TOPIC 1: ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD CONTD.

FORCE ON A CURRENT CARRYING CONDUCTOR IN A MAGNETIC FIELD

The effect of a force acting on a current carrying conductor can be analyzed using the Fleming left hand rule which states that if we arrange our thumb,
forefinger and middle finger of the left hand perpendicular to each other, then the thumb points towards the direction of the magnetic force, the
forefinger points towards the direction of the magnetic field and the middle finger points towards the direction of the current. It is used to study electric
generators. It can however be calculated using F= BILsin 𝜃 . 𝜃 is the angle between the direction of the current and the field.

Force between two parallel current carrying wire

Two current carrying conductors when placed near each other, will exert a magnetic force on each other. This force can be calculated using the formula
F μ o I 1I 2
= ; where μ0 = 4π × 10−7 T m/A. generally the conductors attracts when their current flows in the same direction but repel when the current
L 2πr
flows in the opposite direction.

APPLICATION OF ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD

1. Electric motor: this is a rotating device which converts electrical energy into mechanical energy. As current flows through the coil at right angle
to a magnetic field, a force which is also perpendicular to both the current and the magnetic field acts on the conductor which thus rotates the conductor.
Motor functions as a dynamos; that is as the motor coil rotates, an e.m.f is also induced in it. This e.m.f opposes the e.m.f supplied by the cell E; hence
it is called the back e.m.f
2NωBA
 The back e.m.f is given by Eb =
π

 Magnetic flux is given by ∅ = BAcos θ

d∅
 The instantaneous or effective value of the induced e.m.f is given by E = - N = NBASinωt
dt

 The maximum amplitude or peak induced e.m.f is given by Eo = NBAω

Where N = number of turns; B = flux density; A = area of the coil linked to the flux; w = angular velocity.

Working principle of a motor

When current flows through the soft iron armature; two equal and opposite force acts on the opposite arm of the armature thereby creating a torque
which would cause it to rotate about its axis

Components of an electric motor:

a. Armature coil: this consist of a large number of turns of copper wire over a soft iron
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 b. Split rings or commutator: this helps to reverse the direction of current flowing through the coil every time the coil just passes the vertical
position during a revolution

c. Carbon Brushes: they make contact with the rings and thus supply current to the coil

d. Battery: this helps to supply current to the armature coil

2. Moving coil galvanometer: this helps to measure small value of current. The current flowing is directly proportional to the deflection of the
galvanometer. Galvanometer could either be made to be made to be “CURRENT SENSITIVE(shunts) OR VOLTAGE SENSITIVE (multiplier)”

N:B:- every galvanometer should be accurate and sensitive. The sensitivity of a galvanometer can be calculated using the formula below
angle of deflection of pointer
sensitivity =
current

The sensitivity can be improved by increasing the number of turns; using strong permanent magnets, using a coil of large area and using weak control
springs and a light pointer.

The torque that causes rotation in the above instruments can be calculated via ŧ = BIANSin 𝜃

Where B = flux density; I = current; A = coil area; N = number of turns of wire on the coil and 𝜃 is the angle between the perpendicular line to plane
of coil and the magnetic field.

Differences between Moving coil galvanometer and Moving iron galvanometer

A moving iron galvanometer is used to measure small A.C and D.C unlike the moving coil that measures only D.C. The moving iron galvanometer is
less accurate than the moving coil galvanometer

Ticket out: state 4 advantages and disadvantages of a moving coil galvanometer

ELECTROMAGNET

An electromagnet is a type of magnet in which the magnetic field is produced by an electric current. It is made of soft iron core with an insulated wire
wound round both arms in opposite directions. The magnetic field strength increases with the number of wires turns and current in the coil. They are
used in making electric bells, telephone receivers etc.

TOPIC 2: ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

This is the phenomenon of producing electric current by moving a magnet near a coil in a closed circuit. The principle of electromagnetic induction states
that when a coil rotates in a uniform magnetic field, a current is induced in the coil.

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Faraday’s experiment of electromagnetic induction

Faraday observed that if a permanent magnet is moved towards a coil, the galvanometer would deflect depending on the position of the magnet. Thus;

a. When there is no relative motion between the coil of the wire and the bar magnet, current would not be produced

b. A current would be induced in the coil if the magnet is moved towards the coil and the magnetic flux would increase

c. A current would be produced in the coil if the magnet is moved in the opposite direction and the magnetic flux would decrease

LAWS OF EECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

1. FARADAY’S LAW I: This state that “when the magnetic flux linking a conductor or coil changes, an EMF is induced in it”. This induced
EMF last as long as the changes in magnetic flux linking the coil continues

2. FARADAY’S LAW II: This law state that “the magnitude of the EMF in a coil or conductor is directly proportional to the rate of change of
d∅ d∅
flux linkage”. i.e E α dt . Where dt = time rate of change of magnetic flux

3. LENZ’S LAW: it states “that in all cases of electromagnetic induction, the direction of induced EMF or current is such that it opposes the cause
which produces it”.

N:B:- The direction of induced EMF and current can be determined by two methods; namely:

a. Fleming’s right hand rule: it states that of the first three fingers of the right hand are mutually perpendicular to each other such that the
forefinger gives the direction of the magnetic field and the thumb points the direction of the motion of a conductor then the middle finger will give
the direction of the induced current.

b. Lenz’s law: it states that in all cases of electromagnetic induction, the direction of induced EMF or current is such that it opposes the cause which
produces it.

Factors affecting the magnitude of induced EMF

- Change in the magnetic flux

- Time period in which the magnetic flux changes

INDUCED EMF IN A STRAIGHT CONDUCTOR

The induced EMF is proportional to the product of the magnetic field intensity; B, length of the conductor; l, and the velocity of the conductor; v. Thus
EMF = Blvsin 𝜃
N:B:- The value of the induced EMF is highest when the conductor moves perpendicular to the magnetic field lines and zero when the conductor moves
parallel to the magnetic field lines.

Fleming’s Right Hand Rule states that if we arrange our thumb, forefinger and middle finger of the right-hand perpendicular to each other, then the
thumb points towards the direction of the motion of the conductor relative to the magnetic field, the forefinger points towards the direction of the
magnetic field and the middle finger points towards the direction of the induced current.

Difference between Fleming’s Right Hand Rule and Fleming’s left-Hand Rule

Fleming’s Right Hand Rule Fleming’s left-Hand Rule

It is used for electric generators It is used for electric motors
The purpose of this rule is used for finding the direction of the The purpose of this rule is used for finding the direction of the
induced current in an electric generator. magnetic force acting in an electric motor.
The middle finger represents the direction of the induced current The middle finger represents the direction of the current
GENERATORS

A generator is a coil of wire which is made to rotate in a magnetic field. As the coil rotates, it cuts through the magnetic field and a current is induced
in it. An electric generator is a device which converts mechanical energy into electrical energy; it works on the principle of electromagnetic induction.
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There are two types of generators which are DC generator or dynamo and AC generator or alternator.

The similarity between the two types of generator is that they are both mechanical devices use to convert mechanical energy to electrical. However, the
difference between the two is that a DC generator has a split ring or commutator while an AC generator has two full rings called slip rings. Whereas the
output current in a DC generator is always in one direction, that of an AC generator varies as it changes direction every half-turn of the coil.

Ticket out: State 3 differences between GENERATOR AND MOTOR

INDUCTION COIL
This is a device that has the ability to produce a very high alternating EMF from a low DC voltage using the principle of electromagnetic induction.

EDDY CURRENT
An eddy current is a current set up in a conductor in response to a changing magnetic field. It flows in a closed loop and flows in such a way as to
oppose the change producing it. Eddy’s current can find application in the following:
- Brakes of a train

- Electric power meter

- Induction furnace

- Speedometer

TRANSFORMER
This is a device that increases or decrease the supply voltage without changing the supply frequency of the alternating current between circuits. It works
on the principle of electromagnetic induction.
Types of transformer
a. Step down transformer: this converts a high alternating voltage to a low alternating voltage. It has more secondary turns/winding than that of
N
the primary. In step down transformer s < 1
NP

b. Step up transformer: this converts a low alternating voltage to a high alternating voltage. It has more primary turns/winding than that of the
N
secondary. In step up transformer s > 1
NP

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 Major differences between step up and step-down transformer

Step up transformer Step down transformer

Output voltage is higher than input voltage Output voltage is less than input voltage
It has less turns in the primary coil than in the secondary coil It has more turns in the primary coil than in the secondary coil
It provides less output current It provides more output current
Generally,
NS Es Vs IP
= = =
NP EP VP IS

Power loss = primary power – secondary power

EFFICIENCY OF A TRANSFORMER

This is the ratio of the power output to its power input. It is expressed in percentage
ESIS
Efficiency = x 100%
EPIP

In an ideal transformer. The power output = power input

ENERGY LOSSES IN A TRANSFORMER

Energy losses Remedy

Coil heating It can be reduced by choosing wire thickness according to current
Eddy currents It is overcome by laminating the core
Hysteresis It is overcome by making the core of specialist metal
Flux leakages The coil is designed efficient
Ticket out: state 5 uses of transformer.

TOPIC 3: SIMPLE AC CIRCUIT

An electric circuit is a closed path or loop through which charges or electric current flow continuously. An AC circuit is a type of electric circuit. The
quantity that changes continuously in magnitude between zero and a maximum value with alternating directions at regular time intervals is known as
an alternating quantity such as current (I) or voltage (V). The path for the flow of alternating current is called AC Circuit.

Equation of AC Circuit
V = VoSinwt or V = VoCoswt; I = IoSinwt or I = IoCoswt

Peak in R.M.S Values of A.C

1. Mean value/average value: this is defined as that value of steady current which would send the same amount of charge through a circuit in

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the time of half cycle. Thus Im = 0.637Io or Vm = 0.637Vo

2. Root mean square/effective value/virtual value: this is defined as that value of steady current which would generate the same amount of heat
in a given resistance at a given time in a DC when passed through the same resistance for the same time. Thus Ir.m.s = 0.707Io or Vr.m.s = 0.707Vo

N:B:- Io and Vo are peak current and peak voltage respectively.

An AC circuit consists of three main components; a resistor, capacitor and an inductor which resist the flow of electric current in their own unique
ways.
V VoSinwt
1. AC through resistor: this is given by I = = ; in this type of circuit, both the current and voltage are in phase with each other.
R R
π
VoSin (wt- )
V 2 π
2. AC through inductor: this is given by I = = ; In this type of circuit current lags the volage by
XL wL 2
π
VoSin (wt+ )
V 2 π
3. AC through capacitor: this is given by I = = ; In this type of circuit current leads the volage by
Xc 1 2
WC

N:B:- R, XL and Xc are resistive reactance, inductive reactance and capacitive reactance respectively and they are all measured in OHMS. ( R, L and
C are resistance, Inductance and Capacitance respectively with units Ohms, Henry and Farad respectively)

Reactance is the opposition to the flow of current in an AC circuit.

Impedance (Z) is the total effective opposition in Ohms offered by the circuit containing a combination of a resistor, inductor and/or capacitor. While
Admittance (A) is the reciprocal of Impedance.
Power in an A.C circuit
The average power in an A.C Circuit is given by P = IVCos∅; where Cos∅ is the power factor. For a circuit containing a resistor, then the power
factor is given by P = I2R
Type of circuit (SERIES) R-L R-C L-C R-L-C
Voltage IXL IXC VL - VC IZ
Impedance (Z) R2+ X L
2
R2+ XC
2
XL - XC R2+(X -X )
L C
2

Tan α VL IXL XL VC IXC XC XL-XC

= = = =
VR IR R VR IR R R

RESONANCE IN R-L-C CIRCUIT

Resonance is said to occur when maximum current is obtained from such circuit. The frequency at which this occur is resonant frequency and at this
point, impedance must be minimum.

XL - XC = 0 ; Thus; XL = XC

1
fo =
2π LC

Application of resonance
- Tuning of amplifiers
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- Tuning of radio receivers
- Tuning of television
TOPIC 4: MODEL OF AN ATOM

The atomic structure refers to the structure of an atom comprising a nucleus and negatively charged particles called electrons revolving around
the centre of the nucleus. The protons and neutrons make up the nucleus of the atom, which is surrounded by the electrons belonging to the atom.
The atomic number of an element describes the total number of protons in its nucleus. Neutral atoms have equal numbers of protons and electrons.
However, atoms may gain or lose electrons in order to increase their stability, and the resulting charged entity is called an ion. Electrons determine the
chemical properties of an element.
Subatomic Particles
The Protons are positively charged subatomic particles. The charge of a proton is +1e, which corresponds to approximately 1.602 × 10-19C. The mass of a
proton is approximately 1.672 × 10-24Kg which is over 1800 times heavier than electrons. The total number of protons in the atoms of an element is
always equal to the atomic number of the element. The mass of a neutron is almost the same as that of a proton, i.e., 1.674×10-24Kg; Neutrons are
electrically neutral particles and carry no charge. Different isotopes of an element have the same number of protons but vary in the number of neutrons
present in their respective nuclei. The charge of an electron is -1e, which approximates to -1.602 × 10-19C while its mass is approximately 9.1 × 10-31Kg.
The various model of the atom includes:

1. Sir. J.J Thompson: He postulated that an atom is a homogeneous sphere of positive charge inside which are embedded negatively charged
electrons.

2. Ernest Rutherford: also known as the planetary model. After his alpha scattering experiment; he postulated an atom consist of a positively
charged core called the nucleus and this nucleus is surrounded by negatively charged electrons revolving round in an orbit

3. Neil Bohr: in an atom, electrons (negatively charged) revolve around the positively charged nucleus in a definite circular path called orbits or
shells. Each orbit or shell has a fixed energy and these circular orbits are known as orbital shells.

4. Erwin Schrödinger: this is also known as the electron cloud model; in this type of model, an atom is visualize as consisting of a tiny nucleus,
with the electron moving rapidly round the nucleus and spending most of its time in probability regions

Atomic Structure of Isotopes

Nucleons are the components of the nucleus of an atom. A nucleon can either be a proton or a neutron. Each element has a unique number of protons
in it, which is described by its unique atomic number. The isotopes of an element have the same number of protons but differ in the number of
neutrons.

Ticket out: Write a short note on the successes and limitations for the various atomic models listed above

TOPIC 5: RADIOACTIVITY AND NUCLEAR REACTION

Radioactivity is the spontaneous disintegration of unstable nuclei of the atom of an element by the emission of alpha, beta and gamma radiation and
the production of heat. Elements that exhibits radioactivity are said to be radioactive.

Properties of emitted particles

Radiation Alpha particles α Beta particles β Gamma rays (γ)

Nature Helium nuclei High energy electrons Electromagnetic waves of short

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 wavelength
Velocity (0.15 – 0.21) x 108ms-1 2.9 x 108ms-1 3 x 108ms-1
Charge +2e -e Neutral
Mass Relatively massive Relatively light Negligible
Magnetic field effect Slight deflection to the south Strong deflection to the north Little or no effect
pole pole
electric field effect Slight deflection towards the Strong deflection towards the Little or no effect
negative terminal positive terminal
Ionizing power Heavy ionization Medium ionization Lower ionization
Penetrating power Little Medium High
Types of decays

Alpha decay: 226

88
Ra ----→ 22286Ra + 42He + Q (proton decrease by 2 while nucleon number decrease by 4)
Beta decay: 114Be -----> 114Be + -1oe + Q (proton decrease by 1 while nucleon number does not change)
Gamma decay: 6027Co -----> 00γ + 60
27
Co + Q (there is no change)
Radioactive decay
The law states the number of radioactive nuclei decaying per unit time is directly proportional to the number of nuclei present at that instant.
dN
= - ƛdt
N
N = Noe-ƛt
Where ƛ = decay constant.

Decay constant is the instantaneous rate of decay per unit atom of a substance.
Half life T 1 : This is the time taken for half of the atom initially present in the element to decay.
2
0.693
T1 =
2
ƛ
Types of radioactivity
1. Natural radioactivity 2. Artificial radioactivity

NUCLEAR REACTION
This is subdivided into:
-Nuclear fission is the splitting up of the nucleus of a heavy element into two approximate equal parts with the release of the a huge amount of energy
and neutrons. For example, when Uranium-235 is bombarded slowly with neutron, it splits into Barium and Kripton with release of three neutron and
a large amount of energy.
-Nuclear fusion is the process in which two or more light nuclei combine to form a heavier nucleus with the release of a huge amount of energy. For
example, when deuterium and tritium nuclei fuses, they form helium, neutron and releases a lot of energy. In nature, nuclear fusion occurs in the sun
and stars.

NUCLEAR ENERGY

Binding energy is energy needed to just pull all the nucleons in the nucleus of an atom apart so that they are completely separated; it is the difference
between the nucleons and the nucleus. The mass- energy relationship is given by the equation E = ∆mc2; ∆m = difference between the masses before
and after reaction in Kg.

Ticket out: state the advantages of nuclear fusion over nuclear fission

NUCLEAR REACTOR
This is system in which a controlled nuclear chain reaction is used to produce energy.
Parts and uses of a nuclear reactor.

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 Part Use
Uranium rod Fuel
Graphite (moderator) Moderates or reduces the speed of the neutrons released
Boron coated rod Control the rate of neutron production
Collant To reduce excessive heat in the reactor
Heat exchanger To remove the heat energy produced

TOPIC 6: ENERGY QUANTIZATION

The whole idea of Energy quantization is that energy radiated is not a continuous quantity but is rather quantized; i.e it exist only in discrete amount
and there is no radiation whose energy lies between these discrete value.

Energy levels in an atom

These are fixed distances from the nucleus of an atom where electrons may be found. When an electron moves from a lower energy level to a higher
energy level, energy is absorbed; When an electron moves from a higher energy level to a lower energy level, energy is emitted. At the lowest energy
-13.6eV
level for a hydrogen atom; the value is – 13.6eV; however other energy level can be calculated using the formula .
n2

Excitation energy is the energy required to raise an atom from its ground state to its excited state. The change in energy level as a result of ionization
energy is given by the formula
hc
∆E = En - Eo = hfn = ;
ƛn
En = energy in the excited state; Eo = energy in the ground state;h = Planck'sconstant;
c = speed of light; fn = frequency of emitted photon; ƛn = wavelenght of the radiation

Frank- Hertz found a direct experimental evidence of the existence of atomic energy levels thus confirming the discrete energy states of the mercury
atom.
Atomic spectra
There are two classes of atomic spectra namely;
a. Emission spectra: in this type of spectra, light is given out by a source; it is subdivided into
- Line spectra: these are obtained from atoms in gases at low pressure in a discharge tube
- Band spectra: these are obtained from molecules of oxygen or CO2 in a discharge tube
- Continuous spectra: This is obtained from the sun, incandescent solids or heated pieces of iron
b. Absorption spectra: in this type, light from a source is absorbed when it passes through another material usually a gas or a liquid
Photoelectric effect
This a phenomenon in which electrons are emitted from the surface of a metal when radiation of appropriate frequency strikes the metal surface. The
device used in studying this phenomenon is called a photocell
Occurrence/Quantity Factor responsible
Emission Radiation of appropriate frequency
Rate of emission Intensity of radiation
Energy of photoelectrons Frequency of radiation

When radiation of appropriate frequency falls on the cathode whose surface is photosensitive, electrons are emitted. The emitted electrons are attracted
to the anode which is made positive wrt the cathode. The circuit is complete by the flow if electron and current flows.
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Application of photocell

- They are used in automatic lights to activate whenever it gets dark

- They are used as timers in a running race to calculate the runner's speed.

- Photocells are used to count the vehicles on the road.

- Turning of parking light

Stopping potential Vo

This is the minimum value of the reverse potential difference that will just stop the electrons with maximum kinetic energy from reaching the anode.
1
K.E = Mv2 = eVo; where e = electronic charge; Vo= stopping potential
2

Threshold frequency and threshold wavelength

Threshold frequencyfo, is the minimum frequency of light/incident radiation on a surface, below which electrons will not be emitted no matter the
c
intensity of radiation while Threshold wavelength ƛo, is the wavelength of the incident radiation which corresponds to the threshold frequency. fo = .
ƛo

Work function Wo

This is the minimum thermodynamic work (i.e., energy) needed to remove an electron from a solid to a point in the vacuum immediately outside the
solid surface.

Generally, Einstein photoelectric equation is expressed as

1 2
K.E = E - Wo; Mv = hf - hfo
2

Thermionic emission

Thermionic emission is a process in which electrons are emitted by a metal that is heated to a certain temperature that is enough to overcome the
attractive force of the metal's atomic nucleus. These emitted electrons are called thermions.

WAVE PARTICLE PARADOX

This is a phenomenon which explains the idea that both light and matter both have wave and particle properties.

- Wave properties of matter: this was established a beam of electrons from a heated filament was diffracted as it was passed through a thin
metal film

- Particle nature of matter: the photoelectric effect and the Compton effect was used to explain this phenomenon

- Wave properties of light: this is reflected through the various properties of waves

- Particle nature of light: this is reflected through observable phenomena like emission and absorption of light

DE-BROGLIE’S THEORY AND EQUATION

h h
This theory assumes that all matter can exhibit wave-like behaviour. The equation is given as ƛ = =
mv p

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Where h= Planck’s constant; m = mass of the particle; v = velocity of the particle; p = momentum of the particle

HEISENBERG UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE

This state that it is impossible to determine accurately the exact position and momentum of a particle simultaneously.
h h h
(∆x)(∆p) ≥ ћ = 2π ; (∆x)(∆v) ≥ ћ = 2π ; (∆E)(∆t) ≥ ћ = 2π
(∆x) = uncertainty in position of particle; (∆p) = uncertainty in momentum of particle
(∆v) = uncertainty in velocity of particle; (∆E) = uncertainty in energy of particle; (∆t) = uncertainty in time
X-RAYS

These are produced when fast moving electrons produced from hot filament or metal are suddenly stopped on hitting a target. It is produced on an X-
ray tube. The energy transformation of an X-ray is from Electrical energy – thermal energy - mechanical energy. There are two types of X-rays
namely; Soft X-rays and hard X-rays

Compton Scattering effect

This is an observable effect observed when some of the radiation from an “X-rays strike scattering” possesses a longer wavelength than the original
incident x-ray radiation producing them. The change in the wavelength depends on the angle through which the radiation is scattered.

Properties of X-rays

They have high frequency and short wavelength; they travel with the same velocity as light; they are electromagnetic in nature; they have high
penetrating power; they can ionize gases; they cause photoelectric effect.

X-rays is using in treating cancers and tumors; detecting fractures in bones; radio-therapy and radiography; used to detect cracks in metal etc.

Long exposures to X-rays can cause Cancer, Leukemia, skin harm, genetic mutation, baldness, cataracts etc.

Ticket out: Write a short note on X-rays stating the i. Difference between hard x-rays and soft x-rays ii. Difference between x-rays spectra and
optical spectra

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