16 Color Theory Color Design Workbook

Chapter 2:
Color Theory

What Is Color Theory?

Color theory is a set of guiding principles that can
be used to create harmonious color combinations.
These ideas are represented in a variety of diagrams—
color wheels, triangles, and charts that help designers
understand color interactions, select and combine colors,
and construct pleasing and effective palettes.

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Diagrams such as this color wheel, which shows pure hues as well as
tints and shades, serve as a guide for selecting and combining colors
beyond the pure hues. Different color theory diagrams have different
purposes. Some are simple and some are complex, but all are useful
references when thinking about color and choosing color palettes.

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 18 Color Theory Color Design Workbook

Many measurement systems, but all color

A Brief History of Color Theory theory has one goal: to explain color
relationships with an aim to create harmony.

We offer this brief account to familiarize designers with the The next major set of theories comes from the Bauhaus, the
major color theorists and their significant findings. We encourage highly influential German art and design school (1919–1933) that
further exploration of this topic to gain a deeper understanding focused on the integration of art and industry, encouraging an
of color theory. ideology of functional design. Bauhaus member Johannes Itten
(1888–1967) was a Swiss color and art theorist who developed color
IA
Since ancient times, color theorists have developed ideas and inter- chords and modified the color wheel. Itten’s color wheel is based on
pretations of color relationships. Attempts to formalize and recognize a primary triad of red, yellow, and blue, and includes twelve hues.
III A
order date back at least to Aristotle (384–322 B.C.E.) but began in He studied color in terms of both design and science, and his IIA IIB
earnest with Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519) and have progressed experiments with light waves explored color relationships and
ever since. Leonardo noted that certain colors intensify each other, visual effects. Following Goethe’s lead, Itten delved into the III C III B
IC IIC IB
discovering contrary or complementary colors. The first color wheel psychological and spiritual aspects of color. His most important
was invented by Britain’s Sir Isaac Newton (1642–1727), who split work, The Art of Color, is summarized in his treatise called Itten:
white light into red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet The Elements of Color. Itten’s theories still form the core of most
beams, then joined the two ends of the spectrum to form a circle art school color information. The Goethe color triangle
is an equilateral triangle
showing the natural progression of colors. When Newton created
subdivided into nine equi-
the color wheel, he noticed that mixing two colors from opposite Josef Albers (1888–1976) studied under Itten and also taught at
lateral triangles. The three
positions produced a neutral or anonymous color. the Bauhaus. His abstract art used mathematical proportions primary colors (blue is IA,
to achieve balance and unity. After immigration to the United and so on) are arranged on
More than a century later, while studying the psychological States, his teachings at Yale University led to his book Interaction the outer edges, with sec-
ondary (purple is IIA, and so
effects of color, Germany’s famed poet and playwright Johann of Color, a crucial text on color theory. Albers’ focus is on what
on) and tertiary (lavender
Wolfgang von Goethe (1749–1832) furthered color theory. Goethe happens when colors interact, and his experiments are a resource
is IIIA, and so on) colors
divided all colors into two groups. On the plus side he put the for creating subtle color compositions. Faber Birren (1900–1988) located inside. This is one
warm colors (red to orange to yellow) and on the minus side the explored the relationship between color and expression. His method Goethe used to dem-
cool colors (green to blue to violet). He noted that colors on the research helped clarify the historical development of the triadic onstrate color relationships.
He believed that colors are
plus side produced excitement in viewers, while he associated color system.
linked to emotion, and his
the minus-side colors with unsettled feelings. In 1810 Goethe
diagram demonstrates these
published Zur Farbenlehre (Theory of Color), in which he disagreed The American artist Albert Munsell (1858–1918) created a new connections. For example,
with Newton’s conclusions about color. He believed that a scien- and versatile color model around 1905. Munsell was inspired by he called IC, IIC, IIIC, and
tific approach alone did not enable one to fully understand color. the work of fellow American Nicholas Ogden Rood (1831–1902) IIA a serene color scheme.
Here again, the designation
Goethe’s observations of the human perception of color, rather and German painter Philip Otto Runge (1777–1810) to develop a
is completely subjective,
than just the physics of light, allowed him to discover important three-dimensional color model that demonstrates relationships
as is true in nearly all color
aspects of color theory, including simultaneous contrast and between full-spectrum hues as well as tints and shades. Munsell’s theories.
color’s relationship to emotion. important realization was that, when pure, some hues are more
saturated than others, so color relationships are distorted when
Louis Prang (1824–1909) was an influential pioneer of American forced into a circle. He created what is known as the Munsell Tree,
chromolithographs and a noted educator whose 1876 book Theory with hues arranged along branches of different lengths in order
of Color helped popularize the theory of red, yellow, and blue of saturation. Munsell’s work was adopted by American industry
primary colors in American art education. Wilhelm Ostwald as its material standard for naming colors. It has also influenced
(1853–1932), a Russian-German Nobel Prize–winning chemist, the color-space modeling of the CIE (Commission International
developed a color system related to psychological harmony and de l’Eclairge).
order in the 1916 Die Farbenfibel (The Color Primer). His ideas about
color harmony influenced future color theorists and the Dutch Artists, scientists, and scholars continue to contribute to color
de Stijl art movement (see page 100). theory, a dynamic and fascinating subject.

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 History of Color Theory 19

The Munsell Color Tree, when

shown as a wheel (right),
is divided into five primary
or principal hues (R stands
for red, y for yellow, etc.).
Five intermediaries are also
labeled with the initials of the
surrounding principals (YR
for yellow-red, etc.), produc-
ing a total of ten divisions.
For even more accurate
specification, the circle is
divided into steps numbered
clockwise from 5, at the top,
to 100. This diagram is useful
because it explains the ratio-
nale behind the Munsell color
notation system. Designers
may need to use the Munsell
color notation system when
specifying colors in manu-
facturing processes such as
packaging and environmental
design projects.

Johannes Itten held that

color harmony was subjec-
tive. However, he developed
a series of diagrams, such as
these, for the construction
of harmonious triads (three-
color combinations, near
right) and tetrads (four-
color combinations, middle)
in twelve-part color wheels.
These groups of hues relate
in pleasing ways. Spinning yellow yellow
the center triangles or yellow-green yellow-orange yellow-green yellow-orange
rectangles provides other
green orange green orange
successful combinations.
His twelve-pointed star (far
right)expands on the idea blue-green red-orange blue-green red-orange
of a color wheel by showing
hues along with tints and
blue red blue red
shades. The color star (right)
is a more complex diagram blue-violet red-violet blue-violet red-violet
of color interactions.
violet violet

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Color theory is, at its core, about developing aesthetically

pleasing color relationships.

Successful color relationships can be referred to

One of the best tools for visualizing color relationships is the color wheel.
as “color harmonies.” Whether they consist of similar
This wheel, originally developed by Sir Isaac Newton, can be constructed hues that are soothing to the eye or are made of
with just a few colors, or can be quite complex incorporating many color contrasting ones that excite the eye, color harmonies
variations. Perhaps the most useful version is the twelve-step color wheel are often subject to personal preference. However,
containing twelve equidistant pure hues, as shown below. the study of art and design has given us some
specific color theories, or guiding principles, that
help us make effective decisions about color usage.

We recommend the use of the color wheel called the

Subtractive Artists’ Primary Colors (RYB), because
picking colors is easiest with this set of primaries.
The color wheel will help to select color combinations
red
that balance each other. This balance is a result of all
red the colors in a chosen composition adding up to gray,
r ed ora
urple ng or neutrality, in the eye/brain. This result will cause
p e
the work to just “feel right” to the viewer.
ora
e
rpl

A color by itself will elicit an emotional and physical

ng
pu

response, but the nature of the response can be

altered by placing it in context with one or more
orange yellow

colors. Color perceptions shift dynamically when

blue purple

aligned with other colors. Designers can vary color

12 Step Color Wheel
combinations to produce relationships that are
allied or contrasting and therefore can affect
viewers’ impression.
yel
e
blu

low

e yel
blu low
en ree g
gre n
green

Primary Secondary Tertiary

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Color Harmony
Here are six basic color relationship concepts
that can be applied to an infinite number of
color combinations.

Complementary
These are color pairs that are directly
opposite each other on the color wheel. They
1. represent the most contrasting relationships.
The use of two complementary colors will
cause a visual vibration and excite the eye.

Split Complementary
These are the three-color schemes in which
1. Complementary 4. Analogous
one color is accompanied by two others
2. that are spaced equally from the first color’s
complement. The contrast is toned down
somewhat, providing a more sophisticated
relationship.

Double Complementary
This is the combination of two pairs of
complementary colors. As complements
3. increase the apparent intensity of each other,
not all color sets will be pleasing. Avoid using
equal volumes of the four colors to make the
scheme less jarring.

Analogous
These are combinations of two or more colors
that are spaced equally from each other
4. on the color wheel. These colors have similar
2. Split Complementary 5. Triadic
light ray wavelengths, so they are easiest
on the eye.

Triadic
These are combinations of any three colors
that are spaced evenly around the color
wheel. Triads with primaries are garish, but
5. secondary and tertiary triads provide softer
contrast. Triads in which two of the colors
share a common primary (e.g., purple and
orange share red) may seem more pleasing.

Monochromatic
These are color schemes made up of shades
6. and tints of a single color. Use one hue and
explore variety in saturation and lightness to
form an allied combination of similar colors.
3. Double Complementary 6. Monochromatic

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The packaging of the music

CD series Elemental Chill
has a beautiful palette of
sophisticated muted colors
in orange, red, green, and
blue. When selecting a color
scheme, it is important to
consider the use of tints and
shades of hues in order to
create a pleasing and
harmonious balance in the
color system. Referring
to color theory diagrams
such as Itten’s color star
shown on page 16 allows
designers to visualize color
interactions.
Karlsson Wiliker

This cover for @ISSUE: The Journal of Business and Design, published by Sappi Fine Paper and the Corporate
Design Foundation, utilizes a predominantly analogous composition of orange and red with bits of black and
gray. The design is complemented by a desaturated green symbol acting as a central punctuation in the design.
Pentagram

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 Color Harmony 23

The Cook’s Canon cookbook demonstrates a clever use of a classic complementary color scheme of orange
and blue. Michael Hodgson designed the dust jacket in predominantly reflex blue, while the book cover itself is
its opposite, orange. Using hues that are complements provide the most color contrast possible; the result
is maximum excitement to the eye.
Ph.D

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