require a greater sight distance than would be the
average. case for a 90° turn. Finally, the surfaced intersection
area becomes excessive. Without channelisation of this
Priority control does not lend itself readily to movement, a driver traversing the intersection is
analyses of the above form, as the total delay is confronted by a large surfaced area without any
even more heavily dependent on the split between positive guidance on the route to be followed.
the opposing flows than in the cases discussed Unpredictable selections of travelled path can
above. Heavy flows on the through-road result in represent a distinct hazard to other vehicles in the
there being relatively few gaps in the traffic stream intersection area.
that are acceptable to drivers wishing to enter or
cross from one of the intersecting legs. This results Four-legged skewed intersections should be relocated
in substantial delays being generated. On the other so that they form either a single crossing with an angle
hand, for the same total flow but with fewer of of skew closer to 90°, or a staggered intersection,
these vehicles travelling on the through-road, which is a combination of two three-legged
adequate gaps exist for even relatively heavy flows intersections in close proximity. The right-left stagger,
on the intersecting road to experience little delay. i.e. where the driver on the intersecting road is
required to turn right onto the through-road followed
Calculation of delay using a model such as the well- by a left turn off it, is preferred. In this case, the driver
known Tanner formula should be applied to these waits on the intersecting road for a gap in the
intersections. through-traffic prior to entering the through-road,
with the left turn off it being unimpeded except

28
Chapter 7 Roads: Geometric design and layout planning
 GUIDELINES FOR HUMAN SETTLEMENT PLANNING AND DESIGN

possibly by pedestrians. The left-right stagger may Ideally, turning lanes should have the same width
require the vehicle to stop on the through-road while as the adjacent lanes but spatial limitations may
awaiting a gap in the opposing flow to complete the require that a smaller width be used. The low
right turn. Relocation of the intersection is to be speeds anticipated in turning lanes in combination
preferred to the left-right stagger. with relatively low lane occupancy make it possible
to use lesser widths, but the width of the turning
Mini-roundabouts can have either three or four lane should not be less than 3,1 m.
approach legs. They comprise either a slightly raised or
a painted central island, usually less than 4 metres in The length of turning lanes has three components:
diameter, with the traffic lanes being deviated slightly, the deceleration length, the storage length and the
both to accommodate the island and to force a entering taper.
reduction of speed through the intersection. The
discussion above relating to angles of skew applies Deceleration should, desirably, take place clear of
equally to this form of intersection. the through-lane. The total length required is that
necessary for a safe and comfortable stop from the
Intersection components design speed of the road. Stopping sight distance is
based on a deceleration rate of 3,0 m/s2 and a
Auxiliary through-lanes comfortable rate is taken as being half this, so that

v2
Auxiliary lanes for through-traffic are added s =
38,9
outside the through-lanes to match the capacity of
the intersection with that of the road between
intersections. These lanes are normally only where s = deceleration lane length (m)
provided at signalised intersections. The length of v = design speed (km/h)
lane to be added is a matter of calculation. It is
dependent on the traffic flow to be serviced and The storage length has to be sufficient for the
on the length of green time available for the number of vehicles likely to accumulate during a
approach leg in question. In the case of priority critical period. It should not be necessary for right-
control, auxiliary through-lanes would not be turning vehicles to stop in the through-lane.
required on the through-road. Traffic volumes on Furthermore, vehicles stopped in the through-lane
the intersecting road would probably be too low while awaiting a change of traffic signal phase
to warrant their application. This should, however, should not block the entrance to the turning lane. In
be checked. the case of unsignalised intersections, the storage
length should be sufficient to accommodate the
Auxiliary turning lanes number of vehicles likely to arrive in a two-minute
period. At signalised intersections, the required
Turning lanes provide for traffic turning either storage length depends on the signal cycle length,
to the left or to the right and can thus be the phasing arrangement and the rate of arrivals of
added either outside the through-lanes or right-turning vehicles. The last-mentioned can be
immediately adjacent to the centreline. modelled using the Poisson distribution which is

e-m mr
In the latter case, the through-lanes would have to P(x=r) =
r!
be deviated away from the centreline if there is not
a median island wide enough to accommodate the
right-turn lane. Particularly at night, a wet, hence where e = base of natural logarithms
reflective, road surface causes the road markings
not to be readily visible. Deviation of a through- m = constant equal to the
lane should therefore be clearly demarcated by value of arrivals
road studs to ensure that vehicles do not
inadvertently stray into the right-turn lane. r = the number of arrivals for
which the probability is
The extent of deviation provided is dependent on being calculated.
the extent of offset provided to the right-turn lane.
Good practice suggests that opposing right-turn In both signalised and unsignalised intersections,
lanes should be in line with each other to provide the length of storage lane should be sufficient to
the turning driver with the maximum clear view of accommodate at least two passenger cars. If buses
oncoming traffic that would oppose the turning or trucks represent more than 10% of the turning
movement. In this case, the deviation of the traffic, provision should be made for storage of at
through-lane would amount to only half of the least one passenger car and one bus or truck. It
width of the turning lane. should be noted that the length of the design bus
is 12,3 m, compared with the 9,1 m of the truck.

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The shorter length could be used only if the road is Left-turning traffic must be able to negotiate the
not intended to serve as a bus route. turn without encroaching on either the adjacent
shoulder or sidewalk or on the opposing lane. The
Tapers latter requirement can, however, be relaxed in the
case of the occasional large vehicle on a street with
Tapers can be either passive, allowing a lateral low traffic volumes.
movement in the traffic stream, or active, forcing
the lateral movement to take place. Thus, the Various forms of edge treatment are described in
addition of a lane to the cross-section is preceded by Table 7.21.
a passive taper, and a lane drop by an active taper. In
general, an active taper should be long whereas a It should be noted that the minimum outer turning
passive taper can be short. In the latter case, a taper radius of a passenger car is of the order of 6,2 m. A
can be “squared off”, meaning that a full-width lane passenger car would thus, at a crawl speed, just be
is added instantaneously and the taper demarcated able to maintain position relative to a left- turning
by road marking as opposed to physically kerb with a radius of about 4,0 m.
constructing a tapered length of road.
The three-centre curve closely approximates the
Taper rates are shown in Table 7.20. actual path of a vehicle negotiating the turn. This
has the effect of reducing the extent of the surfaced
The lower taper rate for active kerbed tapers is area that has to be provided and is, thus,
permissible because of the higher visibility of the particularly useful where a change of direction of
kerbing which, for this purpose, should be highlighted greater than 90° has to be accommodated. This
with paint or reflective markings. Very often, the need close approximation to actual wheel paths also
for storage space at urban intersections outweighs suggests that it offers a level of guidance to turning
the need for smooth transitions. In this case the vehicles better than that provided by simple curves.
passive taper rate can be reduced to 1:2.
Corner splays
Kerbing and kerb radii
Depending on the width of the road reserve, it may
Barrier or semi-mountable kerbing is be necessary to splay the reserve boundary in the
recommended for intersections because of the intersection area to provide adequate stopping
more visible demarcation of the lane edge that sight distance for drivers both on the major and the
they offer. In the presence of pedestrians, barrier minor legs of the intersection. In general, a
kerbing is the preferred option. In either case, minimum width of border area around the corner
ramps should be provided for prams and should be of the order of 3,5 m.
wheelchairs. Kerbing is normally offset by 0,3 m
from the lane edge.

Table 7.20: Taper rates

DESIGN SPEED (km/h) 30 40 50 60 80 100

Passive tapers
Taper rate (1 in) 5 8 10 15 20 25
Active tapers
Taper rate (1 in) for painted line taper 20 23 25 35 40 45
Taper rate (1 in) for kerbed taper 10 13 15 20 25 30

Table 7.21: Typical edge treatments for left turns

MINIMUM KERB APPROACH/DEPARTURE

TREATMENT
RADIUS (m) TREATMENT

Simple curve 10 Nil

Simple curve with tapers 6 1:15 tapers
Three-centred curve 6 Ratio of curvature 2:1:4
Channelised turning roadway with three-centred curve 15 Ratio of curvature 2:1:4
Channelised turning roadway with simple curve and tapers 25 1:10 tapers

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Chapter 7 Roads: Geometric design and layout planning
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Channelisation be avoided by the provision of islands which have

the effect of reducing the duration of the required
Channelisation involves the use of islands and road gap, hence increasing the probability of its
markings and is usually required where traffic occurrence. Alternatively, the creation of adequate
volumes are high. The purposes of channelisation gaps can be forced by the use of demarcated or,
with regard to vehicle movement are to: preferably, signalised pedestrian crossings.

• separate areas for manoeuvring and present Islands

drivers with one decision at a time;
Islands, whether painted or kerbed, can be classed
• control the direction of movement of vehicles into three groups:
to obtain small angles for merging and
diverging at low relative speeds or approximate • directional islands, which direct traffic along
right angles for crossing at high relative speeds; the correct channels or prevent illegal
manoeuvres;
• control speed by redirection or funnelling, the
latter implying a steady reduction of lane width • divisional islands, which separate opposing
over a short distance; traffic flows; and

• provide protection and storage for turning • refuge islands, to protect pedestrians crossing
vehicles; the roadway or turning vehicles that are
required to stop while awaiting gaps in the
• eliminate excessive surfaced areas which permit opposing traffic, and also to provide space for
drivers to perform improper manoeuvres or to traffic control devices.
travel along paths unpredictable to other
drivers; Typically, islands are either long and narrow or
triangular in shape. The circular central island is
• prevent illegal manoeuvres, such as turns in the considered more a traffic control device than a
wrong direction into one-way streets; and channelisation feature. Small islands have low
visibility and cannot serve safely as either
• provide space and protection for traffic control accommodation for pedestrians or traffic control
devices and other road signs. devices. Islands should not have an area of less than
5 m2 or width of less than 1,2 m. Islands used as
Channelisation is also required at intersections pedestrian refuges should preferably be 3,0 m
where traffic volumes may be relatively low but wide. Painted islands do not constitute a significant
pedestrian volumes high. In this case, the function refuge for pedestrians and should not be used in
of channelisation is directed towards providing this application. Pedestrian refuge islands should
refuge for pedestrians seeking to cross the various be provided with barrier kerbing and ramps for
traffic flows. wheelchairs and prams.

Walking speeds are typically of the order of 1,5 m/s. Island kerbing is usually introduced suddenly. For
In the vicinity of old-age homes and similar areas, this reason, the approach end requires careful
accommodation should be made for a walking design. In the case of triangular islands, the point
speed of about 1 m/s. Crossing a two-lane street of intersection of the approach sides of the island
would thus require a gap or a lag of about seven should be rounded and painted and, possibly, also
seconds. A gap is the difference between the times be provided with reflective markings. The
of arrival at the crossing point by two successive approach end should also be offset from the edge
vehicles. The lag is the unexpired portion of a gap, of the adjacent lane, as shown in Figure 7.10.
i.e. the time between the pedestrian arriving at the
crossing point and an opposing vehicle arriving at Turning roadways
the same point. On multilane streets, the crossing
time is correspondingly higher. The normal track width of a vehicle is the distance
between the outer faces of the rear tyres. When a
If traffic flows are such that a gap or lag equal to curve is being negotiated, the rear wheels track
or greater than the crossing time is not available at inside the front wheels and the track width then
about one minute intervals, pedestrians are becomes the radial distance between the path of
tempted to cross by pausing on the roadmarkings the outside front wheel and the inside rear wheel.
between the various flows to await the gap in the On turning roadways, it is this greater width that
next flow to be crossed. has to be accommodated. The turning roadway
width is thus a function of:
This is not a normally recommended practice. It can

31
Roads: Geometric design and layout planning Chapter 7
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Provision for passing stalled vehicles and two-lane

operation require a combination of design vehicles.
The combinations normally considered are shown in

e l
rav
Table 7.22.

of t
R0,3

n
ctio
Table 7.22: Design traffic conditions

Dire
CASE A B C
0,6
I P SU WB12
0,6
II P-P P-SU SU-SU
ay
dw
roa
ning Minimum area III P-SU SU-SU WB12-WB12
Tur 5m•
R0,6
R0,6
1,0
The selected lane width either should or can be
modified depending on the selected edge treatment.
Shoulder width
Three edge treatments have to be accommodated.
These are mountable kerbing, barrier or semi-
mountable kerbing, and the stabilised shoulder. They
can occur in combination, e.g. a barrier kerb on one
Through lane direction of travel side of the lane and a stabilised shoulder on the other.
Shoulders would only be used at intersections if the
Dimensions in metres cross-section of the road upstream and downstream of
the intersection includes shoulders. In the presence of
pedestrians, kerbing is necessary.
Figure 7.10: Layout of island
Recommended turning roadway widths are listed in
• the flow operation being designed for; Table 7.23. for the various cases, conditions and edge
• the design vehicle to be accommodated; and treatments.
• the radius of curvature of the turning roadway.
The crossfall prevailing on the through-lanes is simply
With regard to the first-mentioned, three extended across the turning roadways. Should
operations need to be addressed. These are: superelevation be deemed to be necessary, it could
be achieved by the use of a crossover crown line, in
• Case I: One-lane one-way operation, with no which case the maximum superelevation could be as
provision for passing a stalled vehicle. high as 6%.

• Case II: One-lane one-way operation, with Mini-roundabouts

provision for passing a stalled vehicle.
Mini-roundabouts are the one exception to the
• Case III: Two-lane operation, either one-way or general practice of avoiding the use of intersection
two-way. controls as traffic calming devices. They can be used
either as intersection controls or as traffic calming
Design vehicles to be accommodated are passenger devices. In the latter case, however, their application
cars (P), single-unit trucks or buses (SU) and should be as part of area-wide traffic calming schemes
articulated vehicles (WB12). The selection of design rather than in isolation.
vehicle is addressed as the traffic condition being
designed for. These are: The mini-roundabout comprises a central circular
island, deflector islands on each of the approach legs
• Traffic Condition A - Predominantly P vehicles and a circular travelled way around the central island.
but some consideration given to SUs. On a three-legged or T-intersection, it is frequently
necessary to apply speed humps to the approach from
• Traffic Condition B - Sufficient SUs (approx 10%) the left on the cross leg of the T. The reason for this is
to govern design but some consideration given that the location of the circular island is invariably such
to WB12s. that traffic on this leg has a straight line path through
the intersection and it is necessary to force a reduction
• Traffic Condition C - Sufficient WB12s to govern of speed.
design.

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Table 7.23: Turning roadway widths (m)

CASE I CASE II CASE III

RADIUS ON INNER EDGE (m) DESIGN TRAFFIC CONDITION

A B C A B C A B C

15 5,4 5,4 6,9 6,9 7,5 8,7 9,3 10,5 12,6

25 4,8 5,1 5,7 6,3 6,9 8,1 8,7 9,9 11,1

30 4,5 4,8 5,4 6,0 6,6 7,5 8,4 9,3 10,5

50 4,2 4,8 5,1 5,7 6,3 7,2 8,1 9,0 9,9

75 3,9 4,8 4,8 5,7 6,3 6,9 8,1 8,7 9,3

100 3,9 4,5 4,8 5,4 6,0 6,6 7,8 8,4 0,0

125 3,7 4,5 4,8 5,4 6,0 6,6 7,8 8,4 8,7

150 3,7 4,5 4,5 5,4 6,0 6,6 7,8 8,4 8,7

TANGENT 3,7 4,5 4,5 5,1 5,7 6,3 7,5 8,1 8,1

WIDTH MODIFICATION APPROPRIATE TO EDGE TREATMENT

Mountable kerb none none none

Barrier kerb one side add 0,3 m none add 0,3 m

Barrier kerb both sides add 0,6 m add 0,3 m add 0,6 m

Stabilised shoulder one or both sides Condition B & C lane Deduct shoulder Deduct 0,6 m where
widths on tangent width; minimum shoulder is 1,2 m or
may be reduced to width as for wider
3,7 m for 1,2 m or Case I
wider shoulder

Mini-roundabouts have negative implications for of the hump should be in the range of 75 mm
cyclists and, to a lesser extent, for pedestrians. to 100 mm. This is a compromise between the
Circulation of traffic through a roundabout is not height that is visible to approaching drivers and
straightforward and the need for vehicles to stop at the height that long vehicles can traverse without
the intersection is reduced. Crossing opportunities damage. The guidance role is strengthened, and
for pedestrians are thus similarly reduced and the the asphalt hump simultaneously protected from
task of judging acceptable gaps is more difficult. The damage by passing vehicles, if the central island is
circulatory flow and reduced carriageway width surrounded by a 25 mm high steel hoop, securely
offer less protected space for cyclists. In addition, anchored to the road surface.
motorists are seldom prepared to yield the right of
way to cyclists. These two classes of road users thus Width of travelled way
require careful consideration in the design of these
intersections and appropriate facilities provided for The inscribed circle diameter is dependent on the
them. design vehicle. Britain and Australia both
recommend a diameter of 28 m, suggesting thus
Central island that the travelled way has a width of 12 m,
assuming that the traffic circle has a diameter of
The central island is typically of the order of 4,0 4 m. This corresponds to use of a WB-12 as the
m in diameter. It may simply be a painted island, design vehicle. South African practice, where the
although the preferred option is that it should be mini-roundabout is typically used in residential
an asphalt hump. The latter offers more specific areas, is to use the passenger car or the bus as the
guidance to drivers and ensures that the mini- design vehicle of choice. If the roundabout is not
roundabout operates as intended. The height located on a bus route, the inscribed circle

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 GUIDELINES FOR HUMAN SETTLEMENT PLANNING AND DESIGN

diameter could be reduced to 14 m. Bus routes the intersection is also an active taper insofar as it
would require an inscribed circle 25 m in diameter serves as a transition from the wider lane width
and this width is adequate for two-lane operation around the mini-roundabout to the normal lane
by passenger cars. width applying to the rest of the street, and the
same taper rate applies. In this case, however, the
Deflector islands taper rate is relative to the direction of movement
of vehicles exiting from the intersection. The
Kerbed islands are used to guide vehicles into the approach end of the island should be rounded and
intersection area. The side of the island closest to offset as illustrated in Fig 7.10.
the traffic approaching the intersection thus
constitutes an active taper. A taper rate of 1:10 The kerbed island is normally preceded by a
appropriate to a design speed of 30 km/h should be painted island.
employed. The side of the island downstream of

34
Chapter 7 Roads: Geometric design and layout planning
 GUIDELINES FOR HUMAN SETTLEMENT PLANNING AND DESIGN

BIBLIOGRAPHY Lea, J D (1996). Skid resistance of unpaved roads.

CSIR, Division of Roads and Transport Technology,
American Association of State Highway and Report CR-96/007. Pretoria.
Transportation Officials (1994). A policy on geometric
design of highways and streets. Washington. Mkhacane, H S (1992). Geometric standards for
unpaved roads. CSIR, Department of Transport, Report
Brafman Bahar, G (1983). A need for revised geometric 92/271. Pretoria.
standards based on truck stopping distance and driver
eye height. CSIR, National Institute for Transport and Pretorius, H B (1976). Eye-heights of drivers of cars and
Road Research, Report RF/3/83. Pretoria. Department vans. CSIR, National Institute for Transport and Road
of Transport, in Pretoria. Research Report RF/3/76. Pretoria.

CUTA (1991). Guidelines for the transportation system Schermers, G (1987). Roundabouts - An alternative to
managent process. Committee of Urban Transport intersection control. CSIR, National Institute for
Authorities (Draft Urban Transport Guidelines UTG9). Transport and Road Research, Report RT/83. Pretoria.

Department of Transport (1992). Pedestrian facility Schermers, G and Theyse, H, (1996). National
guidelines: Maunual to plan, design and maintain safe guidelines for traffic calming. Department of
pedestrian facilities. Report no 92/126. Department of Transport Report no CR-96/036, Pretoria.
Transport, Pretoria.
Transportation Research Board (TRB) (1994). Special
Glennon, J C (1970). An evaluation of design criteria Report 209. Highway Capacity Manual. Washington.
for operating trucks safely on grades. Transportation
Research Board Record 312. pp 93-112. Wolhuter, K M and Skutil, V (1990). Parameters for
South African design vehicles. Department of
Harwood, D W and Glennon, J C (1989). Passing sight Transport, Report 89/214. Pretoria.
distance design for passenger cars and trucks.
Transportation Research Board Record 1208. pp 59-69. Wolhuter, K M (1990). Warrants for climbing lanes.
Washington. M Eng thesis. University of Pretoria.

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36
Chapter 7 Roads: Geometric design and layout planning
 Chapter 8

Roads: Materials and

construction

8
 GUIDELINES FOR HUMAN SETTLEMENT PLANNING AND DESIGN

TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

SCOPE AND NATURE OF THIS CHAPTER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

DESIGN PHILOSOPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1

Provision and ability to pay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1

Appropriate standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1

Environmental impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1

Risk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2

THE PAVEMENT DESIGN PROCESS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

Level of service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2

Stormwater accommodation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2

Economic considerations and design strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3

STRUCTURE OF THIS CHAPTER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

THE COMPONENTS OF THE DESIGN PROCESS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

SERVICE OBJECTIVE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

COMPILING A STREET “PROFILE” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Street categories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5

Street function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6

Level of service (LOS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6

Street standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6

The street as public open space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8

DESIGN STRATEGY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

Paved streets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8

Selection of analysis period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10

Structural design period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10

DESIGN TRAFFIC AND BEARING CAPACITY. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

Paved streets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10

Unpaved streets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15

MATERIALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

Description of major material types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15

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PAVEMENT TYPES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

Behaviour of different pavement types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16

ENVIRONMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

Topography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20

Climate and structural design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20

Climate and subgrade California Bearing Ratio (CBR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21

Material depth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22

Delineation of subgrade areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22

Design CBR of subgrade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22

STRUCTURAL DESIGN METHODS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

Design methods for paved streets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22

Design methods for unpaved streets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24

PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

Surface drainage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24

Subsurface drainage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25

Compaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29

Subgrade below material depth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30

Street levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30

Service trenches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31

Pavement cross-section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31

Considerations for concrete pavements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .32

Kerbs and channels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .32

Edging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .32

Accessibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .32

COST ANALYSIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .32

Present worth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .32

Construction costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33

Maintenance costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33

Real discount rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .34

Salvage value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .34

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Optimisation of life-cycle costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35

DISCUSSION ON THE DESIGN PROCEDURES FOR DIFFERENT STREET TYPES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

PAVED ARTERIAL AND ACCESS STREETS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

The design process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .36

PAVED BASIC ACCESS STREETS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

Structural design of paved basic access streets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .41

UNPAVED ARTERIAL AND ACCESS STREETS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

Street category . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43

Design strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43

Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43

Design of imported layers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43

UNPAVED BASIC ACCESS STREETS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

TERTIARY WAYS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

Layout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .44

Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .45

Design of tertiary ways (standard cross-sections) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .45

CONSTRUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

Staged construction and upgrading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .48

Construction approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .51

DESIGNING FOR LABOUR-BASED CONSTRUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

MAINTENANCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

MAINTENANCE OF BASIC ACCESS STREETS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

Labour and mechanisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .56

Environmental maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .56

MAINTENANCE OF TERTIARY WAYS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

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APPENDIX A: THE CATALOGUE OF PAVEMENT DESIGNS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

Notes regarding the use of the catalogue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
RECOMMENDED READING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
APPENDIX B: EXAMPLES OF STRUCTURAL DESIGN BY THE CATALOGUE METHOD. . . . . . . . . . 71
A. EXAMPLE OF THE STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF A CATEGORY UB STREET . . . . 71
SERVICE OBJECTIVE, STREET CHARACTERISTICS AND STREET PROFILE . . . . 71
Design strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Structural design and pavement type selection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Possible pavement structures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Practical considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Cost analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Discount rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Salvage value and road-user costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Present worth of costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
B. EXAMPLE OF THE STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF A CATEGORY UD STREET . . . . 77
SERVICE OBJECTIVE, STREET CHARACTERISTICS AND STREET PROFILE . . . . 77
Street category. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Estimate design traffic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Structural design and pavement type selection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Subgrade CBR and selected layers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Possible pavement structures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Cost analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
APPENDIX C: MATERIAL TYPES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Materials for paved basic access streets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Material problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Materials for unsealed streets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Earth streets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Gravel wearing courses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Stabilised earth streets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Dust palliatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
RECOMMENDED READING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86

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 GUIDELINES FOR HUMAN SETTLEMENT PLANNING AND DESIGN

LIST OF TABLES

Table 8.1 Typical street characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5

Table 8.2 Levels of service (LOS) of streets or drainage and combined facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7

Table 8.3 Categorisation of street standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8

Table 8.4 Structural design periods for various street categories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10

Table 8.5 Classification of pavements and traffic for structural design purposes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11

Table 8.6 80 kN single-axle equivalency factors, derived from F= (p/80) 4,2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12

Table 8.7 Determination of E80s per commercial vehicle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12

Table 8.8 Traffic growth factor (g) for calculation of future or initial traffic from present traffic . . . . . . . .13

Table 8.9 Traffic growth factor (fy) for calculation of cumulative traffic over prediction
period from initial (daily) traffic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14

Table 8.10 Design factors for the distribution of traffic and equivalent traffic among lanes and
shoulders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14

Table 8.11 Material depths to be used for determining the design CBR of the subgrades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22

Table 8.12 Subgrade CBR groups used for structural design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22

Table 8.13 Scour velocities for various materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25

Table 8.14 Compaction requirements for the construction of pavement layers (and
reinstatement of pavement layers) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30

Table 8.15 Suggested typical ranges of period of service (without rejuvenators) of various surfacing
types in the different street categories and base types (if used as specified
in the catalogue) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .34

Table 8.16 Typical future maintenance for cost analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35

Table 8.17 Suggested pavement types for different road categories and traffic classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39

Table 8.18 Possible condition at end of structural design period for various street categories
and pavement types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .40

Table 8.19 Preparation of subgrade and required selected layers for the different subgrade
design CBRs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .41

Table 8.20 Examples of staged construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49

Table 8.21 Summary of employment potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .52

Table 8.22 Relative contribution of main activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .52

Table 8.23 Potential of pavement layers for labour-intensive construction methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .53

Table 8.24 Typical activities suited to ABEs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .54

Table 8.25 Street maintenance categories and limited examples of maintenance activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . .55

Table 8.26 Suitability of mechanical equipment and labour for maintenance activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .58

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 GUIDELINES FOR HUMAN SETTLEMENT PLANNING AND DESIGN

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 8.1 Street pavement design flow diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

Figure 8.2 Illustration of design periods and alternative design strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9

Figure 8.3 General pavement behaviour characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18

Figure 8.4 Macro-climatic regions of southern africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21

Figure 8.5 Typical basic access street cross-sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25

Figure 8.6 Tertiary ways: ditches and drains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26

Figure 8.7 Tertiary ways: drift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27

Figure 8.8 Tertiary ways: dish drains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28

Figure 8.9 Typical grass block and vegetation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29

Figure 8.10 Illustrative pavement cross-section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31

Figure 8.11 Degree of structural distress to be expected at the time of rehabilitation for
different structural design periods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .36

Figure 8.12 Typical cost versus level of service curve values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .36

Figure 8.13 Structural design flow diagram (mainly for category UA and UB streets) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .37

Figure 8.14 Simplified design flow diagram for residential streets (category UC and UD) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .38

Figure 8.15 Ranges of terminal rut depth conditions for different street categories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .40

Figure 8.16 Pavement design curves for basic access streets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .42

Figure 8.17 Design curves for the passability of unpaved roads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .44

Figure 8.18 Flow diagram of design process for basic access streets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .45

Figure 8.19 Tertiary ways: cross-sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .46

Figure 8.20 Labour-intensive tertiary ways: cross-sections, cuttings and embankments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .47

Figure 8.21 Simple drags for maintenance of tertiary ways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .57

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INTRODUCTION appropriate standards and environmental impact will

influence the structural design process. These issues
This chapter focuses on cannot be quantified numerically in the design process
but should rather determine the mindset of the
• the philosophy of residential street design, with designer. The designer must therefore exercise his
particular emphasis on the need for a shift from a own judgement during the design process, taking into
previous approach of risk elimination to an consideration the above issues and the risk associated
approach of risk management; with his design decisions.

• the need for layout planning and drainage design Provision and ability to pay
to be considered before the structural design of
the street is addressed; Street upgrading and maintenance in residential areas
is traditionally funded from rates levied and collected
• the relative importance of the street and the level by the local authority. The level of service provided
of service expected by the users and provided by will need to take into account this source of funding
various road types; and an appropriate level should be found which will
be affordable to the ratepayers.
• the structural design of street pavements;
Appropriate standards
• approaches to construction that include
conventional methods, labour-intensive methods In the past, similar guideline documents have focused
and approaches that allow small contractors to on the more highly developed component of South
participate; Africa with an emphasis on standards appropriate to
high levels of car ownership and high traffic volumes.
• practical guidelines for the maintenance of streets; Standards have also been very conservative, with the
use of low-risk pavements with concomitant high
• the comparison of proposed pavement designs on construction cost. A shift in emphasis has occurred and
a life-cycle cost basis; and service provision to the whole spectrum of
development levels now needs to be considered. Due
• references to other guidelines for additional to the differing traffic volumes that may be expected at
information. different levels of development and the need to move
towards risk management, standards appropriate to
particular applications must be considered. It should
SCOPE AND NATURE OF THIS be noted that “appropriate standards” does not
CHAPTER necessarily imply “relaxed standards”.

The chapter covers issues ranging from general design Environmental impact
philosophy to detailed methods for the structural
design of street pavements. The overall design Roads (and transport routes in general), by their
philosophy, design approach and design procedures nature, can be environmentally intrusive. It is
presented in this chapter are applicable to urban important, therefore, to construct them so that their
streets in South Africa, and may be used for similar impact on the environment is as small as possible.
applications in the sub-region.
Comparatively little work, other than certain specific
environmental impact assessments, has been
DESIGN PHILOSOPHY conducted on the impact of roads and the associated
traffic on the environment. It is therefore considered
By nature, structural design of street pavements tends important that, before any new roads are constructed,
to be prescriptive owing to the restrictions imposed by or existing roads are rehabilitated or upgraded, the
geology, topography, design traffic and materials. The relevant authorities determine the impact on both the
use of catalogues in the past (even though intended as biophysical and the socio-economic environments. In
design examples) has perhaps also given rise to the Africa, most funding agencies will not consider the
view that these options are set. In order to make this granting of loans for road development and upgrading
section of the guidelines more facilitative than until a thorough investigation has been concluded.
prescriptive, engineering options - together with the
implications of choosing an option - are presented. A number of impacts associated with the
construction, maintenance and use of roads have
The structural design of the pavements in an urban been identified and are summarised below. The list is
environment cannot be done in isolation. Funding not exhaustive but appraises most of the major socio-
mechanisms, the ability to execute maintenance when economic and biophysical considerations, and
required, the ability of the end users to pay, includes impacts on the:

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 GUIDELINES FOR HUMAN SETTLEMENT PLANNING AND DESIGN

• physical characteristics of the site and maintenance and construction is addressed in the
surroundings; section on life-cycle costs. The document allows for
risk management by stating the risk involved in using
• ecological characteristics of the site and alternative designs. This is achieved by “qualitative
surroundings; statements” regarding the risk and a list of risk-
management approaches that can be used to manage
• current and potential land use and landscape higher risk structures.
character;
The greater the relaxation in specification, the greater
• cultural resources; the risk. In order to manage this and control
consequences, only one parameter should be relaxed
• socio-economic characteristics of the affected at any one time. For example, if the drainage is
public; inherently poor and cannot be cost-effectively
rectified, no attempt at reducing material quality or
• adjacent and associated infrastructure services; pavement thickness should be considered.

• social and community services and facilities; Risk must be related to road usage. Higher risk can be
accommodated on lower-usage roads, while the
• the nature and level of present and future inverse is true for main routes and arterials.
environmental pollution; and

• health and safety. THE PAVEMENT DESIGN PROCESS

Risk The aim of structural design is to produce a structurally

balanced pavement which, at minimum present worth
In order to provide street infrastructure in residential of cost, will carry the traffic for the structural design
environments where there invariably are budget period in the prevailing environment, at an acceptable
limitations, urban authorities need to adopt a service level without major structural distress. If
philosophy of risk management. Where a local necessary, the pavement should be capable of being
authority is responsible for the costs of construction strengthened by various rehabilitation measures to
and maintenance, the philosophy of structural design carry the traffic over the full analysis period.
must move towards an approach that balances
construction and maintenance costs by sensible risk- This aim is achieved by protecting the subgrade
taking and risk management. This document, through the provision of pavement layers. However,
therefore, allows for the current need for risk issues such as level of service, stormwater
management and has moved away from previous accommodation, traffic, pavement materials, subgrade
approaches of “designing out” risk by using high-cost soils, environmental conditions, construction details
street pavements. and economics are all part of the process.

There will, of course, be areas where high construction It is important to attend to layout planning and
costs are borne by the property developer or purchaser drainage design before the structural design of the
who demands a higher standard of street than might street is addressed, as these will lend better definition
be economically justifiable. In such a case the benefit to the role of the street in the larger development,
of lower future maintenance costs is passed on to the and also affect the final structural design of the
local authority and free-market conditions will pavement.
determine the ultimate standard of construction.
Level of service
There are currently certain streets built at low cost
with associated high risk, and this document The “level of service” of streets is expressed as a
recognises this fact. In informal settlements there may combined function of the pavement and stormwater
be unknown and unclassified street systems, and drainage elements. A chosen level of service has to be
arterial routes may be gravelled. A risk has therefore achieved at the lowest possible life-cycle cost.
been assumed on these informal streets, which may
have been taken over by a local authority. It is also Stormwater accommodation
possible that an authority could build a street structure
at some risk and let traffic and time show the problem The importance of topography on the structural
areas. design and functional use of streets is clearly reflected
in the drainage and maintenance requirements of
In order to address the issue of risk associated with the streets in general. Macro-drainage is relevant to this
use of a particular pavement type in a particular street discussion. Streets that cross contours at an angle, or
category, the link between structural design, even perpendicularly, pose the most drainage

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 GUIDELINES FOR HUMAN SETTLEMENT PLANNING AND DESIGN

problems. In such cases function rather than structure Upgrading and staged construction
may require that a street be paved or provided with
erosion protection. It is therefore important that Two concepts that need to be considered as part of
requirements described in the chapters on layout the life-cycle strategy of a street during design, are
planning (Chapter 7) and stormwater management “staged construction” and “upgrading”. Although
(Chapter 6) be met before one embarks on the it is difficult to exactly define and completely
structural design. separate these concepts, some characteristics may
be more typical of one than of the other.
Unpaved streets
The aim of staged construction is to spread the
In rolling and mountainous terrain there may be financial load from the initial construction period
steep gradients which result in the erosion of to some stage later during the life cycle of the
gravel streets and, in particular, erosion of their facility. On the other hand, upgrading will
drainage facilities, with direct implications for their normally take place when the demands on an
safety and functional use. A longitudinal street existing facility far exceed the level of service the
gradient of 5% is an average value above which facility can provide. The influence of doubling the
erosion problems may occur on unpaved streets, contractor’s establishment costs needs to be
and slopes steeper than this would warrant evaluated carefully when staged construction is
additional attention. Gravels in the upper range of considered.
the suggested plasticity index (PI) could effectively
reduce erosion, but local conditions should be
considered in the detailed evaluation. STRUCTURE OF THIS CHAPTER

Piped systems vs surface systems The flow diagram in Figure 8.1 outlines the pavement
design process. The components may not all be clear
The use of the road surface - or of surface channels at this stage, but will be discussed in detail in the
- to accommodate the minor stormwater flows can following sections.
be more appropriate than the use of piped systems
in certain instances, provided safety is not This discussion will be done in two parts:
compromised. Areas under development and areas
where verges are not grassed can give rise to high • the components of the process will be discussed in
silt loads in the stormwater flows, which can general; and
rapidly block piped systems. The dumping of
refuse and other debris into stormwater inlets and • a detailed discussion on the design process for each
manholes is a common occurrence in some of the five branches in the diagram will follow.
residential areas and this will also lead to
blockages. In areas where regular maintenance of
piped systems does not take place, surface systems
are probably more appropriate.

Economic considerations and design

strategy

Life-cycle costs

Providing a traffic circulation network to a

residential area involves both construction (capital)
and maintenance (operating) costs. For a local
authority which is responsible for these functions,
the costs of both construction and maintenance
must be minimised to provide a service at the
lowest total outlay. The total life-cycle cost of a
road should include the vehicle operating costs, but
these can be disproportionally high and are often
neglected. In this case only the agency cost is
evaluated.

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Roads: Materials and construction Chapter 8
 4
Pavement Design

Chapter 8
Service objective
Layout plan
Current and future function
Traffic

Compiling a street profile

Arterial and access streets Characteristics of streets Basic access streets Tertialy ways
Street category
Description and function
Importance Pave for
Yes No Level of service Yes reasons other No
Funds available Vehicle traffic
Low risk to pave? Higher than bearing
Design bearing capacity capacity
risk
Paved/unpaved
Pedestrian traffic

Paved arterial and access streets Unpaved arterial and access streets Paved basic access streets Unpaved basic access streets

Street category Street category Materials

Design strategy Design strategy

Yes Dust palliative No Yes No

Design bearing capacity In-situ material
adequate? acceptable?
Materials Materials

Environment Environment In-situ material wearing course

Figure 8.1: Street pavement design flow diagram

Structural design Design imported layers Structural design Design imported layers
Pavement type selection Pavement type selection
GUIDELINES FOR HUMAN SETTLEMENT PLANNING AND DESIGN

Design method Design method

Standard cross-sections
Practical considerations Erosion protection

Economic analysis

Construction and maintenance

Roads: Materials and construction

 GUIDELINES FOR HUMAN SETTLEMENT PLANNING AND DESIGN

THE COMPONENTS OF THE DESIGN COMPILING A STREET “PROFILE”

PROCESS
The shaded area in Figure 8.1 highlights the major
decision-making part of the design process. A decision
SERVICE OBJECTIVE has to be made at this stage on selecting an
appropriate street “profile”, which will determine the
Before the designer starts in earnest with the actual design procedure to adopt. A number of
pavement design of a particular street, he must characteristics define the profile of the street. These
consider the background against which to design and include the street category, the description and
the objective of providing the facility. This does not function of the street, the importance of the street,
need to be considered in great detail at this early stage the level of service of the facility (street and drainage
of the design, but it will guide the direction of the combined), vehicle traffic, design bearing capacity,
design process. Factors that need to be considered street standard (paved/unpaved) and even the
include the layout and drainage plan, the current and pedestrian traffic expected.
future functions of the street and the anticipated
traffic. The layout and stormwater drainage plan Street categories
should be well defined at this stage, which also defines
the function of the street to some extent. Detailed Typical street characteristics are listed in Table 8.1. For
calculations on design traffic will be done at a later the purpose of this document, four different street
stage in the design, and only an estimate of the categories, namely UA, UB, UC and UD, are considered.
number of vehicles is required at this stage. These categories range from very important arterial

Table 8.1: Typical street characteristics

UA UB UC UD
STREET CATEGORY
ARTERIAL STREETS ACCESS STREETS

Description and Vehicles only Higher-order Lower-order Pedestrian and

function mixed pedestrian mixed pedestrian vehicle access route
and vehicle route and vehicle route

Level of service (LOS) High LOS Moderate LOS Moderate to low LOS Low LOS

Traffic (vehicles per >600 <600 (paved) >75 <75

day) <350 (unpaved) <5 heavy vehicles

Traffic (a) If street 1-50 x 106 E80s 0,3-3 x 106 <0.3 x 106 E80s
(no. of carries per lane E80s per lane per lane
E80s)* construc-
tion traffic

(b) If street 1-50 x 106 E80s 0,03-3 x 106 <0,3 x 106 E80s
does not per lane E80s per lane per lane
carry con-
struction
traffic

Standard Most likely paved Paved/unpaved Most likely unpaved, Paved for reasons
or paved for reasons other than traffic
other than traffic

Pedestrian traffic None Very little, High, controlled High, uncontrolled

controlled

* E80s: Equivalent 80kN single axle loads

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 GUIDELINES FOR HUMAN SETTLEMENT PLANNING AND DESIGN

streets with a very high volume of traffic, to less paved standard, if funds are available.
important lightly trafficked residential streets.
Unpaved arterial streets:
Street function Although unpaved arterial streets exist in many
areas, it is almost impossible to justify them on an
Arterial streets economic or social basis. The cost of maintaining
them is excessive and the frequency of maintenance
Arterial streets are the major routes providing necessary to retain a riding quality of any
mobility between and within residential, acceptability results in safety hazards. In addition,
recreational, commercial and industrial areas. The the user costs, in comparison with a paved street, are
traffic volumes on these streets will be high and extremely high. All attempts should be made to
the streets will generally carry significant numbers upgrade unpaved arterials carrying bus and heavy
of buses and other heavy vehicles. goods vehicles to a suitable, relatively low-risk,
paved standard as rapidly as possible, whilst
arterials carrying mostly light goods vehicles can
Access streets afford slightly higher-risk pavements.

Access streets include all residential streets below Although undesirable, financial constraints may
the level of urban bus routes. Their primary prevent an authority being able to pave all arterial
function is access to residential erven and they will streets in a network. The street network should
thus carry few heavy vehicles. Depending on the then be prioritised on an economic basis to identify
level of development and affluence of the area, candidate streets for upgrading. The optimum use
traffic may be so light that the primary structural of available materials is thus necessary to reduce
design objectives may relate more to minimising the undesirable properties as far as possible.
damage from erosion than to supporting the
traffic. Access streets

Access streets may be further divided into access A distinction is made between access streets (>75
streets with traffic levels of more than 75 vehicles vehicles per day) and basic access streets (<75
per day and those with less than 75 vehicles per vehicles per day). Access streets carrying more than
day, of which less than 5 are heavy vehicles. Basic 75 vehicles per day require a more robust design
access streets would generally be found in than those carrying lighter traffic volumes (basic
developing areas where vehicle ownership is low. access streets).

Level of service (LOS) Paved access streets:

It may be economically justified to pave access
The level of service that a user expects from a street is streets at levels of 75 vehicles per day and above.
related to the function of the street, to the general The aspirations of residents and street users may
standard of the facility and partly to the volume of also influence the decision.
traffic carried. For example, the user will expect a
better riding quality on a dual-carriageway arterial Unpaved access streets:
street than on a minor residential street. Irrespective Access streets with relatively light traffic can
of this, the user will generally expect the highest justifiably be left unpaved. If the street is to have
possible standard. an unsealed pavement it is essential that the best
quality material available locally is used (blending
Streets in a residential area function at different levels and/or processing should be considered where
of service (LOS). The LOS values are determined by the necessary to improve the materials), and some
functional use of the street, the level of construction method of dust palliation could be considered.
and the drainage provision. In Table 8.2 the
description of each type of street and its drainage is Basic access streets
given, with the associated LOS values. In the matrix the
combined LOS value is given. The final LOS value is Basic access streets are defined as access streets in
determined mostly by the LOS of the drainage. the early stages of development, and are designed
and constructed subject to constraints imposed by
Street standards the administrative authority owing to limited
budgets or other circumstances. The objective is to
Arterial streets maximise the performance of such streets within
these constraints.
Paved arterial streets:
The heavy traffic carried by arterial streets will Designs for such urban residential streets with low
generally justify their being built to a traditional traffic volumes (up to 75 vehicles per day of which

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 GUIDELINES FOR HUMAN SETTLEMENT PLANNING AND DESIGN

Table 8.2: Levels of service (LOS) of streets or drainage and combined facilities

LOS DRAINAGE LOS 4&5 3 2 1

Street Description Pipe system, Lined Unlined Unsurfaced

STREET
LOS kerbs, gutter channel on channel on street with
CATEGORY
and surfaced shoulder or shoulder or provision of
street on street on street drainage with
sheet flow

UA 5 Primary streets (bus

5 5 4
routes) with a
designed structure
and surfacing, or

3 Gravel
3 2
UB 5 District and/or local
distributors
(bus routes) with a
5 5 3
designed structure
and surfacing, or

3 Gravel
3 2
UC 5 Residential access
collectors with a
designed light
structure and
surfacing, or 5 4 3 2

3 Gravel, or 3 2 1
1 In situ 3 2 1
UD 5 Access and basic
access streets with
surfacing on light 5 4 3 2
structure, or

3 Gravel, or 3 2 1
1 In situ 3 2 1

up to five are heavy vehicles) make maximum use • drainage (surface and subsurface);
of in situ material and require realistic material • material quality;
standards. • construction control;
• control of overloading; and
Paved basic access streets: • maintenance.
Factors determining the acceptable performance of
such light-structure streets are The philosophy of basic access streets is to
concentrate on the engineering impact of

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 GUIDELINES FOR HUMAN SETTLEMENT PLANNING AND DESIGN

drainage, material quality and construction design for tertiary ways during layout planning as
control, to achieve more realistic minimum these form the basic links between dwellings. In a
standards for the circumstances described earlier. formal design this facility can enhance the design
Although cost comparisons are not dealt with principles applicable to the higher order of streets.
separately, the principle is that cost-saving is
maximised. Summary of street standards

Unpaved basic access streets: The street standards that would generally be
These are the lowest quality basic access streets considered for application to particular street
acceptable. Although undesirable from the point categories are summarised in Table 8.3.
of view of dust generation, the production of mud
when wet, and the need for constant maintenance, The street as public open space
financial constraints may preclude the use of
higher quality streets for the very low traffic typical In the lower street categories (access collector and,
of these streets. The optimum use of available particularly, basic access streets) the street functions
materials is thus necessary to reduce the are less the preserve of the motor vehicle and more
undesirable performance properties as far as the preserve of the pedestrian and resident. This is
possible. particularly true of developing areas, where the
incidence of traffic is likely to be low. This may be
Earth basic access streets are considered a viable recognised by the provision of a smooth surface.
option only if the in situ material is of a quality that
will support vehicles even in a soaked condition. Streets may also function as firebreaks in areas of high
One of the major problems with earth streets is housing density - a possible justification for retaining
that they initially form tracks, and, if bladed, a wide street reserves in some instances.
street that is lower than the surrounding terrain
results, with significant drainage problems.
DESIGN STRATEGY
Tertiary ways
Paved streets
Unpaved basic access streets may evolve from
informal access routes, which are referred to as The design strategy could influence the total cost of a
tertiary ways in this document. pavement structure. Normally, a design strategy is
applicable only to paved Category UA and UB streets.
In developing areas an infrastructure of narrow For unpaved streets, or paved Category UC and UD
ways which carry no or few vehicles exists. These streets, the design periods are fixed.
non-trafficked tertiary ways are mostly informal
and unserviced, but in older developing areas they The analysis period (see Figure 8.2) is a convenient
are formalised (upgraded) by the provision of planning period during which complete reconstruction
surfacings, drainage or even services like water and of the pavement is undesirable. The structural design
electricity. period, on the other hand, is defined as the period for
which it is predicted with a high degree of confidence
In an informal residential development no layout that no structural maintenance will be required.
planning for tertiary ways is done. The existence of
these ways is dictated by pedestrians’ needs to In order to fulfil the design objective of selecting the
follow the shortest possible route. It is advisable to optimum pavement in terms of present worth of cost,

Table 8.3: Categorisation of street standards

ARTERIAL STREETS ACCESS STREETS
(UA AND UB) (UC AND UD)

Paved Unpaved Access streets (>75 Basic access streets (<75 day; <5 heavy)
collector/ collector/ vehicles per day)
dis-tributor distributor Paved Unpaved Paved Unpaved basic access streets
streets streets access access basic
(bus (bus streets streets access Gravel Earth Tertiary ways
routes) routes) streets basic basic
access access
streets streets

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 GUIDELINES FOR HUMAN SETTLEMENT PLANNING AND DESIGN

it is necessary to consider how the pavement is resealings (Figure 8.2 (b)).

expected to perform over the entire analysis period.
The manner in which a design strategy can be It is important to note that any design procedure can
presented is demonstrated schematically in Figure 8.2, only estimate the timing and nature of the
which shows the generalised trends of riding quality maintenance measures needed. Naturally, such
decreasing with time, and traffic for two different estimates are only approximations, but they provide a
pavement structures, namely: valuable guide for a design strategy. The actual
maintenance should be determined by a proper
Design 1, which requires resealing to maintain the maintenance procedure. The accuracy of the prediction
surface in a good condition, and later some structural could be improved by having a feedback system.
rehabilitation such as an overlay (Figure 8.2 (a)); and
Design 2, which is structurally adequate for the whole
of the analysis period and requires only three Selection of analysis period

Constructed
riding quality

4
Surface treatment

3
Riding quality (psi)

rehabilitation
* see note

Structural
** see note

Structural design period (10-20 yrs)

Analysis period (20-30 yrs)

1

0
Time
(a) Design 1

Constructed
riding quality
4 Surface treatment

3 * see note
Riding quality (psi)

Terminal riding quality

2

Structural design period (15-30 yrs)

Analysis period (20-30 yrs)

1

0
Time
(b) Design 2

Design 2 requires three resurfacings and no strengthening during

the analysis period.

* If surfacing is not maintained and if water-susceptible

materials are used in the pavement
** Structural rehabilitation usually occurs at a later stage

Figure 8.2: Illustration of design periods and alternative design strategies

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 GUIDELINES FOR HUMAN SETTLEMENT PLANNING AND DESIGN

The analysis period is a realistic cost period. There may • a lack of short-term funds; and
be a difference between the analysis period and the
total period over which a facility will be used. The • a lack of confidence in design assumptions,
analysis period is often related to the geometric life. If especially the design traffic.
the street alignment is fixed, a period of 30 years
should be used. In the case of a short geometric life in Structural design periods may range from 10 to 25
a changing traffic situation, a shorter analysis period years. Normally a period of 20 years will be used
should be used. (Table 8.4).

Structural design period Category UC streets

Selection of structural design period For category UC streets (residential streets) a fixed
structural design period of 20 years is
Table 8.4 gives a summary of suggested structural recommended (Table 8.4).
design periods for different road categories.
Category UA streets Category UD streets

Table 8.4: Structural design periods for The traffic volume is so limited that no structural
various street categories design period is applicable.

STRUCTURAL DESIGN PERIOD*

STREET CATEGORY (YEARS) DESIGN TRAFFIC AND BEARING
RANGE RECOMMENDED
CAPACITY

UA 15-25 20 Paved streets

UB 10-25 20
Real life traffic consists of vehicles spanning a range of
UC 10-30 20
axle loadings. The composition of the traffic on one
* The analysis period for category UA and UB streets street will differ from that on another because of the
is 30 years. differences in street category and function. The
unique traffic spectrum on a particular street will be
Category UA streets the design traffic for that street.

For Category UA streets, the structural design Pavements are, however, designed for a number of
period should be reasonably long because standard 80 kN axles (SA standard axles). The total
number of standard axles that a pavement structure
• it is usually not politically acceptable for street will be able to carry over its design life is referred to as
authorities to carry out heavy rehabilitation the bearing capacity of the pavement. The design
on recently constructed pavements; bearing capacity of a pavement is therefore
considered to be constant for a particular pavement
• street user costs are high and the cost of the structure (ignoring environmental effects). It is
disruption of traffic will probably cancel out customary to design pavements for a bearing capacity
any pavement cost savings that result from the interval rather than a specific value. These intervals
choice of short structural design periods; and are referred to as pavement classes and Table 8.5
summarises pavement design classes based on
• the street alignment is normally fixed. pavement bearing capacity. This is done because of the
large variation associated with real pavement
Category UB streets performance and the associated difficulty in predicting
pavement life.
For Category UB streets, the structural design
period may vary, depending on the circumstances. Although the bearing capacity of a pavement is
Long structural design periods (20 years) will be considered to be constant, different traffic spectrums
selected when circumstances are the same as for will have different damaging effects on the pavement
Category UA streets. due to the different axle-load compositions of the
traffic spectrums. The cumulative damaging effect of
Factors that encourage the selection of short all individual axle loads is expressed as the number of
structural design periods are equivalent 80 kN single-axle loads (ESA, equivalent
standard axles, or E80s). This is the number of 80 kN
• a short geometric life for a facility in a single-axle loads which would cause the same damage
changing traffic situation; to the pavement as the actual spectrum of axle loads.

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Table 8.5: Classification of pavements and traffic for structural design purposes

TYPICAL TRAFFIC VOLUMES AND TYPE OF TRAFFIC

BEARING
PAVEMENT CAPACITY
APPROXIMATE
CLASS (MILLION 80 kN
VEHICLES PER DAY DESCRIPTION
AXLES/LANE)
PER LANE

ES0,003 < 0,003 Very lightly trafficked streets, very few heavy vehicles.
ES0,01 0,003 - 0,01 < 75 These roads include the transition from gravel to paved roads.
ES0,03 0,01 - 0,03
ES0,1 0,03 - 0,1
ES 0,3 0,1 - 0.3 75 - 220
ES1 0,3 - 1 220 - 700 Lightly trafficked street, mainly cars and light delivery vehicles,
very few heavy vehicles.
ES3 1-3 >700 Medium volume, few heavy vehicles.
ES10 3 - 10 > 700 High volume and/or many heavy vehicles.
ES30 10 - 30 > 2 200 Very high volume of traffic and/or a
high proportion of fully laden heavy vehicles
ES100 30 - 100 > 6 500

For structural design, an estimate of the cumulative Computation of equivalent traffic

equivalent traffic per lane over the structural design
period is required. The cumulative equivalent traffic The detailed computation of the cumulative
must then fall into the pavement class for which the equivalent traffic involves
street is designed.
• the load equivalency of traffic;
The cumulative equivalent traffic can be determined in
two different ways: • surveys of traffic conditions;

• by estimation from tabulated traffic classes; and • projecting the traffic data over the structural
design period; and
• through detailed computation from initial and
mean daily traffic axle loads, growth rates and • estimating the lane distribution.
lane-distribution factors.
Load equivalency of traffic:
The estimation of the cumulative equivalent traffic The number of E80s is termed the equivalent
over the structural design period from tabulated traffic. The load-equivalency factor relates the
values is recommended, unless more specific number of repetitions of a given axle load to the
information is available. A detailed computation of equivalent number of E80s.
the cumulative equivalent traffic would be applicable
only when the design traffic loading is bound to be This equivalency factor is a function of pavement
higher than 0,2 x 106 E80s. The designer should composition, material types, definition of terminal
consider whether construction traffic is to be carried conditions and street rideability. Table 8.6 gives
by the pavement. For Category UC and UD streets, average equivalency factors based on:
detailed computations of traffic are normally not
necessary. However, a calculation is necessary to F = (P/80)n (8.1)
determine an appropriate traffic loading.
where
For certain lightly trafficked streets, a change in the
service level may be considered because of anticipated n = 4,2
lower vehicle speeds. In these cases a lower street
category should be selected (acceptance of higher risk) F = load equivalency factor
rather than changing the designs in the catalogue.
P = axle load in kN.

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Pavements that are sensitive to overloading, such Projection of the traffic data over the structural
as shallow-structured pavements with thin design period
cemented bases, may have n values of more than
4,2 whereas less sensitive, deep-structured • Projection to initial design year:
pavements may have n values of less than 4,2. The
designer can carry out a sensitivity analysis over the The present average daily equivalent traffic
spectrum of axle loads with n values ranging from (daily E80s) can be projected to the initial
2 to 6. This may be especially useful in the case of design year by multiplying by a growth factor
abnormal axle-load spectra. determined from the growth rate:

The equivalent traffic can be determined by gx = (1 + 0,01.i)x (8.3)

multiplying the number of axle loads (tj) in each
load group in the entire load spectrum by the where
relevant equivalency factor (Fj), determined from
Table 8.6. g = growth factor

By summation the equivalent daily traffic is

Table 8.7: Determination of E80s per
E = ∑ tj.Fj (8.2)
commercial vehicle
Surveys of traffic conditions (Jordaan 1986; Haupt
NUMBER OF
1980; NITRR 1978).
LOADING OF COMMERCIAL E80s/
The present average daily traffic is the amount of VEHICLES (OR TYPE OF ROAD) COMMERCIAL
daily traffic in a single direction, averaged over the VEHICLES
present year. This traffic can be estimated from
traffic surveys carried out at some time before the
Mostly unladen (Category UC,
initial year. Such a survey may include residential and collector streets), 0,6

• static weighing of sample of vehicles; 50% unladen, 50% laden

(Category UA or UB, arterial 1,7
• dynamic weighing of all axles for a sample roads and bus routes)
period (e.g. a traffic axle-weight classifier
(TAWC) survey); or >70% laden (Category UA or 2,6
UB, main arterials or major
• estimation procedure based on visual industrial routes)
observation (Table 8.7 can be used to assist in
Fully laden bus 3,0
this.)

Table 8.6: 80 kN single-axle equivalency factors, derived from F = (p/80)4,2

SINGLE AXLE LOAD, 80 kN EQUIVALENCY SINGLE AXLE LOAD, 80 kN AXLE EQUIVALENCY

P*(kN) FACTOR, F P(kN) FACTOR, F

<15 0 115 - 124 5,1

15 - 24 0,004 125 - 134 7,0
25 - 34 0,019 135 - 144 9,4
35 - 44 0.062 145 - 154 12,0
45 - 54 0,150 155 - 164 16,0
55 - 64 0,320 165 - 174 20,0
65 - 74 0,590 175 - 184 26,0
75 - 84 1,000 185 - 194 32,0
85 - 94 1,600 195 - 204 39,0
95 - 104 2,400 >205 50,0
105 - 114 3,600

*Single-axle load with dual wheels

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 GUIDELINES FOR HUMAN SETTLEMENT PLANNING AND DESIGN

365 (1+0,01.i) [(1+0,01.i)y-1]

i = growth rate (%) fy = (8.6)
(0,01.i)
x = time between determination of axle (y = structural design period).
load data and opening of streets in
years. The cumulative growth factor (f y) is given in
Table 8.9.
The traffic growth factor (g) is given in Table
8.8. Estimating the lane distribution of traffic

• Computation of cumulative equivalent traffic: On multi-lane roads, the traffic will be distributed
among the lanes. Note that the distribution of
The cumulative equivalent traffic (total E80s) total traffic and equivalent traffic will not be the
over the structural design period may be same. The distribution will also change along the
calculated from the equivalent traffic in the length of street, depending on geometric factors
initial design year and the growth rate for the such as climbing or turning lanes. Suggested design
design period. Where possible, the growth rate factors for total traffic (B) and equivalent traffic
should be based on specific information. More (Be) are given in Table 8.10. As far as possible,
than one growth rate may apply over the these factors incorporate the change in lane
design period. There may also be a difference distribution over the geometric life of a facility. The
between the growth rates for total and factors should be regarded as maxima and
equivalent traffic. These rates will normally vary decreases may be justified.
between 2% and 10%, and a value of 6% is
recommended. The design cumulative equivalent traffic

The daily equivalent traffic in the initial year is The design cumulative equivalent traffic may be
given by calculated by multiplying the equivalent traffic by a
lane distribution factor (Be):
Einitial = E. gx (8.4)
Ne = (∑ tj.Fj).gx.fy.Be (8.7)
The cumulative equivalent traffic may be
calculated from where

Ne - Einitial.fy (8.5) ∑ tj.Fj = equivalent daily traffic at time of survey

where gx = growth factor to initial year (x = period

from traffic survey to initial design year)
fy = cumulative growth factor, based on

Table 8.8: Traffic growth factor (g) for calculation of future or initial traffic from present
traffic
TIME BETWEEN
DETERMINATION OF *g FOR TRAFFIC INCREASE, i (% PER ANNUM)
AXLE LOAD DATA
AND OPENING OF
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
ROAD, x (YEARS)

1 1,02 1,03 1,04 1,05 1,06 1,07 1,08 1,09 1,10

2 1,04 1,06 1,08 1,10 1,12 1,14 1,17 1,19 1,21
3 1,06 1,09 1,12 1,16 1,19 1,23 1,26 1,30 1,33
4 1,08 1,13 1,17 1,22 1,26 1,31 1,36 1,41 1,46
5 1,10 1,16 1,22 1,28 1,34 1,40 1,47 1,54 1,61

6 1,13 1,19 1,27 1,34 1,42 1,50 1,59 1,68 1,77

7 1,15 1,23 1,32 1,41 1,50 1,61 1,71 1,83 1,95
8 1,17 1,27 1,37 1,48 1,59 1,72 1,85 1,99 2,14
9 1,20 1,30 1,42 1,55 1,69 1,84 2,00 2,17 2,36
10 1,22 1,34 1,48 1,63 1,79 1,97 2,16 2,37 2,59

*g = (1 + 0,01.i)x

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 GUIDELINES FOR HUMAN SETTLEMENT PLANNING AND DESIGN

Table 8.9: Traffic growth factor (fy) for calculation of cumulative traffic over prediction
period from initial (daily) traffic

PREDICTION COMPOUND GROWTH RATE, i (% PER ANNUM) *

PERIOD, Y
(YEARS) 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20

4 1 534 1 611 1 692 1 776 1 863 1 953 2 047 2 145 2 246 2 351
5 1 937 2 056 2 180 2 312 2 451 2 597 2 750 2 911 3 081 3 259
6 2 348 2 517 2 698 2 891 3 097 3 317 3 551 3 081 4 066 4 349
7 2 767 2 998 3 247 3 517 3 809 4 124 4 464 4 832 5 229 5 657
8 3 195 3 497 3 829 4 192 4 591 5 028 5 506 6 029 6 601 7 226
9 3 631 4 017 4 445 4 922 5 452 6 040 6 693 7 417 8 220 9 109
10 4 076 4 557 5 099 5 710 6 398 7 173 8 046 9 027 10 130 11 369
11 4 530 5 119 5 792 6 561 7 440 8 443 9 588 10 895 12 384 14 081
12 4 993 5 703 6 526 7 480 8 585 9 865 11 347 13 061 15 044 17 336
13 5 465 6 311 8 130 8 473 9 845 11 458 13 352 15 575 18 183 21 241
14 5 947 6 943 7 305 9 545 11 231 13 242 15 637 18 490 21 887 25 927
15 6 438 7 600 9 005 10 703 12 756 15 239 18 242 21 872 26 257 31 551
16 6 939 8 284 9 932 11 953 14 433 17 477 21 212 25 795 31 414 38 299
17 7 450 8 995 10 915 13 304 16 278 19 983 24 598 30 346 37 500 46 397
18 7 971 9 734 11 957 14 762 18 308 22 790 28 458 35 625 44 680 56 115
19 8 503 10 503 13 061 16 338 20 540 25 934 32 859 41 748 53 154 67 776
20 9 045 11 303 14 232 18 039 22 995 29 455 37 875 48 851 63 152 81 769
25 11 924 15 808 21 227 28 818 39 486 54 506 75 676 105 517 147 559 206 727
30 15 103 21 289 30 587 44 656 66 044 98 656 148 459 224 533 340 661 517 664
35 18 612 27 858 43 114 67 927 108 816 176 464 288 595 474 509 782 431 1 291 373
40 22 487 36 071 59 877 102 120 177 700 313 586 588 416 999 544 1 793 095 3 216 609

* based on fy = 365 (1 + 0,01.i)[(1 + 0,01.i)y - 1]/(0,01.i)

Table 8.10: Design factors for the distribution of traffic and equivalent traffic among
lanes and shoulders
TOTAL
DESIGN DISTRIBUTION FACTOR, Be OR B
NUMBER
OF
TRAFFIC SURFACED SLOW SURFACED FAST
LANE 1* LANE 2 LANE 3
LANES SHOULDER SHOULDER**
(a) Equivalent traffic (E80s) Factor Be

2 100 100 - - -
4 95 95 30 - 30
6 70 70 60 25 25

(b) Traffic (total axles or evu***) Factor B

2 100 100 - - -
4 70 70 50 - 50
6 30 30 50 40 40

* Lane 1 is the outer or slow lane

** For multi-lane roads
*** evu = equivalent vehicle unit; one commercial vehicle = 3 evu design factors for the distribution of traffic and
equivalent traffic among lanes and shoulders.

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 GUIDELINES FOR HUMAN SETTLEMENT PLANNING AND DESIGN

fy = cumulative growth factor over structural Granular materials and soils (G1 to G10)
design period (y = structural design
period) These materials show stress-dependent behaviour,
and under repeated stresses deformation can occur
Be = lane distribution factor for equivalent through shear and/or densification.
traffic.
A G1 is a densely-graded, unweathered, crushed-
To check the geometric capacity of the street, the total stone material compacted to 86 - 88% of apparent
daily traffic towards the end of the structural design density. A faulty grading may be adjusted only by
period can be calculated from adding crusher sand or other stone fractions
obtained from the crushing of the parent rock. G2
n = (initial total daily traffic).gx ( 8.8) and G3 may be a blend of crushed stone with other
fine aggregate to adjust the grading. If the fine
with gx as previously defined. aggregate is obtained from a source other than the
parent rock, its use must be approved by the
When projecting traffic over the structural design purchaser, and the supplier must furnish the
period, the designer should take into account the purchaser with the ull particulars regarding the
possibility of capacity (HRB 1985) conditions being exact amount and nature of such fine aggregate.
reached, which would result in no further growth in G4 to G10 materials range from high-quality
traffic for that particular lane. natural gravels used in pavement layers (CBR 25-80)
to lower-quality materials used in selected layers
Unpaved streets (CBR 3-15).

For the design of unpaved streets only the average In unpaved streets natural gravel materials of
daily traffic is required as performance is mostly a quality G5 to G7 are recommended for the wearing
function of the total traffic, with the light : heavy split course. The recommended plasticity index limits
being of minor importance. This is the result of the for G4 or G5 will not apply if the material is used as
traffic-induced deformation of properly designed a gravel wearing course. Maximum particle size
unpaved streets being restricted to the upper portion limits also have to be reduced for use as a gravel
of the gravel surfacing. Problems in this area are wearing course.
rectified during routine surface maintenance - that is,
grading and spot regravelling, or by regravelling of Asphalt hot-mix materials (BC to TS)
the road.
Asphalt hot-mix materials are visco-elastic and
under repeated stresses they may either crack or
MATERIALS deform or both. Normally a continuously graded
bitumen hot-mix (BC) will have a higher stability
The selection of materials for pavement design is and lower fatigue life than a semi-gap-graded (BS)
based on a combination of availability, economic material. Tar hot-mixes (TC, TS) will normally have
factors and previous experience. These factors have to lower fatigue lives than the equivalent bitumen
be evaluated during the design in order to select the hot-mixes. Usually the stability of a tar mix is the
materials best suited to the conditions. same as or higher than that of the equivalent
bitumen mix. Tar mixes have seldom been used in
The recommended design procedure mostly uses the South Africa due to low durability.
standard material specification defined in Technical
Recommendation for Highways Guidelines for road Bituminous cold-mix materials
construction materials (NITRR 1984). Only abbreviated
specifications are given and TRH14 should be Natural gravel or recycled material may be treated
consulted for more details. The materials are classified with emulsion (ETM) or foamed bitumen (FTM) to
into various categories according to their fundamental increase the stiffness and strength, after an initial
behaviour, and into different classes according to their curing period (SABITA 1993; Csanyi 1960). The
strength characteristics. residual binder content for foam- and emulsion-
treated material is normally below 5% by mass. A
Description of major material types distinction is made between emulsion stabilisation
(GEMS) with residual binder contents between 1,5
This subsection describes the broad material types and and 5% by mass and emulsion modification (ETBs)
their main characteristics. The behaviour of the with residual binder contents between 0,6 and
different pavement types consisting of combinations 1,5% by mass.
of these materials is described in the following section.
Foamed bitumen and emulsion treatment may be
used on new construction projects to treat the

15
Roads: Materials and construction Chapter 8
 GUIDELINES FOR HUMAN SETTLEMENT PLANNING AND DESIGN

locally available material, enabling the use of this considered, especially in wet regions.
material in the pavement base layer or on
rehabilitation projects by treating the existing base Paving blocks (S-A, S-B)
material. Emulsion-treated material may be mixed
on site by conventional construction equipment, The use of interlocking concrete paving blocks (S-A)
deep-milling machines or plant. The emulsion- is limited to low-speed (<50 km/h) streets or
treated material should however, be placed and terminal areas. Blocks with good interlocking
compacted immediately. Foam-treated material shapes should be used.
may be mixed in a plant or on site by using deep-
milling machines, and may be stockpiled for periods The use of clay bricks as paving blocks (S-B) should
up to three months (KZN 1997). A further advantage be limited to Category UC and UD streets. The
of using these materials on rehabilitation projects is durability of clay bricks is expected to be poorer
that the streets may be opened to traffic very soon than that of concrete paving blocks.
after construction. The unsurfaced base layer may
even be exposed to traffic for limited periods of time Cast in-situ blocks
without material loss.
A South African developed patented welded plastic
Portland cement concrete (PCC) geocell has been successfully used in pavements for
local access streets, and results in a flexible portland
Concrete is an elastic, brittle material possessing cement concrete pavement. These cells form a
low tensile strength and it may thus crack under square with a side length of 150mm. After
excessive repeated flexure. In this document only tensioning the plastic, which acts as a formwork,
one concrete strength is considered. alternative methods of placing portland cement
concrete can be used. The one is to provide
Cemented materials (C1 to C4) premixed or ready-mix concrete. A more suitable
labour-intensive method is to place the coarse
As with concrete, cemented materials are elastic, aggregate in the cells and then apply compaction,
possess low tensile strength and may crack under and a cement grout is used to fill the voids. The
repeated flexure. These materials also crack process is a cement-grouted variant of the well-
because of shrinkage and drying. By applying an known waterbound macadam. The plastic cells limit
upper limit to the strength specification, wide the amount of shrinkage of blocks formed in situ.
shrinkage cracks can be avoided. Because of the By first placing the coarse aggregate, only 40% of
excessive shrinkage cracking of C1 materials, they the volume of the slab, which is the typical void
are not generally used. ratio in a single-sized aggregate, has to be mixed
and handled (Visser 1994; Visser and Hall 1999).
A C2 material will be used when a non-pumping
erosion-resistant layer is required (as for the
subbase under a concrete pavement) PAVEMENT TYPES

C3 and C4 materials can be used as replacements For paved roads there are five major pavement types,
for granular layers in bases and subbases. They can namely granular, bituminous, concrete and cemented-
be treated with cement, lime, slagment, lime/flyash base pavements and pavements with paving blocks.
mixtures or various combinations of pozzalanic Unpaved roads constitute a separate pavement type.
binders, depending on the properties of the
natural materials. Behaviour of different pavement types

Surfacing (AG to AO; S1 to S8) Paved streets

The surfacings range from high-quality asphalt The behaviour of a pavement and the type of
surfacings to surface treatments, surface distress that will become the most critical vary with
maintenance measures such as rejuvenators, and the type of pavement. The behaviour of these
diluted emulsion treatments. different pavement types will determine the type
of maintenance normally required and may also
Macadams (WM to PM) influence the selection of the pavement type. A
brief description of the typical behaviour of each
These traditional, high-quality, but also labour- pavement type is given below.
intensive, pavement materials can be used in the
place of GI to G4 materials. However, specific Untreated granular-based pavements
knowledge of construction techniques is required.
These materials are less affected by water than the This type of pavement comprises a thin bituminous
usual granular materials and their use should be surfacing, a base of untreated gravel or crushed

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Chapter 8 Roads: Materials and construction
 GUIDELINES FOR HUMAN SETTLEMENT PLANNING AND DESIGN

stone, a granular or cemented subbase and a subbase assumes very low values and this causes
subgrade of various soils or gravels. The mode of fatigue and high shear stresses in the base.
distress in a pavement with an untreated subbase is Generally, surface cracking will occur and, with the
usually deformation, arising from shear or ingress of water, there may be pumping from the
densification in the untreated materials. The subbase.
deformation may manifest itself as rutting or as
longitudinal roughness eventually leading to For high-quality, heavily trafficked pavements it is
cracking. This is illustrated in Figure 8.3(a). necessary to avoid materials that will eventually
deteriorate to a very low modulus. Many of these
In pavements with cemented sub-bases, the subbase lower-class materials have, however, proved to be
improves the load-carrying capacity of the adequate for lower classes of traffic.
pavement, but at some stage the subbase will crack
under traffic. The cracking may propagate until the The surfacing may crack owing either to hardening
layer eventually exhibits properties similar to those of the binder as it ages or to load-associated
of a natural granular material. It is unlikely that fatigue cracking. The strength of granular
cracking will reflect to the surface, and there is likely materials is often susceptible to water, and
to be little rutting or longitudinal deformation until excessive deformation may occur when water
after the subbase has cracked extensively. However, enters through surface cracks. The water-
if the subbase exhibits large shrinkage or thermal susceptibility of a material depends on factors such
cracks, they may reflect to the surface. as grading, the PI of the fines, and density.
Waterbound macadams are less susceptible to
Recent work has shown that the post-cracked water than crushed-stone bases and are therefore
phase of a cement-treated subbase under granular preferred in wet regions.
and bituminous bases adds substantially to the
useful life of the pavement. Deflection Bituminous pavements
measurements at various depths within the
pavement have indicated that the initial effective These pavements have a bituminous layer more
modulus of this material is high - 3 000 to 5 000 than 80 mm thick. They can be subdivided into two
MPa as shown in Figure 8.3(c). major groups, namely bitumen- and tar-base
pavements:
This relatively rigid subbase generally fatigues
under traffic, or in some cases even under Bitumen-base pavements:
construction traffic, and assumes a lower effective In bitumen-base pavements both deformation and
modulus (800 to 1 000 MPa). This change in fatigue cracking are possible. Two types of subbase
modulus does not normally result in a marked are recommended, namely either an untreated
increase in deformation, but the resilient granular subbase or a weakly stabilised cemented
deflection and radius of curvature do change, as subbase. Rutting may originate in either the
shown in Figure 8.3(d). bituminous or the untreated layers, or in both. This
is illustrated in Figure 8.3(b). If the subbase is
In the mechanistic design (Freeme, Maree and cemented there is a probability that shrinkage or
Viljoen 1982) these phases have been termed the thermal cracking will reflect through the base to
pre-cracked and post-cracked phases. The design the surfacing, especially if the bituminous layer is
accommodates the changes in modulus of the less than 150 mm thick or if the subbase is
subbase and, although the safety factor in the base excessively stabilised. Maintenance usually consists
will be reduced, it will still be well within of a surface treatment to provide better skid
acceptable limits. resistance and to seal small cracks, an asphalt
overlay in cases where riding quality needs to be
The eventual modulus of the cemented subbases restored and when it is necessary to prolong the
will depend on the quality of the material fatigue life of the base, or recycling of the base
originally stabilised, the cementing agent, the when further overlays are no longer adequate.
effectiveness of the mixing process, the absolute
density achieved, the durability of the stabilisation Tar-base pavements:
and the degree of cracking. The ingress of moisture The fatigue life of a tar premix is well below that
can affect the modulus in the post-cracked phase of most asphalt hot-mix materials. Only weakly
significantly. In some cases the layer may behave cemented subbases are used. The main distress
like a good-quality granular material with a appears to be cracking of the cemented subbase,
modulus of 200 to 500 MPa, but in other cases the followed by fatigue of the tar base.
modulus may be between 50 and 200 MPa. This
change is shown diagrammatically in Figure 8.3(c). Maintenance for tar bases is the same as for
bituminous bases.
The result is that the modulus of the cemented

17
Roads: Materials and construction Chapter 8
 GUIDELINES FOR HUMAN SETTLEMENT PLANNING AND DESIGN

Riding quality
Riding quality Rut depth
Rut depth

Cracking Cracking

Time and traffic Time and traffic

(a) Granular base (b) Bituminous base

Pre- Post-cracked Influence Pre- Post-cracked Influence

Effective modulus (Mpa)

5 000 cracked phase of water cracked phase of water

phase phase
4 000 Deflection
Curvature
3 000

1 000 Good-quality
material Deformation
500 Poor-quality
material

Traffic Traffic
(c) Cemented-subbase (d) Cemented-subbase
modulus behaviour indicators

Riding-quality Riding-quality

Cracking

Cracking
Rut depth

Time and traffic Time and traffic

(e) Concrete pavement (f) Cemented base

Figure 8.3: General pavement behaviour characteristics

Bituminous cold-mix based pavements MPa. Early indications are that this reduction is
caused by the breakdown (effective fatigue) of the
Although the binders in emulsion and foam- bonded layer into particle sizes smaller than the
treated materials are viscous, the material is stiff thickness of the layer (Theyse 1997).
and brittle much like a cement-treated material
after curing. The initial field stiffness values of Field performance of pavements with emulsion-
these materials may vary between 800 and 2 000 and foam- treated base layers indicates that they
Mpa, depending on the binder content and parent are not as sensitive to overloading as a pavement
material quality. These values will gradually with a cement- treated base, and do not pump
decrease with increasing traffic loading to values fines from the subbase.
typical for granular materials between 150 and 500

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Chapter 8 Roads: Materials and construction
 GUIDELINES FOR HUMAN SETTLEMENT PLANNING AND DESIGN

Concrete pavements driveways to heavily loaded industrial stacking and

servicing yards. The use of segmental block
In concrete pavements, most of the traffic loading pavements is a relatively recent phenomenon in
is carried by the concrete slab and little stress is South Africa. The popularity of these blocks is
transferred to the subgrade. The cemented increasing due to a number of factors:
subbase provides a uniform foundation and limits
pumping of subbase and subgrade fines. Through • the blocks are manufactured from local
the use of tied shoulders, most of the distress materials;
stemming from the edge of the pavement can be
eliminated and slab thickness can also be reduced. • they can either provide a labour-intensive
Distress of the pavement usually appears first as operation or can be manufactured and laid by
spalling near the joints, and then may progress to machine;
cracking in the wheel paths. Once distress becomes
evident, deterioration is usually rapid. See Figure • they are aesthetically acceptable in a wide rage
8.3(e). of applications; and

Maintenance consists of patching, joint repair, • they are versatile as they have some of the
crack repair, under-sealing, grinding, or thin advantages of both flexible and concrete
concrete or bituminous overlays. In cases of severe pavements.
distress, thick concrete, bituminous or granular
overlays will be used, or the concrete may be In current practice a small plate vibrator is used to
recycled. bed the blocks into a sand bedding of
approximately 20 mm and to compact jointing sand
Cemented-base pavements between individual blocks. The selection of the
right type of sand for these purposes is important,
In these pavements, most of the traffic stresses are since a non-plastic material serves best as bedding
absorbed by the cemented layers and a little by the while some plastic content is required to fill the
subgrade. It is likely that some block cracking will joints.
be evident very early in the life of the cemented
bases; this is caused by the mechanism of drying Properly laid block pavements are adequately
shrinkage and by thermal stresses in the cemented waterproofed and ingress of large quantities of
layers. Traffic-induced cracking will cause the water into foundations does not occur. The
blocks to break up into smaller ones. These cracks procedures for the structural design of segmental
propagate through the surfacing. The ingress of block pavements are presented in UTG2 Structural
water through the surface cracks may cause the design of segmental block pavements in southern
blocks to rock under traffic, resulting in the Africa (NITRR 1984) and are applicable to both
pumping of fines from the lower layers. Rutting or industrial and street uses.
roughness will generally be low up to this stage but
is likely to accelerate as the extent of the cracking Segmental blocks are manufactured with vertical
increases. See Figure 8.3(f). square side faces. Those that interlock are shaped
so as to allow them to fit “jigsaw” fashion into a
Pavements consisting of cemented bases on paved area. They can be made of pressed concrete,
granular subbases are very sensitive to overloading fired-clay brick or any other material. The current
and to ingress of moisture through the cracks. recommended minimum strength for structural use
When both the base and the subbase are is given as a wet compressive strength of not less
cemented, the pavement will be less sensitive to than 25 MPa.
overloading and moisture. The latter type of
pavement is generally used. Block pavements require the paved area to be
“contained” either by kerbs or by other means of
The shrinkage cracks that form early in the life of stopping lateral spread of the block. This is a
the pavement may be rehabilitated by sealing. requirement for both interlocking and non-
Once traffic-load-associated cracking has become interlocking shapes. Lateral movements are
extensive, rehabilitation involves either the induced by trafficking and these movements cause
reprocessing of the base, or the application of a breaks in the jointing sand. The associated
substantial bituminous or granular overlay. opening-up of the block pavement makes it more
susceptible to the ingress of surface water. In
Paving blocks heavily loaded areas interlocking shapes have
advantages over non-interlocking shapes,
Many types of interlocking and non-interlocking especially if vehicles with a slewing action are
segmental blocks are used in a wide variety of involved.
applications, which range from footpaths to

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Roads: Materials and construction Chapter 8
 GUIDELINES FOR HUMAN SETTLEMENT PLANNING AND DESIGN

Experience has shown that joints should be 2 to 5 ENVIRONMENT

mm wide. Geometric design should follow practices
for other pavements. Variable street widths, curves The environment is characterised by topography, the
and junctions do not present problems in practice, climatic conditions (moisture and temperature) under
since the blocks are small and can easily be cut and which the street will function, and the underlying
placed to suit the geometry of the pavement. In subgrade conditions. Environmental factors must be
practice, the minimum cross-fall for block pavements taken into account in the design of pavement
should be one per cent. For wide areas of industrial structures.
paving, special care should be taken to ensure that
the cross-fall of the surface is adequate. Cambered Topography
cross-sections are also satisfactory.
Topography is dealt with in Chapter 6: Stormwater
The joints between the blocks seal better with time Management. The importance of its influence on the
due to the action of weathering and the addition of structural design and functional use of streets is clearly
street detritus to the joints, thereby improving the reflected in the drainage and maintenance
total strength of the block pavement. One per cent requirements of streets in general. Macro drainage is
falls (minimum) to the surface of block pavements relevant to this discussion. In rolling and mountainous
allow water to drain across the pavement, reducing terrain there may be steep gradients which result in
ingress by absorption through the joints, and the erosion of gravel streets and, in particular, erosion
eliminate ponding. The joints between the blocks on of their drainage facilities, with direct implications for
steep gradients may form the drainage paths for their safety and functional use. Streets that cross
rainwater. In such cases the pattern of the blocks is contours at an angle, or even perpendicularly, pose the
an important consideration. Experience has shown most drainage problems. In such cases functional
that a herringbone pattern is best for use on steep rather than structural requirements may demand that
gradients and for industrial paving. a street be paved or protected from erosion. It is
therefore important that requirements described in
An advantage of the blocks is that they can be re- the chapters on Layout Planning and Stormwater
used. They can be lifted if repairs have to be carried Management be met before one embarks on the
out to failed areas of subbase or if services have to structural design.
be installed and can be relaid afterwards. As far as
the design of segmental block pavements is Unpaved streets
concerned, this re-use of the blocks has no
disadvantages. Streets with high longitudinal gradients are more
likely to occur in mountainous areas or even hilly
Little maintenance work is required with segmental terrain. A 6% longitudinal street gradient is an
block paving. Maintenance involves the treatment average value above which erosion problems may
of weeds and the correcting of surface levels if the occur, and slopes steeper than this would warrant
initial construction had been poor. The correction of additional attention. The upper range of suggested
surface levels is done by removing the area of blocks PI could effectively counteract erosion, but may
affected, levelling the subbase, compacting the result in unacceptable slipperiness on steep slopes.
subbase (often with hand hammers) and replacing Local conditions should be considered in the
the blocks. detailed evaluation.

Segmental paving provides an exciting addition to Climate and structural design

the pavement construction methods possible in
southern Africa. The climate will largely determine the rate of
weathering of natural rock and its products, the
Unpaved streets durability of weathered natural street-building
materials and - depending on drainage conditions -
The most common causes of poor performance of the stability of untreated materials in the pavement.
gravel streets are slipperiness and potholing when The climate may also influence the equilibrium
wet, and excessive dust and ravelling when dry. The moisture content within the pavement layers. The
formation of corrugations is normally the result of designer should always consider climatic conditions
inadequate compaction or low cohesion combined and avoid using materials that are excessively water-
with traffic. Frequent maintenance (e.g. grading, susceptible or temperature-sensitive in adverse
watering and the addition of material) is therefore conditions. It is also possible to accommodate climatic
necessary. conditions by either adjusting California Bearing Ratio
(CBR) values or by weighting the equivalent traffic
(not both).

20
Chapter 8 Roads: Materials and construction
 GUIDELINES FOR HUMAN SETTLEMENT PLANNING AND DESIGN

Beira
NAMIBIA

Francistown
Windhoek BOTSWANA
Walvisbay Pietersburg
Gaborone NORTHERN
PROVINCE
MPUMALANGA

G
EN
Nelspruit

UT
Mmbatho
Maputo

GA
NORTH Jhb
Keetmanshoop WEST
FREE
STATE KWAZULU
NATAL
Kimberley Bloemfontein
Pietermaritzburg
NORTHERN CAPE Durban

EASTERN Legend Approx.

Capitals CAPE Weinert
Climatic N
Jhb = Johannesburg Bisho region values
WESTERN East London Wet <2
Cape Town CAPE
Port Elizabeth Moderate 2-5
Mossel Bay
Dry >5

Figure 8.4: Macro-climatic regions of southern Africa

Southern Africa can be divided into three climatic moisture conditions, i.e. at optimum moisture content
regions: (OMC) or, say, 75 per cent of OMC, can be determined
in the laboratory by refraining from soaking the
• a large dry region; samples before CBR testing or even drying back to the
• a moderate region; and required moisture content.
• a small wet region.
The dynamic cone penetrometer (DCP) can be used to
Figure 8.4 is a map of southern Africa, which indicates determine the in-situ CBR and variations in in-situ
the different climatic regions. These are macroclimates strengths (Jordaan 1986). The in-situ CBRs determined
and it should be kept in mind that different with the DCP can be calibrated by doing laboratory-
microclimates may occur within these regions. This is soaked CBRs. If material parameters such as grading
particularly important where such local microclimates modulus (GM), plastic limit (PL) and dry density (DD) are
have a high moisture content. This will have a direct included in the analysis, typical relations can be used to
influence on moisture-susceptible materials in basic derive CBR values (Sampson 1984). The relevant
access streets which require specific drainage equation is:
considerations.
loge CBR = 1,1 (logeDCP) + 0,85 (GM) -
Climate and subgrade California Bearing
Ratio (CBR) 0,031 (PL) - 0,001 (DD) + 7,4 (8.9)

The design parameter for the subgrade is the soaked where loge is the natural logarithm.
CBR at a representative density. For structural design
purposes, when a material is classified according to the For the material types under consideration, the CBR is
CBR, it is implied that not more than 10% of the determined at a 2,54 mm depth of penetration, with
measured values for such a material will fall below the DCP penetration in millimetres per blow.
classification value. A proper preliminary soil survey
should be conducted. It is current practice for the design parameter for
subgrade to be the soaked California Bearing Ratio
It is current practice to use soaked CBR values, but (CBR) for paved streets. It is recommended that
using them in dry regions may be over-conservative unsoaked (field) CBR values should be used particularly
(Jordaan 1986). It is suggested that the CBR value of a in dry regions (Haupt 1980; Emery 1984 and 1987). The
material be increased if the in situ conditions are dynamic cone penetrometer (DCP) is the ideal
expected to be unsoaked, e.g. in dry regions (Haupt instrument for such an approach (Kleyn and van Zyl
1980). An estimate of the CBR at the expected 1987; Kleyn 1982). However, it should be pointed out

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Roads: Materials and construction Chapter 8
 GUIDELINES FOR HUMAN SETTLEMENT PLANNING AND DESIGN

that soaked CBR values may be required for wet The designer should distinguish between very localised
regions where no proper drainage can be provided or good or poor soils and more general subgrade areas.
for wet-season passability on unpaved streets. When Localised soils should be treated separately from the
the DCP is used, care should be taken that the rest of the pavement factors. Normally, localised poor
moisture content is a fair representation of the soils will be removed and replaced by suitable material.
moisture content over long periods of time.
Design CBR of subgrade
The requirement for subgrade or fill CBR is a soaked
CBR of at least 3 at 90% Mod AASHTO density in wet For construction purposes the design subgrade CBR is
areas, and an in-situ CBR of 3 in dry and moderate limited to four groups, as shown in Table 8.12.
areas. The material should also have a maximum swell
of 1,5% at 100% Mod AASHTO compaction to ensure
Table 8.12: Subgrade CBR groups used for
that it is not too expansive. If the CBR values are
structural design
determined in the field with the DCP, the subgrade
areas with a field CBR of less than 3 will need special
treatment. If the field CBR values are in excess of 45 CLASS SUBGRADE CBR
over a depth of at least 150mm at a density of 95%
Mod AASHTO, the subgrade can be considered to be SG1 >15
subbase quality, and only a base would be needed. SG2 7 to 15
SG3 3 to 7
SG4 <3*
Material depth
* Special treatment required.
The term “material depth” is used to denote the depth
below the finished level of the street to which soil The CBR is normally determined after samples have
characteristics have a significant effect on pavement been soaked for four days. Special measures are
behaviour. Below this depth, the strength and density necessary if a material with a CBR of less than 3 is
of the soils are assumed to have a negligible effect on encountered within the material depth. These
the pavement. The depth approximates the cover for a measures include stabilisation (chemical or
soil with CBR of 1 - 2. However, in certain special cases mechanical), modification (chemical), or the removal
this depth may be insufficient. These cases are listed in or addition of extra cover. After the material has been
the section dealing with practical considerations treated, it will be classified under one of the
(subgrade below material depth). remaining three subgrade groups.

Table 8.11 specifies the materail depth used for Design CBR on fill
determing the design CBR of the subgrade for
different street categories. When the street is on fill, the designer must avail
himself of the best information available on the
local materials that are likely to be used. The
Table 8.11: Material depths to be used for material should be controlled to at least the
determining the design CBR material depth. TRH10 (NITRR 1984) should be
of the subgrades consulted when a material with a CBR of less than
3 is used in the fill.
ROAD CATEGORY MATERIAL DEPTH (mm)
Design CBR in cut
UA 1 000
UB 800 The design CBR of the subgrade in a cut should be
UC 600 the 10 percentile CBR encountered within the
UD 400 material depth.

Delineation of subgrade areas STRUCTURAL DESIGN METHODS

Any street development should be subdivided into Design methods for paved streets
significant subgrade areas. However, if the delineation
is too fine it could lead to confusion during There are a number of design methods of varying
construction. The preliminary soil survey should complexity at the disposal of the designer. Some of
delineate subgrade design units on the basis of these are purely empirical and others incorporate
geology, pedology, topography and drainage some measure of rationality, and were developed both
conditions - or major soil boundaries - on site so that locally and abroad.
an appropriate design CBR for each unit can be
defined. The designer must always bear the limitations of a

22
Chapter 8 Roads: Materials and construction
 GUIDELINES FOR HUMAN SETTLEMENT PLANNING AND DESIGN

particular design method in mind. Most of the purely The AASHTO Guide for Design of Pavement
empirical design methods were developed from data Structures
where the design bearing capacity did not exceed 10
to 12 million standard axles. The purely empirical The AASHTO Guide for Design of Pavement
design methods are also limited in their application to Structures provides the designer with a
conditions similar to those for which they were comprehensive set of procedures for new and
developed. The designer must therefore make a rehabilitation design and provides a good
critical assessment of the applicability of the design background to pavement design (AASHTO 1993).
method to his design problem. Locally developed The design procedures in the guideline document
methods should then also have an advantage in this are, however, empirical, and were mostly
regard. developed from the results of the AASHTO Road
Test carried out in the late 1950s and early 1960s.
It must also be kept in mind that, although these
design methods will predict a certain bearing capacity Although some software based on the procedures
for a pavement structure, there are many factors that in the AASHTO design guide is commercially
will influence the actual bearing capacity of the available, the procedure may be applied just as
pavement, and the predicted value should be well by hand.
regarded only as an estimate. It is therefore better to
apply various design methods, with each method The Dynamic Cone Penetrometer (DCP)
predicting a somewhat different bearing capacity. This method
will assist the designer to develop a feeling for the
range of bearing capacity for the pavement, rather The DCP design method was developed locally
than stake everything on a single value. during the 1970s. The original method was based
on the CBR-cover design approach and later
The “Catalogue” design method correlated with heavy vehicle simulator (HVS) test
results. This method incorporates the concept of a
This document focuses mainly on the use of the balanced pavement structure in the design
catalogue of pavement designs (CSRA 1996; CUTA procedure (Kleyn and van Zyl 1987). If used
1987; Hefer 1997; Theyse 1997) included in properly, designs generated by this method should
Appendix A. However, this does not exclude the have a well-balanced strength profile with depth,
use of any of the other proven design methods. meaning that there will be a smooth decrease in
Most of the pavement designs in the catalogue material strength with depth. Such balanced
were developed from mechanistic-empirical pavements are normally not very sensitive to
design, although some are based on the DCP overloading. Some knowledge of typical DCP
design method and others are included on the penetration rates for road-building material is
basis of their field performance. required to apply this method.

The catalogue approach is a fairly straightforward DCP design may be done by hand, but if DCP data
pen-and-paper method and does not require access need to be analysed, access to a computer and
to a computer. appropriate software is necessary.

The California Bearing Ratio (CBR) cover South African Mechanistic Design Method
design method
The South African Mechanistic Design Method
The California Bearing Ratio (CBR) design method (SAMDM) (van Vuuren et al 1974; Walker et al
was developed in the 1950s from empirical data 1977; Paterson and Maree 1978; Theyse et al 1996)
(Yoder and Witczak 1975). The method is based on was developed locally and is one of the most
the approach of protecting the subgrade by comprehensive mechanistic-empirical design
providing enough cover of sufficient strength to methods in the world (Freeme, Maree and Viljoen
protect the subgrade from the traffic loading. CBR- 1982). This method may be used very effectively
cover design charts were developed for different for new and rehabilitation design. Some
subgrade CBR strengths and traffic loadings. The knowledge of the elastic properties of materials as
applicability of this method should be evaluated used by the method is required, and experience in
critically before it is applied to local environmental this regard is recommended. In the case of
and traffic conditions. rehabilitation design or upgrading, field tests such
as the DCP and Falling Weight Deflectometer
This method is a pen-and-paper method and no (FWD) may be used to determine the input
access to a computer is required. parameters for the existing structure.

Access to a computer and appropriate software is

essential for effective use of this method, as well as

23
Roads: Materials and construction Chapter 8
 GUIDELINES FOR HUMAN SETTLEMENT PLANNING AND DESIGN

for analysing DCP and FWD data. In addition to paving basic access streets for
reasons of drainage, erosion control and wet-
Design methods for unpaved streets weather accessibility, other factors such as dust and
social issues may play a role.
Unlike sealed roads, where the application of a
bituminous surfacing results in a semi-permanent Included in the social issues are politics, adjacent
structure (for up to 20 years) in which deformation or schools and hospitals, and the use of the streets as
failure is costly to repair and usually politically public areas.
unacceptable, unsealed roads are far more forgiving.
Routine maintenance is essential and localised Unpaved basic access streets therefore require side
problems are rectified relatively easily. For this reason, drainage channels that are lower than the street
the design process for unsealed roads has never level to ensure that water is drained off the street
progressed to the sophisticated techniques developed into the side channel. These side channels should
for sealed roads. be carried through the main street at intersections.
A maximum cross-fall of 5% is suggested for the
The main principles in designing unsealed roads are street. For paved streets this cross-fall can be
reduced to 3%. In Figure 8.5 typical cross-sections
• to prevent excessive subgrade strain; and of basic access streets are illustrated. For basic
access streets, excess water can be handled in side
• to provide an all-weather, dust-free surface with channels or even on the street itself, acting as a
acceptable riding quality. channel-and-street combination, and be led to
open areas (e.g. sports fields, parks) for dissipation.
These two requirements are achieved by providing an For an unpaved network, channels - as shown in
adequate thickness of suitable material, constructed to Figure 8.6 - and not pipes are required. Pipes can be
a suitable quality. A simple design technique covering considered only where all the basic access streets
thickness and materials has been developed for South are surfaced owing to the problem of silting, or
Africa and is summarised in TRH14 Guidelines for road where the gradient of the pipe and design of inlets
construction materials (NITRR 1984c). and outlets are such that silting and blocking will
not occur (NITRR, 1984a).

PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS Channels should be designed to prevent silting or

ponding of stagnant water, yet avoid excessive
Surface drainage erosion. Ponding is of particular importance as it
can result in water soaking into the structural
Experience has shown that inadequate drainage is layers of the pavement. The draft TRH17 (NITRR,
probably responsible for more pavement distress in 1984b) gives guidelines on the design of open
southern Africa than inadequate structural or material channels to prevent silting.
design. Effective drainage is essential for good
pavement performance, and it is assumed in the The longitudinal gradient of a channel and the
structural design procedure. material used determine the amount of scouring or
erosion of such channels. Table 8.13 provides the
Drainage for basic access streets scour velocities for various materials and guidance on
the need to line or pave channels. Linings of hand-
Effective drainage is a prerequisite in the structural packed stone can be as functional as concrete linings.
design of basic access streets. Drainage design is As a rough guide it is suggested that an unpaved
integral in stormwater management. As outlined in channel should not be steeper than 2% (1:50).
the principles of stormwater management, the
design should allow for non-structural and Accesses to dwelling units should provide a smooth
structural measures to cope with minor and major entry, whilst preventing stormwater in the street or
storms. The non-structural measures are related to channel from running onto properties. Where side
optimising the street layout and the topography to drainage is provided to streets, special attention
retard stormwater flow and curb the possible should be paid to the design of access ramps, or the
associated damage. Structural measures include elimination of the need for ramps to safeguard the
not only the provision of culverts, pipes or functioning of the drainage channels.
channels, but also the street itself. With minor
storms, structural measures should ensure that Kerbing is not used extensively on basic access
water is shed from the street into side drainage streets if they are surfaced, but edging may be used
channels, and with major storms, these measures as an alternative when the shoulder or sidewalk
should limit the period of impassability while the material is of inadequate stability. However, it
street functions as a drainage channel itself. In the should be stressed that the shoulder of a surfaced
latter case the street should be paved. basic access street should be constructed with

24
Chapter 8 Roads: Materials and construction
 GUIDELINES FOR HUMAN SETTLEMENT PLANNING AND DESIGN

Verge Roadway Verge Verge Roadway Verge

Channel Channel (labour

or equipment)

Structural layers Structural layers

and surfacing and surfacing
ON ROAD : CHANNEL UNLINED ON ROAD : CHANNEL LINED

Verge Roadway Verge Verge Roadway Verge

Structural layers Cross-fall

and surfacing

Ground slope Channel (equipment- Ground slope Structural layers

based profile) and surfacing Channel (labour-
based profile)
OFF ROAD : CHANNEL UNLINED OFF ROAD : CHANNEL LINED

Figure 8.5: Typical basic access street cross-sections

material of at least the same quality as the subbase When low points are reached, drifts and dished
(Netterberg and Paige-Green 1988). drains can be used to give preference to the flow of
water without major structural requirements.
The shoulder should preferably be protected with a Erosion protection on the approaches must be
bituminous surfacing. The cost of this can be high provided for. Details of typical drifts and dish drains
however, and the decision will have to be based on are shown in Figures 8.7 and 8.8.
affordability.
Tertiary ways would normally be constructed from
Erosion control for tertiary ways the in situ material. The use of vegetation to
prevent erosion is highly recommended and can be
Erosion control is considered to be the main achieved by various means. Grass-blocks are but
criterion in the design of tertiary ways. Stormwater one example where vegetation is used to prevent
must be accommodated by ditches and drains on erosion (Figure 8.9). These should, however, be
the sides of the tertiary ways. In Figure 8.6 typical regularly maintained to avoid a build-up of grass
detail is given of such ditches. Detail is also given of and silt.
stilling ponds, catchwater drains and check dams.
These should be seen as typical examples Subsurface drainage
illustrating the principles involved. Check dams are
used on downhill tertiary ways to dissipate the Subsurface drainage design is a specialised subject and
energy of the stormwater and to form natural both the infiltration of surface water and the control of
steps. subsurface water have to be considered. The basic
philosophy is to provide effective drainage to (at least)
material depth so that the pavement structure does not
become excessively wet.
Table 8.13: Scour velocities for various
materials Subsurface drainage problems can be reduced most
effectively by raising the road above natural ground
level. This cannot always be done in the urban
MATERIAL ALLOWABLE VELOCITY(m/s)
situation and the provision of side drains adjacent to
the road, to a depth as low as possible beneath the
Fine sand 0,6 road surface is equally effective.
Loam 0,9
Clay 1,2 If neither of these two options is practical, and ground
water or seepage flows prevail, some form of cut-off
Gravel 1,5
trench with an interceptor drain may be necessary.
Soft shale 1,8
These are expensive and other options (such as a
Hard shale 2,4 permeable layer beneath the subbase) could also be
Hard rock 4,5 considered.

25
Roads: Materials and construction Chapter 8
 GUIDELINES FOR HUMAN SETTLEMENT PLANNING AND DESIGN

CL CL
Spacing of mitres
Fig. 8.6 Normally 4,0m. May be
increased to provide field Steep (> 1 in 10)
or village access 10m c/c
Mild (1 in 20 - 1 in 50)
Edge of carriageway 20m c/c Edge of carriageway
Slope CLFlat (< 1 in 50) Slope CL
Spacing of mitres
50m c/c
Ditch Normally 4,0m. May be Ditch
increased to provide field Steep (> 1 in 10)
0,6m 2m
4 m radius A 10m c/c iu
s rad
or village access d ius
Mild (1 in 20 - 1 in 50) ra
Ideally this area toEdge of carriageway m
A 20m c/c 2Edge of carriageway
be left unexcavated.
Slope Slope Flat (< 1 in 50)

varies
Depth
Sometimes a natural
barrier such as treeDitch Ditch A A
50m c/c
or an ant hill can be Outlet SECTION A-A 2m
A 0,6m rad
4 m flow
used to deflect radius us
Length of mitre: a di ius
r
Ideally this area to 10m gentle slope; 5m steep slope m
A 2
be left unexcavated. Outlet length of mitre
IN SLOPING GROUND IN FLAT GROUND

varies
Depth
Sometimes a natural normally 10m but in very
barrier such as tree A A may be
flat areas a pit
or an ant hill can be Outlet SECTION A-A necessary to effect outfall
used to deflect flow MITRE DRAIN (OR TURN OUT)
Length of mitre:
10m gentle slope; 5m steep slope
0,15m 0,50m Outlet
0,75mlength of mitre
IN SLOPING GROUND IN FLAT GROUND normally 10m but in very
Catchwater drain to
culvert or other outlet flat areas a pit may be
necessary to effect outfall
MITRE DRAIN (OR TURN OUT)

normally
0,25m
Existi
ng gr
ound
slope
0,15m 0,50m 0,75m
Catchwater drain to
culvert or other outlet Cemented masonry
Normally not less than 5,0m 0,15 m thick

normally
Berm LINED DITCH

0,25m
Existi (if required)
ng gr
ound
slope
0,5m

1 1 Spoil on lower
hill side Cemented m
1 0,5m 1
Normally not less than 5,0m 0,15 m thick
Berm Ditch
LINED DITCH
(if required) Carriageway
DETAIL OF
0,5m

1 1 Spoil on lower
CATCHWATER DRAIN hill side
1 0,5m 1
CATCHWATER DRAIN
Ditch

Carriageway
B
DETAIL OF
Check dam A
CATCHWATER DRAIN
A CATCHWATER DRAIN
Slope of ditch
B Depth of ditch d
BHeight of check dam 0,5 to 0,7 d
This distance such that gradient (A)
Check dam A
is about 1:70 to 1:100
LONG SECTION OF DITCH
A Slope of ditch
Coarse sand or fine gravel
B filter on upstream Depth
side of ditch d
Height of check
Interstices filleddam 0,5 to 0,7 d
This distance such that gradient (A) with sand/gravel
0,25m 0,25m 0,1m 0,1m 0,1m 0,2m
is about 1:70 to 1:100 0,50m
LONG SECTION OF DITCH
Check dam
profile Coarse sand or fine gravel
filter on upstream side
0,05m

d/ Interstices filled
2
with sand/gravel
0,25m 0,25m 0,1m 0,1m 0,1m 0,2m Brushwood Wooden stakes
Hand-placed stone 0,50m
up to 200/300 mm in fill at 100 mm c/c
Check dam
profile
SECTION B-B STONE CHECK DAM BRUSHWOOD CHECK DAM
0,05m

d/
2

Note: Check dams to be used Hand-placed stone Brushwood Woode

where soil is erodible up to 200/300 mm in fill at 100

CHECK DAMS
SECTION B-B STONE CHECK DAM BRUSHWOOD CHECK DAM

Figure 8.6: Tertiary ways: ditches and drains

26
Chapter 8 Roads: Materials and construction
 GUIDELINES FOR HUMAN SETTLEMENT PLANNING AND DESIGN

Marker posts to be
300 mm square x 250 mm high maximum 5,0m centres
white painted masonry

0,25m
Normal road marker posts CL
level
1 in 10
Dish = 0,1m 1 in 10
deep

1,0m
0,5m
200 mm 1:2:4 concrete Masonry
to have rough finish 0,5m
end wall
transverse to road CL Toe wall 300 mm gravel
applied by brush or
by tamping board
SECTION A-A

Width L 2 as directed but

Ditch entry Ditch entry
to be at least bed width

B
stream flow
Normal width of road = 5,00 m

CL Masonry
Threshold width = 3,9 m

Absolute min. 2,9m

foundation
walls : toe,
A heel & end A
4,5m

3,5m

L1 (varies) L2 (varies - min. 4,0 m) L1

Taper over 1,5m

Apron of large pitched stones Peg distance painted

or, if necessary, gabions on marker post
B
Ditch entry Ditch entry
PLAN

Notes on slab construction

Aternative 1 (as illustrated in

sections A-A & B-B)
300 mm compacted gravel overlain
with 200 mm 1:2:4 concrete

3,5 m Alternative 2 (as illustrated below)

To be used with the objective of
200 mm 1:2:4 saving cement.
concrete 300 mm gravel
2% Apron 300 mm compacted gravel overlain
with cement-pitched masonry
1,0mm

Cement mortar brushed in

450 mm nominal size stone

1,5m

laid on wet concrete

Masonry
Mortar to be 1 part
toe wall
300mm 200mm

cement to 6 parts
sand
Fill to be well Masonry
compacted heel wall
Compacted gravel
0,5m 2,5m 0,5m

Compacted fill
Bed : 500 mm 1:3:6
SECTION B-B concrete

CONSTRUCTION ALTERNATIVE 2

Figure 8.7: Tertiary ways: drift

27
Roads: Materials and construction Chapter 8
 GUIDELINES FOR HUMAN SETTLEMENT PLANNING AND DESIGN

Fig. 8.8

Flow
Any surplus stone Level at X to be the same
to be used as apron as bottom of ditch
X X
Ditch
slope

Area shaped 1,5%

to suit

Carriageway A 10% 10% A

(on CL ) (on CL ) CL

Slope
ditch

Dish drain may need

PLAN extending to effect
To outfall suitable outfall

3,0m 2,0m 3,0m

10 % on C C
L 10% on L
Dished
CONSTRUCTION
Cut off wall may
Surface to Bed: 50 mm 1:3:6 concrete
be required at
be smooth SECTION A-A Stone: 150 mm nominal size well bedded
inlet depth 0,5 m
in concrete
Surface: cement mortar brushed in
0,15

0,2m

WHERE TO USE DISH DRAIN TYPE 1

Gently sloping ground. Very low
flows anticipated
0,05

DETAIL
DISH DRAIN TYPE 1

Flow
Dry pitched masonry Dry pitched Cement pit
C Cut off wall
apron as required masonry 0,50m masonry
X X

Cut off
0,30m

C wall

B 1,5% B
SECTION C-C

Area shaped
to suit

CONSTRUCTION
Outfall
As for dish drain type 1
PLAN Dish drain to be
extended as required WHERE TO USE DISH DRAI
TYPE 2
3,0m 3,0m 3,0m 3,0m 3,0m
Where anticipated flows are
Normal road level light to moderate but where
10% 10% the use of a culvert is
Dished unnecessary or impractical

Cement pitched Cut off wall

masonry

Figure 8.8: Tertiary ways: dish drains

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Chapter 8 Roads: Materials and construction
 GUIDELINES FOR HUMAN SETTLEMENT PLANNING AND DESIGN

Original ground
cut to section Plant grass and
shown shrubs here

Shrub planting Root

system

Stepped embankment
Way (note vertical walls)

Drainage channel

Root Slope into drain

system

SECTIONAL DETAIL

500 x 500

Grass
Six holes for
soil and grass

Reinforcement

A A
Ribs reinforced
with wire

Roots

SECTION A-A

May be fitted to
PLAN interlock with
adjacent units

Figure 8.9: Typical grass block and vegetation

Subsurface water problems are frequently Compaction

encountered where water provision in urban areas is
by way of standpipes adjacent to roads. Apart from The design procedures assume that the specified
the surface runoff, significant seepage into the ground material properties are satisfied in the field. A number
occurs and this frequently passes directly beneath the of the traditional material properties (e.g. grading,
adjacent road. Careful drainage in the areas plasticity) are independent of the construction process,
surrounding standpipes is thus essential. but the strength is strongly dependent on the
compaction achieved in the field. The design strength
As discussed earlier, subsurface drainage is a is based on the laboratory-determined strength of the
specialised field requiring a good knowledge of water material at a specified density. In order to ensure that
flow regimes, drainage paths and filter criteria, and this strength is obtained in the field, that particular
specialist assistance should be obtained. density must be achieved during the field compaction.
Table 8.14 gives the minimum compaction standards
required for the various layers of the pavement
structure. Note that, below base level, the standards
are independent of the type of material used. As most

29
Roads: Materials and construction Chapter 8
 GUIDELINES FOR HUMAN SETTLEMENT PLANNING AND DESIGN

Table 8.14: Compaction requirements for the construction of pavement layers (and
reinstatement of pavement layers)

PAVEMENT LAYER COMPACTED DENSITY

Surfacing Asphalt 95% 75-blow Marshall

Base (upper and lower) Crushed stone G1 86% to 88% apparent density
G2 100% to 102% mod AASHTO

Crushed stone G3 98% mod AASHTO

and gravel G4

Asphalt 95% 75-blow Marshall

92% theoretical max

Cemented 97% mod AASHTO

Subbase (upper and lower) 95% mod AASHTO

Selected subgrade 93% mod AASHTO

Subgrade
(within 200 mm of selected subgrade) 90% mod AASHTO
(within material depth) 85% mod AASHTO

Fill (cohesionless sand) 90% mod AASHTO

(100% mod AASHTO)

materials below base level will have a potential density • the non-uniform support that results from wide
somewhat in excess of the specified density which is variations in soil types or states;
relatively easily achieved if compaction is carried out at
the correct moisture content, an attempt should be • the presence of soluble salts which, under
made to get as close to 100% Mod AASHTO density as favourable conditions, may migrate upwards and
possible. This has significant benefits in terms of an cause cracking, blistering or loss of bond of the
increased shear strength, a reduced potential to rut, surfacing, disintegration of cemented bases and
and lower moisture susceptibility. Standard practice loss of density of untreated bases; and
should be to roll the layer to refusal density based on
proof rolling of a short section prior to its full • the excessive deflection and rebound of highly
compaction. Hand-held rollers may be inadequate to resilient soils during and after the passage of a load
achieve the required density. (e.g. in ash, micaceous and diatomaceous soils).

Subgrade below material depth The techniques available for terrain evaluation and
soil mapping are given in TRH2 Geotechnical and soil
Special subgrade problems requiring specialist engineering mapping for roads and the storage of
treatment may be encountered. The design procedure materials data (NITRR 1978). Specialist advice should
assumes that these have been taken into account be obtained where necessary for specific problem
separately. The main problems that have to be areas. The design of embankments should be done in
considered are the following: accordance with TRH10 Site investigation and the
design of road embankments (NITRR 1984d).
• the extreme changes in volume that occur in some
soils as a result of moisture changes (e.g. in Street levels
expansive soils and soils with collapsible structures);
The fact that the provision of vehicular access
• other water-sensitive soils (dispersive or erodible adjoining streets, dwellings and commercial
soils); establishments is the primary function of an urban
street means that street levels become a rather more
• flaws in structural support (e.g. sinkholes, mining important factor in urban areas than they are in rural
subsidence and slope instability; or inter-urban street design. Urban street levels place
some restrictions on rehabilitation and create special
moisture/drainage conditions.

30
Chapter 8 Roads: Materials and construction
 GUIDELINES FOR HUMAN SETTLEMENT PLANNING AND DESIGN

In some cases, rehabilitation in the form of an overlay adhesion of the surfacing and differential deflections
may cause a problem, particularly with respect to the causing failure around the particles.
level of kerbs and channels, camber and overhead
clearances. In these cases strong consideration should Service trenches can also be the focal points of
be given to bottom-heavy designs (i.e. designs with a drainage problems. Settlement in the trench, giving
cemented subbase and possibly a cemented base), rise to standing water and possibly to cracking of the
which would mainly require the same maintenance as surface, will permit the ingress of moisture into the
thin surfacings and little structural maintenance pavement. Fractured water, sewerage or stormwater
during the analysis period. pipes lead to saturation in the subgrade and possibly
in the pavement layers as well.
Urban streets are frequently used as drainage channels
for surface-water runoff. This is in sharp contrast with Alternatively, a trench backfilled with granular
urban, inter-urban and rural roads which are usually material may even act as a subsurface drain, but then
raised to shed the water to side table drains some provision for discharge must be made. It is, however,
distance from the road shoulder. generally recommended that the permeability of the
backfill material should be as close as possible to that
Service trenches of the existing layers in order to retain a uniform
moisture flow regime within the pavement structure.
Trenches excavated in the pavement to provide
essential services (electricity, water, telephone, etc) are Pavement cross-section
frequently a source of weakness. This is a result of
either inadequate compaction during reinstatement, Generally, it is preferable to keep the design of the
or saturation of the backfill material. whole carriageway the same, with no change in layer
thickness across the street. However, where there are
Compaction must achieve at least the minimum significant differences in the traffic carried by
densities specified in the catalogue of designs and individual lanes (e.g. in climbing lanes), the pavement
material standards (Table 8.14). These densities are structure may be varied over the cross-section of the
readily achieved when granular materials are used, but carriageway, provided that this is economical and
it becomes much more difficult when natural materials practical. Under these circumstances, the actual traffic
are used, particularly in the case of excavated clays. predicted for each lane should be used in determining
When dealing with clay subgrades it is recommended the design traffic.
that, if it is economically feasible, a moderate-quality
granular material be used as a trench backfill in The cross-section can be varied with steps in the layer
preference to the excavated clay. In streets of Category thickness, or wedge-shaped layers. Under no
UB and higher it is preferable to stabilise all the circumstances should the steps be located in such a
backfill material and in lower categories the provision way that the water can be trapped in them. Typical
of a stabilised “cap” over the backfill may be elements of the pavement cross-section for a paved
considered to eliminate settlement as far as possible. urban street are shown in Figure 8.10.
Care must be taken not to over-stabilise (i.e. produce a
concrete) as this results in significant problems with

Cut

Kerb Kerb
Surfacing
Base
(Defined by material depths)
pavement
Structural

Subbase (upper and lower)

layers

Selected layers (upper and lower)

Subsurface
drain

Subgrade

Subgrade Subgrade
(Cut) (Fill)

Note: The purpose of this diagram is to illustrate all the

different aspects of pavement structure terminology.
It is not necessarily a reflection of normal practice.

Figure 8.10: Illustrative pavement cross-section

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Roads: Materials and construction Chapter 8
 GUIDELINES FOR HUMAN SETTLEMENT PLANNING AND DESIGN

Considerations for concrete pavements At pedestrian crossings special sloped openings in the
kerbs should be provided to accommodate the
Details on the design of concrete pavements are handicapped and hand-pushed carts.
beyond the scope of this document. However, some
basic practical recommendations are offered below
(SA Department of Transport 1977): COST ANALYSIS

• The subgrade should be prepared to provide a General

uniform support.
Alternative pavement designs should be compared on
• The subbase should be stabilised to a high quality the basis of cost. The cost analysis should be regarded
to provide a non-pumping, erosion-resistant, as an aid to decision-making. However, a cost analysis
homogeneous pavement support. may not take all the necessary factors into account and
it should therefore not override all other
• When jointed concrete pavements are used, considerations. The main economic factors that
attention should be given to joint details such as determine the cost of a facility are the analysis period,
spacing, type and sealing. the structural design period, the construction cost, the
maintenance cost, the salvage value at the end of the
Kerbs and channels analysis period and the real discount rate.

Kerbs and channels are important to prevent edge A complete cost analysis should be done for Category
erosion and to confine stormwater to the street UA and UB streets. For Category UC and UD streets, a
surface. comparison of the construction and maintenance costs
will normally suffice.
Consideration should be given to the type and method
of construction of kerbs when deciding on a layer The method of cost analysis put forward in this
thicknes for the base. document should be used only to compare pavement
structures in the same street category. This is because
It is common practice to construct kerbs upon the streets in different street categories are constructed to
(upper) subbase layer to provide edge restraint for a different standards and are expected to perform
granular base. This restraint will help to provide the differently, with different terminal levels of service.
specified density and strength. Care must be taken to The effect these differences have on street user costs is
ensure that this type of structure does not “box” not taken into account directly.
moisture into the base course material.
The choice of analysis period and structural design
In the case of kerbing with a fixed size (i.e. precast period will influence the cost of a street. The final
kerbing or kerbing with fixed shutters cast in situ) it decision will not necessarily be based purely on
may be advantageous to design the base thickness to economics, but will depend on the design strategy.
conform with the kerb size (e.g. if the design calls for
a 30 mm AG with a 125 mm G4 underlay, and the The construction cost should be estimated from
gutter face is 160mm, rather use a 130 mm G4). current contract rates for similar projects.
Maintenance costs should include the cost of
Edging maintaining adequate surfacing integrity (e.g.
through resealing) and the cost of structural
Instead of kerbs, edging could be used for low-traffic maintenance (e.g. the cost of an asphalt overlay). The
streets when the shoulder or sidewalk material is of salvage value of the pavement at the end of the
adequate stability. This material should be shaped to analysis period can contribute to the next pavement.
the correct level and the edge may be sealed with a However, geometric factors such as minor
prime coat, a sand seal, a slurry seal or a premix. A improvements to the vertical and horizontal
degree of saving may be possible by utilising trimmed alignment and the possible relocation of drainage
grass verges where longitudinal gradients are low and facilities make the estimation of the salvage value very
stormwater flows are not likely to be high. difficult.

Accessibility Present worth

Access to dwelling units should be provided for in such The total cost of a project over its life is the
a way that adequate sight distances and a smooth construction cost plus maintenance costs, minus the
entry are provided, but the access ways should at the salvage value. The total cost can be expressed in a
same time keep stormwater on the street from number of different ways but, for the purpose of this
running into adjacent properties. document, the present worth of costs (PWOC)
approach has been adopted.

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Chapter 8 Roads: Materials and construction
 GUIDELINES FOR HUMAN SETTLEMENT PLANNING AND DESIGN

The present worth of costs can be calculated as perform satisfactorily. The service life of each type of
follows: surfacing will depend on the traffic and the type of
base used. Table 8.15 gives guidelines regarding the
PWOC = C + M1 (1 + r)-xj + ...Mj(1 + r)-xj + ... -S(1 + r)-z service life that can be expected from various surfacing
(8.10) types. These values may be used for a more detailed
analysis of future maintenance costs.
where
Typical maintenance measures that can be used for the
PWOC = present worth of cost purpose of cost analysis are given in Table 8.16. It
should be noted that, since the costs are discounted to
C = present cost of initial construction the present worth, the precise selection of the
maintenance measure is not very important. Some
Mj = cost of the jth maintenance measure maintenance measures are used more commonly on
expressed in terms of current costs specific pavement types and this is reflected in Table
8.16. There are two types of maintenance:
r = real discount rate
• measures to improve the condition of the
xj = number of years from the present to the jth surfacing; and
maintenance measure, within the analysis
period • structural maintenance measures applied at the
end of the structural design period.
z = analysis period
The structural design period (SDP) has been defined as
S = salvage value of pavement at the end of the the period for which it is predicted with a high degree
analysis period, expressed in terms of the of confidence that no structural maintenance will be
present value. required. Therefore, typical structural maintenance
will generally only be necessary at a later stage. If
Construction costs structural maintenance is done soon after the end of
the structural design period, the distress encountered
The checklist of unit costs should be used to calculate will only be moderate. When structural maintenance is
the equivalent construction cost per square metre. done much later, the distress will generally be more
Factors to be considered include the availability of severe. Figure 8.11 indicates the degree of distress to
natural or local commercial materials, their expected be expected at the time of rehabilitation for different
cost trends, the conservation of aggregates in certain structural design periods. Table 8.16 makes provision
areas, and practical aspects such as speed of for both moderate and severe distress.
construction and the need to foster the development
of alternative pavement technologies. The potential The typical maintenance measures given in Table 8.16
for labour-based construction also needs to be should be replaced by more accurate values, if specific
considered. knowledge about typical local conditions is available.

The cost of excavation should be included as certain Street-user delay costs should also be considered,
pavement types will involve more excavation than although no proper guide for their determination is
others. readily available. The factors that determine overall
street user costs are:
Maintenance costs
• running costs (fuel, tyres, vehicle maintenance and
There is a relation between the type of pavement and depreciation), which are largely related to the
the maintenance that might be required in the future. street alignment, but also to the riding quality
When different pavement types are compared on the (PSI);
basis of cost, these future maintenance costs should be
included in the analysis to ensure that a sound • accident costs, which are related to street
comparison is made. It should also be noted that alignment, skid resistance and riding quality; and
relaxations of material, drainage or pavement
thickness standards will normally result in increased • delay costs, which are related to the maintenance
maintenance costs. measures applied and the traffic situation on the
streets. This is a difficult factor to assess as it may
Figures 8.2 and 8.3 show that the life of the surfacing include aspects such as the provision of detours.
and water ingress into the pavement play an
important part in the behaviour of some pavements.
For this reason, planned maintenance of the surfacing
is very important to ensure that these pavements

33
Roads: Materials and construction Chapter 8
 GUIDELINES FOR HUMAN SETTLEMENT PLANNING AND DESIGN

Table 8.15: Suggested typical ranges of period of service (without rejuvenators) of

various surfacing types in the different street categories and base types (if
used as specified in the catalogue)
TYPICAL RANGE OF SURFACING LIFE (YEARS)
SURFACING TYPE ROAD CATEGORY
BASE TYPE
(≤ 50 mm THICKNESS) A B C, D
(ES3-ES100) (ES1-ES10) (ES0,003-ES3)

Granular Bitumen sand or slurry seal - - 2-8

Bitumen single surface treatment 6-8 6 - 10 8 - 11
Bitumen double surface treatment 6 - 10 6 - 12 8 - 13
Cape seal 8 - 10 10 - 12 8 - 18
Continuously-graded asphalt 8 - 11
Gap-graded asphalt premix 8 - 13

Bituminous Bitumen sand or slurry seal - - 2-8

Bitumen single surface treatment 6-8 6 - 10 8 - 11
Bitumen double surface treatment 6 - 10 6 - 12 8 - 13
Cape seal - 8 - 15 8 - 18
Continuously-graded asphalt 8 - 12 8 - 12 -
Gap-graded asphalt premix 8 - 14 10 - 15 -
Porous (drainage) asphalt premix 8 - 12 10 - 15 -

Cemented Bitumen sand or slurry seal ** - -

Bitumen single surface treatment ** 4-7 5-8
Bitumen double surface treatment ** 5-8 5-9
Cape seal ** 5 - 10 5 - 11
Continuously-graded asphalt ** 5 - 10 -
Gap-graded asphalt premix ** 6 - 12 -

- Surface type not normally used.

** Base type not used.

Real discount rate ways, depending on the method employed to

rehabilitate or reconstruct the pavement.
When a “present-worth” analysis is done, a real
discount rate must be selected to express future • Where the existing pavement is left in position and
expenditure in terms of present-day values. This an overlay is constructed, the salvage value of the
discount rate should correspond to the rate generally pavement would be the difference between the
used in the public sector. Unless the client clearly cost of constructing an overlay and the cost of
indicates that he prefers some other rate, 8% is constructing a new pavement to a standard equal
recommended for general use. A sensitivity analysis to that of the existing pavement with the overlay.
using rates of say 6,8 and 10% could be carried out to This is termed the “residual structural value”.
determine the importance of the value of the discount
rate. • Where the material in the existing pavement is
taken up and recycled for use in the construction of
Salvage value a new pavement, the salvage value of the recycled
layers would be the difference between the cost of
The salvage value of the pavement at the end of the furnishing new materials and the cost of taking up
period under consideration is difficult to assess. If the and recycling the old materials. This salvage value
street is to remain in the same location, the existing is termed the “recycling value”.
pavement layers may have a salvage value but, if the
street is to be abandoned at the end of the period, the • In some cases the procedure followed could be a
salvage value could be small or zero. The assessment of combination of (a) and (b) above and the salvage
the salvage value can be approached in a number of value would have to be calculated accordingly.

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Chapter 8 Roads: Materials and construction
 GUIDELINES FOR HUMAN SETTLEMENT PLANNING AND DESIGN

Table 8.16: Typical future maintenance for cost analysis

TYPICAL MAINTENANCE MEASURES*

MEASURES TO IMPROVE THE SURFACING

STRUCTURAL MAINTENANCE
CONDITION**
BASE TYPE
SURFACE
TREATMENT ON ASPHALT PREMIX MODERATE DISTRESS SEVERE DISTRESS
ORIGINAL SURFACING

Granular S1 (10 - 15 yrs) S1 (12 - 20 yrs) 30 - 40 AG, AC >100 BS, BC

S1 (18 - 27 yrs) S1 (21 - 30 yrs) or
or Granular overlay
AG (13 - 22 yrs) or
AG (24 - 33 yrs) Recycling of base

Bituminous S1 (13 - 17 yrs) 30 - 40 AG, AC >100 BS, BC

S1 (22 - 28 yrs) or
or Recycling of base
AG (13 - 17 yrs)
AG (26 - 34 yrs)

Concrete Joints repair, Further joint and Concrete granular

surface texturing surface repairs or
(15 yrs, 30 yrs) Bituminous overlay
(equivalent cost or
of 20 mm PCC) Recycling

Cemented S1 (8 - 13 yrs) S1 (8 - 13 yrs) Further surface Thick granular

S1 (16 - 24 yrs) S1 (16 - 24 yrs) treatments overlay
S1 (23 - 30 yrs) S1 (23 - 30 yrs) or
Recycling of base

Paving No maintenance Re-levelling of Rebuild base,

blocks measures blocks bedding sand and
blocks

Cast-in-situ No maintenance Remove and Rebuild underlying

blocks measures replace blocks layer and place cast-
with cast-in-situ blocks in-situ blocks

* S1 (10 yrs) represents a single surface treatment at 10 years and 40 AG (20 yrs) represents a 40 mm thick bitumen
surfacing at 20 years.
** Refer to Table 8.15 for typical lifetimes of different surfacing types.

The salvage values of individual layers of the Optimisation of life-cycle costs

pavement may differ considerably, from estimates as
high as 75% to possibly as low as 10%. The residual In Table 8.2 a description of the street and its drainage
salvage value of gravel and asphalt layers is generally is given, with their LOS values. In the matrix the
high, whereas that of concrete pavements can be high combined LOS value is given. The final LOS value is
or low, depending on the condition of the pavement determined mostly by the LOS of the drainage.
and the method of rehabilitation. The salvage value of
the whole pavement would be the sum of the salvage The main purpose of the determination of a
values of the individual layers. In the absence of better representative LOS for a street is to illustrate the
information, a salvage value of 30% of initial associated life-cycle costs. This identification can
construction cost is recommended. enable authorities and decision makers to select a
design which will be affordable and upgradable. The
costs associated with a typical street are made up of
design and construction costs, maintenance costs and
street-user costs. Construction costs are high for high
LOS values and low for low LOS values. Maintenance

35
Roads: Materials and construction Chapter 8
 GUIDELINES FOR HUMAN SETTLEMENT PLANNING AND DESIGN

costs, on the contrary, are low for high LOS values and DISCUSSION ON THE DESIGN
high for low LOS values. PROCEDURES FOR DIFFERENT STREET
TYPES
This concept is illustrated in Figure 8.12 with typical,
present worth-of-cost versus LOS values. The combined At this stage the designer should have gathered
cost curve has a typical minimum value between the enough information on the street(s) to be designed, to
highest and lowest LOS values. Street-user costs are be able to decide which design procedure to follow -
low for high LOS streets and high for low LOS streets. as illustrated in Figure 8.1. If an existing network is to
40 be upgraded, the information contained in the street
profiles may be used to determine paving priorities at
this stage. With a background knowledge of the basic
35
concepts from the previous section, it is now possible
to go into the detailed structural design of the street
30 pavements.
Time of rehabilitation (years)

25
PAVED ARTERIAL AND ACCESS
STREETS
ss
tre

20
dis

The design process

ss

ss
re

re
ve

tre
st

s
Se

di

15 di
al
e
at

The portion of the flow diagram in Figure 8.1 that

ur
er

t
uc
od

refers to the design of paved arterial and access routes

tr
M

10 s
d is enlarged upon in Figure 8.13, and divided into 8
ite
m
Li
sections. Each section will be treated separately but all
5 sections have to be considered as a whole before a
design can be produced.

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 The first five sections represent the basic inputs to

Length of structural design period (years) pavement design, namely street category, design
strategy, design traffic, material availability and
Figure 8.11: Degree of structural distress to be environment. The sixth section explains how, with these
expected at the time of rehabilitation for different as inputs, the designer can then use an appropriate
structural design periods design method to obtain possible pavement structures.
Information on certain practical considerations in the
2,25 design of streets follows in the seventh section. In the
final section the analysis of alternative designs on a life-
2,00
cycle cost basis, in the light of construction costs and
maintenance costs, is considered.

1,75 Total
A simplified flow diagram for the structural design of
Present worth of costs (R x 10 6 )

residential streets (Category UC and UD only) is

1,50 suggested in Figure 8.14.

1,25 Street category

1,00 The street category will have been identified

Maintenance
during the process of compiling the street profile,
and will most likely be UA, UB or UC. The section on
0,75
characteristics of streets may be consulted for a
Construction
discussion on street categories in general.
0,50

Design strategy
0,25

Select an appropriate analysis and structural design

0 period for the street under consideration. The
5 4 3 2 1
Best Worst section on street standards provides guidelines on
Level of service (LOS) typical analysis and design periods and lists other
factors that need to be considered.
Figure 8.12: Typical cost versus level of service curve
values

36
Chapter 8 Roads: Materials and construction
 GUIDELINES FOR HUMAN SETTLEMENT PLANNING AND DESIGN

Select Structural
road category design
SECTION 1
UA, UB, UC, OR Pavement *
UD behavior
SECTION 6 Terminal
condition
Select
design strategy Pavement type
selection
Analysis period Catalogue
SECTION 2 and structural
design period
Alternative Include
strategies Practical
Considerations
Drainage
Estimate
design traffic Compaction
SECTION 7
SECTION 3
Traffic classes * Problem
EO - E4 subgrades
Cross-section
Concrete
Consider pavements
materials
Availability of *
SECTION 4 materials Do cost
Analysis
Unit costs
Unit costs Prevent worth *
Past experience of costs
SECTION 8 Construction
costs
Define Discount rate
environment
Future
Topography maintenance
SECTION 5 Climatic region Salvage value
Delineate sub-
grade areas
Design CBR
* Refer back to SECTION 2, reiterate

Figure 8.13: Structural design flow diagram (mainly for category UA and UB streets)

Design bearing capacity the subgrade on which the street will be

constructed. These are discussed in the section on
Calculate the cumulative equivalent traffic for the environment.
particular street, according to the procedure
outlined in the section on design strategy. Based on Structural design
the cumulative equivalent traffic, an appropriate
pavement class or design bearing-capacity interval The actual structural design has two aspects - the
may then be selected from Table 8.5. selection of appropriate pavement types and an
appropriate design method for the particular
Materials street.

Most of the materials for the selected, subbase and Pavement selection
base layers of the pavement structures applicable
to arterial and access streets will usually have to be The behaviour of different pavement types has
imported. Possible material sources and the been dealt with. Certain types may not be suitable
availability and cost of different types of material for some street categories, traffic classes or climatic
should be established. The availability of material regions. A number of alternative types should,
combined with the expected behaviour of the however, be selected. The most cost-effective
major types of material and pavement, as discussed design will then be identified in the economic
in the section on materials, will determine the final analysis.
selection of the appropriate materials and
pavements for particular needs. Pavement structures with thin, rigid or stiff layers
at the top (shallow structures) are generally more
Environment sensitive to overloading than deep structures. If
many overloaded vehicles can be expected, shallow
The two most important environmental factors to structures should be avoided.
consider are the climatic region and the design of

37
Roads: Materials and construction Chapter 8