Worktext in

The Contemporary World

Cheryl C. Mendoza, Ph.D.

Rhene C. Tabajen, Ph. D.

Era Anjelika Tomas

Reginald B. Austria

Chapters in the Syllabus

Chapter

Objectives

Introduction

Lesson Proper/Content/Discussion

Activity

References

Dr. Cheryl C. Mendoza is an Associate Professor at Pangasinan State University, Bayambang

Campus. She has been teaching general education and specialization subjects in the Social
Sciences both in the undergraduate and graduate levels. She obtained her BSE Social Studies at
PSU Bayambang, graduated Cum Laude, MaEd Social Studies and Doctor of Philosophy major in
Development Studies both at PSU Urdaneta Graduate School. She is also a graduate of Bachelor
of Laws and Letters at the University of Baguio. She had presented research papers both in national and
international conferences. She had been a national trainer for NTOT Araling Panlipunan and as well as a First
Generation Participant for Trainors Training for Teacher Program for The Contemporary World held at University of
San Carlos, Cebu.
 Dr.Rhene Carbonell Tabajen received his Bachelor of Arts in Political Science from Saint Louis
University, Baguio City and his Master of Public Administration from Lyceum-Northwestern
University. Eventually, he obtained his Doctor of Philosophy in Educational Administration from
Don Mariano Marcos Memorial State University, Agoo, La Union. At present, he is taking up
Doctor in Public Administration at Polytechnic University of the Philippines. Mr. Tabajen is a
former instructor at Lyceum Northwestern University, Adamson University, Emilio Aguinaldo College and Jose Rizal
University where he teaches major Subjects in Political science and general education subjects. He is currently an
Associate Professor 2 at University of Makati - College of Governance and Public Policy. He is one of the first
generation training of trainors of The Contemporary World. In addition, he was also a national trainor of
Understanding Culture, Society Politics for private schools offering senior high school. He is a co-author of Politics
and Governance with Philippine Constitution published in 2013 and 2016.

Ms. Era Anjelika U. Tomas is a graduate of Bachelor of Arts in Social Sciences major in Social
Anthropology minor in Psychology from the University of the Philippines - Baguio. She is
currently pursuing Master of Arts in Guidance and Counseling from Don Mariano Marcos
Memorial State University - South La Union Campus. Presently, she is a faculty member under
the General Education Department of Pangasinan State University Lingayen Campus.
Throughout her career as an educator, she has been teaching minor courses like Psychology, Cultural Anthropology,
Society and Culture in the Philippine Setting, and Arts Appreciation.
Lesson 1: Globalization

What is 'Globalization'?

In the advent of technologies, we see the growth on transports and communications. This means, people and
countries can exchange information and goods in an easy way, this process is called “Globalization”.
Globalization represents the global integration of international trade, investment, information technology and cultures.
Government policies designed to open economies domestically and internationally to boost development in poorer
countries and raise standards of living for their people are what drive globalization.
In our World history, they introduce around centuries the idea of concept of Globalization; traders explore to buy rare
commodities such as salt, spices and gold, which they would then sell in their home countries. The 19th century
Industrial Revolution brought advances in communication and transportation that have removed borders and
increased cross-border trade. The Silk Road, when trade spread rapidly between China and Europe via an overland
route
World Health Organization define Globalization, “ the increased interconnectedness and interdependence of peoples
and countries, is generally understood to include two inter-related elements: the opening of international borders to
increasingly fast flows of goods, services, finance, people and ideas; and the changes in institutions and policies at
national and international levels that facilitate or promote such flows. Globalization has the potential for both positive
and negative effects on development and health.”
Thomas Friedman defined globalization as, “as the inexorable integration of markets, transportation systems, and
communication systems to a degree never witnessed before – in a way that is enabling corporations, countries, and
individuals to reach around the world farther, faster, deeper, and cheaper than ever before, and in a way that is
enabling the world to reach into corporations, countries, and individuals farther, faster, deeper, and cheaper than
ever before”. Also, Manfred Steger provided scholarly description in his Globalization: A Very Short Introduction, “the
term globalization should be used to refer to a set of social processes that are thought to transform our present social
condition into one of globality”.
In simple terms, globalization is the process by which people and goods move easily across borders. Principally, it's
an economic concept – the integration of markets, trade and investments with few barriers to slow the flow of
products and services between nations. There is also a cultural element, as ideas and traditions are traded and
assimilated.
Globalization is an event occurred in unprecedented pace and gives definition to the world’s market. It is still a public
debate whether it is beneficial or detrimental most especially to the average citizens. It may direct or indirectly affect
everyone, but not everyone get the same benefits. The more stretches and intensified, the more backlashes produce
to those people who cannot keep on the same pace.
Other proponents believe that globalization is the way for the other developing countries to catch up with other
developed nations and improvements in the standard of living. Standards of living have risen overall as more third-
world countries experience industrialization. However, some politicians argue that globalization is detrimental to
the middle class, and is causing increasing economic and political polarization in the United States. Outsourcing,
where U.S. companies transfer their facilities abroad to lower labor costs and avoid negotiating with unions,
means workers in the United States must now compete internationally for jobs.
Globalization has contributed to global warming, climate change and the overuse of natural resources. An increase in
the demand for goods has boosted manufacturing and industrialization. Globalization has also increased
homogenization in countries. For example, international chains, such as Starbucks, Nike and The Gap, dominate
commercial space in every U.S. town and many towns in other nations. Cultural exchange has been largely one-
sided because U.S. goods and culture have influenced other countries more than those of any other nation.
 Activity 1

Name: ________________________________________________________________Score: _________________

Course: _______________________________________________________________ Date: _________________

GLOBALIZATION: ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

Scenario Positive Negative Depends

Scenario A: In your local town, one of the main sources of employment for three generations has been the fruit
cannery. The company has recently decided to close the factory and outsource the canning of fruit to another country
where labor and fruit are cheaper.
Scenario B: Your friend's garage band has really taken off on YouTube and people from places as distant as Finland
and Ghana are downloading it.
Scenario C: You meet someone really nice while you're on holiday in Bali and can now keep in touch via Skype.
Scenario D: The shoes that you really like are much cheaper via an online shop in America.
Scenario E: The Australian Government is being pressured to decrease the current annual minimum quota of 55%
Australian television programming (between 6 am and midnight) to 40%.
Scenario F: The Company that your father works for has recently been taken over by a trans-national corporation
with job opportunities in many parts of the world if he is prepared to move/relocate.
Scenario G: A representative from World Wildlife Fund invites students to become involved in and advocate to help
secure the future of orangutans.
Scenario H: Your mother's superannuation fund has been affected by the Global Financial Crisis and she is worried
that she won't have enough money when she retires.
Share your responses with the class. Try to tease out the complexities of each situation and ensure you understand
that globalisation affects local communities in complex and interdependent ways (For example, in a debate about the
impact of online shopping, the outcome may be that local shops close but also that jobs are created in the areas of
transport and logistics. Online shopping may also enable more targeted production of goods with less wastage.)
Lesson 2: The Global Economy

At the end of this lesson you should be able to:

 Define economic globalization

 Identify the actors that facilitate Economic globalization.
 Define the modern world system.
 Articulate a stance on global economic integration.

Countries trade with each other due to the lack of resources and cannot satisfy their own needs and wants. As
the countries developed their resources and they trade it for the resources they need. Many years ago, when the
other countries travelled a distance to trade, as it is very evident that international trade plays significant role in the
development of industrialized world. Imports of goods and services happen maybe for better or cheaper quality,
appealing goods or no alternatives exist. In this lesson, we will begin with economic globalization and global actors
that facilitate the economic globalization.

United Nations defines Economic globalization as “increasing interdependence of world economies as a result
of the growing scale of cross-border trade of commodities and services, flow of international capital and wide and
rapid spread of technologies. It reflects the continuing expansion and mutual integration of market frontiers, and is an
irreversible trend for the economic development in the whole world at the turn of the millennium. The rapid growing
significance of information in all types of productive activities and marketization are the two major driving forces for
economic globalization” (http://www.un.org/en/development/desa/policy/cdp/cdp_background_papers/bp2000_1.pdf)

According to Dennis O. Flynn and Arturo Giráldez ,”Global trade emerged when 1) all heavily populated
continents began to exchange products continuously – both with each other directly and indirectly via other
continents – and 2) did so in values sufficient to generate lasting impacts on all trading partners” (“Globalization
Began in 1571.p2)

In economic globalization, many authors believe that new technology allowing more intensive movement
information, capital, services, goods and people created an environment of “new economy”, which is characterized by
the increasing importance of global production networks, free trade and the "new" capital. Global production networks
express the interconnectedness of the various components of production, where different stages of production take
place in different locations depending on where the most favourable conditions (cheap labour, skilled labour, raw
materials, consumer market...). Companies seeking the greatest possible efficiency and maximize profits involve
more and more regions and localities to "global production".

Another necessary condition for the development of production networks is to minimize trade barriers and
ensure smooth movement resources, goods and services through the free trade. That is considered an important
engine of globalization, which allows the use of technological advances (leads to innovation, is important for
economic development/growth ...) and differences between regions. Technological change and
deregulation/liberalization enabled the development of financial markets (capital moves freely) to the extent that the
financial markets began to dominate the global economy (the majority share of the volume of past transactions
comprises the speculative investment).

GLOBAL ACTORS

Multinational Corporation

The multinational corporation is a business organization whose activities are located in more than two countries and
is the organizational form that defines foreign direct investment. This form consists of a country location where the
firm is incorporated and of the establishment of branches or subsidiaries in foreign countries (A.A Lazarus, 2001 p.
10197)

The International Monetary Fund

The International Monetary Fund (IMF), founded at the Bretton Woods Conference in 1944, is the official organization
for securing international monetary cooperation. It has done useful work in various fields, such as research and the
publication of statistics and the tendering of monetary advice to less-developed countries. It has also conducted
valuable consultations with the more developed countries.

North Atlantic Treaty

NATO is based on the North Atlantic Treaty, which provides the organization a framework. The treaty provides that
an armed attack against one or more of NATO`s member nations shall be considered an attack against them all.*
NATO is headquartered in Brussels, Belgium. The organization was formed in 1949. Many nations joined NATO —
even Iceland, the only member without a military force. The organization was originally formed out of the fear that
the Soviet Union would ally militarily with Eastern European nations, i.e. the Warsaw Pact, and thus become a threat
to Western Europe and the United States

World Trade Organization (WTO), International Monetary Fund (IMF), and the World Bank

The World Trade Organization (WTO), the International Monetary Fund (IMF), and the World Bank are the three
institutions that underwrite the basic rules and regulations of economic, monetary, and trade relations between
countries. Many developing nations have loosened trade rules under pressure from the IMF and the World Bank.

The domestic financial markets in these countries have not been developed and do not have appropriate laws in
place to enable domestic financial institutions to stand up to foreign competition. The administrative setup, judicial
systems, and law-enforcing agencies generally cannot guarantee the social discipline and political stability that are
necessary in order to support a growth-friendly atmosphere.
 As a result, most multinational corporations are investing in certain geographic locations only. In the 1990s, most
foreign investment was in high-income countries and a few geographic locations in the South like East Asia and Latin
America. According to the World Bank's 2002 World Development Indicators, there are 63 countries considered to be
low-income countries. The share of these low-income countries in which foreign countries are making direct
investments is very small; it rose from 0.5 percent 1990 to only 1.6 percent in 2000

The first half of the 20th century was marked by two world wars that caused enormous physical and economic
destruction in Europe and a Great Depression that wrought economic devastation in both Europe and the United
States. These events kindled a desire to create a new international monetary system that would
stabilize currency exchange rates without backing currencies entirely with gold; to reduce the frequency and severity
of balance-of-payments deficits (which occur when more foreign currency leaves a country than enters it); and to
eliminate destructive mercantilist trade policies, such as competitive devaluations and foreign exchange restrictions—
all while substantially preserving each country’s ability to pursue independent economic policies. Multilateral
discussions led to the UN Monetary and Financial Conference in Bretton Woods, New Hampshire, U.S., in July 1944.
Delegates representing 44 countries drafted the Articles of Agreement for a proposed International Monetary Fund
that would supervise the new international monetary system.

The framers of the new Bretton Woods monetary regime hoped to promote world trade, investment,
and economic growth by maintaining convertible currencies at stable exchange rates. Countries with temporary,
moderate balance-of-payments deficits were expected to finance their deficits by borrowing foreign currencies from
the IMF rather than by imposing exchange controls, devaluations, or deflationary economic policies that could spread
their economic problems to other countries. After ratification by 29 countries, the Articles of Agreement entered into
force on December 27, 1945. The fund’s board of governors convened the following year in Savannah, Georgia,
U.S., to adopt bylaws and to elect the IMF’s first executive directors. The governors decided to locate the
organization’s permanent headquarters in Washington, D.C., where its 12 original executive directors first met in May
1946. The IMF’s financial operations began the following year. (Lawrence McQuillan, Encyclopedia Britannica,
October 9, 2018)

In other words, the fast globalization of the world’s economies in recent years is largely based on the rapid
development of science and technologies, has resulted from the environment in which market economic system has
been fast spreading throughout the world, and has developed on the basis of increasing cross-border division of
labor that has been penetrating down to the level of production chains within enterprises of different countries.
 Activity 2
Name: ________________________________________________________________Score: _________________
Course: _______________________________________________________________ Date: _________________

Global economy in which we live

After the discussion the students will bring the following:
 Bring a favorite item of clothing to school.
 Make a chart to show where their favorite clothing articles are produced.
 Take a home survey to identify the country of origin of other common goods.
 Use collected data to make a chart, graph, or map to illustrate the global economy in which we live.

Home survey
Directions: Take a home survey with your favourite item of clothing and goods. Use a chart, graph or map to identify
the country of origin of other common goods.

Item Price Country Manufacturer

Questions
1. Which country has the largest products that has been produced in your possession?
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
2. What are the reasons why the country cited is leading in the mass production of products?
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
3. Give the advantages and disadvantages of mass production that is controlled by one country?
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________

Lesson 3: Market Integration

Market integration is the fusing of many markets into one. Global market integration means that price
differences between countries are eliminated as all markets become one. One way to the progress of globalization is
to look at trends how prices converge or become similar across countries. The time when the costs of trading across
the country fall and that is the time the other firm will take advantage of price differences, other countries may enter
the market of the other country. Trading cost fall when new product invented or developed becomes cheaper and
also, some cost are man-made like when they impose a barriers for trade

In one market a commodity has a single price such as the price of rice would be the same in east
Pangasinan and west Pangasinan if these areas were part of the same market. If the price of rice in west Pangasinan
was higher, sellers of rice would move from the east to the west and prices would equalize. The price of rice in one
place to other might be different, though, and high transport costs and other kinds of expenses might mean that it
would be uneconomical for other sellers to move their stocks to other place if prices were higher there. And for other
markets , the price changes for a long periods of time.

Integration

By the end of the 20th century globalization across most markets had returned to the levels seen just before World
War I. Today, markets are more integrated than ever as transportation costs have continued to fall and most tariffs
have been scrapped altogether.

One vision of the future of globalization involves the elimination of other kinds barriers to trade caused by institutional
differences between countries. Markets are embedded in institutions such as property rights, legal systems, and
regulatory regimes. Differences in institutions between countries create trading costs in the same way that tariffs or
distance do. For example, there may be different laws in Kenya, China about what happens when a buyer fails to
pay. This might make it hard for a Chinese exporter to recover what it is owed in the event of a dispute, which could
make the firm reluctant to enter the Kenyan market. Despite the removal of tariffs the world is far from being a single
market. Borders still matter because of these kinds of institutional incompatibilities. Complete integration requires the
ironing out of legal and regulatory differences to create a single institutional space.

Some economists argue that this process is underway and inevitable, end that global markets drive the
harmonization of institutions across countries. Consider a multinational firm choosing a country in which to locate its
factory. In order to attract the firm’s investment, a government might cut business tax rates and loosen regulatory
requirements. Other competing countries follow suit. The resulting lower tax revenues make countries less able to
finance welfare states and educational programs. All policy decisions become oriented toward maximizing integration
with global markets. No goods or services would be provided that are incompatible with this.

This economic interest also became part of a political strategy that transformed people into individual political
economic subjects. In order to establish, maintain and expand their domination the new states will make systematic
use of scientific knowledge with the aim of assessing and influencing the behavior of their subjects. And they will do
this assuming that people’s behavior is mainly motivated by interest. Government now consciously wants to deal with
the interests of individuals in order to serve its own interest. Political economics will not only consist of observing
people’s self-interested behavior, it will also promote it. The main issue in the politics of states will be to figure out
ways to anticipate what might happen in order to influence economic expansion. The new politics will not only go
together with a reflection about the interest of the state but also implies that those in power have to think differently
about their individual roles in relation to and about the way their personal motivation fits with the

According to Smith, it was no longer a question of teaching mankind what must be done with reference to the next
world, but rather to understand what the human being actually is and what can be done in this world with humans as
they actually are. The social contract and the workings of society should be studied on the basis of natural human
(Bouchet: Adam Smith: Then & Now )
 Activity 3

Name: ________________________________________________________________Score: _________________

Course: _______________________________________________________________ Date: _________________

Market Game

The students must bring the following:

Cartolina/ Manila paper

Marker
Play money

Direction: The student will be given an exact amount of play money in which they will come up with a project/output.
Example:
Amount of Play Money (Php 2,496.00)
Project: Care for Young at Heart (This project is a simple party for the senior citizen in Brgy. Cadre )

Item Price
Balloons 100

* The total must be the exact amount given by the teacher for the project
Lesson 5: Global Governance

At the end of this lesson you should be able to:

 define global governance

 discuss the role of global governance in international relations,
 as well as discuss limitations to effective global governance.

How is the world governed even in the absence of a world government in order to produce norms, codes of
conduct, and regulatory, surveillance, and compliance instruments? How are values allocated quasi-authoritatively
for the world, and as accepted as such, without a government to rule the world?
The answer…lies in global governance. It is the sum of laws, norms, policies, and institutions that define,
constitute, and mediate relations between citizens, societies, markets, and states in the international system–the
wielders and objects of the exercise of international public power”.

- Thakur & Weiss (2015)

Global Governance
Global governance is understood as “…the way in which global affairs are managed. As there is no global
government, global governance typically involves a range of actors including states, as well as regional and
international organizations. However, a single organization may nominally be given the lead role on an issue, for
example the World Trade Organization in world trade affairs. Thus global governance is thought to be an
international process of consensus-forming which generates guidelines and agreements that affect national
governments and international corporations. Examples of such consensus would include WHO policies on health
issues” (WHO, 2015).

Global governance is a product of neo-liberal paradigm shifts in international political and economic relations. The
privileging of capital and market mechanisms over state authority created governance gaps that have encouraged
actors from private and civil society sectors to assume authoritative roles previously considered the purview of the
State. This reinforces the divergence of views about how to define the concept of global governance, issues that are
of the utmost importance and priority. Some scholars argue that global governance as it is practiced is not working
(Coen and Pegram, 2015: 417), while others believe that global governance is constantly adapting by readjusting
strategies and approaches to solutions and developing new tools and measures to deal with issues that impact
communities throughout the world (Held and Hale, 2011).
According to Lawrence Finkelstein, “We say ‘governance’ because we don’t really know what to call what is going
on.”9 In this section, we Klaus Dingwerth and Philipp Pattberg 187 test this claim against the background of the use
of the term global governance in contemporary academic writings
As Thomas Weiss has observed, “Many academics and international practitioners employ ‘governance’ to connote a
complex set of structures and processes, both public and private, while more popular writers tend to use it
synonymously with ‘government’.”

Criticisms
However, there have been criticisms by some against the idea of global governance. For example, the WHO (2015)
points out some arguments that critics make, namely that “Critics argue that global governance mechanisms support
the neo-liberal ideology of globalization and reduce the role of the state (and thus its sovereignty) to that of an
adjusting body for the implementation of international policies. Some argue that, as a result, the interests of the
poorest people and nations will be ignored unless they have a direct impact on the global economy.”

Gaps
There are a number of gaps within global governance systems. For example, the World Health Organization (2015)
argues that three primary gaps exist. Namely:
The jurisdictional gap, between the increasing need for global governance in many areas – such as health – and the
lack of an authority with the power, or jurisdiction, to take action.
The incentive gap, between the need for international cooperation and the motivation to undertake it. The incentive
gap is said to be closing as globalization provides increasing impetus for countries to cooperate. However, there are
concerns that, as Africa lags further behind economically, its influence on global governance processes will diminish.
The participation gap, which refers to the fact that international cooperation remains primarily the affair of
governments, leaving civil society groups on the fringes of policy-making. On the other hand, globalization of
communication is facilitating the development of global civil society movements.”
Thakur & Weiss (2015) argue that there are five particular “gaps” in global governance. They are as follows:
Knowledge Gaps
 Normative Gaps
Policy Gaps
Institutional Gaps
Compliance Gaps

Knowledge gaps are important because if we do not know the severity of a problem, or if we don’t have the resources
to investigate a particular issue, then this could become difficult for effective global governance. Thus, if we don’t
have information or research, not only do we not know how problematic an issue is, but it can then also affect how
we go about trying to resolve or remedy that situation. Therefore, in the cycle of global governance, “the first step in
eventually addressing a problem that goes beyond the capacity of of states to solve is actually to recognize its
existence, to understand that there is a problem. Next, it is necessary to collect solid data that challenge the
consensus about the nature of the problem, to diagnose its causes–in short, to explain the problem”).

Normative Gaps follow knowledge gaps. After we understand that an issue exists, it is important to establish (and
develop) norms to address that problem. This often forms within societies, but international organizations such as the
United Nations also have a role to form law on the issues (Thakur & Weiss, 2015). Norms are important; they “matter
because people–citizens as well as politicians and officials–care about what others think of them” (Thakur & Weiss,
2015: 32). Thus, individuals, organizations, and international organizations can work to set norms on various issues,
whether they are economic trade, environmental issues, or human rights, as well as many other issues. Thus, once
we know about a situation, many can work to shape norms about how we in the global community can respond to
what is taking place (Thakur & Weiss, 2015).

Policy Gaps are related to the specifically policies that one can implement in order to address the stated problem.
When we speak of policy, we are talking about “the articulated and linked set of governing principles and goals, and
the agreed programs of action to implement those principles and achieve those goals” (Thakur & Weiss, 2015: 33).
There are many actors in this process. Individuals and NGOs can call for policies, and the state itself can introduce
and establish policies towards these problems. However, sometimes actors (such as states, for example) may have
varied interests with regards to a conflict, thus making policy more difficult to establish multilaterally. On the other
hand, is it also an issue when states are making policy without including members of the civil society (Thakur &
Weiss, 2015). In the case of the United Nations, some scholars argue that General Assembly resolutions, or United
Nations treaties and covenants can take the form of policy (Thakur & Weiss, 2015).

Institutional Gaps are the challenges of implementing any policies that are put forth by the international community. If
we are speaking about environmental rights abuses, institutional gaps would include any failures of effective
mechanisms to ensure that environmental law is in place. For war crimes, the idea is that the International Criminal
Court will be there to hold state leaders accountable for their actions. If we are speaking about human rights, one
could look to the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) for refugee issues, the Office of the
Commission for Human Rights, or the Human Rights Council, for example.
Compliance Gaps are one of the final challenges with regards to global governance. This includes effective
implementation, as well as enforcement. Amongst the challenges is the fact that “recalcitrant or fragile actors may be
unwilling or unable to implement agreed elements of international policy, for example a ban on commercial whaling,
the acquisition of proliferation-sensitive nuclear technology and material, or the cross-border movement of terrorist
material and personnel” (Thakur & Weiss, 2015: 36). Or, it might be difficult to enforce penalties on violators. The
United Nations, while it does not have a standing military (Thakur & Weiss), through the Security Council, can pass
resolutions and carry out military and economic actions against non-compliers. Nonetheless, there are still many
difficulties to ensure that actors are following prescribed policies and norms. According to Lawrence Finkelstein, “We
say ‘governance’ because we don’t really know what to call what is going on.”9 In this section, we Klaus Dingwerth
and Philipp Pattberg 187 test this claim against the background of the use of the term global governance in
contemporary academic writings
As Thomas Weiss has observed, “Many academics and international practitioners employ ‘governance’ to connote a
complex set of structures and processes, both public and private, while more popular writers tend to use it
synonymously with ‘government’.”
 Activity 5

Name: ________________________________________________________________Score: _________________

Course: _______________________________________________________________ Date: _________________

The Qualities of a Leader

A. This activity starts with your students contributing a list of qualities or characteristics they think are important
in leadership. Elect a facilitator to come to the front of the class and write each contributed characteristic on the
board, as the other students volunteer their ideas. At the same time, you will be writing the characteristics on
small slips of paper, to go into a hat. The list can be of any length.

Example: characteristics may be: empathy, strength, decision-making, trustworthiness, goals, integrity, risk-taking,
vision, respect, etc.

B. Divide the class into small groups (3-4 students per group is ideal), and ask each to send a representative to
draw one of the leadership qualities out of the hat. The reps will only share the characteristic they have
drawn with their own group.
C. Each group must then devise a scenario in which their selected leadership quality is displayed, and act out
that scenario (skit) before the whole class. The groups create their own scenarios, and determine which
roles each group member will play.
D. As the groups take turn acting out their leadership scenarios, the rest of the class will guess which
characteristic they’re portraying. The object is to portray the characteristic clearly, so the class can easily
identify the characteristic they’re demonstrating. However, it’s also beneficial if additional leadership
qualities are identified within the same acted scenario.
E. A short discussion can take place after each group’s skit, to evaluate how the group portrayed successful
leadership qualities.
F. Encourage as much class discussion about each characteristic/skit as time will allow.
Lesson 6: Global Divides

Objectives

1. Define the term “Global South”.

2. Differentiate the Global South from the Third World.

3. Analyze how a new conception of global relations emerged from the experiences of Latin American Countries.

Introduction

Globalization makes people connected and this interconnectedness is part of our daily life. This leads to the

so called global divide, the Global North and Global South. The terms “Global North” and “Global South” divide the

world in half both geographically. According to Karpilo (2018), the Global North contains all countries north of the

Equator in the Northern Hemisphere and the Global South holds all of the countries south of the Equator in the

Southern Hemisphere. Kwarteng and Botchway (2018) stated that “The North and South divide in the practice and

application of international laws have been previously perceived to be evident in international environmental law
where the Global developed North countries on the one hand advocate for a collective action to protect the

environment while the Global developing Southern countries, on the other hand, argue for social and economic

justice in practice.

Lesson Proper/Content/Discussion

The world is divided in terms of development and wealth. Back in 1980s, the world was geographically split

into relatively richer and poorer nations. In order to show this phenomena, the Brandt Line was developed. According

to this model, the Northern Hemisphere is where richer countries situated, with the exception of Australia and New

Zealand, whereas, in the Southern Hemisphere is the place of poorer countries. This shows the concept of a gap

between the Global North and the Global South. This differentiation is based on the fact that most of developed

countries are in the north whereas, the most of developing or underdeveloped countries are in the south.

Nonetheless, not all countries in the Global North can be called “developed,” while some of the countries in the

Global South can be called developed because there are some countries in the Global North that are developing

countries such as Nepal, Kazakhstan, and other African countries.

The gap between the ‘North’ and ‘South’

Despite very significant development gains globally which have raised many millions of
people out of absolute poverty, there is substantial evidence that inequality between the
world’s richest and poorest countries is widening. In 1820 Western Europe's per capita
income was three times bigger than Africa’s but by 2000 it was thirteen times as big. In
addition, in 2013, Oxfam reported that the richest 85 people in the world owned the same
amount of wealth as the poorest half of the world’s population.
Today the world is much more complex than the Brandt Line depicts as many poorer
countries have experienced significant economic and social development. However,
inequality within countries has also been growing and some commentators now talk of a
‘Global North’ and a ‘Global South’ referring respectively to richer or poorer communities
which are found both within and between countries. For example, whilst India is still
home to the largest concentration of poor people in a single nation it also has a very
sizable middle class and a very rich elite.
There are many causes for these inequalities including the availability of natural
resources; different levels of health and education; the nature of a country’s economy
and its industrial sectors; international trading policies and access to markets; how
countries are governed and international relationships between countries; conflict within
and between countries; and a country’s vulnerability to natural hazards and climate change.
(Royal Geographical Society)
What is Global South?

Global South countries have been unable to evolve an indigenous technology appropriate to their own

resources and have been dependent on powerful Global North multinational corporations (MNCs) to transfer

technical know-how. This means that research and development expenditures are directed toward solutions of the

Global North’s problems, with technological advances seldom meeting the needs of the Global South.

On the other hand, Claudio (2014) stated that the global south is both a reality and a provisional in progress.

This because according to Sparke (2007) in Claudio (2014) said that Global South is everywhere, but is also

somewhere, located at the intersection of entangled political geographies of dispossession and repossession,

therefore Global South and Global North may exist in the same location such as in Manila or anywhere else.

Moreover, Grovogui (2011) in Claudio (2014) explained that: The Global South is not a directional designation or a

point due south from a fixed north. It is a symbolic designation meant to capture the semblance of cohesion that

emerged when former colonial entities engaged in political projects of decolonization and moved toward the

realization of a postcolonial international order.

Mahler (2017) coined three primary definitions of Global South. First, it has traditionally been used within

intergovernmental development organizations –– primarily those that originated in the Non-Aligned Movement –– to

refer to economically disadvantaged nation-states and as a post-cold war alternative to “Third World.” However, the

term Global South is employed in a post-national sense to address spaces and peoples negatively impacted by

contemporary capitalist globalization.

Second, the Global South captures a deterritorialized geography of capitalism’s externalities and means to

account for subjugated peoples within the borders of wealthier countries, such that there are economic Souths in the

geographic North and Norths in the geographic South. While this usage relies on a longer tradition of analysis of the

North’s geographic Souths –– wherein the South represents an internal periphery and subaltern relational position ––

the epithet “global” is used to unhinge the South from a one-to-one relation to geography.
 Third, Global South refers to the resistant imaginary of a transnational political subject that results from a

shared experience of subjugation under contemporary global capitalism. The use of the Global South to refer to a

political subjectivity draws from the rhetoric of the so called Third World Project, or the non-aligned and radical

internationalist discourses of the cold war. In this sense, the Global South may productively be considered a direct

response to the category of postcoloniality in that it captures both a political collectivity and ideological formulation

that arises from lateral solidarities among the world’s multiple Souths and moves beyond the analysis of the

operation of power through colonial difference towards networked theories of power within contemporary global

capitalism.

Global South from the Third World

The term “Third World” countries was coined by Alfred Sauvy, a French demographer, after World War II

and during the Cold War-era. It is also the tagged to those countries that did not align with democratic or communist

countries. This eventually evolved to refer levels of development. The Third World included the developing nations of

Africa, Asia, and Latin America.

To Wolvers, et. al. (n.d.) the “Third World” become a central political slogan for the radical left. The term in

its origins had suggested that societies of the Third World, embarking on the long path to modernity, had one of two

paths to follow, the capitalist or the socialist. Even as socialist and capitalist (formerly colonialist) states vied for

influence in the “Third World”, there was a lingering assumption in mainstream Euro/American scholarship, ultimately

to be vindicated, that the socialist path itself was something of a temporary deviation. Modernization discourse

assigned to capitalism the ultimate teleological task of bringing history to an end. Nevertheless, given the close

association of capitalism with imperialism, the socialist example exerted significant influence on the national liberation

movements that the Third World idea spawned. The developmental failure of “Third World” alternatives was evident

by the 1970s. The term Global South, seemingly politically neutral, proposed to incorporate these societies in the

developmental project of capitalism, already named “globalization” in one of the early uses of that term, which would

not acquire popularity until the 1990s.

GLOBAL SOUTH
by Olaf Kaltmeier (Professor of Ibero-American History, Bielefeld University, Germany)

The term Global South has been of great benefit in re-introducing studies on Africa, Asia,
and Latin America into the academic field. The necessary deconstruction of development
in post development approaches in the 1990s has contributed to the – probably
unintended – crisis of Development Studies and Third-World Area Study Centers. The end
of the “Third World” has been proclaimed, which has led to a significant reduction of
studies on these areas. After the end of the bipolar world, and in the context of an
accelerated globalization process, Area Studies – especially on the so called Third- World
countries – have been displaced by Global Studies. With a Global South-oriented
approach, areas formerly peripheral to global studies are placed at the center of attention
once more. Nevertheless, the concept of the Global South shares some of the limitations
of the concept of the Third World. It evokes imaginations of a geographical North-South
divide, which does not correspond to the complex entanglements and uneven
developments in the real world. Areas incorporated under the label Global South can also
be found in the geographical North. Ethnic ghettos and barrios in US American cities are
one example; the “Latinoization” of the US is another. And the gated communities of the
cosmopolitan elite in Rio de Janeiro, Mexico City, or Santiago de Chile have more in
common with their counterparts in Miami, L.A. or Chicago than with the surrounding
barrios, marginales and favelas.

Olaf Kaltmeier is Managing Director of the Center for InterAmerican Studies (CIAS) at
Bielefeld University, http://www.uni-bielefeld.de/%28de%29/cias/
 Activity 6

____________________________________________________________________________________________

Name: ________________________________________________________________Score: _________________

Course: _______________________________________________________________ Date: _________________

Political Cartooning
Direction: Form group with three members. Draw a political cartoon of what Global North and Global Devide
would look like.
– Make it unique and eye catching
– Creativity and humor help
– Using familiar figures also helps dramatically

Present in class and explain.

Then, the class will vote for the best cartoon
References

Mahler, Anne Garland. 2017. "Global South." Oxford Bibliographies in Literary and Critical Theory, ed. Eugene

O'Brien. Accessed date.

Stegre, Manfred B., et.al.2014. The SAGE Handbook of Globalization. Sage Publication. USA.

Karpilo, Jessica. 2018. What does it mean when a country is developed or developing?. Retrieved January 3, 2019

from www.thoughtco.com.

Wolvers, Andrea et.al.n.d.Concepts of the Global South. Global South Studies Center, University of Cologne,

Germany – http://gssc.uni-koeln.de/node/452
Lesson 7: Asian Regionalism

Objectives

1. Differentiate between regionalization and globalization.

2. Identify the factors leading to a greater integration of the Asian region.

3. Analyze how different Asian states confront the challenges of globalization and regionalization.

Introduction

“Regionalism is an approach to study the behaviour that emphasizes the geographical region as the unit of analysis,

stressing the relationship between man and his immediate physical environment. Economic social and cultural

organisations are analyzed in terms of their interrelationships and functions within the geographic region”

-W.P. Scott.

The term `regionalism’ conveys the sense of intentional, top-down region-building—involving inter-

governmental collaboration. `Regionalization’, on the other hand, refers to the growing density of interaction and co-

operation between neighboring countries.

But for He and Inoguchi (2011), Regionalism is an inspirational and revolutionary involving the

reorganization of political, economic, cultural, and social lives along the lines of an imagined region rather than

according to the standard political unit of the nation-state.

 Moreover, Marshall E. Dimock considers regionalism “as a clustering of environmental, economic, social

and governmental factors to such an extent that a distinct consciousness of separate identity within the whole, a

need for autonomous planning, a manifestation of cultural peculiarities and a desire for administrative freedom, are

theoretically recognized and actually put into effect. Regionalism is something which remains to be realized and

further developed, as well as a phenomenon which has already appeared and taken form. In one sense, and perhaps

the best one, regionalism is a way of life, it is a self-conscious process.”

Lesson Proper/Content/Discussion

Differentiate between regionalization and globalization

Regionalism and globalization are two different concepts which are interrelated. Regionalism is the process

through which geographical regions become significant political and/or economic units serving as the basis for

cooperation and possibly identity whereas, Globalization is the interconnectedness and interdependence of states,

forming a process of international integration arising from the interchange of world views, products, ideas, and other

aspects of culture.

Benefit of Regionalism

According to ADB report (2008), the following are benefits of Asia from regionalism, namely:

1. link the competitive strengths of its diverse economies in order to boost their productivity and

sustain the region’s exceptional growth;

2. connect the region’s capital markets to enhance financial stability, reduce the cost of capital, and

improve opportunities for sharing risks;

3. cooperate in setting exchange rate and macroeconomic policies in order to minimize the effects of

global and regional shocks and to facilitate the resolution of global imbalances;

4. pool the region’s foreign exchange reserves to make more resources available for investment and

development;
 5. exercise leadership in global decision making to sustain the open global trade and financial

systems that have supported a half century of unparalleled economic development;

6. build connected infrastructure and collaborate on inclusive development to reduce inequalities

within and across economies and thus to strengthen support for pro-growth policies; and

7. create regional mechanisms to manage cross-border health, safety, and environmental issues

better.

Conversely, ADB (2008) further stated the benefits of the world to Asian regionalism are as follows:

1. generate productivity gains, new ideas, and competition that boost economic growth and

raise incomes across the world;

2. contribute to the efficiency and stability of global financial markets by making Asian capital

markets stronger and safer, and by maximizing the productive use of Asian savings;

3. diversify sources of global demand, helping to stabilize the world economy and diminish

the risks posed by global imbalances and downturns in other major economies;

4. provide leadership to help sustain open global trade and financial systems; and

5. create regional mechanisms to manage health, safety, and environmental issues better,

and thus contribute to more effective global solutions of these problems.

Characteristics of Regionalism

1. Local Identity. Strong local identity and a loyalty to the region. Politicians and many residents feel pride in

the local culture and its people. Politicians try to exploit that identity to gain supporters for their proposals.

They often claim that the regional interest should always come before the national interest. Moreover,

emphasizes local development and well-being, at times without considering other regions. Thus, the

supporters commonly argue that their region suffers unfair or discriminatory treatments from the national

government and that, by focusing on local issues, the region will do better, economically and socially.

Accordingly, if all regions do the same, the nation will benefit as a whole.

2. Autonomy. Greater autonomy is another characteristic and a priority of regionalism. It can be economic, in

the form of more power to administer economic resources and modify fiscal policies; it can also be political,
 with stronger local institutions and the ability to pass laws and enforce local policies. A regional political

party, however, is not automatically a form of regionalism. One group that only exists in a certain region

might promote local agendas without looking for greater regional autonomy. Thus, some regionalist

governments have tried to prevent people from other regions (although still nationals of the same country)

from benefiting from local programs. The scope of some of their policies includes only local residents and

tends to restrict access to other individuals.

Features of Regionalism

1. Regionalism is a psychic phenomenon.

2. It is built around as an expression of group identity, as well as loyalty to the region.

3. It presupposes the concept of development of one’s own region without taking into consideration the interest

of other region.

4. It prohibits people from other regions to be benefitted by a particular region.

Factors leading to a greater integration of the Asian region

1. Trade. The world economy is intertwined with each other whether we like it or not. We all want or need

something from another part of the world, and global trade facilitates that.

2. Similar Culture. The cultures of Asia is diverse but they do share many things. This makes it an easier fit

during times of negotiations.

3. Common Goals. The Asian region recognizes the mutual benefit of a slow integration. The territories

involved are not far from each other and the industriousness of its population can work as a powerful

negotiating block against those from other parts of the world.

 Activity 7

____________________________________________________________________________________________

Name: ________________________________________________________________Score: _________________

Course: _______________________________________________________________ Date: _________________

Regional Organization Matrix

Directions: Fill in the table below to show how regional organization was formed

Name of Asian
Organization/
Association

Important
People
(Founder)

Membership

Functions
References

Emerging Asian Regionalism: A Partnership for Shared Prosperity. (2008). Asian Development

Bank. Mandaluyong City.

He, B. & Inoguchi, T. (2011). Introduction to ideas of Asian Regionalism. Japanese Journal of

Political Science. Retrieved from https://www.research gate.net.

Nitisha. (2014). Regionalism: Definitions, Characteristics and Types of Regionalism. Retrieved

from http://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/society/indian-society/regionalism-definitions-characteristics-and-

types-of-regionalism/4735
Lesson 8: Intercontinental Drift: Culture, Media and Globalization

Objectives

1. Analyze how various media drive various forms of global integration.

2. Explain the dynamics between local and global cultural production.

Introduction

Globalization is “a process through which events, decisions, and activities in one part of the world can come to

have significant consequences for individuals and communities in quite distant parts of the globe.” Globalization creates

and avenue where the fraternization of cultures become possible despite the evident constraints due to geographical

segregation. Martin Khor, the former President of the Third World Networks in Malaysia, considers globalization as a

form of colonization. The fast paced import and export of products and services and of course the prevalence of social

media are some of the many obvious manifestations of this diffusion of cultures. Everywhere you turn, people are

always plugged in to the World Wide Web. A wide array of information is made available at the palm of our hands. With

a simple tap of the finger, the world opens up offering infinite possibilities. Globalization allows this penetration of one

culture into another culture and unknowingly, cultural exchange becomes a by-product of these progressions.

The Role of Social Media

Writers and academics alike consider the past, our history, as a proof that social interaction is vital to the

survival of mankind. Looking back we started from simple tribes to cities to what we now recognize as nation-states. In

each of these developmental phase, people establish social infrastructures manifested through community, government,
and mass media to mention a few. These institutions enable us to accomplish tasks we couldn’t do for ourselves, under

normal circumstances, such as protection from foreign invaders and promote peace amidst all the chaos happening all

around.

At the onset of globalization, globalists prophesized a world with permeable borders, connections unhindered

by physical difficulties. Coupled with technological innovations like satellites, the internet, computers, and mobile

cellular phones the intercontinental exchange of ideas, philosophies and advocacies has been intensified a hundred

folds. The predicted explosion of rapid interconnectedness of peoples around the world is now a booming reality.

Function

The understanding of the relation between media and globalization should not be restricted to the differences

of internet speed among countries; which country is the leading giant in technology production; or to the number of

views a worldwide movie premiere has. Being active users of media, it is also our duty to look into the effects of this

consumerist attitude to our cultural identity, ideology, and value systems. Aside from the evident “uneven” process of

media globalization occurring worldwide, which implies that its effects and consequences are not identically

experienced, globalists recognize a certain “power geometry” at work. Accordingly, it talks about the idea that some

groups are more in-command than others in terms of the proliferation of ideas and to an extent specific interests – a

dictator.

On the next section we will examine the impact of media in the cultural and ideological arena of a globalized

world as trends and influences cross the boundaries.

More than Cultural Imperialism: Contra-Flows and Hybridization

The rise and fall of the Roman Empire, to some historians, support the birth of the idea of cultural imperialism

but it did not appear on scholarly articles up until the 1960’s. Cultural imperialism as defined by anthropologists and

sociologists, as “the imposition by one usually politically or economically dominant community of various aspects of its

own culture onto another, nondominant community.” With the assistance from the different forms of mass media, it

created a steady influx of ideas which are usually western in nature, as argued by many reviews of globalization. It is

through media and advertising that people from all walks of life in the Philippines came to know products such as

IPhones, Nike, Starbucks, Samsung and other foreign merchandises.

 The global sphere is continuously being bombarded and affected with media messages carrying western

ideology to a point that, some would believe, intimidates the rest of the world’s native thoughts and philosophies. Being

rational creatures faced with the real threat of losing a nation’s identity due to cultural imperialism, several coping

mechanisms come into play. One of

these movements is dedicated toward

opposing the blind acceptance of foreign

cultures is called contra-flows and to

better understand this concept, let us

consider the case of the music industry.

Just recently, a Korean all-girls group known to many as MomoLand has taken the global music industry by storm.

Suddenly the Korean Popular Culture such as their music, hairstyle, fashion, food etc, emerged and it found itself

making a scene in the global arena. The usual trend was is to patronize western media, but with rising acts coming from

the east, it shows the capability of nations to challenge the dominant mainstream media.

Another alternative to cultural imperialism is known as cultural hybridity, hybridization, this perspective

highlights the interface of globalization and localization as traditions and other cultural forms diffuse with the

mainstream. This entails changing some of the aspects of mainstream culture to match the needs of locality. According

to research, the following are the key features of hybridization:

a. Mixing previously separate cultural systems, such as mixing elite art of opera with popular music;

b. Deterritorialization of cultural processes from their original physical environment to new foreign contexts and;

c. Impure cultural genres that are formed out of the mixture of several cultural domains.

But up to this point, the question that continues to baffle scholars is the extent of the role of media in the
propagation of transnational cultures. Provided that cultures have already come in contact through histories of trading,
warfare, and bondage aren’t cultures hybrid prior to the explosion of technology? Did media just amplify the already
existing process of cultural diffusion?

Activity 8

____________________________________________________________________________________________

Name: ________________________________________________________________Score: _________________

Course: _______________________________________________________________ Date: _________________
 Trending YouTube Sensation

Direction:

In class, form groups with 3-5 members each. Every group will be assigned to search for an act or artist that

became or is currently internationally trending and prominent. Students must download and present the video

of the act in class prior to their oral presentation. In their group report, they must answer the following guide

questions.

1. Where did the act/artist originate from?

_____________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________

2. In which countries did the act/ artist became well-known?

_____________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________

3. How did the act/ artist become popular?

_____________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________

4. Why do you think the act/ artist became famous?

_____________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________

References:
Caminiti, Kathryn. (2014, December 9). Global Flows. Media, Culture and Globalization. Retrieved from
http://mediacultureandglobalization.yolasite.com/ menu.php.

Globalization of Culture Through the Media. (2001). Encyclopedia.com. Retrieved from

https://www.encyclopedia.com/media/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/globalization-culture-through-
media.

Kaul, Vineet. (2011). Globalisation and Media. Journal of Mass Communication & Journalism. DOI: 10.4172/2165-
7912.1000105.
Media, Globalization, and Cultural Imperialism. (2015, March 17). Retrieved from
https://sites.psu.edu/comm411spring2015/2015/03/17/mediaglobalization-and-cultural-imperialism/.

Tobin, Theresa W. (2016, June 29) Cultural Imperialism. Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved from
https://www.britannica.com/topic/cultural-imperialism.

Zuckerberg, Mark. (2017, February 17). The Role of Social Media in the Contemporary World. The Global Policy.
Retrieved from http://www.globalpolicyjournal.com/blog/17/02/2017/role-social-media-contemporary-world.

Lesson 9: The Globalization of Religion

Objectives

1. Explain how globalization affects religious practices and beliefs.

2. Analyze the relationship between religion and global conflict, and conversely, global peace.

Introduction

Globalization denotes the chronological development by which all the world’s people gradually came to live in a

social unit. Throughout its early beginning as a phenomenon in the 1890’s, inadequate attention was given to religion as

an important driving force focusing entirely on the economic and technological facets. However, there is more to religion

than the restricted highlighting of Islamic political extremism which is basically the nearest, impartial and scant courtesy

provided in its study. In this chapter, we will look into two possibilities that religion and globalization presents to the

contemporary period. One of these possibilities emphasizes the role of religion in globalization and the other being the

effects of globalization to religion. In order to achieve this goal, especially the latter, it is paramount that we examine the

Secularization Theory and the views of several academicians in relation to religion and the advent of globalization.

Lesson Proper/ Content/ Discussion

Secularization: The Apocalypse of Religion

In the eighteenth century, many thinkers became unsatisfied with religious and theological explanation of

human actions that early social scientists were invigorated to theorize rational justifications for socially occurring

phenomena. The minds and awareness of the people are growing too big to simply accept the theological stage of

social advancement and it tenets. This kind of philosophy advocating the use or reason rather than relying on the
supernatural and religious order began, together with similar developments in other fields, gave birth to the Age of

Enlightenment.

In the succeeding years of the nineteenth century, sociologists and philosophers alike donned that the

emerging phenomenon known to many as globalization marks the beginning of religions’ forthcoming end declaring that

“it [religion] was a declining force in the world.” Moreover, they affirmed that with all the modernizing dynamism

occurring all over the place, religion as it is would become an unimportant element in people’s very lives and will

inevitably vanish from modern society. Prominent psychologists such as Sigmund Freud trained his student to view

religion as the “greatest of all neurotic illusions” and that its end would be upon the therapist’s couch. According to

Peter L. Burger, the core idea of secularization lies with the complete understanding that “Modernizations necessarily

leads to a decline of religion, both is society and the mind of individuals.” – the dawdling death of religion.

According to Rodney Stark in his Sociology of Religion, there are five features of the imminent death of religion

following the rise of globalization, these are as follows:

a. Modernizations is a causal engine dragging the gods into retirement;

b. Secularization theory not only predicted the end of religion in terms of religious institution as expressed

in the separation of church and state and the decline of authority of religious leaders, but also in the

sphere of individual piety and religiousness;

c. It is explicit that science has influenced mostly the death of religions in modern secular society;

d. Secularization is an unstoppable and irreversible social force;

e. Secularization as a process is not only limited to Christianity or Christendom, but also to other world
religions and the global world.

Current State of Religion in the Globalized Sphere

As previous chapters of this text stressed, the effects of globalization is farfetched, stretching beyond

boundaries, influencing the various aspects of humanity including religion and people’s belief. Scholars of the past

emphasized and supported the tenets of secularization, however they came across academicians who would argue

otherwise and that religion would still endure despite the odds that is globalization. An unlikely enthusiast of the latter
argument was Peter L. Berger who supported the claims of secularization as explained in the earlier. He withdrew his

support to secularization in 1968 stating that “by the 21st century, religious believers are likely to be found only in a small

sect, huddled together to resist a worldwide secular culture.”

It is good to note that processes of change involving religion and globalization has a mutual effect on one

another. This section of this chapter will focus on three religious responses to globalization.

1. Resurgence of religion in the Global Society

Dissimilar to what was prophesized by secularists, religion continues to as a significant factor influencing the

daily lives of people around the globe. Religion endures and persists – it is not a dying institution as some would believe.

Berger further disputes that in many parts of the world, “ people are as furiously religious as they ever were”. He

recognizes that although secularization movements are active in some parts of the world, other areas are not as

influenced by the movement. Religious communities and institutions have developed an adaptive strategy which

involves the modification of modern ideas and values in light of their own ideas. According to a research conducted in 44

countries in 2002, religion in the USA is regarded vital by 59 percent of the population. Similarly in the continent of

Africa, 8 out of ten respondents believe that religion holds a dynamic position in their daily lives.

2. Emergence of Religious Fundamentalism

Religious fundamental movements are regarded with three essential factors. First, it is strongly founded on

religious ideology, philosophy, goals, and leadership is grounded on religious beliefs and practices. Next,

fundamentalism serves as a stronghold against the invasive cultural dramatic changes brought about by globalization.

And lastly, it [fundamentalism] is a self-protective mechanism which seeks to preserve or reestablish former social order

and return to the traditional sources of religious authority. This is evident in the persistence, revival and rapid spreading

of Orthodox Judaism in Israel, Shinto in Japan, and Sikhism in India to mention a few that is occurring at a transnational

level. The aforementioned religions have varying theological basis, but what is certain that they have in common is that

they are heavily motivated by religious tenets and doctrines.

3. New Roles and Identities of Religion

Religion and globalization have always have a stake with regard to notions of struggle and conflict, one winning

triumph over the other is some instances. In the field of international politics, religion has been regarded as a new

source of clash between and among people with different and even similar beliefs. Some political movements rely

heavily on their religion, they use their religious ideologies to seek control and legitimize their political interest, which are

non-religious in nature. They weaponize religion, recruit members and use them to integrate and spread terror among

nations and instill fears into the hearts of many. People become used to hearing acts of terrorism overseas and come to

view it as a battle between faiths. In contrast, religious institutions have for several occasions establish peace among

countries at war in the modern secularized world. With the exaggeration of religion as a root cause of violence occurring

worldwide, the role of religion as a prime mover of peace is set aside. Interdenominational dialogue is another

manifestation religious reconciliation. The Vatican for one has successfully mediated conflicts in countries of North

America between Protestants and Catholic clergies. Religious association and faiths arouses communities and policy

makers to advocate and campaign for peace-related acts and dogmas Other religious perspective believe that religion

has a supreme role of influencing the creation of global positive ethics that will combat the negativities arising from

globalization like terrorism, marginalized humanity and environmental degradation.

Religion in this globalized arena therefore cannot be considered as a passive, apathetic by-stander patiently

awaiting it demise. It actively influences how far and how deep globalization infiltrates cultures and societies in the

global sphere. And throughout the process it too gets influenced and experience change as it adopts the unescapable

phenomenon called globalization.

 Activity 9

____________________________________________________________________________________________

Name: ________________________________________________________________Score: _________________

Course: _______________________________________________________________ Date: _________________

Directions:
Create a pie chart that will represent the distribution of religions practiced all over the world. You may use different
colors to show the different percentages allotted for each religion. Use the space provided below to indicate the
proportion of each religion included in your chart.

Religions of the World

Protestantism - ____ %

Guide Questions:
1. According to your research what religion has the greatest number of followers? Has the least?
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
2. In comparison to the major religious practices in the world, how different is the Philippines? How similar are
they? What could account for the similarities/differences?
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
References:

Brahm, Eric. (2005, November). Religion and Conflict. Beyond Intractability. Retrieved from
https://www.beyondintractability.org/essay/religion_and_conflict%20.
Globalization and Religion. (2005). Encyclopedia of Religion. Retrieved from
https://www.encyclopedia.com/environment/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/globalization-and-religion.
Impacts of Globalization on Religion. (2016, October 31). GKToday Current Affairs General Studies. Retrieved from
https://www.gktoday.in/gk/impacts-of-globalization-on-religion/.
Iqbal, Asep M. (2016, January). Varied Impacts of Globalization on Religion in a Contemporary Society. Religion, 6,
2088-6330. Retrieved from
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/315109111_Varied_Impacts_of_Globalization_on_Religion_in_a_Contemporar
y_Society.
Lesson Planning Ideas. (2013). Education Worlds: Connecting educators to what works. Retrieved from
https://www.educationworld.com/a_lesson/world-religions-multicultural-diversity.shtml.
Religion, Conflict and Globalization. https://www.rug.nl/masters/religion-conflict-and-globalization/.
Smock, David. Religion in World Affairs: It’s Role in Conflict and Peace. February 2008.
https://www.usip.org/pubs/specialreports/sr201.pdf

Snoey, Kenneth. (2018, June 01). What are the effects of globalization on religion? Quora. Retrieve from
https://www.quora.com/What-are-the-effects-of-globalization-on-religion.
Lesson 10: The Global City

Objectives

1. Identify the attributes of a global city.

2. Analyze how cities serve as engines of globalization.

Introduction

Images of trendsetters living the life, travelling from one well-known city to the next, tasting delicacies each has

to offer litter the internet and other social media sites. Some of you might have already visited some of these places.

Others may have relatives living in London and New York who send them items in balikbayan boxes offering a taste of

how they live in those areas. For some, these and other similar sights fuel their desire to partake in what life has to offer.

But have you once stopped and think of why people prefer some cities over the others to go to and visit and eventually

migrate into? What makes these top destinations appealing and to a degree important?

Lesson Proper/ Content/ Discussion

Prior to the existing competition among major cities of the world to reign supreme and be branded as the most

powerful, the study of global cities has its humble beginnings. It arose in the 1980’s when researchers concerned

themselves with identifying common attributes found among cities considered as front liners in development. Compared

to the rural areas of nation-states, cities are seen as the avenues where global networks and transactions transpire. It is

where financial cash flows of massive scales take place attracting companies and multi-national corporations to invest in

infrastructures and other business endeavors which in turn generate employment opportunities for their citizens. Other
individuals become attracted as well to migrate into these global cities because it comes with a promise of a better life

than that which they already have.

According to the Britannica Encyclopedia, a global city is an urban centre that enjoys significant competitive

advantages and that serves as a hub within a globalized economic system. The term was first used by a sociologists

named Saskia Sassen in 1884, she primarily used economics as the main criteria for determining which of the cities all

over the world is to be labeled as such. In her research in the said period, she was able to identity three cities

considered as centers of capitalism and global financial transactions: London, Tokyo and New York. In support to this

selection, Manuel Castells stated that:

“… London because it is the world's leading financial market as far as transactions are concerned and also constitutes a
crucial airport node and is one of the ends of the economic backbone that crosses Europe; New York for being the main
receiver of capital flows and service exporter; and Tokyo for being the greatest capital lender and the headquarters of
the most important banks in the world, as well as an international center in the economy of services, education,
advertising, and design.”

However, several changes have occurred since the time the term was coined. Such changes includes the

development of improved transportation, telecommunications, production, science, warfare, the internet, other

technological innovations, migration, cultural exchanges – all of which were not included as criterions in determining

global cities. The fact is the world today is characterized mainly of unrelenting progress in numerous aspects of human

life. This basically makes it difficult to have just one definition of what a global city is. So in going about this endeavor of

determining which city or cities belong to the cluster of global cities let us examine some its indicators.

Sassen is not mistaken for considering economics as a major determining factor of a global city as this

primarily becomes the most appealing feature that attracts people from all walks of life to move in.

The then list of characteristics and attributes that made a city a forerunner in the global scene has transformed

and within it included other criterion such as the occurrence of an international population based. Global cities now

become melting pots of international culture and cuisine. In the image below, a Mongolian BBQ shop is cozily located in

the heart of Dublin. This and other similar establishments offering foreign products are a familiar scene for a vast

majority. As explained in previous chapters, this is made possible because of globalization.

 Global cities are also has the greatest number of business infrastructures housing international organizations,

and businesses alike. They undoubtedly become seats of power where political, economic, cultural and religious

engagements are overseen. To make this characteristic more clearly, let us consider the United Nations, a powerful

organization capable of providing international humanitarian aids to countries in need. Its headquarters is strategically

located in New York. As with London who has advantageously positioned itself as a global banking and financial centre.

They are also centers of innovation and higher learning. Global cities boasts having the world’s top universities like

Boston’s Harvard University and Cambridge University in England. These and several other features make up the

characteristics of what a global city must have.

Challenges to Global Cities

By this time, you might have an idea of what a global city is and so we move to the next challenge of carefully

examining the challenges that comes with the rise of global cities.

The first of these challenges is bnot all who migrates to cities are rewarded for many end up contributing to the

slum populace. Globalization creates a rush of high paying jobs within global cities creating a chain reaction demanding

low income employment to attend to their growing needs. These low income jobs comprise of domestic helpers, maids,

cooks, food attendants. Thus implying that flocking to global cities doesn’t necessarily mean a good life for everyone.

With the significant rise in the population, several other issues spring out which leads us to the next challenge

which is food and water shortage. Researches reveals that 2.5 billion individuals have no access to clean water and

sanitation. Many people still go hungry as food is unevenly distributed all over the world bringing into question global

food security food security.

 Lastly, the problem about climate change and rising temperatures. Cities are considered as the greatest

contributor of greenhouse gas emissions and climate change affects more people than others for some are more

equipped to handle the effects of climate change.

 Activity 10

____________________________________________________________________________________________

Name: ________________________________________________________________Score: _________________

Course: _______________________________________________________________ Date: _________________

Tara Na Biyahe Tayo!

Direction:

In class, students will form groups with 5-7 members each. Every group will be assigned a global city to

discuss and research on. They shall present an imagined group educational tour in the global city showing pictures of

the places they “visited” in the fictional tour. Their reports should include answers to the following guide questions:

1. How would you describe your city?

_______________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________

2. What is your city best known for?

________________________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________________________

3. What makes your city a global city?

________________________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________________________

4. What are the challenge/s these cities are facing?

________________________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________________________
References:

BLOG FCC. (2017). The millennium challenges: What challenges are the cities facing? Retrieved from
http://www.blogfcc.com/en/what-challenges-are-facing-the-cities-of-the-future/. Date accessed April 12, 2019.

Charnock, Greig. Global city. (2013). Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved from https://www.britannica.com/topic/global-
city. Date accessed April 12, 2019.

Kiprop, Victor. (2017). What Is A Global City? World Atlas. Retrieved from https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/what-is-a-
global-city.html. Date accessed April 12, 2019.

Sadler, Stephanie. (2014). What makes a Global City? The Global Educational Network. Retrieved from
https://capaworld.capa.org/2014/03/12/makes-global-city. Date accessed April 12, 2019.

Sassen, Saskia. Global City: Introducing a Concept. Retrieved from https://www.bbvaopenmind.com/en/articles/the-

global-city-introducing-a-concept/. Date accessed April 12, 2019.

The New Challenges of Global Cities. (2018). Barcelona Centre for International Affairs. Retrieved from
https://www.cidob.org/en/events/issues/global_cities/the_new_challenges_of_global_cities. Date accessed April 12,
2019.
Lesson 11: Global Demography

Objective

1. Explain demographic transition as it affects global population.

Introduction

The UNICEF estimates the all around the world, an estimate of 353,000 babies are born each year. That’s an

approximate of 4.3 babies being born in every second. Ten years from now, you might be contributing to the world’s

increasing population yourself. You may have started your own family of procreation and even built a private townhouse.

Future plans that may further fuel your desire to do well in school and earn a degree or two. Married couples in several

highly developed countries opt to have one or two children as they focus most of their energy saving money to provide

for their kids need. Having less number of children would ensure that most, if not, all of their needs are satisfactorily met.

An ideal number to progenies may have also come into your mind as prices of basic commodities seem to increase

steadily for the past years. Demography, basically looks into the different elements of population like size, mortality

rates, income, incidence of diseases, and fertility rates for these have a direct relationship with the quality of the

society’s complex makeup. Are there consequences if global demography is not checked and controlled? Is having a

majority of old population beneficial for the society? Is an increased influx of migrants a sign of a booming economy?

These are but a few of the questions that we intend to shed light on with this chapter.

Lesson Proper/ Content/ Discussion

History of man is speckled with stories of people migrating from one place to the next either in search for food,

escape raiders, conquest or for pleasure. Possibly in this point in your life, some of you may have plans of pursuing a
career abroad attracted by the sights and sounds of the city life. Perhaps, you may have lured by friends and families

who have successfully rooted themselves in a foreign land. Such is the nature of man – to be mobile. Demography is

the study of population based on elements like age, race and sex. With the migration and unrestrained increase in the

population, the natural order of things gets upset, and changes have to be made in order to offset these imbalances. For

example, if people flock to the cities, more food, basic commodities and employment are required to accommodate

these migrants. If the growing population is kept underfed, undernourished afflicted with sickness, the future manpower

of the society may not be as effective. Lawmakers and policy makers alike consider the demography of their nation

when drafting bills, acts and ordinances to be executed for the maximum benefit of the people.

Countries all over the world experience the entry of foreigners at an unprecedented rate. Surveys show that

more than 160 million individuals live out of their country of origin. Factors accounting for this transition can range from

simple employment opportunities to flight from human rights abuses and political repression. Motivations for migration

have been categorized into either the Push Factor or Pull Factors.

Push Factor

Survival for themselves, or for their family, is one of most obvious motives which explain migration. Escape

either from man-made disasters, civil war and decline of economic opportunities threatening them of starvation can be

prime motivators. They leave their land in order to secure safety for themselves because their communities can no

longer sustain life for its people.

To put it simply, push factors refers to causes that drive droves of people to abandon their residences.

Pull Factor

In highly industrialized countries, fertility levels still continue to decline posing a possible collapse in the

population in the times to come. European countries suffer an aging population meaning fewer people are able to work

given the circumstances. Immigration, or the movement of people in the country, may help ease the labor deficiency but

not enough to solution this persistent problem. Nonetheless, it serves as a gateway for employment seekers to benefit

from it.
 In the contrary, continents like Africa and parts of Asia with high fertility rates create rapidly emerging

communities unable to cope with the demands of the population like employment, health services, and education.

People opt to leave these densely populated areas and take their chances elsewhere.

Global Demographic Issues

The following are listed as the leading global demographic issues facing the world today. They become

problems because they are the outright consequence of globalization and uncontrolled economic growth and decline.

a. Uneven population growth worldwide.

Because of the lack of population growth control mechanisms, education and freedom to decide for

themselves, some developing countries’ population like Niger and Tanzania tend to grow at an alarming rate. Africa has

one of the highest incidents of birth rates with an average of 6.49 children per mother. It has been projected that Africa’s

overall population would have exceeded Europe’s in 2050.

Many of developing countries in Asia rely on agriculture, as the major driving force of the economy thus having

more number of children is necessary to maintain farm operation. On the contrary, residents of high income and

developed countries tend to limit their progenies to one or two. Aside from the abundant supply and selection of birth

control methods, parents in this part of the world tend to focus their attention to saving enough money for future needs

such as medical expenses, insurances, matriculation and retirement funds to mention a few. Meaning having more than

two children can become too expensive.

To put it simply, there is a converse relationship between the economic level of a country and its population.

In poor countries, birth rates lean towards being high whilst in rich countries, birth rates tend to decline. Though some

policy makers put forward solutions like one child policy, legalization of abortion and other sterilization process to

restrain population, differences in belief and cultural practices make it impossible to come up with a single answer.

b. Demographic Pressures on the Environment.

Demographers and researches alike agree in saying that the existing and still growing number of people in the

world surpasses the maximum number of inhabitants that the planet can actually sustain. Naturally, people need

resources in order to survive. Resources that only nature and the environment could provide. Man, millennia’s ago
discovered agriculture which enabled him to exploit the land towards his own benefit. Being able to produce food for

himself eventually resulted to the increase in population. Nowadays, technology even furthered such developments in

agriculture including livestock raising, creating a variety of produce, increasing the yield and producing food for

consumption. However, nature has its limits and over exploiting it can have catastrophic consequences. With the

substantial use of fertilizers and other detrimental chemicals with the goal of increasing food production, land and water

resources becomes polluted giving rise to a great number of global concerns. Nature is unable to heal herself because

of the relentless desire of man to satisfy his needs and wants.

c. Slum Urbanization

Whilst globalization stirs the flow of financial capital generating income and wealth, not all individuals are given

a fair share in these riches. Wealth tends to accumulate on the upper strata of the social hierarchy benefiting a specific

social class of the society making upward mobility impossible and widening the gap of social inequality. So what

happens when people move into cities and they don’t find jobs to support themselves, they become an addition the

people living in slum areas. These shantytown are a common sight in areas like Manila, and places in India.

d. Spread of Diseases

Generation and spread of Diseases and other terminal illnesses, like HIV/AIDS, also hasten keeping pace with

globalization. However, international aids and programs have been organized in order to extend help and contain the

further circulate and create an epidemic.

 Activity 11

____________________________________________________________________________________________

Name: ________________________________________________________________Score: _________________

Course: _______________________________________________________________ Date: _________________

Population Roller Coaster

Direction:
After watching the video entitled Population Growth from http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=b98JmQ0Cc3k. Divide

the students into pairs to debate the final premise of the video: as the population increases the value of life decreases.

Students should take a pro/con perspective. Students should be assigned either a “pro” or “con” perspective. The

student is to write down below his/her arguments.

“The population increases the value of life decreases”

_______________________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________________
References
Author: S. Amer Ahmed. 2015. How are global demographics changing? Retrieved from
https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2015/10/how-are-global-demographics-changing/. Date accessed April 09, 2019.
Demographics. Planetary Project Serving Humanity. Retrieved from
http://planetaryproject.com/global_problems/demografy/. Date accessed April 12, 2019.
Essays, UK. (November 2018). Effects of Globalization on Migration. Retrieved from
https://www.ukessays.com/essays/cultural-studies/migration-in-the-era-of-globalization-cultural-studies-essay.php?
vref=1. Date accessed April 12, 2019.
Kenton, Will. Demographics. Investopedia. Updated August 02, 2018. Retrieved from
https://www.investopedia.com/terms/d/demographics.asp. Date accessed April 12, 2019.
La Croix, Sumner J., Mason, Andrew, and Abe, Shigeyuki. POPULATION AND GLOBALIZATION. Retrieved from
https://www.eastwestcenter.org/publications/population-and-globalization. Date accessed March 29, 2019.
Lopez-Car, David, & Clark, Matthew. The Impact of Economic Globalization on Human Demography, Land Use, and
Natural Systems in Latin America and the Caribbean. Retrieved from http://chans-net.org/projects. Date accessed April
12, 2019.
Lesson 12: Global Migration

Objectives

At the end of the lesson, the students will be able to:

1. Demonstrate an understanding of the global migration;

2. Discuss the causes and effects of global migration
3. Analyze the political, economic, cultural, and social factors underlying the global movements of people
4. Display first-hand knowledge of the experiences of OFWs

Introduction

This lesson will discuss about the impact of global migration in each country as well as its causes and effects. The
lesson will emphasize that global migration has always been and will be forever part of globalization. That there is
nothing wrong nor evil of it, but it will however give us a clearer picture of the phenomena and will give us a better
understanding of its occurrence and effects.

Migration defined

Migration means crossing the boundary of a political or administrative unit for a certain minimum period (Boyle et al.
1998, chapter 2). It is classified as either internal migration which refers to a move from one area (a province, district or
municipality) to another within one country or International migration which means crossing the frontiers which separate
one of the world’s approximately 200 states from another. Many scholars argue that internal and international migration
are part of the same process, and should be analyzed together (Skeldon 1997, 9–10).
Migration is thus both a result and a cause of development. Development leads to migration, because economic and
educational improvements make people capable of seeking better opportunities elsewhere. It simply means that people
from different walks of life, either for purposes of business opportunities, family affairs or even unwanted reasons, are
experiencing migration as agents of cultural or political change. As history will tell us, migration has already been a
practice ever since the world began.

One of the reason of migration is disparity in levels of income, employment and social well-being between differing
areas. With a family to feed or a responsibility to earn, the individual is keen to exert the effort to look for better jobs with
better pay. Thus in his search for a greener pasture, he becomes motivated to relocated himself whatever it might cause
him. In his search, he will find himself in a certain neighborhood that has been the center of immigrant settlement, with
significant business openings, services and convenience which are not usually found in their place of origin.
Significantly, these new place houses everything, from the places of worship, ethic groupings and socio cultural
linkages, thus no new immigrant is left out because he can easily blend in. A new perspectives set in where women are
likewise given the same opportunities as that of men thus female migration is accommodated as they moved in
independently or as heads of households.

For better understanding, the migrants come now with different criterion. (Stephen Castles, 2000)

1. Temporary labor migrants- they are popularly known as overseas contract workers who migrate for a limited period in
order to work and send remittances to their families left at home.
2. Highly skilled and business migrants- they are the people with special skills and qualification who seek employment
through international labor markets for scarce skills.
3. Irregular migrants (also known as undocumented or illegal migrants): people who enter a country, usually in search of
employment, without the necessary documents and permits.
4. Refugees- is a person residing outside his or her country of nationality, who is unable or unwilling to return because of
a ‘well-founded fear of persecution on account of race, religion, nationality, membership in a particular social group, or
political opinion’ (1951 United Nations Convention relating to the Status of Refugees)
5. Asylum-seekers -people who move across borders in search of protection
6. Forced migration - this includes not only refugees and asylum-seekers but also people forced to move by
environmental catastrophes or development projects.
7. Family members (also known as family reunion or family reunification migrants)- migration to join people who have
already entered an immigration country under one of the above categories.
8. Return migrants: people who return to their countries of origin after a period in another country.

Migration may assist or hinders development

Remittances is considered one of the many massive contributions to the national accounts of many emigration
countries. Through the money that they are sending, the government earns a bulk that helps finance the development
investment of the country. Emigrants are given the opportunity to travel aboard and to be able to learn other people’s
culture, history and environment. They became adaptive with the place where they are in and were able to obtain
additional knowledge and insights which cannot be learn thru books but only by interactions. Countries are mandated to
observe international cooperation to help ensure orderly migration and to heighten the involvement of migration to
development.
One on the main disadvantage brought by migration is the “brain drain”. Brain drain is a problem for many poor
countries losing skilled workers to richer countries. The most skilled and most talented workers of a certain less
developed country are bound to look for better job opportunities or employment in a developed countries considering
work guarantee and better lives conditions for himself and that of his family. However, the country where he came from
is to settle with those who are left as its workforce but cannot do anything because it has no remedy to the situation. It is
to add further that the regulation of emigration from less-developed countries is often ineffective thus allows exploitative
employment and abuses. Many of the emigrants has stories to tell when it deals with abuses, cruelty and violence.
Crimes like women and children trafficking, smuggling, drug related cases and other forms of crimes are being charged
to them or they became victims of such. For these reasons, the government must create and have strong teeth for its
implementations of policies and laws that prevent abuses or exploitation of their citizens while they are abroad. If the
government will be able to implement the policies and laws, it will guarantee the safety and well-being of its citizens. In
addition to these, the government must provide assistance in cases of death, illness, accidents and other similar cases
of same nature to its citizens. It is in a way to show the gratitude of the government as to the help these emigrants are
doing for the economic growth of the country. Many of the emigrants who finds good paying employment abroad still
wishes to come home to be with their families. The money acquired or have been saved from work abroad is used as an
investment for a new business or enterprise. However, many countries do not have policies to assist returning migrants
to start anew in their own country. Usually, they are left on their own on how to manage their own affairs. Some become
successful but majority suffers from a major setback. They will settle in finding a job but face difficulty in finding a job
that commensurate with the skills they have acquired abroad. Thus will eventually decide to go back abroad and leave
their families again. To avoid such chain, the government should institutionalize a plan of action that will benefit the
returning emigrants, for them to be given better options in staying in their country than going back abroad.
 Activity 12

____________________________________________________________________________________________

Name: ________________________________________________________________Score: _________________

Course: _______________________________________________________________ Date: _________________

OFW Interview

To watch a documentary about life of an OFW:

Each student will be asked to interview a former or a current OFW (face-to-face or online). In class they will share what
they learned from these interviews about transnationalism and the factors that affect global migrations. Their interview
should answer the following questions.

1. State the reason/s why the OFW decided to leave the country
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
2. What are the problems encountered in the country they went to?
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
3. What are the benefits they obtained in the country they went to?
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
4. What are the significant differences as well as the similarities with the country they went to and our country?
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
5. If they are given the choice, would they still leave the country? Why and why not?
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
References
Stephen Castles. International migration at the beginning of the twenty-first century: global trends and issues

UNESCO 2000. ISSJ 165/2000 Ó UNESCO 2000. Published by Blackwell Publishers, 108 Cowley Road, Oxford OX4
1JF, UK and 350 Main Street, Malden, MA 02148, USA.

Manfred Steger, et.al. The SAGE Handbook of Globalization. Two volumes. Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publications.
Lesson 13: Sustainable Development

Objectives

At the end of the lesson, the students will be able to:

1. Differentiate stability from sustainability

2. Articulate models of global sustainable development

Introduction
The lesson will discuss on the different goals to obtain sustained development which is a mandate to all member
states to be attained by 2030. Sustainable development may simply means search for progress in quality of life,
development of services, enough provision of supply and goods. However, a sustained development may be
reach only if there is permanence to its status of development but with no unmanageable economic movement,
high inflation and most importantly the destruction of our environment that causes climate change and similar
catastrophes.

Stability from Sustainability

The International Monetary Fund (IMF) describes stability as “avoiding large swings in economic activity, high
inflation, and excessive volatility in exchange rates and financial markets. This definition refers to the indexes,
which describe the economy in short-term categories. That excessive highs and lows should be avoided. Extreme
bubbles of economic activity must be calmed down before they burst.

Sustainable development has been defined in many ways, but the most frequently quoted definition is from Our
Common Future , also known as the Brundtland Report: "Sustainable development is development that meets the
needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs."
The Brundtland Report (World Commission on Environment and Development, 1987) was prepared for the United
Nations in 1987. In other words, it is about responsible use of resources.

We have now reach the time where we are no longer free to expand and exploit resources. It is no longer an
earth which can deliver unlimited goods and can adopt unlimited pollution. We could no longer enjoy the
unchanged patterns of consumption. Nowadays, the food production, domestic policy and energy policy
alongside problems on environmental issues is in an alarming state.

The solution was found in increased productivity of agriculture to guarantee food production and consumption.
The strong countries take responsibility and established themselves as powerful factors in domestic and energy
policy, and take global actions against climate change. But their effectiveness is not very high, among them
particularly are the developing economies. The rich countries can always shift its unclean production abroad to
other, usually poorer countries without sacrificing their usual mode of enjoyment and consumption of goods and
services.

Sustainability has now been a major problem not only by the developing countries but even by the developed
countries. The issue now is how to come up with solutions that will guarantee sustainability and stability.

Sebastian Plóciennik state the solutions might be depending on the kind of economic governance implemented.
However, it must take into considerations the following: Firstly, the issue of what is an “efficient market” needs some
new clarification. Secondly, we must accept the fact that there might be different institutional ways to efficient economic
systems, but it does not necessarily mean that some of them are a priori more efficient, stable and better for
sustainability, than the others. Thirdly, a redesign needs a wider look at what is economic growth and what kind of
growth is compatible with the idea of sustainability. He stated further that “Markets are the most substantial,
constructional element of economies. However, nowadays we are dealing with biases which make understanding their
functioning puzzling. As a consequence, there are difficulties with efficient economic policy and, obviously with providing
stability and sustainability”.

Sustainability is the foundation for today’s leading global framework for international cooperation – the 2030 Agenda for
Sustainable Development and its Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).
Each of the 17 SDGs has specific targets to be achieved by 2030. The goals and targets are universal,
meaning they apply to all countries around the world, not just poor countries. Reaching the goals requires action on all
fronts – governments, businesses, civil society and people everywhere all have a role to play. Sustainable development
is an approach to economic planning that attempts to foster economic growth while preserving the quality of the
environment for future generations. Despite its enormous popularity in the last two decades of the 20th century, the
concept of sustainable development proved difficult to apply in many cases, primarily because the results of long-
term sustainability analyses depend on the particular resources focused upon.
 The Sustainable Development Goals are the blueprint to achieve a better and more sustainable future for all.
They address the global challenges we face, including those related to poverty, inequality, climate, environmental
degradation, prosperity, and peace and justice. The Goals interconnect and in order to leave no one behind, it is
important that we achieve each Goal and target by 2030.

Transforming our world: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development Preamble

This Agenda is a plan of action for people, planet and prosperity. It also seeks to strengthen universal peace in larger

freedom. We recognize that eradicating poverty in all its forms and dimensions, including extreme poverty, is the

greatest

global challenge and an indispensable requirement for sustainable development. All countries and all stakeholders,

acting in collaborative partnership, will implement this plan. We are resolved to free the human race from the tyranny of

poverty and want and to heal and secure our planet. We are determined to take the bold and transformative steps which

are urgently needed to shift the world on to a sustainable and resilient path. As we embark on this collective journey, we

pledge that no one will be left behind.

The 17 Sustainable Development Goals and 169 targets which we are announcing today demonstrate the scale and

ambition of this new universal Agenda. They seek to build on the Millennium Development Goals and complete what

they

did not achieve. They seek to realize the human rights of all and to achieve gender equality and the empowerment of all

women and girls. They are integrated and indivisible and balance the three dimensions of sustainable development: the

economic, social and environmental. The Goals and targets will stimulate action over the next 15 years in areas of

critical importance for humanity and the planet.

17 Sustainable Development Goals

Goal 1. End Poverty
Economic growth must be inclusive to provide sustainable jobs and promote equality.
Goal 2. Zero Hunger
The food and agriculture sector offers key solutions for development, and is central for hunger and poverty eradication.
Goal 3. Good Health and Well-Being
Ensuring healthy lives and promoting the well-being for all at all ages is essential to sustainable development.
Goal 4. Quality Education
Obtaining a quality education is the foundation to improving people’s lives and sustainable development.
Goal 5: Gender Equality
Gender equality is not only a fundamental human right, but a necessary foundation for a peaceful, prosperous and
sustainable world.
Goal 6: Clean Water and Sanitation
Clean, accessible water for all is an essential part of the world we want to live in.
Goal 7: Affordable and Clean Energy
Goal 8: Decent Work and Economic Growth
Goal 9: Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure
Goal 10: Reduce Inequalities
Goal 11: Sustainable Cities and Communities
Goal 12: Responsible Consumption and Production
Goal 13: Climate Action
Goal 14: Life Below Water
Goal 15: Life on Land
Goal 16: Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions
Goal 17: Partnerships with the Goals
Poverty is more than the lack of income and resources to ensure a sustainable livelihood. Its manifestations include
hunger and malnutrition, limited access to education and other basic services, social discrimination and exclusion as
well as the lack of participation in decision-making. Economic growth must be inclusive to provide sustainable jobs and
promote equality.
It is time to rethink how we grow, share and consume our food.
If done right, agriculture, forestry and fisheries can provide nutritious food for all and generate decent incomes, while
supporting people-centered rural development and protecting the environment.

Right now, our soils, freshwater, oceans, forests and biodiversity are being rapidly degraded. Climate change is putting
even more pressure on the resources we depend on, increasing risks associated with disasters such as droughts and
floods. Many rural women and men can no longer make ends meet on their land, forcing them to migrate to cities in
search of opportunities.

A profound change of the global food and agriculture system is needed if we are to nourish today’s 795 million hungry
and the additional 2 billion people expected by 2050.

Activity 13

____________________________________________________________________________________________

Name: ________________________________________________________________Score: _________________

Course: _______________________________________________________________ Date: _________________

Blog Making
The class will be divided into groups. Each group will have to create their blog with a topic pertaining to the 17
Sustainable Development Goals. Each blog with be presented in class. After the presentation, each student will have an
individual reflection paper as to the lesson or value he has obtained in watching the different blogs created by the class.

My Reflection
(Sustainable Development Goals)
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References
Chapter 48 of textbook: “Sustainable Economic Systems” by Sebastian Plóciennik

United Nations homepage

http://www.un-documents.net/our-common-future.pdf
http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/sustainable-development.html
International Monetary Fund, 2012
Lesson 14: Global Food Security

Objectives

1. Define global food security and its elements.

2. Analyze how climate change and other factors distresses global food security.

Introduction
 According to the website of World Population Projections, the planet’s occupants would have reached 7,714,

576,923 by the year 2019. With an estimated 1.07% growth in population from 2018, another grave issue is threatening

the human populace – hunger. In the Philippines, news about price increases in basic food commodity is plaguing the

nation affecting each and every one of its inhabitants. Images of how common Filipinos folks make ends meet are

frequent topics covered by the media and flashed in our daily television screens. The pagpag phenomenon, wherein a

number of extremely poor groups “recycle” food scraps and use it for personal consumption or for enterprise is part of

these marginalized groups’ lives. For many, this kind of lifestyle seems to be unbearable, but for some it is a reality.

According to the Food and Agriculture Organization, “food security exists when all people, at all times, have

physical and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food to meet their dietary needs and food preferences for

an active and healthy life.” Basing on FAO’s definition, food security is not only about filling the stomach with food, but

an important element of it involves having nutritionally adequate and safe foods. Consequently, researches conducted

by the State of Food Security in the World reveals that Asia has the largest number of people growing hungry each day.

In keeping with the Malthusian principle, the steady growth of global population challenges world leaders and scientists

alike on how to produce solutions to meeting human food and nutritional needs while sustaining the finite resources of

the world.

In this chapter we will look into the different facets of global food security, how different organizations work

together and address this issue on a world wide scale.

Lesson Proper/ Content/ Discussion

The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) states that household food security occurs when all of the

members of the unit have access to enough food for an active and healthy lifestyle. This entails that nutritionally

acceptable and safe foods are readily made available and acquiring these are made through socially accepted methods

and not attained through food scavenging, stealing and the likes. To put it simply, a family is food secure when they are

able to pay for and obtain nutritious foods hence they do not have to live in fear of starvation and hunger. The definition

strongly urges people to shy away from the consumption of emergency food supplies such as instant noodles unless

totally deemed necessary like during calamities and other natural disasters.
 A number of researches spearheaded by international food insecurity organizations shows that statistically

speaking, almost 900 million people all over the globe do not have enough to eat meaning one in every four people

experience hunger and starvation. With the growing number of people experiencing food insecurity, this matter is no

longer deemed as a developed-developing world issue – it is everyone’s concern. We are all affected.

Elements of Food Security

In accordance with the recommendation of the World Health Organization, there are three important elements

involved in food security. The first aspect is about the availability of food, this element demands having adequate supply

of quality food on a steady and reliable basis. Moreover, this component concerns itself with providing measures and

procedures to ensure a continuous and undisrupted food supply in spite of risk factors involving war, drought, economic

instability, and disease outbreaks involving both livestock and crop production. These foods can be made available

through domestic production or importation from foreign land which is usually resorted to by communities incapable of

producing their own supply due to several constraints like lack of fertile soil, climate disruption and inadequacy of man

power to engage in agricultural labor. Further collaborations of food security agencies also included an additional

parameter in this element. They strongly propose that the people are given a wide selection or options of healthy and

safe foods to choose from. And by doing so, both the peoples’ dietary needs and food preferences are satisfactorily met.

Studies show that there is a direct relationship between poverty and food insecurity. This bring us to the

second aspect of food security which is access to food. In a highly commercialized world, almost every commodity

comes with a price tag separating the population between the haves and have-nots. To become food secure means

having enough resources to enable families to obtain proper foods leading to a healthy diet. Family units with enough

financial stability and resources stay clear of the threat to poverty guaranteeing their access to available food in the

market. Poor families however often become the victims of habitual hunger and are considered as the most vulnerable

group during food scarcity and famine. Factors contributing financial constraints resulting to inadequate access to food

may include unemployment, underemployment, or lack of income generating opportunities. It is such an intermingling of

several factors that no single remedy is enough to solution this problem.

 When financial resources isn’t enough to access nutritious food required for a healthy lifestyle, the tendency is

for people to cut costs and opt for a less nutritive selection of food such as instant noodles, canned sardines to get them

by for a day. A very familiar scenario that is common to many Filipinos struggling to feed members of their household

with a limited budget. This now leads us to the third aspect of food security which is food utilization, safety and

sanitation. Food utilization signifies the proper use of food taking into consideration the body’s needed vitamins and

minerals. Nutrition education increases the awareness of the people with regards to the proper selection of food items to

be included in the daily meal plan. Alongside this, access to sanitation and safe water supply is required in the

preparation of a hearty and nutritious meal for the family. Contaminated water and neglect for safe practices in the

prepping of food leads to gastrointestinal infections, diseases and in some cases food poisoning. Consuming less

nutritious and unsafe food items become a part of everyday living for many, they unknowingly put their health at risk of

contracting diseases such as high blood pressure, cancer and diabetes to mention a few.

However, with the growing awareness and realization that the worlds’ resources is finite and milking it dry to

the bones will be detrimental for our race, another aspect of food security comes into play. This element looks into the

element of environmental stability which basically concerns itself with the status of our ecology. Pressures are rising all

over the world as finite resources become smaller by the hour posing problems to the production of food. Ultimately, it

boils down to measures being planned and implemented by the international organizations to mitigate the causes and

effects of pollution, climate change and overpopulation to our food supply.

Challenges to Global Food Security

Global Food Security is a huge problem that concerns each and every one of us. Today, we might be confident

that we won’t get affected by food shortages experienced by other countries. But who knows? Nowadays, anything is

possible. The most unthinkable circumstances are quickly becoming part of our reality. Food availability is not exempted

from among these possibilities. In a results in a study conducted in 2013 by the FAO, reveals that Sub-Saharan Africa

has the largest prevalence of hungry people. Another study made by the WHO in 2012 shows that one in every six

children is suffering from malnutrition and are underweight. These are but a few of the numerous contemporary issues

plaguing the world today. In this section, we will look into some of the factors that contribute largely to issues pertaining

to world hunger and food insecurity.

A. Global Water Crisis

With the demand for clean and safe water growing rapidly each day, water table reserves are drying out in

countries such as Northern China, parts of USA, and India caused by over irrigation and over-pumping. Several

underwater reserves, and bodies of water are also subject to undergoing massive pollution brought about by

irresponsible chemical waste disposals of factories and other manufacturing agencies.

B. Climate Change

The frequent changes in climate patterns and remarkable increases in temperatures tend to have a

catastrophic effect on the harvested crops, supplementary land and water resources. Miles and miles of fertile land are

now barren incapable of sustaining produce decreasing food supply that could be distributed to feed the population.

Typhoons and similar catastrophes flood rice fields washing away most of the crops and rendering them inedible for the

human populace. Extreme changes in temperature results to massive fish kills affecting the harvest of fisher folks.

Poultry, seafood, and other forms of livestock cannot escape the crutches of drought caused by climate change – again

reducing food availability for the people. Food supplies move at a downward spiral motion but the demand for it

continues to rise.

C. Land Degradation

Innovation, ingenuity, and the advent of technology gave birth to a lot of proposed solutions to bridge the

widening gap between the supply and demand of food. Intensive farming modernization processes promising high yields

became the new trend for food production. But as with anything else, success comes with a price. Fertile lands become

exhausted because of an unending cycle of production. The use of gallons after gallons of chemical pesticides poison

the land while making the crops dependent on the former. Mankind has mastered the art of exploiting the land for

maximum profit without talk a step back and asking themselves what is the true cost for all these advancements.

D. Greedy Land Deals

Corporations purchase millions of acres of agricultural lands and convert them into commercial establishments

such as shopping malls, gasoline stations, and fast food restaurants. Agrarian lots allocated for food production are
replaced with concrete structures rendering farmers powerless to use the land for its original purpose. Urbanization is an

impossible force to slow down targeting farm and pastoral lands alike.

Activity 14

____________________________________________________________________________________________

Name: ________________________________________________________________Score: _________________

Course: _______________________________________________________________ Date: _________________

Direction:
Each student will be tasked to survey 2 families with different demographic backgrounds about how they

manage and carefully plan their meals for a week. Family A should comprise of a father, mother and 2 children while

Family B should comprise of a father, mother and 5 or more children.

In accomplishing the ordeal, students will be using the given meal plan format below.
 BREAKFAST SNACK LUNCH DINNER SNACK

Sunday

Monday

Tuesday

Wednesday

Thursday

Friday

Saturday

Number of Family Members: ___________

Estimated Monthly Income: ________________
Allocated Meal Budget for the week: ______________
Guide Questions.

1. Which of these statements best describes the food eaten in both households? Why/
a. enough of the kinds of foods we want to eat.
b. enough but not always the kinds of food we want to eat.
c. Sometimes not enough to eat.
d. Often not enough to eat.
Family A: ______________________________________________________________________________________
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Family B: _______________________________________________________________________________________

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2. What are the types of food that is generously consumes by the two families? What are the similarities and differences

that you have observed?

Family A: _______________________________________________________________________________________
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Family B: _______________________________________________________________________________________

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3. What are the coping mechanisms made by the families when they are running out of money for food in order to make

their food go further?

Family A: _______________________________________________________________________________________
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Family B: _______________________________________________________________________________________

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4. Based on your interview, is there a direct link between poverty and food security.

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References

Igoe, Michael. (2014). Global Food Security: Why it affects us all. Retrieved from https://www.devrex.com. Date
accessed March 12, 2019.
Global Food Security. Retrieved from https://www.journals.elsevier.com/global-food-security. Date accessed March 12,
2019.
Global Issues: Food Security. . Retrieved from https://www.peacecorps.gov/educators/resources/global-issues-food-
security/. Date accessed March 12, 2019.
World Population Projections. Retrieved from http://www.worldometers.info/world-population/world-population-
projections/. Date accessed March 12, 2019.

Lesson 15: Global Citizenship

Objectives

1. Articulate a personal definition of Global Citizenship

2. Appreciate the ethnical obligations of global citizenship.

Introduction

From the beginning of this work text, the most fundamental ideas of globalization has been used as guides in

order to point out what this phenomenon is all about. By this time you might have already concocted your own definition

of globalization. Understanding that peoples of the world are chained together by infinite transactions and

interconnectivities in a way suggests an implied responsibility to look out for one another. The much debated climate

change and its fallouts are now a staggering reality. Its effects excuses no one – not even people from the so-called

highly industrialized countries. A few too many debates have already been done to identify the culprits for this massive

destruction. We need not add to the long list of endless rebuttals for what we are in dire need of are actions and

solutions that would turn things around.

Lesson Proper/ Content/ Discussion

A global citizen is an individual who is aware of and firmly understands the interdependent system of societies

and their relative position in that arena. According to Jerome S. Bruner, “ Education must be not only a transmission of

culture but also a provider of alternative views of the world and a strengthener of skills to implore them”. This means that

young individuals, such as yourself, are beseeched to enrich and deepen your knowledge, skills, talents, and values to

better arm yourself as you go about exploring the world beyond the borders of the place you call home. Being citizens of

the world entails rejoicing and celebration of the diversity of cultures of the world and this includes the arts, music,

literature, and language to mention a few.

A global citizen is a person who recognizes being part of an unfolding global community and that individual

conduct and behavior act as the building blocks of a community’s culture. Nowadays, forces of globalization such as the

internet, politics, and religion guide individuals to identify themselves as global citizens living in a world system. With
technology, transportation and mass media, our ability to establish linkages and connect with people in distant places is

enforced and magnified. We feel empathy and sorrow for victims of humanitarian catastrophes, civil conflicts and famine

in other countries halfway across the world. We are educated on how elevated the problem is with regards to the oceans

of pollution we have collectively spawned. Deep seated emotions like anger surface amidst terror attacks as images of

defenseless children fill our television screens.

A sense of belongingness that was first attributed to our countrymen begins to extend allowing the entry of non-

nationals into our hearts and minds.

Why is Global Citizenship Education needed?

The continual advancements in technology coupled with the unceasing foreign relations and exchanges

occurring at an incessant rate bridges together nation-states across. All our lives we have been exposed to the different

facets of globalization. We are all actors playing a role in a world littered with disaster ridden communities, politically

indifferent nations, famine and sickening cultural separation.

Global citizenship works on the premise that when united, we can make a difference and rid the world of discrimination,

social injustice, food insecurity, and environmental degradation. Building global citizenship awareness encourages

young individuals to become active agents of positive world changes. As citizens of the world, we must instill in

ourselves a deep value and respect of human diversity thus becoming sentinels against social unjustness and

inequality. Learning is brought into the on-going contemporary world where solutions to real issues threatening our very

existence are conjures, implored and executed. This in turn challenges ignorance and intolerance and therefore

accentuates our role as a world citizen.

Understanding that each has a responsibility in the local, national, and global community, individuals realize that their

opinions and voices, no matter how small, if put into action can create a ripple effect that can influence the rest of the

world to strive for change.

 Activity 15

____________________________________________________________________________________________

Name: ________________________________________________________________Score: _________________

Course: _______________________________________________________________ Date: _________________

Local-Global Issues
Directions:
As part of an interdependent and interconnected global society, one of our duty is to become aware of the

atrocities that is plaguing the world. Global issues are not found beyond our nation’s borders – it is here. For this

chapter, students will be asked to draft a proposal on how to solution an existing global problem like pollution, poverty,

and food insecurity within their community. Drafted proposals will be presented in class.

Proposal

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References:

Ideas for Global Citizenship. Retrieved from http://www.ideas-forum.org.uk/about-us/global-citizenship. April 12, 2019

Israel, Ron. (2013). What does it mean to be a global citizen? Open Democracy Free Thinking for the World. Retrieved
from https://www.opendemocracy.net/en/opendemocracyuk/what-does-it-mean-to-be-global-citizen/. Accessed on April
12, 2019.
Israel, Ron. (2012). KOSMOS Journal for Global Transformation. Updated October 9, 2018. Retrieved from
https://www.kosmosjournal.org/article/what-does-it-mean-to-be-a-global-citizen/. Accessed on April 12, 2019.

What is Global Citizenship? Oxfam Education. Retrieved from https://www.oxfam.org.uk/education/who-we-are/what-is-

global-citizenship. Accessed on April 12, 2019