College of Engineering and Technology

Department of Computer Science

3rd year 2nd semester Regular students
Course Title: Wireless Communication and Mobile Computing
Course Code: CoSc 3034

Name Id

1.Ebrahim Tufa RU0589/14

Submitted to: - Mr. Sabit A.

Submission Date: /09/2016 E.C
Contents
Chapter 5: Cellular Networks.......................................................................................................................................................1
Introduction............................................................................................................................................................................... 1
5.1. Principles of Cellular Networks.........................................................................................................................................2
5.2. First Generation (1G) Cellular and Paging Networks........................................................................................................4
5.3. Second Generation (2G) Cellular Networks......................................................................................................................7
5.4. The 2.5G Cellular Networks..............................................................................................................................................9
5.5. Third Generation (3G) Cellular Networks.......................................................................................................................11
5.6. Fourth Generation (4G) Cellular Networks.....................................................................................................................13
5.7. Overview of Fifth Generation (5G) Cellular Networks...................................................................................................15
Conclusion.............................................................................................................................................................................. 19
Reference................................................................................................................................................................................ 20
 Chapter 5: Cellular Networks
Introduction
Cellular networks are communication networks that provide wireless voice and data services to mobile devices
such as smartphones, tablets, and other connected devices. These networks use a system of interconnected base
stations to provide coverage over a specific geographic area. We will some key point about cellular networks:

Cellular networks have revolutionized the way we communicate and stay connected in today's digital age. These
networks provide wireless voice and data services to mobile devices, enabling users to make calls, send messages,
access the internet, and stream multimedia content on the go. With the evolution of cellular technology from 2G to
5G, the capabilities and speeds of these networks have significantly improved, offering faster data transfer rates,
lower latency, and support for emerging technologies like IoT and autonomous vehicles.

The evolution of cellular networks began with 1G in the 1980s, which introduced mobile voice communication.
The journey from 1G to the current 5G has been marked by significant technological advancements. Each
generation has brought higher data rates, lower latency, and expanded services that extend beyond voice calls to
include text messaging, internet browsing, video streaming, and a vast ecosystem of mobile applications.

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5.1. Principles of Cellular Networks

A cellular network is a radio network distributed over land through cells where each cell includes a fixed
location transceiver known as a base station. These cells together provide radio coverage over larger
geographical areas. The user equipment (UE), such as mobile phones, is therefore able to communicate even if
the equipment is moving through cells during transmission. Cellular networks give subscribers advanced
features over alternative solutions, including increased capacity, small battery power usage, a larger
geographical coverage area and reduced interference from other signals. Popular cellular technologies include
the Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM), general packet radio service (GPRS) and code division
multiple access CDMA).

Radio fundamentals for cellular networks: Cellular networks enable devices such as smartphones and
Internet of things (IoT) devices to communicate wirelessly. Cellular technologies have advanced from first-
generation (1G) analog technologies to advanced high-performance fourth-generation (4G) and fifth-generation
(5G) systems in just about four decades.

Throughout the development of each wireless generation, these cellular networks have shared a number of
common core attributes. Many of the protocol-based communications exchanges between the device and the
base station follow a similar philosophy of identifying a potential cell, registering and authenticating with the
core network and support for mobility through handover signaling. These principles are highly likely to be
incorporated into 6G systems, whatever that standard turns out to be in the future. Certainly, the
implementation of these underlying principles will vary from one standard to another and sometimes even
within revisions of a given standard.

The Basics

Though the exact network architecture differs from one generation to another, a typical cellular network
consists of a radio access network (RAN), a core network (CN) and a services network. The RAN contains base
stations (BS) that communicate with the wireless devices using radio frequency (RF) signals, and it is this
interface between the base station and the devices. The RAN allocates radio resources to the devices to make
wireless communications a reality. The CN performs functions such as user authentication, service
authorization, security activation, IP address allocation and setup of suitable links to facilitate the transfer of
user traffic such as voice and video. The services network includes operator-specific servers and IP multimedia
subsystem (IMS) to offer a variety of services to the wireless subscriber, including voice calls, text messages
(SMS) and video calls.

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Transmitters
 The first common principle of cellular networks is the use of much lower power (100 W or less),
smaller transmitters with narrower coverage areas instead of a single, powerful transmitter with a wider
coverage area. These transmitters are housed on base stations, better known as cellular towers. Base
stations also house receivers and additional control units.
Cells
 Coverage areas are divided into cells, each served by its own antenna (transmitter). A frequency band is
allocated to the transmitter/receiver depending on the network carrier. Cells are arranged so that
antennas in a coverage area are in a hexagonal pattern. This is because it requires fewer cells to
represent a hexagon compared to a triangle or square – meaning network carriers can cover a wider area
with fewer base stations. Another advantage of a hexagonal cellular system is that frequency reuse is
possible using this shape.
Frequency Reuse
 The second common core design principle of cellular networks is frequency reuse. Frequency reuse is
the process of using the same radio frequencies on base stations and other radio transmitter sites within a
geographic area. These sites are separated by a sufficient distance to cause minimal interference with
each other. By using geographically small, low-power cells, frequencies can be reused by non-adjacent
cells. The reason for frequency reuse is the limited number of carriers allocated frequencies set by the
regulator bodies.
Cell Splitting
 Cell splitting is the process of subdividing a congested cell into smaller cells such that each smaller cell
has its own base station. These smaller cells feature antennas with reduced height and transmitter power.
The two smaller cells increase the capacity of a cellular network since the number of times channels are
reused increases. In a popular cellular network configuration, one base station controls three geographic
regions called sectors (or cells), where each sector covers 120° region. Three sectors together provide 3
× 120° = 360° coverage around the base station.

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Cellular Handover
 As a mobile device moves around in a given area, it crosses cell boundaries. Handover is a process
where the dedicated radio connection between the device and the radio access network is switched from
one cell to another. Cellular handover ensures that the device has a dedicated radio connection with the
best possible communications link. In addition, handover may be used to balance the load among
serving base stations and among carrier frequencies available in a cell or sector.
 The handover takes place when the system perceives the current cell signal strength system to be weaker
than a cell the user is approaching. Different cellular generation architecture uses different terminology
for the device which detects the signal strength and provides the handoff capability. Cell handover is
under the central control of a mobile telephone switching office (MTSO), which is also known as a
mobile switching office (MSO) or the mobile switching center (MSC). When the call is handed off to
the second cell, the user should not be aware of the handoff and hear nothing.
5.2. First Generation (1G) Cellular and Paging Networks
 1G refers to the first generation of wireless telephone technology, mobile telecommunications. These
are the analog telecommunications standards that were introduced in the 1980s and continued until
being replaced by 2G digital telecommunications. The main difference between two succeeding mobile
telephone systems, 1G and 2G, is that the radio signals that 1G networks use are analog, while 2G
networks are digital. Although both systems use digital signaling to connect the radio towers (which
listen to the handsets) to the rest of the telephone system, the voice itself during a call is encoded to
digital signals in 2G whereas 1G is only modulated to a higher frequency, typically 150 MHz and up.

 Mobile radio telephones were used for military communications in the early 20th century. Car-based
telephones were first introduced in the mid-1940s. In fact, the first car-based telephone system was
tested in Saint Louis in 1946. This system used a single large transmitter on top of a tall building. A
single channel was used for sending and receiving. To talk, the user pushed a button that enabled
transmission and disabled reception. Due to this, these became known as “push-to-talk” systems in the
1950s. Although these systems are quite old, taxis and police cars use this technology. To allow users to
talk and listen at the same time, IMTS (Improved Mobile Telephone System) was introduced in the
1960s. It used two channels (one for sending, one for receiving – thus there was no need for push-to-
talk). IMTS used 23 channels from 150 MHz to 450 MHz.

 First-generation cellular networks were introduced in the 1980s. This started with the Advanced Mobile
Phone Service (AMPS) which was invented at Bell Labs and first installed in 1982. AMPS has also
been used in England (called TACS) and Japan (called MCS-L1). The key idea of 1G cellular networks
is that the geographical area is divided into cells (typically 10-25km), each served by a “base station.”
Cells are small so that frequency reuse can be exploited in nearby (but not adjacent) cells. This allows
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 many more users to be supported in a given area. For example, as compared to IMTS, AMPS can
support 5 to 10 times more users in the same 100-mile area by dividing the area into 20 smaller cells
that reuse the same frequency ranges. In addition, smaller cells also require less powerful and cheaper,
smaller devices to transmit and receive information.

 Actually, the first-generation wireless mobile communication system is not digital technology, but an
analog cellular telephone system that was used for voice service only during the early 1980s. This
Advanced Mobile Phone System (AMPS) was a frequency-modulated analog mobile radio system using
Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA) with 30kHz channels occupying the 824MHz − 894MHz
frequency band and the first commercial cellular system deployed until the early 1990’s.

 The first commercially automated cellular network (the 1G generation) was launched in Japan by NTT
(Nippon Telegraph and Telephone) in 1979, initially in the metropolitan area of Tokyo. Within five
years, the NTT network had been expanded to cover the whole population of Japan and became the first
nationwide 1G network.

 In 1981, this was followed by the simultaneous launch of the Nordic Mobile Telephone (NMT) system
in Denmark, Finland, Norway and Sweden. NMT was the first mobile phone network featuring
international roaming. The first 1G network launched in the USA was Chicago based Ameritech in 1983
using the Motorola DynaTAC mobile phone. Several countries then followed in the early-to-mid 1980s
including the UK, Mexico and Canada.

 1G cellular networks are based primarily on analog communications. In North America, two 25 MHz
bands are allocated to AMPS – one for transmission from base to mobile unit and one for transmission
from mobile unit to base. Each phone has a 32-bit serial number and 10-digit phone number in its
PROM (Programmable Read-only Memory). When a phone is turned on, it scans for control signals
from base stations. It sends this information to the BS with strongest control signal and the BS passes
this information to MTS (Master Switching Station) as a packet. The subscriber initiates a call by
keying in a phone number and pressing the send key. The MTS verifies the number and authorizes the
user. MTS issues a message to the user’s cell phone indicating send and receive traffic channels. MTS
sends a ringing signal to the called party. Party answers; MTS establishes the circuit and initiates billing
information. Either party hangs up; MTS releases the circuit, frees the channels, and completes billing.

Security issues with 1G:

Analog cellular phones are insecure. Anyone with an all-band radio receiver can listen in to the conversation.
Many scandals have been reported in this area. There are also thefts of airtime. Basically, a thief uses an all-

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 band radio receiver that is connected to a computer. This computer can record the 32-bit serial numbers and
phone numbers of subscribers when calling (recall that this information is sent as a packet). The thieves can
collect a large database by driving around and can then go into business by reprogramming stolen phones and
reselling them.
Paging Networks:

Paging networks are one of the oldest wireless technologies. They support one-way and two-way alphanumeric
messages between callers and pagers (beepers). The callers typically call a beeper company and leave a phone
number and possibly a short message. Paging networks are being integrated with PDAs (personal digital
assistants) like Palm Pilots. An example of paging networks is the BellSouth Clamshell Pager with keyboard.
Characteristics of Paging Networks:

 Common applications are personal numeric messaging for call-back, alphanumeric messaging
(dispatching and service), and two-way messaging (call dispatching with confirmation).
 Capacity and speed include 1200 bps for older and 6400 bps for newer systems. The paging networks
are slower but have different design criteria for delivering the message within specific time periods.
 Frequency bands used include 800 MHz for older paging networks and 901-941 MHz, with gaps, for
newer networks.
 Components of a paging network are a personal paging device, a paging computer/server at the paging
operator’s site, and a paging transmitter. These networks may also use satellites for national coverage.
 Coverage is 95% of the US, thanks to many local, regional and national paging network providers.
 Communications protocols supported include FLEX and ReFLEX developed by Motorola for two-way
paging.
 Security is low and has not been considered a high priority.
The advantages of paging networks are:

 Very inexpensive
 Easy to operate for sender (from any telephone) and receiver
 Many options for users (numeric, alphanumeric, two-way, message storage)
 Wide coverage at local, regional, national, and international levels
 Good building penetration
The limitations of paging networks are as follows:

 Slow data transfer rate (1200 bps)

 No acknowledgment (two-way paging costs extra)
 Some of the available paging networks are overloaded, causing delays.

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5.3. Second Generation (2G) Cellular Networks
Second Generation (2G) cellular networks, introduced in the late 1980s, are based on digital transmission.
Digital transmissions offer several benefits over analog. Different approaches to 2G have been developed in the
US and Europe. In the US, divergence happened because only one player (AMPS) existed in 1G. Because of
this, several players emerged to compete in 2G. Although many players emerged, the following two have
survived in the US:

 IS-54 and IS-135: backward-compatible with AMPS frequency allocation (dual mode–analog and digital)
 IS-95: uses spread spectrum
In Europe, exactly the reverse happened – there was a convergence because there were many (more than 5)
incompatible 1G systems with no clear winner. This caused a major problem for the users (you could not use
your telephones while traveling from England to France). European PTT (Post, Telephone and Telegraphic)
sponsored the development of the now very popular GSM that uses new frequency ranges and complete digital
communication.

2G is short for second-generation wireless telephone technology. Second generation 2G cellular telecom
networks were commercially launched on the GSM standard in Finland by Radiolinja (now part of Elisa Oyj) in
1991. Three primary benefits of 2G networks over their predecessors were that phone conversations were
digitally encrypted; 2G systems were significantly more efficient on the spectrum allowing for far greater
mobile phone penetration levels; and 2G introduced data services for mobile, starting with SMS text messages.

After 2G was launched, the previous mobile telephone systems were retrospectively dubbed 1G. While radio
signals on 1G networks are analog, radio signals on 2G networks are digital. Both systems use digital signaling
to connect the radio towers (which listen to the handsets) to the rest of the telephone system. 2G has been
superseded by newer technologies such as 2.5G, 2.75G, 3G and 4G. however, 2G networks are still used in
many parts of the world.

The primary differences between first and second-generation cellular networks are:

 Digital traffic channels: first-generation systems are almost purely analog; second-generation systems
are digital.
 Encryption: all second-generation systems provide encryption to prevent eavesdropping.
 Error detection and correction: second-generation digital traffic allows for detection and correction,
giving clear voice reception.
 Channel access: second-generation systems allow channels to be dynamically shared by a number of
users.
Advantages:
 The lower power emissions helped address health concerns.
 Going all-digital allowed for the introduction of digital data services, such as SMS and email.
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  Greatly reduced fraud: With analog systems, it was possible to have two or more "cloned" handsets
that had the same phone number.
 Enhanced privacy: A key digital advantage not often mentioned is that digital cellular calls are much
harder to eavesdrop on by the use of radio scanners. While the security algorithms used have proved not
to be as secure as initially advertised, 2G phones are immensely more private than 1G phones, which
have no protection against eavesdropping.
Disadvantages:

 In less populous areas, the weaker digital signal may not be sufficient to reach a cell tower. This tends to
be a particular problem on 2G systems deployed on higher frequencies, but is mostly not a problem on
2G systems deployed on lower frequencies. National regulations differ greatly among countries which
dictate where 2G can be deployed.
 Analog has a smooth decay curve, digital a jagged steppy one. This can be both an advantage and a
disadvantage. Under good conditions, digital will sound better. Under slightly worse conditions, analog
will experience static, while digital has occasional dropouts. As conditions worsen, though, digital will
start to completely fail, by dropping calls or being unintelligible, while analog slowly gets worse,
generally holding a call longer and allowing at least a few words to get through.
 While digital calls tend to be free of static and background noise, the lossy compression used by the
codecs takes a toll; the range of sound that they convey is reduced. You will hear less of the tonality of
someone's voice talking on a digital cell phone, but you will hear it more clearly.

GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications)–The Popular 2G System:

Although there are many competing technologies in the 2G cellular network landscape, GSM by far dominates
the world today, with over 200 million users in over a hundred countries. GSM is very popular in Europe and is
now gaining popularity in the US also. These networks operate at 9.6 Kbps and are based on international
standards defined by the European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI). Due to the popularity of
GSM, let us look at GSM somewhat closely.

GSM is completely designed from scratch (there is no backward compatibility with 1G systems such as
AMPS). It can deliver data rate up to 9.6 Kbps by using 124 channels per cell; each channel can support 8 users
through TDMA (maximum 992 users per cell, in practice about 500). Some GSM channels are used for control
signals for mobile units to locate the nearest base stations.

In addition to voice, GSM phones provide data services for wireless users; i.e., you connect your GSM phone to
your PC and it acts as a modem for email, fax, Internet browsing, etc. GSM also permits roaming between
North American countries and European countries. To make it work, because of the frequency differences, you
have to remove the user-specific SIM card from inside the American network’s phone and place it into a
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 European network’s phone, or vice-versa.

GSM’s air interface is based on narrowband TDMA technology, where available frequency bands are divided
into time slots, with each user having access to one time slot at regular intervals. Narrowband TDMA allows
eight simultaneous communications on a single radio multiplexer and is designed to support 16 half-rate
channels.
2G CDMA:

GSM uses TDMA, but who uses CDMA in 2G? While some systems have appeared, IS-95 is the best- known
example of 2G with CDMA. Recall that in the case of CDMA, each user is assigned a unique code that
differentiates one user from others. This is in contrast to TDMA where each user is assigned a time slot. Why
use CDMA for cellular? Although the debate between CDMA versus TDMA has been raging for a while (see
Section 8.5.5), there are several advantages of CDMA for cellular networks. The main advantage of CDMA is
that many more users (up to 10 times more) can be supported as compared to TDMA. Although this leads to
some complications, the advantage of supporting more users far outweighs the disadvantage of added
complexity.

The IS-95 cellular system has different structures for its forward (base station to mobile station) and backward
links. The forward link consists of up to 64 logical CDMA channels, each occupying the same 1228 kHz
bandwidth. The forward channel supports different types of channels:

 Traffic channels (channels 8 to 31 and 33 to 63) – these 55 channels are used to carry the user traffic
(originally at 9.6 Kbps, revised at 14.4 Kbps).
 Pilot (Channel 0) – used for signal strength comparison, among other things, to determine handoffs
 Synchronization (Channel 32) – a 1200 bps channel used to identify the cellular system (system time,
protocol revision, etc.).
 Paging (channels 1 to 7) – messages for mobile stations
All these channels use the same frequency band – the chipping code (a 64-bit code) is used to
distinguish between users. Thus 64 users can theoretically use the same band by using different codes. This is in
contrast to TDMA where the band has to be divided into slots – one slot per user. The voice and data traffic is
encoded, assigned a chipping code, modulated and sent to its destination. The data in the reverse travels on the
IS-95 reverse links. The reverse links consist of up to 94 logical CDMA channels, each occupying the 1228
kHz bandwidth. The reverse link supports up to 32 access channels and up to 62 traffic channels. The reverse
links support many mobile unit-specific features to initiate calls, and to update location during handoffs.
5.4. The 2.5G Cellular Networks
The 2.5G cellular network refers to an interim standard of mobile telecommunications that lies between the second
generation (2G) and third generation (3G) technologies. It was an upgrade to the existing 2G networks that
provided increased data transmission speeds, enabling improved wireless Internet access and other data services.

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Key features of the 2.5G network include:
 Enhanced Data Rates: While not as fast as 3G, 2.5G networks provided higher data rates than the existing
2G networks. This was sufficient for services such as email, basic web browsing, and some level of
multimedia access.
 Packet-Switched Data: Unlike 2G networks, which were primarily circuit-switched and thus less efficient
for intermittent data transmission, 2.5G introduced packet-switched data transmission for improving
Internet access efficiency.
 GPRS (General Packet Radio Service): One of the primary technologies associated with 2.5G is GPRS. It
allowed for data rates of up to 114 kbps, which was much higher than the 9.6 kbps of 2G GSM networks.
GPRS is sometimes referred to as 2.5G because it offered increased functionality over 2G but did not meet
the speed requirements of 3G.
 EDGE (Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution): Also known as Enhanced GPRS (EGPRS), this
technology provided a further enhancement over GPRS and is often labeled as "2.75G". EDGE networks
could achieve data transmission speeds up to 384 kbps, which was closer to 3G speeds.
The introduction of 2.5G was significant because it marked the transition from purely voice-oriented services
towards a combination of voice and data. It laid the foundation for the mobile Internet and set the stage for the
adoption of 3G technology, which would further boost transmission speeds and enable services such as mobile TV,
video conferencing, and more advanced Internet applications.
Advantages:
 Enhanced Data Speeds: Compared to 2G, 2.5G networks offered higher data transmission speeds, which
allowed for a better mobile internet experience.
 Packet-Switched Data: The shift to packet-switching in 2.5G networks made data transmission more
efficient, especially for non-continuous data transmission like web browsing and emails.
 Better Internet Services: The increased speed and efficiency enabled more functional internet-based
services on mobile devices, such as basic web browsing, email, and multimedia messaging service (MMS).
 Compatibility and Upgradability: 2.5G technologies were largely backward compatible with 2G, allowing
users to switch to 2.5G services without needing to change their mobile devices in many cases.
 Wider Availability: Because 2.5G was an enhancement of the existing 2G network infrastructure, it could
be rolled out quickly and more widely than the newer 3G technologies.
 Cost-Effective: Upgrading from 2G to 2.5G was less expensive for service providers compared to a full 3G
upgrade, both in terms of infrastructure and licensing costs.
Disadvantages:
 Limited Data Speed: While faster than 2G, 2.5G was still not fast enough for advanced internet services or
streaming of high-quality video and audio content.
 Network Congestion: As more users began utilizing data services, 2.5G networks could experience
congestion, leading to slower data speeds and service degradation.
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  Technology Transition: As an interim solution, 2.5G was quickly overshadowed by the much faster 3G
technology, making it somewhat short-lived.
 Investment Allocation: For mobile operators, investment in 2.5G technology might have been seen as a
stop-gap before inevitable 3G upgrades, potentially leading to divided focus and resources.
 Complexity and Cost for Users: Although the upgrade from 2G to 2.5G didn't necessarily require a device
change, users still needed to have GPRS or EDGE-capable phones to take advantage of the faster data
speeds.
 Battery Life: The increased power demands of 2.5G technology could lead to shorter battery life compared
to purely 2G phones, as the device had to handle more complex data processing.
Overall, 2.5G represented an important evolutionary step in the mobile telecommunications landscape by
introducing many users to mobile data services for the first time, setting the stage for the more data-centric 3G and
later technologies.

5.5. Third Generation (3G) Cellular Networks

3G or 3rd generation mobile telecommunications is a generation of standards for mobile phones and
mobile telecommunication services fulfilling the International Mobile Telecommunications-2000 (IMT-
2000) specifications by the International Telecommunication Union. Application services include wide-area
wireless voice telephone, mobile Internet access, video calls and mobile TV, all in a mobile environment.

The third-generation (3G) vision is to create a unified global set of standards requirements that could lead to the
commercial deployment of advanced multimedia wireless communications. The goal of 3G systems is to enable
wireless service providers to offer services found on today’s wireline networks.

3G is not one standard; it is a family of standards which can all work together. This is the main reason why
there are too many terms and standards in the 3G space. The International Telecommunications Union (ITU) is
coordinating this international harmonization of 3G standards under the overall umbrella of International
Mobile Telecommunication 2000 (IMT 2000). See the sidebar “ITU’s View of 3G” for the requirements that
are driving 3G developments.

The goal of 3G wireless systems was to provide wireless data service with data rates of 144kbps to 384kbps in
wide coverage areas, and 2Mbps in local coverage areas. Possible applications included wireless web- based
access, E-mail, as well as video teleconferencing and multimedia services consisting of mixed voice and data
streams. After ten years of development, IMT-2000 (International Mobile Telecommunications-2000) has
accepted a new 3G standard from China, i.e. TD-SCDMA. Thus, there are new three 3G cellular network
standards. They are CDMA2000 from America, WCDMA from Europe and TD-SCDMA from China.

The best-known example of 3G is the UMTS (Universal Mobile Telecommunications System) – an acronym
used to describe a 3G system that originated in Europe and is being used elsewhere. In fact, several analysts

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 claim that UMTS-3G. The overall idea is that UMTS users will be able to use 3G technology all over the world
under different banners. This roaming ability to use devices on different networks will be made possible by
satellite and land-based networks. UMTS provides a consistent service environment even when roaming via
“Virtual Home Environment” (VHE). A person roaming from his network to other UMTS operators
experiences a consistent set of services, independent of the location or access mode (satellite or terrestrial).

Whatever the name, 3G is designed to raise the data rate to 2 megabits per second (2 Mbps) – a much higher
rate than 2G and 2.5G. Specifically, 3G systems offer between 144 Kbps to 384 Kbps for high-mobility and
high coverage, and 2 Mbps for low-mobility and low coverage applications. In other words, 3G systems
mandate data rates of 144 Kbps at driving speeds, 384 Kbps for outside stationary use or walking speeds, and 2
Mbps indoors. However, the indoor rate of 2 Mbps from 3G competes with high-speed 802.11 wireless LANs
that offer data rates of 11 to 54 Mbps. The main attraction of 3G is the 384 Kbps data rate for outdoor use as an
IP-based packet-switching service over wide areas. This service can support wireless Internet access over very
wide geographical areas.

3G systems are based on packet switching instead of the older circuit-switching systems used in 2G. What does
this mean? In 2G cellular networks, most data communication, apart from the Short Message Service (SMS),
requires a circuit-switched connection in which a user must connect to a server to check email, for example.
The main limitation of this approach is that the users have to be online even when they are not sending data, so
they pay higher costs and network capacity is wasted.

3G networks use a connectionless (packet-switched) communications mechanism. Data are split into packets to
which an address uniquely identifying the destination is appended. This mode of transmission, in which
communication is broken into packets, allows the same data path to be shared among many users in the
network. By breaking data into smaller packets that travel in parallel on different channels, the data rate can be
increased significantly.

For example, splitting a message into 6 packets can theoretically increase data rate six times (e.g. from
9.6 Kbps to 56 Kbps, roughly). In addition, users can stay online throughout and yet not be charged for the time
spent online. Rather, they only pay for the amount of data that they retrieve. This is in contrast to a circuit-
switched network like the regular voice telephone network where the communication path is dedicated to the
callers, thus blocking that path to other users for that period of time. This means that although a 3G handset is,
in effect, permanently connected to the network, it only uses bandwidth when needed.

3G has evolved from 2G and is built on the success of GSM (GSM, GSM1800 and GSM1900). Dual- mode
terminals ease migration from 2G to 3G. Although many options for 3G exist, the radio technology in 3G will
likely be Wideband CDMA (Collision detect multiple access). This is similar to local area network technologies
such as Ethernet. In the US, CDMA2000 will be used (this is similar to Wideband CDMA but backward
compatible with IS-95).

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Advantages of 3G:

 Overcrowding is relieved in existing systems with radio spectrum

 Bandwidth, security and reliability are more
 Provides interoperability among service providers
 Availability of fixed and variable rates
 Support to devices with backward compatibility with existing networks
 Always online devices – 3G uses IP connectivity which is packet based
 Rich multimedia services are
available Disadvantages of 3G:
 The cost of cellular infrastructure, and upgrading base stations is very high.
 Needs different handsets.
 Roaming and data/voice work together has not yet been implemented.
 Power consumption is high.
 Requires closer base stations and are expensive.
 Spectrum-license costs, network deployment costs and handset subsidies subscribers are
tremendous.

5.6. Fourth Generation (4G) Cellular Networks

In telecommunications, 4G is the fourth generation of cellular wireless standards. It is a successor to the 3G
and 2G families of standards. In 2009, the ITU-R organization specified the IMT-Advanced (International
Mobile Telecommunications Advanced) requirements for 4G standards, setting peak speed requirements for 4G
service at 100 Mbit/sec for high mobility communication (such as from trains and cars) and 1 Gbit/sec for low
mobility communication (such as pedestrians and stationary users).

The world's first publicly available LTE service was opened in the two Scandinavian capitals Stockholm
(Ericsson and Nokia Siemens Networks systems) and Oslo (a Huawei system) on 14 December 2009. One of
the key technologies for 4G and beyond is called Open Wireless Architecture (OWA), supporting multiple
wireless air interfaces in an open architecture platform.

A 4G system is expected to provide a comprehensive and secure all-IP based mobile broadband solution to
laptop, computer wireless modems, smartphones, and other mobile devices. Facilities such as ultra- broadband
Internet access, IP telephony, gaming services, and streamed multimedia may be provided to users.

In mid 1990s, the ITU-R organization specified the IMT-2000 specifications for what standards that should be
considered 3G systems. However, the cell phone market brands only some of the IMT-2000 standards as 3G
(e.g. WCDMA and CDMA2000), not all (3GPP EDGE, DECT and mobile-WiMAX all fulfil the IMT- 2000
requirements and are formally accepted as 3G standards, but are typically not branded as 3G). In 2008, ITU- R
specified the IMT-Advanced (International Mobile Telecommunications Advanced) requirements for 4G
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systems.

IMT-Advanced compliant versions of LTE and WiMAX are under development and called "LTE Advanced"
and "WirelessMAN-Advanced" respectively. ITU has decided that LTE Advanced and WirelessMAN-
Advanced should be accorded the official designation of IMT-Advanced. On December 6, 2010, ITU
recognized that current versions of LTE, WiMax and other evolved 3G technologies that do not fulfill "IMT-
Advanced" requirements could nevertheless be considered "4G", provided they represent forerunners to IMT-
Advanced and "a substantial level of improvement in performance and capabilities with respect to the initial
third generation systems now deployed."

The 4G mobile system is an all IP-based network system. The features of 4G may be summarized with one
word- integration. 4G technology should integrate different current existing and future wireless network
technologies (e.g. OFDM, MC-CDMA, LAS-CDMA and Network-LMDS) to ensure freedom of movement
and seamless roaming from one technology to another. These will provide multimedia applications to mobile
users by accessing different technologies in a continuous and always best connection possible.

4G networks can integrate several radio access networks with fixed internet networks as the backbone. A core
interface sits in between core network and radio access networks, and a collection of radio interfaces is used for
communication between the radio access networks and mobile users. This kind of integration combines
multiple radio access interfaces into a single network to provide seamless roaming/handoff and the best
connected services.

The wireless telecommunications industry as a whole has early assumed the term 4G as a shorthand way to
describe those advanced cellular technologies that, among other things, are based on or employ wide channel
OFDMA and SC-FDE technologies, MIMO transmission and an all-IP based architecture. Mobile-WiMAX,
first release LTE, IEEE 802.20 as well as Flash-OFDM meets these early assumptions, and have been
considered as 4G candidate systems, but do not yet meet the more recent ITU-R IMT-Advanced requirements.

Advantages of a 4G network:
 Better spectral efficiency.

 High speed, capacity and bandwidth.

 Tight network security.

 High usability: anytime, anywhere and any with technology.

 Support for multimedia services low transmission cost.
 Low cost per bit.
 A seamless network of multiple protocols and air interface.
 Affordable communication system.

 Haveeasier access to services and applications.

 Increases the level of use of synchronization
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  Machine to machine communication provided.
 Global access, service portability, and a variety of quality of services provided.

Disadvantages of a 4G network:
 The battery uses are more.

 Hard to implement.

 Need complicated hardware.

 It needed to avail services of 4G technology.

 The equipment required for a next- generation network is still very expensive.
 The network has more problem has security issues.
 Not many areas of 4G services yet.

 Network protocol and standardization have not to be defined.

 High data prize for consumers.

 Need different handsets.

 Power consumption is high.

 Roaming and data or voice work together has not yet been implemented.
 Require closer base station and are expensive.

5.7. Overview of Fifth Generation (5G) Cellular Networks

5G (5th generation mobile networks or 5th generation wireless systems) is a name used in some research
papers and projects to denote the next major phase of mobile telecommunications standards beyond the
4G/IMT-Advanced standards effective since 2011. At present, 5G is not a term officially used for any particular
specification or in any official document yet made public by telecommunication companies or standardization
bodies such as 3GPP, WiMAX Forum, or ITU-R. New standard releases beyond 4G are in progress by
standardization bodies, but are at this time not considered as new mobile generations but under the 4G
umbrella.

The problem is that 5G is designed for World Wide Wireless Web (WWWW) to mobile users based on network
access management, but IPv6 assigns any IP address to any mobile node based on location management. This
will cause 5G wireless network resources waste and the IPv6 is difficult to work on the World-Wide Wireless
Web (WWWW). In order to solve this problem, we have proposed the bandwidth optimization control protocol
and the mix-bandwidth data path for future 5G real wireless world. The bandwidth optimization control
protocol (BOCP) is implemented in between MAC layer and TCP/IP layer, which is used to establish the mix-
bandwidth.
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Were a 5G family of standards to be implemented, it would likely be around the year 2020, according to some
sources. A new mobile generation has appeared every 10th year since the first 1G system (NMT) was
introduced in 1981, including the 2G (GSM) system that started to roll out in 1992, 3G (W-CDMA/FOMA),
which appeared in 2001, and "real" 4G standards fulfilling the IMT-Advanced requirements, that were ratified
in 2011 and products expected in 2012-2013. Predecessor technologies have occurred on the market a few years
before the new mobile generation, for example the pre-3G system CdmaOne/IS95 in 1995, and the pre-4G
systems Mobile WiMAX and LTE in 2005 and 2009 respectively.
Advantages of 5G technology
 Higher Download Speed: The 5G network will have the capacity to increase download speeds by up to
20 times (from 200 Mbps (4G) to 10 Gbps (5G)) and decreasing latency (response time between
devices). These speeds will maximize the browsing experience by facilitating processes that, although
possible today, still present difficulties.
 Hyperconnectivity: The 5G network promises the possibility of having a hyper-interconnected
environment to reach the point of having the much desired “smart cities”. The correct performance of
these new dynamics will depend on the bandwidth of 5G and the Internet of Things (IoT).
 Process optimization: It is also expected to revolutionize areas such as medicine (remote operations,
for example), and traffic management and autonomous vehicles, as well as its implementation in
the construction sector to optimize resources and reduce risks.
Disadvantages of 5G technology
 Immediate Obsolescence: The transition to the 5G network will require devices that can support it;
current 4G devices do not have this capability and will become immediately obsolete.
 Technological exclusion: The implementation of the 5G network also implies a lack of immediate
accessibility for average pockets, combined with a delay in its implementation due to a lack of means
for its use.
 Insufficient Infrastructure: For the 5G network to function properly will require a whole
ambitious investment in infrastructure to increase bandwidth and expand coverage, and this is not cheap.
This situation will necessarily lead to delays in its implementation due to the high costs that
governments will have to cover for 5G to function properly
 Risks in security and proper data handling: All of this requires optimal data management, and this is
where the most conflictive part of the advantages versus disadvantages lies. And the fact is that, in the
management of all this information, both from companies and individuals and even governments, not
only issues such as Big Data techniques are involved in its study.

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Generation Definition Through Technology Time Features
(1G,2G,3G, put/ period
4G,5G) Speed
1G Analog 14.4 AMPS,NM 1970-1980 During 1G Wireless phones are used
Kbps T,TACS for voice only.
(peak)
2G Digital 9.6/14.4 TDMA,CD 1990-2000 2G capabilities are achieved by
Narrow band Kbps MA allowing multiple users on a single
circuit data channel via multiplexing. During 2G
Cellular phones are used for data also
along with voice.
2.5G Packet Data 171.2 GPRS 2001-2004 In 2.5G the internet becomes popular
Kbps and data becomes more relevant.2.5G
(pe Multimedia services and streaming
ak) starts to show growth. Phones start
20-40 supporting web browsing through
Kbps limited and very few phones have that.
3G Digital 3.1 Mbps CDMA 2004-2005 3G has Multimedia services support
Broadband (peak) 2000 along with streaming are more
Packet Data 500-700 (1xRTT, popular. In 3G, Universal access and
Kbps EVDO) portability across different device
UMTS, types are made possible. (Telephones,
EDGE PDA’s, etc.)
3.5G Packet Data 14.4 HSPA 2006-2010 3.5G supports higher throughput and
Mbps speeds to support higher data needs of
(peak) the consumers.
1-3
Mbps
4G Digital 100-300 WiMax Now Speeds for 4G are further increased to
Broadband Mbps LTE (Transitioni keep up with data access demand used
Packet (peak) Wi-Fi ng to 4G) by various services. High-definition
All IP Very 3-5 streaming is now supported in 4G.
high Mbps New phones with HD capabilities
throughput 100 surface. It gets pretty cool. In 4G,
Mbps Portability is increased further.

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 (Wi-Fi) World-wide roaming is not a distant
dream.
5G Not Yet Probably Not Yet Soon Currently there is no 5G technology
gigabits (probably deployed. When this becomes
2020) available it will provide very high
speeds to the consumers. It would also
provide efficient use of available
bandwidth as has been seen through
development of each new technology.

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Conclusion
In conclusion, cellular networks have become the backbone of modern communication and connectivity. From
their inception as purely voice communication systems, they have transformed into comprehensive data services
that underpin modern digital life. The advent of 5G promises to usher in a new era of innovation with the potential
for groundbreaking applications in the Internet of Things (IoT), autonomous vehicles, smart cities, and more. As
we look towards the future, the continued evolution of cellular networks is expected to further disrupt and enable
advancements in virtually every sector of society, emphasizing the critical role these networks play in global
connectivity and technological progress.
As we continue to embrace the advancements in cellular technology, we can expect even faster data speeds,
enhanced network reliability, and new possibilities for innovation and connectivity. Cellular networks will
continue to play a vital role in shaping the future of communication and driving the digital transformation of
society.

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Reference

Amjad Umer, Mobile Computing and Wireless Communications.

Jochen H. Schiller- Mobile communications ,2nd Edition
John. Wiley & Sons – Handbook of Wireless Networks and Mobile Computing.
Theodore.S. Rappaport, Wireless Communication and Principles and Practice, 2nd
Edition.
Vijay Garg, Wireless Communications and Networking.

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