GEOTECHNICAL

MANUAL
FOR
SLOPES

GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING OFFICE

Civil Engineering and Development Department
The Government of the Hong Kong
Special Administrative Region
 GEOTECHNICAL
MANUAL
FOR
SLOPES

GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING OFFICE

Civil Engineering and Development Department
The Government of the Hong Kong
Special Administrative Region
 2

© The Government of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region

First published, November 1979
Reprinted with minor corrections, November 1981
Second Edition, May 1984
First reprint, June 1991
Second reprint, March 1994
Third reprint, June 1997
Fourth reprint, February 2000
Fifth reprint, January 2011

Prepared by:

Geotechnical Engineering Office,

Civil Engineering and Development Department,
Civil Engineering and Development Building,
101 Princess Margaret Road,
Homantin, Kowloon,
Hong Kong.
 3

PREFACE TO FIFTH REPRINT

Since the publication of the second edition of this Manual

in 1984, there have been significant advances in local practice
with regard to slope investigation, design, construction and
maintenance. As a result, more up-to-date guidance is given in
subsequent GEO publications to supersede or supplement that
given in this Manual (see the Addendum at the end of the
Manual). For this up-to-date guidance, readers are
recommended to refer to the original publications cited in the
Addendum.

R.K.S. Chan
Head, Geotechnical Engineering Office
January 2011
 4

FOREWORD

The Geotechnical Manual for Slopes provides guidance for the standards
of practice that should be adopted for the design, construction and
maintenance of slopes and site formation works in Hong Kong.
The first edition of the Manual was published in draft form in November
1979 to promote discussion and comment from those who used the Manual
during its four-year life. This second edition has been prepared to
rectify sorne weaknesses in the first edition and to up-date the content
to current geotechnical engineering standards and practice. It takes
account of improvements in practice that have occurred since 1979.
This second edition has been prepared entirely within the Geotechnical
Control Office, after wide consultation throughout both the public and
private sectors of the profession. It is based heavily upon the first
edition, and only small changes have been made to many of the original
sections. It is acknowledged, therefore, that this new edition owes a great
deal to the Members of the Steering Group under whose guidance the first
edition was produced on the basis of a draft prepared for the Geotechnical
Control Office by Binnie & Partners (Hong Kong). Particular mention must be
made of Professor P. Lumb, Professor S. Mackey, Mr R.O. Maher, Mr P.S.
Molyneux, Mr D.J. Sweeney, Mr P.J. Thompson and Mr A.J. Vail who freely
contributed a great deal of time and effort to this earl ier endeavour.
Because this Manual is not meant to fulfil the role of a text book,
no attempt has been made to provide a completely balanced treatment of the
subject matter. Material that is of common geotechnical engineering
knowledge has generally been omitted, the emphasis being placed upon the
subject matter that is peculiar to Hong Kong or that, it is felt, requires
fairly full explanation.
Within the confines of a single brief volume, it is difficult to deal
adequately with such a broad subject area as that covered by the Manual. It
is envisaged, therefore, that the Geotechnical Control Office will in time
replace the Manual by a series of Geoguides, each of which would give fuller
coverage to the material presently dealt with in each Chapter of this volume.
It is necessary to emphasize that the Manual is a guidance document
and, as such, its recommendations are not mandatory. It is l ikely that
situations will sometimes arise for which the Manual provides inadequate or
inappropriate guidance, and the designer must use alternative methods of
approach. There will also be improvements in design and construction
practice that will supersede specific recommendations of this edition
during its lifetime. For proper recognition to be made of advances in our
knowledge, it is therefore essential that practitioners continue to provide
the Geotechnical Control Office with suggestions for improvements to the
Manual.

E.W. Brand
Principal Government Geotechnical Engineer
May 1984
 5

CONTENTS
Page
No.

TITLE PAGE 1

PREFACE 3

FOREWORD 4

CONTENTS 5

l. GEOLOGY OF HONG KONG 13

1.1 ROCKS 13

l. 2 SOILS 14

2. SITE INVESTIGATION 17

2.1 INTRODUCTION 17

2.2 DESK STUDIES 17

2.2.1 Existing Maps and Plans 17
2. 2. 2 Documents and Records 18
2.2.3 Aerial Photograph Interpretation 18

2.3 FIELD STUDIES 19

2.3.1 Visual Examination 19
2.3.2 Engineering Geological Mapping 20
2.3.3 Soil and Rock Description 20
2.3.4 Joint Surveys 22
2.3.5 Surface Drainage 22

2.4 SUBSURFACE INVESTIGATION TECHNIQUES 22

2.4.1 Requirements 22
2.4.2 Trial Pits and Trenches 23
2.4.3 Hand-excavated Caissons 23
2.4.4 Slope Surface Stripping 23
2.4.5 Dynamic Probing 23
2.4.6 Bor ing 24
2.4.7 Drilling 25
2.4.8 Factors Influencing High Quality 26
Drilling
2.4.9 Backfilling 28
2.4.10 Sampling 28
2.4.11 Core Handling and Storage 30
2.4.12 Logging of Hales 31
2.4.13 Instrumentation 32
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Page
No.

2.5 FIELD TESTING TECHNIQUES 32

2.5.l Standard Penetration Test 32
2.5.2 Impression Packer Survey 33
2.5.3 Outch Cone Test 33
2.5.4 Pressuremeter 33
2.5.5 Plate Bearing Test 34
2.5.6 Vane Test 34
2.5.7 Permeability Tests 34
2.5.8 Permeability Tests in Soil 35
2.5.9 Packer or Lugeon Test 36
2.5.10 Geophysical Methods 37

2.6 RECORDS 38
2. 6. 1 Rock Joint Surveys 38
2.6.2 Engineering Geology Maps 39
2.6.3 Tria! Pit, Borehole and Drillhole Logs 39
2.6.4 Permeability Tests 39

3. LABORATORY TESTING 41

3. 1 INTRODUCTION 41

3.2 CLASSIFICATION TESTS ON SOILS 41

3. 2 .1 General 41
3.2.2 Moisture Content 41
3.2.3 Atterberg Limits 42
3.2.4 Specific Gravity 42
3.2.5 Particle Size Distribution 42

3.3 CHEMICAL TESTS ON SOILS 43

3.3.1 Sulphate Content 43
3. 3 • 2 Acidi ty 43

3.4 COMPACTION TESTS 43

3.5 PERMEABILITY TESTS 44

3.6 CONSOLIDATION TESTS 44

3.7 MEASUREMENT OF SHEAR STRENGTH 44

3. 7 .1 General 44
3. 7. 2 Selection of Test Specimens 45
3.7.3 Types of Shear Test 46

3.8 TRIAXIAL TESTS ON SOILS 46

3.8.1 Test Procedure 46
3.8.2 Interpretation of Results 47

3.9 DIRECT SHEAR TESTS ON SOILS 48

3.9.1 Test Procedure 48
3.9.2 Interpretation of Results 48

3.10 STRENGTH TESTS ON ROCK JOINTS 49

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Page
No.

3.10.1 Direct Shear Equipment 49

3.10.2 Specimen Preparation and Test 49
Procedure
3. 10. 3 Interpretation of Resul ts 50

3.11 STRENGTH TESTS ON INTACT ROCK 50

3.11.1 Unconfined Compression Tests 50
3.11.2 Triaxial Compression Tests 51

3.12 PRESENTATION OF TEST RESULTS 51

4. GROUNDWATER 53

4.1 INTRODUCTION 53

4.2 RUNOFF, INFILTRATION ANO GROUNDWATER RECHARGE 53

4.2.1 Water Balance 53
4.2.2 Runo f f 54
4.2.3 Infiltration 55
4.2.4 Types of Groundwater Flow 55

4.3 PORE PRESSURES 56

4. 3 .1 Positive Pare Pressure 56
4.3.2 Negative Pore Pressure 57
4.3.3 Measurement of Pore Pressure 57
4.3.4 Determination of Pore Pressure 58
Distribution

4.4 WATER LEVELS FOR DESIGN 58

4. 4. 1 General 58
4.4.2 Extrapolation of Observed Piezometric 59
Responses
4.4.3 Wetting Band Approach 60
4.4.4 Other Factors Affecting Groundwater 63
Conditions
4.4.5 Groundwater in Rock 64

4.5 SUBSURFACE DRAINAGE MEASURES 64

4. 5 .1 General 64
4.5.2 Horizontal Drains 65
4.5.3 Drainage Galleries 66
4. 5. 4 Vertical Wells 66
4.5.5 Cut-off Drains 66
4.5.6 Counterfort Drains 67

4.6 FILTERS 67
4. 6. 1 Granular Filters 67
4.6.2 Filter Fabrics 69

5. DESIGN OF SLOPES 71

5. 1 INTRODUCTION 71
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Page
No.

5.2 FACTORS OF SAFETY 71

5.2.1 New Slopes 72
5. 2. 2 Existing Slopes 72
5. 2. 3 Natural Slopes 73
5. 2 . 4 Temporary Works 73

5.3 STABILITY ANALYSES 73

5.3.1 Modes of Failure 73
5.3.2 Input Data 74
5. 3. 3 Methods of Analysis 76
5.3.4 Three-Dimensional Effects 76
5.3.5 Recommended Methods of Analysis 77
5.3.6 Reliability of Stability Analyses 78
5.3.7 Sensitivity Analysis 78

5.4 DESIGN OF CUT SLOPES 79

5. 4 .1 Slope Profile 79
5.4.2 Improvement of Stability 79
5.4.3 Treatment of Rock Slopes 80
5.4.4 Design of Dowels 81
5.4.5 Design of Rock Bolts 81
5. 4 • 6 Boulder and Rockfall Control 82

5. 5 DESIGN OF FILL SLOPES 83

5.5.1 New Earthfill Slopes 83
5.5.2 Treatment of Existing Earthfill Slopes 83
5.5.3 Rockfill Slopes 83

6• FOUNDATIONS ON SLOPES 85

6 .1 INTRODUCTION 85

6.2 SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS 85

6.2.1 Bearing Capacity and Settlement 85
6. 2. 2 Slope Stabili ty 86

6.3 DEEP FOUNDATIONS 86

6.3.1 Lateral Loads 86
6.3.2 Slope Stability 87

7. RETAINING STRUCTURES 89

7. 1 INTRODUCTION 89

7.2 FORCES ON WALLS 89

7.2.1 Earth Pressures 89
7.2.2 Water Pressures 90
7. 2 . 3 Surcharge Loads 90
7. 2 • 4 Construction Loads 91

7.3 STABILITY OF RETAINING WALLS 91

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Page
No.

7.3.1 Base Friction 91

7.3.2 Bearing Capacity 91
7.3.3 Factors of Safety 91
7.3.4 Retaining Walls with Keys 92
7.3.5 Sheet Retaining Structures 93
7.3.6 Settlements outside Excavations 93

8. SURFACE DRAINAGE AND SURFACE PROTECTION 95

8. 1 INTRODUCTION 95
8. 2 CATCHMENT PARAMETERS 95
8.2.1 Runoff 95
8. 2. 2 Area of Catchment 96
8.2.3 Time of Concentration 96
8. 2. 4 Design Intensity 97
8.3 DETAILED DESIGN OF DRAINAGE SYSTEMS 98
8.3.1 General Design Considerations 98
8.3.2 Layout of Slope Drainage 98
8.3.3 Types of Channel 99
8.3.4 Channel Design 99
8. 3 • 5 Changes in Direction 1 OO
8. 3. 6 Junctions of Channels 100
8.4 VEGETATIVE PROTECTION MEASURES 101
8.4.1 General Design Considerations 101
8.4.2 Vegetation succession 101
8.4.3 The Effects of Vegetation on Slopes 101
8.4.4 Limitations on Slope Vegetation 102
8.4.5 Vegetation Species 103
8.5 RIGID PROTECTION MEASURES 104
8.5.1 General Design Considerations 104
8.5.2 Chunam 104
8.5.3 Sprayed Concrete (Shotcrete) 105
8.5.4 Masonry 105

9. CONSTRUCTION 107
9.1 CONSTRUCTION CONTROL 107
9.2 TEMPORARY WORKS 107
9.3 SITE FORMATION AND BORROW AREAS 108
9.4 EXCAVATIONS 109
9.4.1 Programme 109
9.4.2 Methods 109
9.4.3 Effects of Vibrations 111
9.4.4 Support 111
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Page
No.

9.4.5 Drainage 112

9.4.6 Excavation for Drains, Channels and 112
Pits
9.4.7 Excavation for Services 113

9.5 FILL 113

9. 5. 1 General 113
9.5.2 Compaction of Rockfill 114
9.5.3 Compaction of Earthfill 115
9.5.4 Compaction Control 115
9.5.5 Measurement of Insitu Density 116
9.5.6 Measurement of Moisture Content 117

9. 6 SURFACE PROTECTION 118

9.6.1 Grass 118
9. 6. 2 Trees and Shrubs 119
9. 6. 3 Ch unam 119
9. 6. 4 Sprayed Concrete 120
9.6.5 Masonry 121
9.6.6 Planting on Impervious Surfaces 121

9.7 SERVICES 121

10. FIELD INSTRUMENTATION 123

10.1 INTRODUCTION 123

10.1.1 Planning Field Instrumentation 123
10.1.2 Calibration, Installation and 123
Reading
10.2 GROUNDWATER LEVELS ANO PORE PRESSURES 124
10.2.1 Measurement of Groundwater Levels 124
10.2.2 Measurement of Pore Pressures 125
10.2.3 Open Hydraulic (Casagrande) Piezometers 125
10.2.4 Closed Hydraulic Piezometers 126
10.2.5 Pneumatic Piezometers 127
10.2.6 Electrical Piezometers 127
1 O. 2 . 7 Measurement of Pore Suctions 12 7
10.2.8 Location of Piezometers 128

10.3 SURFACE MOVEMENTS 128

10.3.1 Significance of Movements 128
10. 3. 2 Structural Cracking 128
10.3.3 Rock and Soil Slopes 129
10.3.4 Surveying 129
10.3.5 Photogrammetry 130

1 O. 4 SUBSURFACE MOVEMENTS 130

10. 4 .1 Inclinometers 130
10.4.2 Slip Indicators 131
1 O. 4. 3 Extensometers 131
10.4.4 Settlement Gauges 131
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Page
No.
10. 5 LOADS ANO STRESSES 132
10.5.1 Load Cells far Rockbolts and Anchors 132
10.5.2 Earth Pressure Cells 132

11. MAINTENANCE 133

11.1 INTRODUCTION 133

11.2 FREQUENCY OF INSPECTIONS 133

11. 3 INSPECTION REPORTS 133
11.3.1 Technical Inspections 134
11.3.2 Engineering Inspections 134
11 • 4 MAINTENANCE 134
11. 4 . 1 Instruments 134
11.4.2 Slopes and Slope Surfacing 134
11.4.3 Surface Drainage 136
11.4.4 Subsurface Drainage 137
11. 4. 5 Services 138
11. 5 ACCESS 138

12. SOURCES OF INFORMATION 139

12 • 1 INTRODUCTION 139
12.2 OVERSEAS SOURCES OF GEOTECHNICAL INFORMATION 139
12.2.1 Asian Information Center far 139
Geotechnical Engineering (AGE)
12.2.2 Geotechnical Abstracta and Geodex 140
12. 2. 3 Other Overseas Services 140
12.3 LOCAL SOURCES OF GEOTECHNICAL INFORMATION 141
12.3.1 Published Information Specific to 141
Hong Kong
12.3.2 Geotechnical Information Unit of 142
the GCO
12.3.3 Government Departments 142
12. 3. 4 Other Local Sources 143
12.4 INFORMATION ON SERVICES ANO UTILITIES 143
12.5 ADDRESSES OF ORGANISATIONS REFERRED TO IN 144
THIS CHAPTER

REFERENCES 147

HONG KONG BIBLIOGRAPHY 159

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Page
No.

TABLES 171
LIST OF TABLES 173
TABLES 175

FIGURES 201
LIST OF FIGURES 203
FIGURES 207

PLATES 273
LIST OF PLATES 275
PLATES 279

ADDENDUM 297
 13

l, GEOLOGY OF HONG KONG

1.1 ROCKS
Two major rock types of igneous or1g1n occur in Hong Kong : granitic
and volcanic. Coarse grained granite rocks underlie Kowloon, the central
part of Hong Kong Island, the lower levels of Victoria Peak, Sha Tin, Tsuen
Wan and Castle Peak, although in places these are covered with colluvium,
alluvium and recent marine deposits. Generally, finer-grained volcanic
rocks underlie the middle and upper levels of Victoria Peak, the southern
part of Hong Kong Island and much of the New Territories. In addition,
sedimentary rocks, sorne of which are metamorphosed, cover a small area in
the north of the Territory. 0n north Lantau and Tsing Yi, a major swarm of
feldspar porphyry dykes has intruded both the granite and volcanic rocks.
In many low-lying areas, superficial recent marine and estuarine deposits
are common.
A detailed geological description of the rocks and rock formations of
Hong Kong is given in a report by Al len & Stephens (1971), and the distri-
butions of all deposits are shown on the accompanyina 1:50 000 scale map
(see Chapter 12 for details on how to obtain this map). It should be noted
that this map will eventually be superseded by the larger-scale maps of the
current Geotechnical Control 0ffice geological remapping programme.
The granite suite of rocks are younger than the volcanic and have been
intruded into the latter in the form of a batholith, or stock, with
irregular outlines. The granites are generally widely jointed with typical
joint spacings between 0.5 m and 2 m. Sheet joints'are often present near
the surface.
Although varying somewhat in composition and colour, the granitic rocks
are often visually similar and are normally composed of feldspar, quartz,
hornblende and biotite. Towards the contact with the volcanic rocks, the
granites are sometimes finer-grained and the contact is often sharp and
well-defined.
A granodioritic rock, which is part of the granitic suite, has been
intruded into the volcanic rocks along a northeast to southwest line passing
through Tai Po. Granodiorite has also been intruded into the granitic rocks
of Stanley Península.
The volcanic suite of rocks contains a mixture of lithologies including
recrystallized and welded tuffs (ignimbrites), fine tuffs, coarse tuffs,
trachyandesitic and rhyolitic lava flows., sorne of which are metamorphosed.
The tuffs are the most common rock type. The rocks are generally closely
jointed with typical joint spacings between 50 mm and 200 mm, however, in
the coarser-grained varieties, joint spacings up to 3 m may be found.
Dolerite dykes of varying width, but generally not exceeding several
metres, have been intruded into both the qranitic and the volcanic rocks.
The dykes in the volcanic rocks are sometimes sheared or faulted along one
or both margins while this is rarely -noted in the granitic rocks. The dykes
tend to follow regional trends and generally dip very steeply.
Many of the rocks mentioned above have been faulted and sheared in
places, the faults following regional trends. Fault zones, which are
 14

variable in width but certainly up to many metres, can be vertical or

slightly inclined and may be weathered to considerable depths. Adjacent
to faults, the rocks may be comminuted or very closely-jointed. The faults
shown on the geological map of Hong Kong (Allen & Stephens, 1971) were
identified by aerial photograph interpretation. Many more faults and
dykes than are shown on the map are known to exist.

l. 2 SOILS

In Hong Kong, materials on natural slopes that may be regarded and

treated as soils from an engineering viewpoint are derived as products of
the processes of both chemical and physical weathering. Soil may thus
consist of insitu decomposed rock (chemical weathering) or colluvial
detritus (physical weathering) which has moved down and blanketed the slopes
in recent or ancient times during periods when the ground was excessively
wet. The thickness of colluvial soils seldom exceeds 30 m, while far
decomposed materials, soil depths in excess of 60 m are not uncommon.
The weathering of granites in Hong Kong is discussed by Ruxton & Berry
(1957) who provide an excellent introduction to the formation and nature of
these important but complex material s. The authors proposed a four-fold
zonal classification of the full weathering profile. An illustration of
this concept, in modified form, is shown in Figure 1.1. This scheme is
useful far preliminary field description of weathered granites but will
seldom be adequate far engineering purposes or far the description of other
rock types. This is discussed further in Section 5.3.2.
Examples of various zones of weathered granitic and volcanic rocks
based on the Ruxton & Berry (1957) system, are shown in Plates 1.1 to 1.12.
0ne feature of the weathering of granites that is of majar importance
far engineering projects is that rock quality does not always improve with
depth; on occasions, hard rock at the ground surface may be underlain by
thick zones of soil. Care must be taken that granite corestones are not
wrongly interpreted as pinnacles of bedrock.
The soils derived from granitic rocks are usually sandy, while those
derived from volcanic rocks tend to be silty ,1hether they are formed by
insitu decomposition or by colluvial processes.
Many of the natural soil slopes show signs of instability, which
usually takes the form of shallow, narrow translational failures. The
resulting debris may travel long distances, particularly where it becomes
concentrated along drainage lines.
Soil that is formed by insitu weathering of parent bedrock can be
recognized by the presence of relict joint planes or the original crystal
fabric of the rock. The depth over which decomposed material changes to
fresh rock is extremely variable and is related to the joint pattern, the
spacing of the joints and the position of the water table. In the more
closely-jointed rock, the change from soil to almost fresh rock can occur
overa distance of only a few hundred millimetres. Joint planes in the
fresh volcanic rocks are often coated with a clay mineral which frequently
remains a long the lines of rel ict joints in the soil. During the dry
season, the water table is often located within the underlying rock and not
within the soil. Where the rock is moderately decomposed (the feldspars
 15

have been altered to clay minerals but the rock cannot be crumbled in the
hand), the joints are sometimes slightly open and provide a zone which is
frequently more permeable than either the overlying soil or the underlying
fresh rock.
Chemical weathering of both the volcanic and granite rocks produces
halloysitic and kaolinitic clay minerals, the latter particularly during
advanced stages of decomposition (Parham, 1969; Lumb & Lee, 1975). Lumb
(1965) outlines the engineering properties of the residual soils of Hong
Kong.
Colluvium is a heterogeneous material that corisists of fresh or
variably decomposed rock fragments (varying in size from a few millimetres
to several metres) in a matrix of clayey silty soil. It results from the
physical disintegration and transportation downslope of the parent bedrock.
Alluvium, generally consisting of variable proportions of subrounded
gravel, sand, silt and clay, is found in the flatter valley bottoms.
Extensive deposits are found in the valleys of Shek Kong, Yuen Long and
Sheung Shui.
Considerable difficulty is sometimes found in distinguishing between
colluvium, weathered rocks, al luvium and fill, and this problem is discussed
in detail by Huntley & Randall (1981). Typical examples of fill and
colluvium are given in Plates 1.13 and 1.14.
 16

[BLANK PAGE]
 17

2, SITE INVESTIGATION

2.1 INTRODUCTION

There are two principal components of a site investigation far con-

struction associated with slopes. These are
(a) surface studies, and
(b) subsurface investigation.
11uch useful information can be obtained from surface studies and from
an examination of the construction records and performance of existing
structures in the vicinity of the site. The surface studies should form
the first phase of a site investigation, and the subsurface work should be
planned only after assessing the results.
The examination of surface features can be separated into two main
stages :
(a) desk studies, and
(b) field studies.
Desk studies should be carried out befare detailed field studies, but
the engineer should visit the site during the initial phase of the
investigation. The planning of the field studies should be based on the
findings of the desk studies with emphasis being placed on the potential
problem areas.
The general requirements far site investigation far construction
associated with slopes are given in Table 2.1. This Table relates the
height of the slope, the angle at which it stands and the risk category of
the site to the information and specialist advice required.
The investigations needed to fulfill the requirements set out in Table
2.1 are given in Table 2.2. These Tables are intended to provide guidance
only.
References that provide valuable information and guidance on many
aspects covered in this chapter are :
(a) Code of Practice far Site Investigation, BS 5930
(British Standards Institution, 1981), and
(b) Report of the Jnternational Association of
Engineering Geology Commission on Site Investigation
(lnternational Association of Engineering
Geology, 1981).

2.2 DESK STUDIES

2.2.1 Existing Maps and Plans

Topographic maps and plans can be used to identify geomorphological

forms and drainage patterns, and these can give an indication of the
materials to be found on the site. Maps and plans coverin9 the whole
territory of Hong Kong are published by the Lands Department at scales of
1:100 000; 1:50 000 and 1:20 000. Details of these and larger-scale maps
 18

are given in Chapter 12.

Geological maps can be used to obtain information on materials and
geological structures that affect the site. Geological maps are extremely
useful as part of the site investigation but they are often based on
isolated exposures and boreholes so that much of their detail is conjecture
rather than fact. This should be borne in mind by the user, and inter-
pretation should be left to a geotechnical engineer. A useful discussion on
the use and interpretation of geological maps is given in the Manual of
Applied Geology for Engineers produced by the Institution of Civil Engineers
(1976). Geological Maps ata scale of 1:50 000 that were compiled by Allen &
Stephens (1971) supersede previous geological surveys. These maps are also
available separately. Detailed geological survey maps are in preparation by
the Geotechnical Control Office.

2.2.2 Documents and Records

In the preliminary stages of an investigation, valuable geotechnical

information about a site can often be found in records of the development of
the area. This will include information on site formation, site investigat-
ion, well boring, piling, foundations and previous stability of slopes.
Records are generally held by the Geotechnical Control Office or the
appropriate Office of the Lands & Works group of Departments for public
development investigations. Records are also held by consultant architects
or engineers for both public and private developments, although records for
old developments may be scanty or non-existent. Site investigation
contractors and Hong Kong University may hold useful information. Old
newspapers may also be of use in providing information about specific sites
(Chapter 12).
Details of particular instabilities can sometimes be obtained from
local residents. However, though the qualitative description of such
incidents may be reasonably accurate, the details of timing are often less
reliable.
At any early stage in the planning of site investigations, requests
should be made to the various utility compan1es for details of services in
the area of interest. These may have to be temporarily or permanently
rerouted in the planned works.

2.2.3 Aerial Photograph Interpretation

Aerial and terrestrial black and white, colour and colour infrared
photographs are useful for engineering applications. In addition to these,
there are several other types of remate sensing (including satellite imagery
and radar) now available for engineering use (lnstitution of Civil Engineers,
1976). Of these, only black and white aerial photography is readily
available in Hong Kong. Complete black and white photographic coverage of
Hong Kong at 1:20 000 to 1:25 000 scale is given in surveys flown in 1964,
1967 and annually since 1973. There is also coverage of urban areas at
various scales, generally 1:4 000 to 1:8 000. Sorne earlier photographs
dating back to 1924 are also available but coverage is incomplete.
Photo-mosaics of the 1964 aerial photographs are available at 1:25 000
scale for the whole Territory and at 1:6 000 for the urban areas. All
 19

aerial and sorne terrestrial photographs are available from the Lands
Department.
In addition to topographic and geomorphological information, which can
be identified by the stereoscopic examination of aerial photoqraphs, sorne
geological information and site history can also be inferred. 0ne of the
most important uses of aerial photograph interpretation (API) in Hong Kong
is the interpretation of aerial photographs, acquired overa period of
time, to build upa construction sequence far a particular site ar
development area. This is especially important when investigating surface
hydrology ar delineating areas of cut and fill (including reclamation).
In sorne cases, construction techniques may also be visible on the
photographs.
Many geological features can be identified usinq API, far example rock
type, structural discontinuities, superficial deposits (colluvium and man-
made), and slope instability. The geomorphology and drainage patterns
usually relate to the geology. Figure 2.1 is a geological map and aerial
photograph of part of Hong Kong Island which shows sorne majar structural
and lithological features. The majar photolineations are traces of
structural discontinuities such as faults, dykes arzones of intense
jointing. These normally indicate zones of weaker rock associated with deep
weathering and groundwater concentrations. Colluvial deposits generally
occur as fans ar as lenticular bodies along drainage lines. Colluvium
consisting of detrital material that has continued to be weathered after
its deposition can often be identified by API. Colluvial deposits are often
associated with unusual groundwater conditions. 0ld slips, drainage
patterns and sometimes the presence of seepage can be identified by
stereoscopic examination of the terrain. Colour infrared photographs are
often more effective than black and white far this purpose.
Another use of API is the systematic classification of land into
'terrain units' based on attributes such as slope angle, geological material,
terrain type, erosion and instability. An example of systematic terrain
evaluation can be seen in Plate 2.1. This plate illustrates sorne of the
terrain units identified by API. Examples of its use in Hong Kong are
discussed by Brand et al (1982).
Identification of geological and geomorpholoqical features aids
planning and interpretation of subsurface investiaation and design works.
Further information on the application of API to geological and geo-
morphological investigation can be found by reference to Van Zuidam & Van
Zuidam-Concelado (1979) and Cooke & Doornkamp (1974).

2.3 FIELD STUDIES

2.3.l Visual Examination
While the site and its immediate environs will be the subject of
detailed studies, the examination of regional patterns of topography and
drainage can provide valuable information about the probable subsurface
structure of the site.
Unnaturally regular topographic forms often indicate the presence of
a man-made slope. Such features may include truncated valleys and ridges
and planar slopes; of the latter, fill slopes will usually be inclined at
between 30º and 40º and cut slopes between 50º and 60º. Slumping and
 20

settlement are often indications of the presence of fills on site. Old

developments on steep hillsides will have been formed by excavating on one
side of the site and filling on the other, althouqh the overall affect on
the topography may not be sufficiently great to allow these features to be
identified as man-made slopes by reference to the topography alone.
Vegetation, particularly on old slopes, can make the visual identification
of those which are man-made difficult, if not impossible.
A wall constructed during previous site formation works may either be
a skin overa cut face or may retain fill. The batter of a wall may
indicate which form the wall takes. The condition of any wall should be
noted, particularly if it forms part of, or is affected by the proposed new
works.

2.3.2 Engineering Geological Mapping

Far a large or difficult site, it is advisable to carry out full-scale

surface investigation and geological mapping. The methods used when
plotting the data collected should be based on the Geological Society of
London vlorking Party Report (1972) on the Preparation of Maps and Plans in
Terms of Engineering Geology, modified as necessary far Hong Kong conditions.
Further information on engineering geological mapping is given by
International Association of Engineering Geology (1976) and Institution of
Civil Engineers (1976).
Although soil and rock exposures should be indicated on the geological
map under generic names, they should be fully described on field data sheets
far subsequent correlation with the results of subsurface investigations.
The methods used far describing Hong Kong soils and rocks are explained in
Section 2.3.3.

2.3.3 Soil and Rock Description

Good soil and rock description is one of the most important features of
a competently executed site investigation, ctnd this should be carried out
only by suitably qualified and experienced persons.
Numerous schemes are currently employed far description, and reference
may be made to the following publications far sorne of the most recent :
International Association of Engineering Geology (1981), International
Society far Rock Mechanics (1978; 1981), and British Standards Institution
(1981). Unfortunately, these vary not only in the terms used but also in
the definition of the same term, and it is therefore vitally important that
the system or terms used far the description of soil and rock be defined in
a 11 geotechni cal reports.
Certain aspects of material description, with particular reference to
weathered rock in Hong Kong, are discussed by Ruxton & Berry (1957) and
Hencher &Martín (1982). Methods far distinguishing between superficial
deposits and the classification of colluvium are discussed by Huntley &
Randall (1981) and the Geotechnical Control Office (1982a) respectively.
lt is important to recognise the difference between material
descriptions applicable to small, essentially uniform samples and mass
descriptions applicable to layérs or zones that may contain hetero9enous
 21

material s. In rock masses, component materials may differ considerably

and should be described separately and fully.
Weathering is the general term describing the process of deterioration
of a rock mass to a soil and comprises the effects of both chemical de-
composition and mechanical disintegration. Many of the rocks of Hong Kong
are affected by weathering to considerable depths, and examples are shown
in Plates 1.1 to 1.6. Weathering typically proceeds through the rock mass
inwards from discontinuities and so adjacent parts of a rock mass can show
quite different degrees of deterioration. It is important to recognise the
distinction between the description of the degree of weathering as it
affects a small sample and that of a larger-scale layer or zone of the rock
mass of the types illustrated in Figure 1.1.
The key to good description is to work systematically, anda list of
headings under which description can be made is given below.
Material descriptions may include :
(a) colour,
(b) grain size and other textural features,
(c) degree of decomposition,
(d) degree of microfracturing (disintegration),
(e) strength,
(f) soil or rock name, and
(g) other characteristics, such as slakeability.
Mass descriptions may include :
(a) size, angularity, percentage and distribution of
harder fragments,
(b) spacing and nature of discontinuities, and
(c) geological structure.
Various index tests can be employed asan aid to objective soil and
rock descriptions. Amongst the most useful are the Schmidt hammer test, the
point load test (Broch, 1978; Brook, 1980) and the hand penetrometer.
Slakeability is also a simple, useful test. It is important to remember,
however, that the results of such index tests may be dependent upon moisture
content, the presence of microfracturing or jointing and the skill of the
operator in both selecting a representative sampling point and conducting
the test.
For a number of specific rocks, classifications of material weathering
are available. One such classification that is applicable to most granitic
and volcanic rocks in Hong Kong is given in Table 2.3. This classification
is based on that of Moye (1955) and has been further developed on the basis
of field measurements in Hong Kong (Hencher &Martín, 1982). Examples of
these material grades for volcanic and granitic drillcore are shown in
Plates 2.2 to 2.26, and the corresponding drillhole logs are given in
Figures 2.2 to 2.7.
Classifications of material weathering have not been published for the
other rocks of Hong Kong. For these other rocks, it is recommended that
 22

similar terms to those in Table 2.3 are used but with definitions modified
to suit the particular site or project conditions.

2.3.4 Joint Surveys

Discontinuities such as joints usually control the engineering

properties of a rock mass, particularly in cuttings. Where there are
surface exposures of the rock, a joint survey should be carried out. The
results obtained can be used to assess the risk of joint controlled
instability.
The methods and equipment used to carry out a joint survey are
discussed by the lnternational Society for Rock Mechanics (1978), and
methods to analyse the results are described by Hoek & Bray (1981). During
analysis, care must be taken that rare but critical joints are not over-
looked by the usual statistical methods of sorting data (Beattie & Lam,
1977; Brand et al, 1983). Further discussion, together v✓ ith examples of
joint survey record forms anda sample stereoplot, are qiven in Section
2.6.
A joint survey should only be carried out by an experienced geotech-
nical engineer who should visit the site, not only to carry out the survey,
but also after the corresponding analyses are completed, to examine in
detail the nature of those discontinuities that have been identified as
critical. The slope or exposure should be examined again during construct-
ion for the presence of joint sets not identified in the survey which could
lead to the development of instability.

2.3.5 Surface Drainage

During the surface investigation all stream courses, channels, nullahs,

ditches, catchpits and culverts should be mapped, and details of size and
condition plotted on the geotechnical site plan. This information will
prove useful when assessing surface drainage characteristics of the existing
site, and hov✓ these existing surface drainage measures will have to be
modified or improved to accommodate the proposed development.

2.4 SUBSURFACE INVESTIGATION TECHNIQCES

2.4.1 Requiremenls

The requirements of a subsurface investigation are :

(a) to find the extent of the materials formina and
affecting the site,
(b) to obtain information on the relevant properties of
these materials, and
(e) to study the groundv✓ ater regime of the site.
These requirements should be considered when planning the position of
and instrumentation in each hole. The investigation should be carried out
under the full-time supervision of an experienced inspector, or other
competent person, closely supervised by an engineering geologist or
 23

geotechnical engineer. For a major investigation, it may be necessary to

have the full-time supervision of an engineering geologist or geotechnical
engineer.

2.4.2 Trial Pits and Trenches

Trial pits and trenches can be either small hand-dug pits or wide
trenches excavated mechanically. They permit the soil to be examined
insitu and allow undisturbed block samples to be obtained. Trial pits
should always be supported to prevent collapse and water should never be
allowed to accumulate in them. When the exposed strata have been logged
and the investigation is complete, the pits should be backfilled in properly
compacted layers.

2.4.3 Hand-excavated Caissons

Hand-excavated caissons are common in the construction industry in

Hong Kong where it is necessary to found piers on rock at depths up to and
often in excess of 30 m. The method can be adapted directly for site
investigation purposes. The advantages of caissons are the same as those of
pits and trenches. The technique is severely limited, if not dangerous,
below the water table in residual soils, unless used in conjunction with an
effective dewatering technique.

2.4.4 Slope Surface Stripping

Useful information can be obtained from careful examination of slope

surfaces. Many such slopes are protected with a thin layer of chunam (a
lean soil cement mix), and before surfaces can be logged it is necessary to
strip away this protective layer. The strip should be at least 500 mm wide,
extending to the maximum height of the slope, and located to pass through
areas of different surface features such as boulders protruding from the
face, or where seepage can be seen. Light scaffolding is usually necessary
to enable stripping and logging to be carried out.

2.4.5 Dynamic Probing

A hand probe, known as the GC0 Probe, is being used increasingly.
This is essentially a larger version of the Mackintosh probe. It has a 10
kg hammer which is dropped 300 mm. The probe point is 25 mm diameter and
has an apex angle of 45º. Blow counts for each 100 mm penetration are
recorded and plotted. The driving energy is such that probes have been
carried out to 25 m in completely weathered granite. For investigation
of an existing slope, a large number of probes are put down initially to
obtain a general indication of the subsurface profile. This information is
used to assist in the location of subsequent trial pits and drillholes. The
probe can also be used for indicating the state of compaction of buried fill
and the thickness of fill layers. A weight correction should be applied for
depths greater than 5 m. A smaller version of the probe has been developed
for use asan aid to the identification of surface material s. This mini GC0
probe delivers the same impact energy per unit area as the full-size probe.
 24

2.4.6 Boring

Boring methods are suitable only for soils and soft rocks. The
applications and limitations of the various methods are as follows :
(1) Hand augering. Hand augering is suitable only for shallow holes
in loose soils above the water table and for holes in trial pits. It is
unsuitable for soils containing coarse gravel, cobbles or boulders.
(2) Jet boring (Jetting). The jet boring method uses the force of a
high velocity stream of water to form the borehole. Borehole casing can be
installed using this method. Acceptable quality samples cannot usually be
obtained by this method. The high water pressures employed make jet boring
unsuitable for use in places where an increase in degree of saturation, or
in water pressure, could cause slope instability. The method is most
suitable for granular soils, where it can be used to install wells or
piezometers orto locate hard strata. Progress is stopped by hard strata,
boulders or cobbles. Jet boring is seldom used in Hong Kong.
(3) Wash boring. Wash boring is aenerally carried out usinq a winch
and tripod drilling rig. The ground at the bottom of the hole is broken up
by the percussive action of a chisel bit and washed up to the surface by
water that is pumped down the drillrods at low pressure. Generally, casing
is driven down to support the sides of the boreholes. The fragments of soil
brought ta ~he surface by the wash-water are not representative of the
character and consistency of the strata that are being penetrated. Standard
penetration tests can be carried out, and open-tube samples or piston
samples can be taken. The water pressures used are lower than those used
for jet boring; therefore, infiltration of water into the slope will be less
likely to cause instability. The method is suitable for sands, silts and
clays and is seldom used in Hong Kong. However, in combination with rotary
drilling it is widely used to advance cased holes in soft ground.
(4) Cable percussion boring. Cable percussion boring can be carried
out using a winch and tripod or the winch of a rotary drilling rig. The
hole is sunk by using a clay cutter in dry cohesive soils ora shell in
granular strata or below the water table, anda chisel is used to
penetrate hard strata or boulders. Casing is driven down to support the
sides of the borehole below the water table and in soils liable to collapse.
Disturbed samples brought to the surface by the clay cutter or shell are
suitable for identification of the strata and for classification tests.
Standard penetration tests can be carried out and open-tube or piston
samples taken. The method is suitable for all soils and weathered rocks,
but chiselling through boulders can be time-consuming and expensive.
(5) Rotary percussive borinq. A pneumatically-powered drilling rig
can be used to rapidly advance holes through any type of soil or rock.
Water flush is used during drilling to clear the bottom of the hole and to
keep the drill bit cool. Samples are not obtained, but strata changes can
be identified by changes in the rate of penetration or the colour of the
flushing water.
In conjunction with the Lutz elQctronic drilling parameter recording
device, this method is an effective investigation technique being both
rapid and inexpensive. rarameters such as percussion vibration and rate of
penetration, which give a clear indication of materials penetrated, are
recorded automatically against depth. Calibration of the results against
 25

drillholes o, other direct methods of investigation is usually required.

Rotary percussive boring is generally used for grouting or blast hales,
but it may be used to form hales for the installation of observation wells.
It may also be used as a probe, without the Lutz oarameter recorder, in
conjunction with other control boreholes or drillholes to map out the base
of a layer of fill or the surface of bedrock.

2.4.7 Drilling

By far the most commonly used investigation method in Hong Kong is

rotary drilling for the recovery of cored samples. The hales are usually
vertical but can be inclined up to 45º without major drilling difficulties.
The drilling of long inclined and horizontal hales requires special con-
sideration, particularly with regard to maintaining adequate directional
control and minimising collapse problems. Inclined and horizontal boreholes
up to 200 m long have been drilled in Hong Kong. McFeat-Smith (1982)
outlines sorne of the practical problems involved. Borehole deviation is
common, particularly in the vertical plane, because of the weight of
drilling rods and variations in rock strength. This is minimised by use of
drilling rig platforms with sufficient rigidity to satisfy the conditions
specified in Section 2.4.8, and by the use of 3 m long core-barrels and
continuous coring methods, as discussed by Coates et al (1977). For long
orientated hales, regular monitoring of hale orientation, at about 20 m
intervals, is recommended. Instrumentation available in Hong Kong for this
purpose includes test tube/chemical, clockwork compass and borehole camera
devices, of which only the latter two are suitable for hales orientated
between the horizontal and 45º downwards.
The drilling rigs should preferably be of the hydraulic feed type, and
the flushing medium can be water, air, air-foam or 'mud', although the
latter, unless degradable, should not be used in hales in which permeability
tests are to be carried out or instruments installed. The diameter of hales
drilled will depend upan the tests, if any, which are to be carried out on
the recovered core and the type of instruments to be installed in the hales.
The sizes of the various casing, core-barrels and cores are shown in Table
2.4.
It is important to select the correct core-barrel, as the adoption of
the wrong type can cause disturbance or damage to the cores. The types
available and their limitations are as follows :
(a) A single-tube core-barrel rotates against the core
which is not protected from the drilling fluid; core
recovery is seldom satisfactory and it should not be
used for site investigation.
(b) A double-tube core-barrel has an inner tube mounted
on bearings so that it does not revolve with the
drill string; it can normally be used in the fresh
and the slightly to moderately weathered rocks.
(c) Triple-tube core-barrels may be used where other
methods have been found ineffective and good core
recovery is required. Triple-tube barrels have
detachable liners within an inner barrel that
partially protect the core from drilling fluid and
from damage during extrusion and subsequent transit.
 26

(d) Non-retractable triple-tube barrels are suitable for

use in fresh to moderately weathered zones of the
rock profile and sorne of the stronger highly weathered
material s.
(e) Retractable barrels, where the inner barrel projects
ahead of the bit when drilling through soft materials
and retracts when the drilling pressure is increased
in hard materials, are suitable for weaker highly
weathered rocks and for all completely 1-,eathered
rocks and residual soils.
When a hole is required only for the installation of instruments or
insitu testing, non-coring methods may be adopted. This is most commonly
done using a rotary drill, wash boring through soil, and double-tube coring
through rock. Rock roller bits or rotary percussive techniques can be
effectively used but are not common in Hong Kong. The hammer drill, which
is driven by a heavy diesel hammer, is particularly useful in deposits such
as fill or colluvium containing boulders and other obstructions.
Cobbles set in a matrix of softer material can cause difficulty with
all drilling methods, as the cobbles tend to rotate with the drill bit,
eroding the matrix and reducing the efficiency of the bit. However, this
problem may be overcome by using air-foam as the flushing medium with a
large diameter triple-tube core-barrel.
At present, the most commonly used core-barrel for sampl ing soil s in
Hong Kong is the Mazier triple-tube retractor barrel. The inner tube is
a full circumference plastic liner encasing 73 mm diameter core which is
compatible with standard laboratory triaxial testing apparatus. The Mazier
core-barrel is usually used in conjunction with the double-tube Craelius
T2-101 barrel when coring of rock is required. Details of the core-barrels
and flushing mediums used, and their suitability to the various subsurface
materials in Hong Kong are given by Brenner & Phillipson (1979), Forth &
Platt-Higgins (1981) and Brand & Phillipson (1984).
In Hong Kong, there is an increasing awareness of the need for better
quality core samples. This is leading to an improvement in specifications
and to a gPneral rise in standards, especially in the high quality core
sampling of soft ground. Large diameter triple-tube barrels (100 mm) used
in conjunction with air-foam as a flushing medium have proved successful in
obtaining high quality core samples for identification and strength testing
(Phillipson & Chipp, 1981).

2.4.8 Factors Influencing High Quality Drllling

As well as the optimum choice of core-barrel and flushing medium, there

are many other aspects or factors relating to equipment and techniques that
influence the success of high quality core sampling. The drilling rig
should be of the hydraulic feed type and should have the capacity to drive a
rotary tool tipped with diamonds or tungsten carbide in the sizes and to the
depths required. The weight of each rig should be such that a force of
about 12 kN can be applied to the drilling bit without movement of the rig.
If the weight of the rig is insufficient for this purpose, the riq should
be securely anchored down. The drill should be capable of providina stable
drillstring rotation at speeds in the range 50 to 1250 rpm and have a
 27

m1n1mum ram stroke length of 600 mm. A rigid rod, clearly graduated, should
be permanently attached to and parallel with the hydraulic feed rams, in
arder to provide a means of measuring penetration and estimating penetration
rates.
Casing should be used to stabilise caving ground. The size of casing
and drillrods selected should be as specified for the size of core-barrel in
use. All casing and drillrods should be straight and in good condition and
should be thoroughly cleaned befare use. Short lengths of drillrods should
be available to enable continuous coring to be carried out with the
potential for each core run to be one complete ram stroke. Short lengths
of casing, not greater than the ram stroke length, should be available to
enable casing to be advanced after each core run where necessary.
To provide consistency of measurements, and to ensure that the coring
equipment is functioning as efficiently as possible, the following general
drilling techniques should be adopted :
(a) Establish a permanent marker adjacent to the drillhole
for referencing all depth measurements.
(b) Measure drillhole depth befare and after each core
run.
(c) Check drillhole depth after each core run by summing
the total length of core barrel and drillrods.
(d) Ensure drillrods are always centralised within the
chuck,
(e) Ensure drill position is maintained such that the
drillrods remain central within the drillhole.
(f) When drilling in slightly to moderately decomposed
rock, coring runs should normally be limited to lengths
of 1.5 m. In more weathered material, restrict the
drill run length to a maximum of one ram stroke. When
less than 80% of the core is recovered from a run,
steps should immediately be taken to increase the
core recovery by such methods as reducing the length
of run or changing the barrel. Explanations for core
loss, if known, should be recorded.
(g) Immediately remove non-retractable core-barrel on
change of materials from hard to soft and replace with
retr~ctable core-barrel.
(h) Remove drillrods and core-barrel from the drillhole
carefully and without jarring.
(i) Wash out core-barrel and sediment tube after each
core run.
(j) Casing, if needed, should be advanced by rotary action
without surging and should not be advanced beyond the
depth penetrated by the core-barrel.
(k) Ensure that all equipment and components are
maintained in a good, clean, lubricated condition
and otherwise maintained in accordance with manu-
facturer's instructions.
 28

Ideally, the drilling crew should include a driller who has had previous
experience of high quality drilling using the methods required. The crew
should also include a member whose responsibilities include the taking and
recording of all measurements required. The performance of the drilling
crew in competently and conscientiously carrying out all staoes of the
drilling operations is all important to the success of high quality drilling.

2.4.9 Backfilling

All investigation hales must be backfilled as open hales allow ingress

of water into the soil or rock with a consequent reduction in stability.
Hales in rock should be backfilled with a grout such as cement-bentonite.
In large diameter hales, fillers can be used with the grout. Hales in soil
should normally be grouted, although under sorne circumstances they may be
backfilled with well-tamped soil; loosely placed soil is not acceptable as
the permeability of the hale v1ill remain high. A few days after completion
of backfilling, grouted hales should be checked far settlement of grout and
refilled to the surface if necessary. Hales backfilled with soil may
require long term maintenance.

2.4.10 Sampling

In de_f.ining the qual ity of the samples to be recovered during an

investigation, the characteristics of the ground and the properties which
are to be measured must be considered (Table 2.2) and appropriate sampling
methods specified.
It should also be borne in mind that the behaviour of the ground in
the mass is often dictated by the presence of corestones, weaknesses and
discontinuities. Therefore, it is possible to obtain an intact sample of
material which may be unrepresentative of the mass. In choosing a sampling
method, it should be established whether it is the mass properties or the
intact material properties of the ground that are to be determined.
The sample quality classes required far various purposes are defined
in Table 2.5 which also summarises the methods which can be used to recover
samples of the required quality. Sorne soil types in Hong Kong, such as
colluvium or fill, are difficult to sample, and in sorne cases the best
samples which can be recovered are only of class 2 standard. Samples of
classes 3, 4 and 5 are commonly regarded as disturbed samples.
(1) Quality class 1 samples. Far fine-grained clayey soil, these can
only be obtained using thin-walled samplers, preferably of the fixed-piston
type, with an area ratio not exceeding 10%, inside clearance not exceeding
1% and length not exceeding eight sample diameters. (Area ratio and inside
clearance are defined in Figure 2.8). Thin-walled samplers are seldom
robust enough far Hong Kong's residual soils; therefore class 1 samples will
not be obtained. But as the soils are not very sensitive, class 2 samples
will give acceptable strength and compressibility parameters. Class 1
samples can, however, be taken in alluvial and marine deposits. Far
residual soils, class 1 samples can be obtained from block samples.
According to the trial drilling carried out on typical Hong Kong soil
types to date, the highest quality rotary core samples can be obtained by
large diameter triple-tube barrels (MLC) using air-foam flush. These are
 29

probably equivalent to class 1 samples.

(2) Qualit class 2 sam les. The second highest quality rotary core
samples (class 2 are obtained by H or N size triple-tube (MLC) core-barrels
or Mazier triple-tube barrels and T2-101 mm double-tube core barrels with
water flush. This method is useful for recovering samples for geological
logging and laboratory testing, particularly for insitu decomposed rock
grades IV and V. These can only be obtained from soils exhibiting sorne
cohesion.
Class 2 samples can also be recovered from fine-grained clayey soils
by either thick or thin-walled samplers, but the end-area ratio should not
exceed 25% and the inside clearance 2%. They should have sorne overdrive
space and should have ports fitted with non-return values to permit escape
of air and water durinq driving, and to create a vacuum above the sample
during extraction. The minimum internal diameter of the sampler should be
38 mm, but preferably 76 mm, and should be driven by a down the hale hammer,
or jarring link, rather than by a trip hammer at the top of the hole.
Whenever the hale is below groundwater level, water balance (maintaining
the water level in the hale just above groundwater level) should be used.
(3) Quality class 3 samples. Class 3 samples are suitable for fabric
study. Samplers used for the recovery of class 3 samples should conform to
the general requirements given for quality class 2 samples. The use of a
trip hammer is acceptable, and water balance is required only in hiohly
permeable soils. The liner samples obtained during standard penetration
tests are classified as class 3 samples.
(4) Quality class 4 samples. These are badly disturbed samples in
which the moisture content has been changed by the drilling or boring
methods. Samples of this class may be taken from the spoil from hales
and trial pits or from the sampler cutting shoes. Small disturbed samples
should weigh at least 0.5 kg, while bulk samples should comprise at least
10 kg of material. If stored in rigid containers, the sample should fill
the container, and if stored in flexible containers, as much airas possible
should be excluded befare sealing.
(5) Quality class 5 samples. These can be obtained from the flushings,
by either air or water, from any borehole or drillhole.
All samples should be clearly marked both inside and outside the
container with labels giving the following information, where relevant
(a) name of contract,
(b) name or reference numbers of site,
(c) reference number, location and anqle of hole,
(d) reference number of sample,
(e) date of sampling,
(f) brief description of sample,
(g) depth of top and bottom of the sample below ground
level, and
(h) location and orientation of samples (from trial pits).

Sample containers should be free of air and watertight. The ends of

 30

undisturbed samples should be trimmed, the walls of the tube cleaned and
dried with a cloth and the sample sealed with several thin coats of just
mol ten wax. Microcrystalline wax does not shrink to the same extent as
paraffin wax and therefore gives a better seal against the walls of the
sample tube. Asan alternative, 'O' ring seals can be used. Any space
between the end of the sample and the end caps should be packed with
sawdust, sand or other suitable material. Lids can be sealed using a
waterproof tape or wax. Samples of soil and rock that are to go to a
laboratory for testing should be carefully transferred as soon as possible.
They should not be subjected to any sudden shocks and should be protected
from the weather.

2.4.11 Core Handling and Storage

All stages of core handlina including sealino, packing and transporta-

tion should be carried out with extreme care. The results of good drilling
can very easily be lost without careful handling of core especially upon
removal of core from the core barrel. If triple-tube barrels are being
used, inner tubes should be hydraulically extruded. Extrusion of cores
using air pressure is difficult to control and should be avoided. Breaking
down the barrel, in particular the removal of the cuttino shoe, should
seldom require hammering as this will undoubtedly distur5 the core. Dis-
mantling should be done carefully with wrenches, preferably with the barrel
firmly anchored in a tripod vice above ground level.
lf a core-barrel has to be hammered to free wedged pieces, a leather
mallet should be used. The core should be placed in the correct order in
a corebox made for that size of core. Core boxes can be made of wood,
galvanised metal or, preferably, of moulded plastic to take the sp1it
tubing. The size of core boxes used should be limited to that which can
be conveniently handled.
Weathered core should be sleeved in polythene tubing or sheeting or
aluminium foil and sealed before being placed in the core box. Spacer
blocks showing the depth from which the core was recovered should be placed
at the end of runs to prevent movement of the core in the box. lf a sample
is removed from the core box, it should be replaced by a wooden block of an
appropriate length. Samples for testing should be selected as the core is
extruded, removed and placed in airtight rigid containers.
Core boxes and each individual run of core if stored in plastic
tubing, should be clearly labelled both inside and out with :
(a) name of contract,
(b) name or reference number of site,
(c) reference number, location and angle of hole,
(d) date and method of drilling, and
(e) depth of top and bottom of each run.
lt is good practice to photograph all cores. This should be done as
soon as is practicable after recovery of the core and before description,
sampling or removal of specimens for testing.

Core boxes should be stored under cover and arranged so they can be
easily located and removed for examination. Cores in split plastic tubes
and polythene sleeves can be stored, as individual runs, on shelves made
 31

of corrugated sheetinn.

2.4.12 Logging of Boles

Soils and rocks from investigation holes should be described as

suggested in Section 2.3.3. Soil samples that are not required for testina
can be extruded and split open to see the fabric. Fabric shows most clearly
when the sample is partially airdried.
The driller's log should be taken into account when producina the
final log of the hole, which should be prepared by a suitably experienced
and qualified person. Examples of formats for trial pit, borehole and
drillhole logs are discussed in Section 2.6.3.
For rock core, measurements of core recovery, rock quality designation
and fracture frequency should be made. The positions of shear zones and
other discontinuities should be noted, and the reduced levels of these
features given on the logs. 0ther details such as orientation, infilling
and roughness should also be noted. For projects were the nature of
discontinuities is particularly important, it is worth considering the
production of a detailed fracture log.
The following terms are used when describing cores :
core recovered )
(a) Total core recovery is defined as ( length drilled x 100%,
and any core in which recovery is less than 100% means
that sorne material, generally the weakest, has been lost.
Areas where losses have occurred should be located as
precisely as possible and the relevant levels given.
(b) Sol id core recovery is defined as the lenath of material
which is recovered as solid core pieces at full dia-
meter expressed as a percentage of the length of core
run.
(c) Rock quality designation (RQD) is the length of core
recovered in lengths greater than 100 mm expressed as
a percentage of the length of core run and measured
along the centre-line of the core. If all the core
is recovered and is in lengths greater than 100 mm,
then RQD% = 100%. Any fractures or deterioration of
the core caused by drillin9 should be ignored.
(d) Fracture index is defined as the number of fractures
per metre run measured over any arbitrary length, ,1hich a
is generally taken as acore run. However, if there is a
marked change in fracture frequency during a run, such
as ata fault zone, the fracture index should be
calculated for each part of the run separately. Fracture
index may also be quoted by reference to the maximum,
minimum and mean length of core pieces (Franklin et al,
1971). The definitions for core recovery and fracture
indices are shown diagrammatically in Fi9ure 2.9.
Methods of showing these indices on a log are given in Section 2.6
on records. \·Jater level, dril l water return, casing data and other
information should also be given on the log.
 32

2.4.13 Instrumentation

During the investigation stage of a project, instruments may be

installed to measure pare pressure, stress or relative movement. The
various types of instrument, including their applications, limitations and
methods of installation, are described in Chapter 10. The provision of
piezometers in all investigation hales, and the subsequent reading of water
levels can yield valuable design information far only a small increase in
the cost of the investigation.
Although installation of two or more piezometers in one hale is
feasible, it is difficult to achieve successfully and is not recommended
unless very careful supervision is provided.

2.5 FIELD TESTING TECHNIQUES

Field tests carried out during the site investigation stage can be used
to assess strength, deformation properties and permeability of both soils
and rocks. Details of many of the tests considered here are given by the
United States Bureau of Reclamation (1974). Tests used far construction
control are discussed in Chapter 9.

2.5.1 Standard Penetration Test

This test is most commonly used to give a rouah relative measure of
the density of granular soils. The procedure is described in BS 1377
(1975). The test and its interpretation have been reviewed recently by
Nixon (1982). The results can be significantly affected by the testing
technique, so while carrying out the test and interpreting the results the
following points should be noted :
(a) The borehole casing should not be ahead of the
borehole, and water balance should be maintained
if carrying out the test below the water table.
(b) Large diameter rods (BW or equivalent) or smaller
rods with rod supports should be used to reduce energy
dissipation.
(c) An automatic trip hammer should be used to drive
the sampler, as the accuracy of a monkey and slip
winch is too dependent on the skill of the operator.
The N value is defined as the number of blows required to drive the
standard split spoon sampler a distance of 300 mm. The sampler is
initially driven 150 mm to penetrate the disturbed material at the bottom
of the borehole befare the test is carried out. The operator, having
noted the number of blows required far each 75 mm advance of the seating,
then notes the number of blows required far each 75 mm advance of the test
drive.

It should be noted that the empirical relationships developed far

tra11sported soils between N value ano foundation design indices, relative
density and shear strength are not valid far weathered rocks. Corestones,
far example, can give misleadingly high values that are unrepresentative
of the mass.
 33

In view of the present state of knowledge, SPT results in weathered

rocks should be used only to give a crude indication of relative strength.
BS 1377 (1975) recommends that, where penetration of less than 300 mm
is achieved far 50 blows, the test be halted and the penetration recorded.
It is common practice in Hong Kong, however, to continue the test up to
300 mm penetration regardless of the number of blows required. This can
damage equipment. Provided penetration is accurately recorded, approximate
N values greater than 50 can be estimated from the penetration achieved far
the first 50 blows.

2.5.2 Irnpression Packer Survey

An impression packer survey can be used far tracino the orientation

and aperture of discontinuities. The device comprises a central supporting
rod which passes through a section of pneumatically inflatable rubber
packer material. 0verlying the inflatable packer are two stainless steel
shells tl,at are backed by a resilient foam material wrapped with a
thermoplastic film. When the packer is inflated, the stainless steel shells
are forced onto the borehole wall and the thermoplastic film is forced into
any voids or fissures in the borehole thereby deforming permanently (Hinds,
1974).
The survey is run by inserting the impression packer device into the
drillhole at successively lower levels, expanding the packers and obtaining
an impression of the drillhole wall onto thermoplastic film surrounding the
packers. The survey is referenced to a known direction by means of a
downhole compass that is chemically grouted into position when the
impression is being taken.

2.5.3 Dutch Cone Test

The Dutch cone penetrometer comprises a 60º cone, 10 cm 2 in area,

mounted on a sleeved rod. The cone is used to measure penetration
resistance as it is pushed into the soil ata steady rate while the sleeve
or friction mantle measures skin friction. Readings are usually taken at
200 mm intervals, although a continuous reading of both cone resistance
and friction can be given by an electrical cone penetrating continuously.
The procedure is described in BS 5930 (1981) and ASTM (1982e). The cone
resistance can be used to calculate bearing capacity and density but the
results are badly affected if the penetrometer impinges on particles
larger than the cone. Therefore, the equipment is unsuitable far the
weathered rocks of Hong Kong but is highly suitable far marine sediments.

2.5.4 Pressurerneter

The Menard pressuremeter can be used to obtain strength and deformation

characteristics of soils and rocks (BS 5930, 1981). The equipment consists
of a probe which, when placed in a borehole, can be inflated. The volume
changes of the probe, the expansion of which is limited to that in the
radial plane, can be measured by means of a surface volume meter to which
the probe is connected. A pressure versus volume change graph can be
plotted, and this is converted into a stress-strain curve. From the test
results, a limit pressure, which reflects the ultimate bearing capacity,
 34

is determined. A deformation modulus may also be determined, from which a

rapid estimation of settlement may be made.
Tests are normally carried out at one metre intervals in AX, BX or NX
hales, and in granular soils a split casinq is used to protect the probe
from damage. If the seating area far the pressuremeter is oversized, or is
the walls of the hale are not smooth, interpretation of results becomes
difficult.
A self-boring pressuremeter far use in soils, known as the Camkometer,
has been developed (Windle & Wroth, 1972), but at present it is not
sufficiently robust far use in the weathered rocks of Hong Kong.

2.5.5 Plate Bearing Test

Plate bearing tests may be used to assess strength and deformation

characteristics of soils and soft rocks and can be carried out in trial pits
or large diameter boreholes. Standard test methods are described in BS 5930
(1981) and ASTM (1982a). The results of a plate bearing test can be badly
affected by the presence of boulders immediately below the test area, and
in any case the accuracy of the application of the results to the prediction
of the behaviour of full-size structures is dependent upan the size of the
plate used far the test. Usually a 300 mm diameter plate will be adequate,
but a larger area may be required to test coarse material s. The load can be
applied to the plate by kentledge or by jacking against a reaction beam.
However, the equipment required is cumbersome and very difficult to use on
steep slopes and is, therefore, likely to be used far foundation design in
level areas only.

2.5.6 Vane Test

The vane is used to measure the undrained shear strength of soft to

firm clays and silts. Standard test methods are described in BS 1377
(1975) and ASTM (1982b). Erratic results are obtained if the soil contains
gravel or any other large particles, and in Hong Kong the use of the vane
should be limited to the marine sediments.

2.5.7 Permeability Tests

A knowledge of the coefficient of permeability of a soil or rock mass

is required far the design of subsurface drains and, when assessing slope
stability, to estimate the depth of the wettinc band resulting from rainfall.
To determine where perched water tables may form, comparative permeabilities
rather than absolute values are adequate.
Both the permeability of the intact soil or rock and that of the
discontinuities contribute to the mass permeability of a material. The
permeability of intact unweathered Hong Kong igneous rocks is negligible
and flow is controlled solely by the discontinuities.
Intact residual soil and weathered rock are more permeable than
unweathered rock and thus discontinuities in these materials exert less
influence on the mass permeability. Laboratory tests (Chapter 3) can give
accurate values of the permeability of the sample tested but, as these
 35

samples are usually of intact material that do not contain majar dis-
continuities, they are unrepresentative of the soil or rock mass. The
coefficient of permeability obtained far soils in the laboratory can be ten
to one thousand times lower than that of the mass from which the sample
tested was recovered. The laboratory determined values far the permeability
of a rock sample usually bear no relationship to the mass permeability.
Carefully conducted field permeability tests carried out below the
water table in boreholes give values of about the right arder of magnitude.
Above the water table, where the results have to be extrapolated to obtain
an estimate of steady-state flow values, the accuracy is questionable. This
is because the soil through which the water is flowing probably never
becomes completely saturated. However, such tests may model more accurately
the conditions which occur during infiltration.
In applying the permeabilities determined by either laboratory or
field tests to the design of subsurface drainage works, or assessment of
depth of wetting, it is normal to assume that the soil or rock mass is
homogeneous. The presence of a thin impermeable layer, ora thin highly
permeable discontinuity .ihich did not appear in the permeability test area,
can introduce serious errors into the calculations. To prevent this,
recovered cores should be examined carefully far any such features, and if
these are present, their position should be clearly indicated on the
borehole lag. The designs can then be suitably adjusted to take account of
the effect of these features on the groundwater regime.
Lugeon values determined from packer tests, which are described in
Section 2.5.9, are used far estimating probable grout takes and far assess-
ing the consequent reduction in permeability. Variations of permeability
within the rock mass can be found with the packer test, and under certain
conditions absolute values of permeability can be obtained.

2.5.8 Permeability Tests in Soil

The coefficient of permeability (k), can be calculated from the results

of rising-, falling- or constant-head tests carried out in boreholes or
standpipe piezometers. The way in which the test is carried out can affect
the natural permeability of the material being tested. In tests involving
a flow of test water into the soil, fines from the water in the hales can
be washed into the soil reducing the permeability. To minimise this effect,
only clean water should be used. Less commonly, in tests where water flo.is
into the borehole, fines can be removed from the soil and if the water level
is reduced too far, piping can occur and the derived values of k will be
too high.
When testing soils below the water table, the following formulae
(Hvorslev, 1951) can be used to calculate the permeability, k :
(a) Rising- and fallinq-head tests
A A _fu_ ( 2. 1)
k = FT or k = F(t, - t,) loge H2

(b) Constant-head tests

k = _q_ (2.2)
FHc
 36

where A cross-sectional area of standpipe or casing.

(lf the hale is not vertical, the horizontal
water area should be used).
F = shape factor, which depends on the conditions
at the base of the hale. The factors and their
applicability are defined in BS 5930 (1981).
= water heads above or below the standina
groundwater level (H 0 ) at times t 1 and t 2
respectively.
q = rate of flow.
H0 = water head above or below the standino groundwater
level maintained during a constand-head test.
The definitions of these terms are shown in BS 5930 (1981), and
specimen test sheets and calculations are qiven in Section 2.6.4.
Constant-head tests are likely to give more accurate results than variable-
head tests but variable tests are simpler to perform.
These are steady-state equations suitable far the calculation of
permeability when the test is carried out below the water table. In Hong
Kong, it is often necessary to measure permeability above the water table.
In this case, the steady-state equations can only be used if the time over
which the test is conducted becomes very long (i .e. approaches infinity).
However, under these circumstances permeability can be assessed using the
constant-head test in which the water in the borehole is maintained ata
constant level, and the flow rate required to maintain this level is
measured at different times. The flow rate (q) plotted against the
reciprocal of t should give a straight line that can be extrapolated to
fi nd q when :
Jt = O (i .e. t = infinity)

The Hvorslev (1951) constant-head equation 2.2 can then be used to

calculate k, the head (H) being measured from the centre of the piezometer
filter zone or from the centre of the uncased borehole length under test.

2.5.9 Packer or Lugeon Test

The results of this test, used to determine the permeability of a rock

mass, should, where the flow occurs in only a few fissures or joints, be
quoted in Lugeon values. One Lugeon is defined as a water absorption of
one litre per minute per metre of NX drillhole ata pressure of ten
atmospheres (approximately 1 MPa) maintained far ten7 minutes. One Lugeon
is approximately equal to a permeability of 1 x 10- m/sec.

The test is carried out in a drillhole using either a single or double

packer which is inflated to seal off the length of drillhole to be tested.
To minimise end effects, the test length generally should be at least ten
hale diameters. Water is pumped into the test-section under pressure, and
after allowing time far saturation of the ground, the steady flow-rate is
recorded. The test is carried out ata series of pressures but should not
exceed overburden pressure or hydraulic fracture may occur. Under sorne
circumstances, vertical cracks in the soil or rock can develop at pressures
 37

much lower than the overburden pressure. This may be indicated by a

discontinuity in the graph of flow against pressure that should be plotted
for al l tests.
Pearson & Money (1977) present improved techniques that make it
possible to distinguish between test system faults, such as packer leakage
and non-equilibrium effects dueto the hydraulic properties of the rock
mass. Careful calibration of the equipment to be used in a water pressure
test is necessary to calculate pressure losses dueto friction (Dick, 1975).
Calibration must be carried out for each pressure testing arrangement
( pump, packer, val ves and bypass, pressure gauge and f1 ow meter) with
various lengths of drill rods and varying flow rates.
The q/H graph, plotted from the results of tests conducted at pressures
considerably less than 1 MPa (often 50 to 500 kPa), has to be extrapolated
to give the flow at 1 MPa. This extrapolation introduces errors arising
from the differences in energy loss between laminar flow and the turbulent
flow that occurs at higher test pressures. Low-head tests tend to over-
estimate the Lugeon values. However, in Hong Kong there is often no
alternative to using low pressures, and when this is done, the test range
should be quoted with the Lugeon value. A change of hole diameter from
tlX has little effect on the Lugeon value.

If the rock jointing or discontinuity pattern is sufficiently close

for the test section to be representative of the rock mass, a mass
permeability can be calculated using the following formulae :
(a) If L > 12r:
k = ___g__ loge !:. . (2.3)
2rcLH r
(b) If 10 r > L > r :

k -_ ___g__ . h-1 L . ( 2. 4)
2rrLH s1n 2r
where k = permeability,
H = gradient of the flow versus pressure head graph,
L = length of test section, and
r = radius of hole.

2.5.10 Geophysical Methods

Geophysical survey methods are inferential. They rely on the assess-

ment of differences in measurable properties to derive, by inference, the
changes in the subsurface conditions that are of interest to the engineer.
An experienced geophysicist is required to plan the survey and interpret
the results.
All geophysical surveying should have borehole control to avoid errors
in the interpretation of the results. The more borehole control there is
available, the better the interpretation of the geophysical profile between
the holes.
Seismic refraction has been used successfully to assess the depth of
weathering overa large area in detail. It may not be very satisfactory
 38

because of core boulders and differential weathering on joints. The method

is most successful when used on large sites to obtain profiles of soft soil
underláin by rock. Where it is used, its accuracy should be checked atan
early stage of the survey and, if found to be inadequate, the method should
be abandoned.
The seismic refraction method relies upon monitoring the earliest time
of arrival of seismic waves, refracted at the interface between different
strata, ata spread of geophones. These times are plotted against distance
from the seismic source, anda series of straioht lines of varying gradient
are thus obtained. The gradients of the lines are used to determine the
depth of each interface. Problems can arise when weak layers are overlain
by stronger material or when layers exist that are thin relative to the
overall depth being surveyed. Control boreholes can help tu overcome sorne
of these problems anda check should be made to establish whether a seismic
method can be used.
In sorne cases, it may not be possible to overcome the noise or back-
ground vibrations that result from traffic flows and construction
operations, but by using a signal enhancement seismograph and choosing
working times carefully, an acceptable signal-to-noise ratio in urban areas
may be obtained.
Resistivity methods and seismic reflection are sometimes used far
engineering purposes but neither are suitable for foundation or slope
investigations in Hong Kong. Other geophysical techniques, such as
magnetic, electromagnetic, gravity, nuclear and thermal surveys, are
mainly of value in mineral prospecting and have seldom found engineering
application in Hong Kong. In their present stage of development, they
should not be used for slope investigations. Further information on
geophysical methods is given by the Institution of Civil Engineers (1976).

2.6 RECORDS

The keeping of good records during site investigation works is

essential. This Section contains examples of proforma, logs and maps
showing how information should be recorded. These are not intended as
standard forms but as examples of good practice. These forms have been
based on the three Geological Society Working Party Reports (1970, 1972,
1977) but have been varied where necessary for application to Hong Kong.

2.6.1 Rock Joint Surveys

When carrying out joint surveys (Section 2.3.4), data should be

recorded on forms of the type shown in Figures 2.10 and 2.11. In addition
to surveying dip angle and dip direction, field estimates of strength, joint
spacing and, if applicable, grain size should be recorded using the legends
printed on the form. The forms given in Figures 2.10 and 2.11 have been
filled in to show how they should be used. The results of a joint survey
are plotted on a stereoplot as described by Hoek & Bray (1981). A typical
example is given in Figure 2.12.
 39

2.6.2 Engineering Geology Maps

The information collected during the geotechnical mapping of an area

can be plotted in map form. The method of presentation of information will
depend upon the nature of the project and the choice of the engineering
geologist or geotechnical engineer carrying out the survey. The information
should be presented in such a way that the user can read the map with ease.

2.6.J Trial Pit, Borehole and Drillhole Logs

A legend of symbols representing the soils and rocks of Hong Kong, and
suitable for use on logs, is given in Figure 2.13. The symbols can be
combined to illustrate mixed soil and rock types. Alternative symbols may
be used provided the use is consistent and explained on a legend. Examples
of trial pit and drillhole logs are given in Figures 2.14 to 2.18. They
show various methods of recording the information collected during the site
investigation. Sorne important points concerning logging are given in Table
2.6.

2.6.4 Permeability Tests

Field and calculation sheets for water absorption (packer) tests and
rising- and falling-head permeability tests are shown in Figures 2.19 to
2.21.
 40

[BLANK PAGEJ
 41

3, LABORATORY TESTING

3.1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter discusses the testing of soils and rocks in the

laboratory. Where detailed descriptions of tests are given in other texts,
these descriptions are not reproduced, and the discussion is limited to the
problems peculiar to Hong Kong soils and rocks. Where súitable references
are not readily available, tests are described in more detail.
It is important to ensure that laboratory tests are carried out on
soils and rocks that are truly representative of the materials at the site.
For this purpose, particular note should be taken of the description and
classification of materials given in Section 2.3.3.

3.2 CLASSIFICATION TESTS ON SOILS

3.2.1 General

Classification tests, which include the determination of moisture

content, liquid and plastic limits, specific gravity and particle size
analysis, are so called because of their use in identifying a soil as
belonging to a group that exhibits similar behaviour (United States Bureau
of Reclamation, 1974). In the case of Hong Kong soils, liquid and plastic
limits and specific gravity have limited application for soil classification,
and more information can be obtained from the particle size análysis.
Moisture content and specific gravity are also used in the calculation of
other soil properties, such as compressibility, dry density and degree of
saturation. Particle size analyses are required for the design of filters.
Special precautions, described under the individual tests, are required
for soils containing certain minerals. In Hong Kong soils, the most common
of these minerals is halloysite, but significant amounts are unlikely to
occur.

3.2,2 Moisture Content

The standard method of moisture content determination is described in

BS 1377 (1975)(test l(A)). The subsidiary methods (tests l(B) & l(C)) are
suitable only for site testing (see Chapter 9).
An alternative quick method for the measurement of moisture content is
by means of a microwave oven. However, calibration against a moisture
content test determined in accordance with test l(A) will be necessary
before this method can be used. Recalibration of the microwave oven must
also be carried out at regular intervals.
Soils that contain halloysitic clays, gypsum or calcite tend to
dehydrate or lose water of crystallisation if dried at the standard
temperature of 105º to llüºC. If the presence of a significant amount of
these minerals is suspected, the effect on the determination of moisture
content can be assessed by drying at various temperatures.
In a humid atmosphere, oven-dried samples re-absorb water very easily.
 42

It is therefore important that they are cooled in a desiccator before

weighing.

3.2.3 Atterberg Limits

The Atterberg Limit tests are described in 8S 1377 (1975). Two methods
of determining the liquid limit of the soil fraction passing a 425 µm test
sieve are described (tests 2(A) & 2(8)). The cone penetrometer method
(test 2(A)) is preferable to the Casagrande method (test 2(8)) because it
is easier to perform and less prone to operator error, but either method
is acceptable. Very few correlation tests have been carried out for the
two methods on Hong Kong soils. The one point method (test 2(C)) should
not be used unless there is insufficient material available to carry out
tests 2(A) or 2(8).
Soils containing significant proportions of halloysitic clays must be
tested without previous drying and rewetting, because the results obtained
from a dried sample differ from those obtained from the sample in its
natural condition. Testing of samples without drying is preferable for
all soils, anda test report must state if the sample was dried.

3.2.4 Specific Gravity

Test 6 of 8S 1377 (1975) describes the standard method for determining
specific gravity. The removal of air under a vacuum from an oven-dried
sample is difficult when the soil contains silt- and clay-sized particles.
Three variations to the standard method have been found to improve
deairing
(a) the test is carried out on a sample at natural
moisture content instead of oven-dried,
(b) the soil and water mixture is boiled at atmospheric
pressure and then under vacuum, or
(c) kerosene is used instead of distilled water (this
method should not be combined with (a) or (b)).
When variation (a) is used, or when it is suspected that soil has been
lost from the sample during deairing, the remaining soil sample must be
carefully collected, oven-dried and accurately weiahed at the end of the
test.

3.2.5 Particle Size Distribution

The standard method of wet-sieving coarse-grained soils is described
in test 7A of 8S 1377 (1975). This test requires preparation of the sample
by wet-sieving on a 63 µID 8S test sieve to remove silt- and clay-sized
particles, followed by dry-sieving of the remaining coarse material. Sorne
soils have a large amount of clay-sized particles in the interstices of
the large particles, and these need additional dispersion.
The method of dry-sieving (test 7(8)) is not recommended for Hong Kong
soils because clay particles may adhere to larger-sized particles.
 43

The pipette and hydrometer methods of particle size analysis for fine-
grained soils are described in BS 1377 (1975) (tests 7(C) & 7(0)). Although
in BS 1377 the pipette method is preferred, the hydrometer method (test
7(0)) is suitable for most Honq Kong soils.

3.3 CHEMICAL TESTS ON SOILS

3.3.1 Sulphate Content

Hong Kong soils contain neqligible amounts of naturally occurring

sulphate. Sulphate tests are therefore necessary only where pollution of
groundwater from industrial effluent or other contaminants occurs, and
where such pollution could result in sulphates attacking cement in either
cement-stabilised soils or concrete. BS 1377 (1975) test 9 describes the
determination of total sulphate content of soil, and test 10, the sulphate
content of groundwater aqueous soil extracts. It should be noted that the
Building Research Station Digests referred to in the Standard have now
been superseded by BRE Diaest 250 (Building Research Establishment, 1981),
and reference should therefore be made to this more recent publication,
particularly when determining water-soluble sulphate concentration.
Total sulphate contents of more than 0.2% by weight in soil and 300 ppm
in groundwater are potentially aggressive (BRE Digest 250). lt is important
to note that sulphate content is subject to seasonal and other variations,
and the results of the tests are applicable only for the particular time
and conditions of sampling.
Water used for flushing during wash boring and rotary drilling may
cause alteration in the chemical properties of groundwater. Sulphate tests
on samples of groundwater taken when boring by such methods, may therefore
give results that are not representative of the ground conditions.

3.3.2 Acidity

The acidity of soil and groundwater affects the rate of corrosion of

metals and the deterioration of concrete.
The standard electrometric method of determining acidity using a pH
meter is described in test llA of BS 1377 (1975), and this can be applied
either to the sampled soil in suspension in water orto samples of qround-
water. The subsidiary calorimetric method of test llB also qives
acceptable results. The pH can alter if there is a delay between sampling
and testing, so field measurement should be used.
The acidity of Hong Konq soils is negligible and, as in the case of
sulphate tests, these tests are most likely to be carried out only on soils
that are suspected of being contaminated.

3.4 COMPACTION TESTS

The relationship between dry density and moisture content for a soil
used for fill is determined by the standard compaction test, as detailed in
test 12 of BS 1377 (1975).
 44

Many Hong Kong soils are susceptible to crushing during a compaction

test. The extent to which this occurs can be checked by carrying out
particle size distribution analyses on a sample befare and after the test.
The BS description of the test gives an alternative method far soils
susceptible to crushing, and this should be followed where appropriate.
Good practice would normally require the use of this method at all times.

3.5 PERMEABILITY TESTS

The permeability of a soil or rock sample can be measured by falling-

head or constant-head tests. Details of the methods are given by Akroyd
(1969).
Samples of undisturbed soil used in laboratory tests are usually small
and tend to be intact samples rather than samples containino relict joints
and other discontinuities. As a result, the measured values of permeability
may be lower than the actual field values, sometimes by two or three orders
of magnitude. The results obtained from field tests, if correctly conducted
(Chapter 2), will generally be closer to the true permeability of the insitu
material than the results of laboratory tests.
Groundwater flow through rock is generally only alana discontinuities.
Permeability tests in the laboratory are unfortunately usually carried out
on intact rock, and the results bear no relation to the permeability of the
rock mass. Field testing is the only method of obtaininq a reasonable
assessment of rock mass permeability (Chapter 2).

3.6 CONSOLIDATION TESTS

Consolidation tests are used to determine the compressibility and rate

of consolidation of fine-grained soils, including fills, under applied load.
The tests are usually carried out on undisturbed samples but recompacted
samples of fill may be used.
The one-dimensional consolidation test on small specimens (BS 1377,
1975, test 17) is suitable only far fine-grained material s. Hong Kong
soils which contain sands and gravels can be tested in a large oedometer or
in a triaxial cell. The bulk modulus of the soil obtained from a triaxial
consolidation test or from the consolidation staqe of a triaxial test can
be related satisfactorily to the one-dimensional coefficient of
compressibility, rnv. The calculation of the coefficients of compressibility
and consolidation from this information is described by Akroyd (1969) and
Bishop & Henkel (1976).

3. 7 MEASURE'.1ENT OF SHEAR STRENGTH

3.7.1 General

Accurate determinations of representative shear strengths of the

materials of a slope are essential to meaningful stability analyses.
Although it is possible in sorne circumstances far satisfactory strength
measurements to be made insitu, laboratory measurements of strength are by
far the most common. However, the values of shear strength determined from
laboratory tests are dependent upan many factors, particularly the quality
 45

of the test specimens, the size of the test specimens, and the method of
testing.
The shear strength of a given soil is dependent on the degree of
saturation, and this varies with time in the field. Because of the
difficulties encountered in assessing test data from unsaturated specimens,
it is recommended that laboratory test specimens should usually be
saturated prior to shearing, in order to measure the minimum shear
strengths. Unsaturated specimens should only be tested when it is possible
to simulate in the laboratory the field saturation and loading conditions
relevant to the desigr.
The shear strength of Hong Kong soils should be determined in terms
of effective stresses. This can be achieved by carrying out drained shear
tests, or by conducting undrained shear tests with accurate measurement
of pore pressure at failure.
Shear strength envelopes for soils and rocks are generally not linear
overa wide range of stress. Shear strength tests should therefore ideally
be carried out to cover the range of stress relevant to the field design
situation. For the shallow potential slip surfaces that exist in Hong Kong,
however, the normal stresses are quite low, and laboratory shear tests
carried out at these low stress levels present experimental problems. The
results from triaxial tests conducted at low confining stresses are
particularly prone to errors in interpretation.
Although the strength of a rock mass is to sorne extent determined by
the strength of the intact material, the stability of rock slopes depends
in most instances on the strength along discontinuities. In these cir-
cumstances, it is necessary for the shear strength along these dis-
continuities to be measured directly in the laboratory. Emphasis is
therefore placed on this in Section 3.10.
Even with a soil, specimen orientation can be important when the sample
contains discontinuties such as relict joints. In the laboratory, a soil
specimen may fail on aplane which is not necessarily that along which
failure would occur in the field. Where failure in the field could occur
along discontinuities, account of this fact must be taken when orientatino
laboratory test specimens. In Hong Kong, relict joints in soils can
contain silt or clay, and can therefore often be the weakest part of a
soil mass.

3.7.2 Selection of Test Specimens

It is important that the tests are conducted on soil and rock specimens
prepared from undisturbed samples that are as representative as possible of
the insitu material. Block samples or good quality core samples should be
used, and they should be obtained from the correct elevation in the field.
Larger samples are more representative of the insitu material, and they
generally result in less disturbance during sampling. They also facilitate
the production of good quality test specimens.
Laboratory specimens used in shear tests should be large enough to
minimise boundary effects. The mínimum specimen dimension should usually
be at least six times the size of the largest particle contained in the
specimen. Triaxial test specimens should generally be at least 70 mm in
 46

diameter. For direct shear,,tests, 60 mm and 100 mm square specimens, 20 mm

thick, are commonly used, but shear boxes of up to 300 mm square are
available.
In the case of soils, the presence of gravel- or cobble-size particles
often precludes the preparation of test specimens that are truly represen-
tative, and test specimens must then be made from the matrix material
alone. This usually results in the measurement of the mínimum strength
of the overall material. It has been shown (Holtz & Gibbs, 1956; Holtz,
1960) that the mass strength increases with the proportion of large-size
particles. 0n the other hand, the preparation of test specimens of very
weak material often proves to be difficult, and the resulting test specimens
tend to represent the stronger portions of the undisturbed samples.

3.7.3 Types of Shear Test

The triaxial test is the most commonly used method for shear strength
measurements on Hong Kong soils. This permits control of the principal
stresses applied to the specimen and of the drainage conditions, and
accurate measurements of pore water pressure can be made on saturated
specimens.
The direct shear test (shear box) is being increasingly used for shear
strength measurements on soils in Hong Kong. This is a much simpler and
more economical test than the triaxial test, but it permits only partial
control over the drainage conditions, and pore pressures cannot be measured.
In the lower stress range, however, the direct shear test is thought to
have distinct advantages over the triaxial test.
The shear strength of discontinuities is determined by direct shear
tests. Specimens of intact rock are most commonly tested by means of the
unconfined compression test, although high pressure triaxial equipment is
sometimes used where this is available.

3.8 TRIAXIAL TESTS ON SOILS

3.8.1 Test Procedure
The triaxial testing of soils is described in detail in the reference
book by Bishop & Henkel (1976).
Shear strength envelopes can be determined for Hong Kong soils by means
of
(a) consolidated drained (CD) tests, or
(b) consolidated undrained (CU) tests with pore pressure
measurement.
Undrained tests are generally preferred for routine testing, because they
can be carried out more quickly than drained tests, and because useful
information can be collected from the stress paths of the tests.
Single stage or multistage CU tests can be carried out. Multistage CD
tests are not recommended because of the likelihood of overstraining
specimens. Even for CU tests, significant errors in the assessment of
shear strength will result if the strain to failure for each test stage is
 47

excessive.

Filter paper side drains should not be used in triaxial tests, because
they can lead to errors in strength measurement and are generally unnecessary
for the soils of Hong Kong. Membrane corrections must be made in the usual
way.

Saturation by back pressure can only be obtained by applying a small

effective stress to the specimen. Specimens that start with a very low degree
of saturation can be difficult to saturate. In these cases, saturation can
be carried out by first percolating deaired water under a small hydraulic
gradient through the specimen until air stops bubbling from it. A back
pressure can then be applied to complete the saturation.

The strain rate for drained tests with pore pressure monitoring should
be such that the pore water pressure fluctuation is negligible, and in any case
the fluctuation should be no greater than 5% of the effective confining pressure.
For undrained tests, the rate should be selected so as to allow complete
equalisation of pore water pressure throughout the specimen. It is desirable
that the strain rate does not exceed 2% per hour.

For undrained tests, failure can be defined either as the maximum deviator
stress or as the maximum obliquity (σ1'/σ3'). For fully-drained tests, these
two criteria coincide.

3.8.2 Interpretation of Results

For ease of interpretation, it is recommended that the results of CU
triaxial tests are plotted as p'-q stress paths (Figure 3.1), where
p' = (σ1' + σ3')/2 and q = (σ1 - σ3)/2 (Lambe & Whitman, 1969). The shape of
a stress path indicates the tendency for a specimen to compress or dilate during
shear. The p'-q plots also enable the most sensible strength envelope to be
drawn as the boundary to a family of stress paths.

For CD tests, the p'-q stress paths are of no significance. Actual volume
changes during drained tests should be measured throughout the shear process.

Strength envelopes determined from triaxial tests will often not be

linear, and they will sometimes exhibit an apparent break-point in the region
of a definite ‘critical’ pressure. This is because the stress-strain
behaviour of the material is dependent upon the confining pressure under which
it is sheared. Specimens that are tested at low confining pressures in the
triaxial test tend to dilate during shearing. At high confining pressures,
specimens tend to compress. These different stress-strain behaviours are
indicated clearly by the different shapes of the respective stress paths
(Figure 3.1). In Hong Kong soils, the critical pressure can be considered to
be analogous to the maximum past pressure for a sediment.

It is important to remember that, where a strength envelope is not linear,

the portion of the envelope used for design purposes must be that for the correct
design stress range.

In the interpretation of triaxial test data, especially in the low stress

range, the following sources of error should be borne in mind :
 48

(a) Test specimens tend to barrel at high strains,

which leads toan over-estimation of the shear
strength.
(b) The saturation process prior to shear can lead
to specimen disturbance in the form of unintended
volume change. Strong (dense) materials tend to
swell durina saturation, which frequently results
in loss of strength. Very weak (loose) materials
may occasionally compress, to give misleadingly
high shear strengths.
Experimental evidence obtained on Hong Konq soils indicates that the
triaxial test tends to 'even out' the measured strengths of materials to
such an extent that it is nota very sensitive tool for discriminating
between dense and loose material s. This is particularly true in the low
stress range that is of interest in Hong Kong. In the majority of cases,
triaxial tests on saturated specimens will underestimate the field shear
strengths.

3.9 DIRECT SHEAR TESTS ON SOILS

3.9.1 Test Procedure
The direct shear test (shear box) is described in detail by Akroyd
(1969), ASTM D3080-72 (1982d) and Head (1982).
The shear strength can be measured on any pre-determined plane in a
soil mass by trimming specimens at the correct orientation.
Specimens for dtrect shear tests cannot be brought to full saturation,
but a high degree of saturation can be achieved by immersino specimens in
water for a sufficiently long period of time prior to testing. This
soaking process probably represents most closely the conditions to which the
material is subjected in the field under steady infiltration.
Where test specimens are to be soaked, these should be immersed in
water in the shear box for a period determined on the basis of trials
carried out on that particular type of material. It has been found that
a period of twelve hours is usually adequate for decomposed granites
(grades V ~nd VI). Measurements of the volume change during soaking should
be made to determine whether swelling or compression occurs.
The rate of horizontal displacement for the shear test should be slow
enough to ensure that drained conditions prevail. A maximum rate of 0.08
mm per minute is considered appropriate for drained tests on 20 mm thick
specimens of Hong Kong soils. Accurate measurements should be made
throughout the test of the shear force, the relative displacement of the
two halves of the box, and the vertical movement of the specimen top plate.

3.9.2 Interpretation of Results

For a number of test specimens of similar material, the strength
envelope can be determined from the relationship between the measured shear
strength and the applied normal stress. This relationship will often not
be linear.
 49

In the calculation of the shear stress ªJld normal stress, corrections

should be made for the change in area of the shear plane throuqhout the
test.

3.10 STRENGTH TESTS ON ROCK JOINTS

The stability of rock slopes usually depends on the strength alona

discontinuities, and emphasis has therefore been placed on the testing of
such discontinuities. Testing of intact rock can be important where shear
surfaces are constrained by the geometry of the slope to pass through
intact rock (see Section 3.11).

3.10.l Direct Shear Equipment

Shear boxes of three main designs are used for determining the shear
strength of rock discontinuities in Hong Kong and these are described
below.
The first is a modified version of a laboratory soil shear box that
can be used to determine shear strength parameters of rock discontinuities,
and is suitable for the low normal stresses likely to be used for testing
in Hong Kong. The standard shear box is capable of taking a normal load of
up to 3 kN which, on a 60 mm square specimen, is approximately equivalent
to the overburden pressure induced by 35 m of overlyinq rock. The soil
shear box is modified by fixina two PTFE strips on either side of the top
half of the box, and extendino the qoose neck to maintain correct alianment.
This prevents rocking of the box when high points of the discontinuity are
in contact, and it avoids the specimen catchina on the edae of the box.
The second is a direct shear box, designed specifically by Golder &
Associates for rock testing. It has been used successfully in Hong Kong
and is described by Hencher & Richards (1982). One advantaqe of this box
is that the normal stress is applied by a dead load system.
The third is the Robertson Research Ltd. shear box that was developed
to provide index values rather than rigorous values for the shear strength
of discontinuities in rocks (Ross-Brown & Walton, 1975; Hoek & Bray, 1981).
At very low loads, the accuracy of the pressure gauoes used to monitor
shear and normal loads can be of the same magnitude as the imposed load,
and this makes the value of the results obtained questionable. There are
also major problems in ensuring that normal stress is kept constant
particularly in the case of rough, dilating joints.

3.10.2 Specimen Preparation and Test Procedure

Rock shear testing is specified by the International Society for Rock

Mechanics (1974) and more recently in the Canadian Pit Slope Manual
(Gyenge & Herget, 1977) and it is recommended that these procedures be
followed.
For interpretation in terms of field shear strength it is essential
that comprehensive descriptions should be prepared both before and after
failure. Surfaces should be photographed, preferably using low-angle
lighting to emphasize relief, and annotated diaorams should be prepared to
 50

indicate the nature and mineralogy of surface coatings and post-shearing

damage. Roughness profiles should be drawn to indicate the nature of the
surfaces although these should not be used in calculations.
Tests should be fully documented including a complete record of normal
and horizontal displacements. This is particularly important at the point
when peak shear strength is measured.
Multistage tests, where a specimen is sheared under a series of
increasing normal loads, can be carried out. This avoids the difficulty
of obtaining mean shear strength parameters from tests on several
individual specimens caused by differences in joint conditions (far example,
degree of weathering or roughness).
Rock shear tests are never standard and always require interpretation.
They should only be carried out and interpreted by experienced personnel.

3.10.3 Interpretation of Results

It is recommended that the method of interpretation of test data and

hence the assessment of field shear strength follows that discussed by
Hencher & Richards (1982) and Richards &Cowland (1982).
It is worth emphasizing that there are two distinct stages leading
to the assessment of strength in the field. The first requires that the
laboratory data be corrected far vertical movements of the upper block in
arder to provide a basic shear strength far essentially planar but naturally
textured surfaces. All effects of majar roughness are therefore taken out.
The second stage involves the determination of the influence of roughness
in the field. An assessment of field roughness is made on the basis of a
roughness survey, the strength of the discontinuity surfaces and observa-
tions of damage in laboratory tests and is then added to the basic shear
strength measured in the laboratory.

3.11 STRENGTH TESTS ON INTACT ROCK

Unconfined compression (uniaxial) and triaxial compression tests are

the most suitable far standard testing, and only these two are discussed
here. Information on these and other tests is given by Jaeger & Cook (1976).

3.11.1 Unconfined Compression Tests

Unconfined compression tests are carried out on rock to provide values

far compressive strength, Young's modulus and Poisson's ratio. Tests should
be carried out according to either the International Society far Rock
Mechanics (1979) or the ASTl1 Standard (1982c). It should, however, be
clearly stated to which standard the test is carried out. The conditions
far testing are strict, particularly concerning the tolerance on preparation
of the specimen.
Only specimens of intact rock should be tested. Results from samples
which fail along discontinuities or other flaws should be disregarded.
 51

3.11.2 Triaxial Compression Tests

The triaxial test used for rock is based on that used for soils. The
principles are the same but the equipment is more rigid. The method for
testing is discussed in detail by Gyenge & Herget (1977).
Light oil is used as the cell fluid for low pressure testing. The
specimens to be tested must be smooth cylinders with end faces accurately
machined flat and normal to the long axis.
Hoek triaxial cells are available for standard core sizes from
E (21.5 mm) to N (60.8 mm) and are illustrated in Hoek & Bray (1981).

3.12 PRESENTATION OF TEST RESCLTS

It is most important to present good records of both soil and rock

tests. Appendix B of BS 1377 (1975) and Akroyd (1969) 9ive typical data
and calculation forms for the tests they describe.
A method of presenting the data from triaxial tests is shown in Figures
3.2, 3.3 and 3.4.
 52

[BLANK PAGE]
 53

4. GROUNDWATER
4.1 INTRODUCTION
The incidence of slope failure in Hong Kong during periods of intense
rainfall indicates the degree to which rainfall and subsequent movement of
groundwater affects slope stability. A knowledge of groundwater conditions
is needed for the analysis and design of slopes. The groundwater regime is
often the only natural parameter that can be economically changed to
increase the stability of slopes. This chapter describes the methods
whereby the influence of rainfall on groundwater can be assessed. Most of
the chapter deals with groundwater flow in soils. Groundwater flow in rock
is discussed in Section 4.4.5.
Water affects the stability of slopes in the following ways
(a) by generating pore pressures, both positive and
negative, which alter stress conditions,
(b) by changing the bulk density of the material forming
the slope,
(c) by both internal and external erosion, and
(d) by changing the mineral constituents of the
materials forming the slopes.

4.2 RUNOFF, INFILTRATION AND GROUNDWATER RECHARGE

4.2.1 Water Balance

Water, whether in the sol id, liquid or gaseous (vapour) form is

continually circulating by transforming its state and by its movement
between land, sea and air. This continuous movement is the hydrological
cycle {Figure 4.1).
In terms of the stability of Hong Kong slopes, the land-based portion
of the hydrological cycle is of most interest, especially its operation in
steeply-inclined catchment areas. Inflow to the system arrives as rainfall
which can be extremely intense in Hong Kong. Outflow from the system can
be as runoff, evapotranspiration, and subsurface underflow. Change of
storage within the system is that part of the rainfall which becomes
incorporated into the groundwater system as recharge. The above elements
form the basis of the water balance equation, which is :
Rainfall = Evapotranspiration + Runoff + Subsurface
underflow+ Change in soil moisture +
Change in groundwater storage
Changes in groundwater are critical to slope stability as it is these
elements in the water balance equation that effectively alter the degree
of saturation of the ground above the water table and the elevation of the
water table itself.
Changes in groundwater storage may be positive or negative depending on
the input and output elements of the water balance equation. Where, for
example, rainfall is low and evapotranspiration exceeds inflow, a loss of
soil moisture will occur. This eventually results in a soil moisture
 54

deficit. Soil moisture deficit is the quantity of water in millimetres

required to restare the soil to field capacity where field capacity is
the maximum amount of water held by the soil befare free drainage occurs.
When rainfall exceeds outflow from the system, the soil moisture deficit
is reduced until the soil becomes fully saturated. Thereafter, changes in
groundwater storage become positive and recharge to groundwater occurs.

4.2.2 Runoff

Runoff is that proportion of rainfall that flows from a catchment

into streams, lakes or the sea. It consists of surface runoff and ground-
water runoff, where groundwater runoff is derived from rainfall that
infiltrates into soil down to the water table and then percolates into
stream channels. The amount of runoff in any given catchment depends on
a variety of factors such as the condition and nature of the soil and
bedrock, the intensity and duration of rainfall, the slope angle, the
surface cover and the antecedent conditions within the catchment. The
amount or depth of runoff may be calculated by gauging the flow in strea~s
which drain the catchment. The runoff coefficient or runoff percentage is
defined as the proportion of rainfall that flows from a catchment as a
percentage of the total depth of rainfall over the catchment area.
In arder to quantify the amount of rainfall running off catchments and
therefore .what proportion of rainfall is available for infiltration, the
Water Supplies Department has analysed storm events for a number of
catchment areas (Government of Hong Kong, 1968). A~ (Phi) index may be
defined to give an indication of the amount of rainfall falling on a
catchment area above which further rainfall would appear as runoff. For
short duration storms, the value of the ~ index is affected by catchment
retention, the filling of natural depressions, infiltration and antecedent
rainfall. As the duration of the storm increases, the effects of
infiltration predominate until the soils become fully-saturated.
The Water Supplies Department has determined the ~ index for 43 storms
in eight natural catchments and have established that there is a limiting
1 index of about 3 mm/hour for long duration storms (Figure 4.2). Various
curve-fitting techniques were applied to the data, and from these, the
runoff corresponding to the limiting I index was found to lie between 50%
and 70%. Therefore, assuming that infiltration takes place at the
limiting rate and that 50% of rainfall runs off, a rainfall intensity equal
to twice the saturated permeability is necessary to create these conditions.
Whilst for long duration rainfall the ~ index drops to approximately
3 mm/hour, the ~ index for short duration rainfall can be as hiah as 80 mm/
hour (Figure 4.2). Rainfalls of this intensity are not uncommon in Hong
Kong.

The proportion of rainfall infiltratina or running off the catchment

depends on a number of variables as stated above; however, the surface
cover of any particular area will also affect the proportion of runoff.
Vegetated soil slopes will impede surface flow and runoff far more than a
chunamed slope. Similarly, in paved urban areas, runoff to drainage
channels would be an extremely high proportion of rainfall.
 55

4.2.3 Infiltration

Infiltration is defined as the movement of water from the ground

surface into the soil or rock via the pares or interstices of the ground
mass (i .e. the absorption of water by the soil ). Infiltration can be
further divided into that part which contributes to the water content of the
unsaturated zone, and that part which recharges the saturated groundwater
system. Sorne recharge to the saturated groundwater system may be lost as
groundwater runoff, whilst recharge to the unsaturated zone may be lost by
transpiration or evaporation. When an unsaturated zone exists in a soil,
it is said to have a soil moisture deficit. Recharge to this zone reduces
the deficit until the soil becomes fully saturated, at which time the soil
moisture deficit is equal to zero.

4.2.4 Types of Groundwater Flow

Water flows through soil or rock in various ways dependina on the

nature of the ground. Water-transmitting soil or rock units are called
aquifers. Different types of aquifer demonstrate different modes of ground-
water flow, such as intergranular, fissure and conduit flow.
Intergranular flow is groundwater flow between the individual component
grains that make uµ a soil or rock. This type of flow r1ost closely follows
the Darcy concept of flow through an homoqeneous isotropic medium of uniform
grain size. In practice, however, most 1-1ater-bearing strata exhibit inter-
granular or homogeneous flow and path-preferential flow through fissures or
conduits within the stratum. Groundwater flow tends to be most rapid
through fissures, pipes and joints within a soil/rock mass and can have a
significant effect on groundwater levels and, hence, slope stability. These
features are common in the weathered rocks of Hong Kong.
An aquifer, therefore, can be simply defined as a permeable water-
bearing stratum that transmits water under normal head or hydraulic
gradients. An aquiclude is a stratum that may contain pare water but is
not permeable enough to transmit water even under considerable hydraulic
head. The term aquitard is used to indicate a stratum that shows limited
water-transmitting capabilities.
Groundwater in aquifers not only exhibits intergranular and path-
preferential flow characteristics related to the granular or fissured
structure of the aquifer unit, but also exhibits confined or unconfined
flow characteristics. In the former, qroundwater is normally confined at
the top by an impermeable stratum (aquiclude). The aquifer unit is there-
fore fully saturated, and the piezometric (hydraulic) head is above, or
coincident with, the lower boundary of the confining medium. In unconfined
flow situations, groundwater does not fully occupy the potential aquifer,
anda free water surface (water table) exists within the aquifer. In Hong
Kong, aquifers are usually unconfined.
Water tables in aquifers can either be main water tables or perched
water tables. The main water table in any aquifer is the surface of the
zone of complete saturation where water flows laterally under gravity. In
natural slopes the main water table generally follows the contours of the
ground surface. Above the main water table, the soil or rock is not
normally fully saturated. The main water table is usually recharged when
infiltration occurs through the soil or rock above the phreatic surface,
 56

and usually discharges to streams ar the sea.

Perched water tables exist above the main water table where a localised
reduction in basal permeability occurs in conjunction with recharae from
above. Perched water tables may be transient, developing rapidly in
response to heavy rainfall and dissipating equally quickly, ar permanent,
responding to seasonal variations in rainfall level.
Groundwater flow in soil may be markedly different to that in rock.
This is not necessarily a function of the differences in lithology between
soil and rock, but rather the differences between the water-bearina
interstices contained therein. Two adjacent rock ar soil units with
different lithologies, but with similar permeability characteristics, will
actas one aquifer unit. Water flowing through an aquifer makes no
differentiation between soil ar rock units with the same hydraulic
characteristics. Flow in soil is more usually of an intergranular type.
However, fissure ar conduit flow can occur in soils through fissures, pipes
and drying cracks. Flow in rock can be intergranular but, in most cases,
occurs through joints and other discontinuities which vary in width, form
and orientation. Flow along fault shatter-zones can be siqnificant.
Measurement of groundwater characteristics in fissured-rock is difficult
as conditions can vary rapidly with depth and a real extent (Section 4.4.5).
Where piezometers intercept heavily-jointed rock, groundwater heads and
velocity of flow may be large, whilst in adjacent unfissured rock,
permeabilitjes may be extremely low. Joints in rock may become full of
water during heavy rainfall, exerting hiah hydraulic pressures on the rock
mass and adversely influencing stability.

4.3 PORE PRESSURES

Subsurface water may be divided into zones of positive and neaative

pare pressure. The dividing line is the groundwater table where the
pressure is equal to atmospheric pressure. The groundwater table is
generally determined from the level of water in an open standpipe. The
changes in pare pressures in the two zones affect slope stability in
different ways. A schematic diagram of chanqes in pare pressure in the
two zones as a result of rainfall is shown in Figure 4.3.

4.3.1 Positive Pare Pressure

Atmospheric pressure is usually taken as the zero pressure datum and

so a positive pare pressure zone exists below the water table. lf there is
no groundwater flow, the pare pressure is hydrostatic and the water level
measured by a piezometer at any depth within the positive pare pressure
zone will coincide with the water table. Pare pressures are no longer
hydrostatic if there is any flow (steady ar transient flow), and water
levels measured by a piezometer in this zone will not coincide with the
water table. lncreases in positive pare pressure will result in reducing
effective stresses and consequently will reduce available shear strength
(see Chapter 5). lncreases in positive pare pressure can be rapid after a
period of heavy rain. The rate of increase, however, depends on many
factors including the rate of rainfall, the nature of the qround surface,
the catchment area and the soil permeability.
 57

4.3.2 Negative Pare Pressure

The negative pore pressure zone is above the water table, and the
pressure in this zone is less than atmospheric pressure. Water is retained
in the soil mass above the water table by capillarity. Immediately above
the water table, the soil is saturated up to the level of the saturatio11
capillary head (i.e. the zone of continuous capillary saturation). In
this zone, the negative pore pressure is hydrostatic in the no flow
situation and variation with depth is linear. Above this zone the soil is
partially saturated and the negative pore pressure does not necessarily
vary linearly with depth, see Figure 4.3. The uppermost zone in contact
with air is the hygroscopic zone where pore air is continuous and at
atmospheric pressure.
The height of saturation capillary head in soils, which may govern
the magnitude of the largest negative pore pressure, relates largely to
grain size. \✓ ith the exception of clays, the finer the soil particles, the
larger the saturation capillary head and the higher the negative pore
pressure. High negative pore pressures give rise to greater effective
stress in the soil mass and hence an improvement in stability. High values
of negative pore pressure have been measured in the laboratory in
undisturbed samples of Hong Kong soil (Wong, 1970). Rainfall infiltration
from the ground surface may rapidly reduce the magnitude of negative pore
pressure. Pore pressure reductions to zero have been measured at depths
exceeding ten metres in the Mid-levels area.

4.3.3 Measurement af Pare Pressure

Positive pore pressure can be measured in open standpipes and in

piezometers installed in predrilled holes. An understanding of the subsoil
conditions ata site is important when interpreting the observed water
levels in standpipes. It is often difficult to assess whether the observed
levels indicate the main water table ora perched water table. The
observed water levels in many standpipes and piezometers, installed at
different depths, can be used to assess the main water table and whether
the groundwater is in a hydrostatic or flowing condition.
Field observation of seepages out of the face of a slope, during and
after rainfall, provide useful information on the position of the water
table. However, care must be taken to distinguish between seepage of
groundwater and runoff from the slope surface.
Measurement of negative pore pressure is notas common as the
measurement of positive pore pressure. The instruments used for measuring
negative pore pressures are tensiometers. The use of tensiometers has
proved to be successful in Hong Kong. Information on these and other pore
pressure measuring devices can be found in Chapter 10.
The response of the groundwater regime to rainfall varies widely
from slope to slope, ranqing from no response to large and immediate
responses. Installation of piezometers and subsequent regular monitoring,
especially during and after heavy rainfall, is recommended for an accurate
assessment of the maximum possible rises in pore pressure ata particular
location.
 58

4.3.4 Determination of Pore Pressure Distribution

Field measurement using piezometers is a direct means to determine the

existing pare pressure distribution. In many cases, extensive instrumenta-
tion is not possible and another approach has to be used to assess overall
pare pressure distribution from justa few observations. There are a number
of techniques that may be used, including analytical, numerical, analogue
and graphical methods.
Flownet construction by sketching is a commonly used graphical method
far the assessment of steady flow conditions. It is a rather crude method
that assumes homogeneity of the soil mass but it can give a useful picture
of the overall situation. Flownet construction is explained in many text
books, far example Todd (1980) and Cedergren (1977). This basic method is
applicable to two-dimensional homogeneous soil conditions which are not
the conditions usually found in Hong Kong soils. However, flownet
construction is considered to be a useful first step in the assessment
of pare pressure distribution. The flownet method is applicable only in
the positive pare pressure zone and ignores the effect of infiltration into
the water table from above.
Various physical analogue methods are available far determing flownets
and pare pressure distributions in slopes. These are also described by
Todd (1980). These methods were originally devised far a different kind of
problem, and they therefore have different applications and limitations.
Sorne of them can sensibly handle two-dimensional problems only, and sorne
are limited to steady-state groundwater flow. Far slopes, electrical
analogue models and viscous fluid models have sorne application. The
simplest electrical analogue method employs conducting paper, but this is
limited to steady-state, two-dimensional flow. It is, however, extremely
useful far obtaining initial design information in a quick and inexpensive
manner. Analogue models are all site specific and, with the exception of
the conducting paper technique, they could not be justified far aeneral
use.
Numerical techniques, using finite differences or finite elements,
provide powerful means far obtaining pare water distributions in slopes,
and they are the only means by which transient flow situations can be
fully modelled. If adequate computer facilities and standard programmes
are available, these can provide useful design information.

4.4 WATER LEVELS FOR DESIGN

4.4.1 General

The extent to which infiltration from rainfall reduces the stability

of slopes is dependent on a number of factors including the original
position of the water table, the intensity and duration of the rainfall,
the antecedent rainfall within the groundwater catchment, the geology,
porosity and degree of saturation, the topography and the land use.
It is recommended that slopes in Hong Kong are designed far the
groundwater conditions that would result from a ten year return period
rainfall. There are two principal ways in which the water levels dueto
that ten year event can be estimated. The first involves the analysis of
piezometric data, and therefore depends on the availability of good field
 59

records of water levels before, during and after rainfall. The second
involves the solution of an equation that describes the formation of a
wetting band (zone of 100% saturation) and is dependent on the porosity,
permeability and initial and final degrees of saturation of the soil
forming the slope, and the percentage of the anticipated ten-year return
period rainfall that will infiltrate into the ground directly above or
behind the slope.
Various methods are available for the determination of water levels
from piezometric records. These include the statistical correlation of
groundwater response with rainfall, groundwater modelling of the aquifer
system and the extrapolation of observed piezometric responses. Each of
these methods is discussed Dy the Geotechnical Control üffice (1982a).
Different aquifer systems demonstrate markedly different responses
to rainfall depending on their storage characteristics. Aquifers may
display rapid response to intense rainfall (storm response) ora gradual
rise in water level during the wet season (seasonal response). The storm
component rises and falls in response to each significant storm. The
seasonal component is generally lowest at the beginninq of the wet season
reaching a peak at sorne time after the end of the wet season. Typical
piezometer responses are shown in Figure 4.4.
Because of this variability in aquifer response, it is recommended
that the groundwater conditions to be used in a stability analysis are
based on water levels measured in the field by piezometers. For sites
where there are no piezometric data available, the wetting band approach
can be used to give a rough estimate of groundwater levels. These two
methods of water level prediction are briefly outlined in Sections 4.4.2
and 4.4.3.

4.4.2 Extrapolation of Observed Piezometric Responses

The prediction of design water levels is most satisfactorily done by

the extrapolation of observed piezometric responses. This method is
described in detail in Geotechnical Control Office (1982a) to which
reference should be made. Brief details only are given here.
In this method, the rise in water level resultinq from a ten-year
return period rainfall is determined and is added to a typical qroundwater
level occurring before such a ten-year event. The calculated groundwater
level may then be used in slope stability calculations.
As shown in Figure 4.4, there are two ways in which piezometers respond
to rainfall :
(a) storm response, and
(b) seasonal response.

For piezometers showing mainly storm response, a ten-year return period

storm rise should be added to a typical groundwater level occurring before
the storm. Different piezometers are sensitive to different lengths of
storm event, this being a function of the delay before rises start, the rate
of rise and the rate of decay. The designer should try to estimate a
critical duration of storm for each piezometer.
 60

For seasonally responding piezometers, a ten-year return period

seasonal rise should be added to a typical groundwater level occurring
at the beginning of the wet season.
Sorne piezometers exhibit both storm and seasonal response. In this
case, either a ten-year return period storm rise would be added to a
typical wet season water level ora typical storm rise would be added
to a ten-year return period seasonal rise, whichever is the most
appropriate.
Where permanent perched water tables occur, the procedure outlined
above is followed. For transient perched water levels, the geological
boundary on which the water is perched is taken as the base level.
It is clearly important to have complete records of piezometric
responses for the successful prediction of water levels dueto the ten-
year return period rainfall (storm or seasonal). Water levels must have
been recorded at sufficiently frequent intervals so that storm and
seasonal responses can be distinguished. In situations where piezometers
respond rapidly to storm events, monitoring would have to be continuous.
The most satisfactory way of doing this is by a technician with a
dipmeter. Where a technician cannot be provided piezometer buckets are a
good compromise.
In order to develop an appropriate expression definin~ the relation-
ship between rainfall and piezometric response in a particular aquifer,
the response of that aquifer must have been monitored overa number of
years. Clearly, the more complete the records of piezometer response,
the more accurate the developed expression. Few sites, however, will have
extensive piezometric data and so it is recommeded that water levels are
monitored foras long as andas carefully as possible, ideally at least
two wet seasons plus-the intervening dry period, befare any prediction is
made on the water levels likely to result from a ten-year return period
rainfall.
The principal assumption in this method is that piezometric response
is proportional to the total amount of rainfall. However, it is important
to remember that there are a number of other rainfall and rainfall related
factors that can influence piezometric levels. These include :
(a) storm duration,
(b) distribution of rainfall during the storm,
(c) antecedent groundwater conditions,
(d) additive effects of previous storms, and
(e) timing of the storm relative to any seasonal
fluctuations.

4.4.3 Wetting Band Approach

If there are insufficient piezometer readings at the stability

analysis stage of design, the wetting band approach may be used to give a
rough estímate of groundwater levels. It should be appreciated that water
levels predicted by this method will indeed be very approximate, because
no account is taken of upslope infiltration and non-vertical flow within
 61

the slope and because the results are very dependent on the value of
porosity, permeability, degree of saturation and runoff, which are usually
unknown. It is essential, therefore, that piezometers are installed and
moni to red atan early stage to verify the design data provided by this
approach.
This appraoch assumes that the wetting band descends vertically under
the influence of gravity, even after the cessation of rain, until it
reaches the main water table or until it reaches a zone of lower
permeability, which may be very thin. Under the latter conditions, a
perched water table will form above the zone of lower permeability, and
pare pressure will become positive.
When the descending wetting band reaches the main water table, the
surface of the main water table will rise with a consequent increase in
pare pressure. The thickness of the perched water table or the rise in
the main water table will be approximately equal to the thickness of the
descending wetting band, reduced to allow far the extent, if any, to which
the soil within the wetting band is assumed to be not fully saturated. The
water level (perched or main) on which the descending wetting band is
superimposed should be the highest level observed after an average wet
season. In the absence of piezometric records, an estímate of this maximum
level can be made from the highest seepage traces or stains observed on
adjacent slopes or retaining structures.
It should be emphasised that this method is only applicable where the
rise in groundwater level is due to rainfall infiltration and it takes no
account of sloping ground, downslope flow and the differences in aquifer
responses. If the intensity of rainfall is at least sufficient to cause
infiltration at the limiting rate, the thickness of the wetting band will be
dependent upan the duration of the storm.
The intensity adopted far the design storm should be equal to the
saturated permeability of the soil forming the slope surface (Lumb, 1962)
multiplied by two to take account of runoff. This factor of two, as
derived in Section 4.2.2, is based on measurements far large catchments
Far smaller catchments, especially those that are steeply inclined, a
runoff of 50% may not be appropriate (Nassif &Wilson, 1975). The duration
of the storm of that average intensity, and of a selected return period,
can then be obtained by reference to curves of probable maximum rainfall
prepared by Bell & Chin (1968) and Peterson & Kwong (1981). Rainfall
estimates are available far return periods up to one thousand years, for
durations from instantaneous to 31 days. It should be noted that these
curves are derived from observations made at the Royal Observatory in Tsim
Sha Tsui. Recently, the Royal Observatory has advised that these curves
may not apply at other locations, and they recommend that an independent
analysis is carried out using data obtained from the nearest autographic
raingauge to the site in question. Such an analysis would normally only be
carried out far particularly high risk slopes. A map showing the
distribution of raingauges in Hong Kong is given in Figure 8.3.
The wetting band thickness that forms as a result of rainfall is also
inversely related to the difference between the initial and final degree of
saturation of the soil mass. Thicker wetting bands are therefore more
likely to occur after a series of heavy rainfall events, when the initial
degree of saturation will be higher, than after dry spells.
 62

The initial degree af saturatian may be determined in the field. This

will, hawever, depend upan the amaunt af rainfall that has accurred prior
to sampling, and alsa upan the methad adopted far obtaining the samples.
Preferably these should be obtained fram trial pits. They should be tested
far maisture content immediately they are recovered, although evaparation
during excavation and sampling could still be significant, and disturbance
can affect the density measurements necessary far obtaining degree of
saturation. An added camplication is the variation in mositure cantent
that will accur with depth. Degree of saturation shauld therefore be
determined at frequent intervals over the first few metres of the soil
profile.
The wetting band caused by heavy rainfall will extend downwards from
the ground surface under the effects af gravity. The relationship between
rainfall on unprotected slopes, infiltration and the depth of the wetting
front is given by (Lumb, 1962, 1975)
h = ( Dt) O. 5 + kt ( 4. 1)
n(Sf-Sal
where h = depth of wetting front,
D diffusion parameter,
k = coefficient of permeability,
n = porosity,
So = initial degree af saturatian,
Sf = final degree of saturation, and
t = duration of rainfall
Lumb (1975) proposed that this expression be modified to a more
approximate formula :
( 4. 2)

This simplification assumes that the diffusion term can be ignored after
heavy and prolonged rainfall. The parameters required far estimating the
thickness of the wetting band are rainfall intensity and duration, runoff,
permeability and degree of saturation. Figure 4.5 gives examples of
graphical solutions of this equation and shows the significant effects
of variation in the value (Sf-So), the increase in degree of saturation.
Figure 4.5 indicates that for lower values of permeability the thickness
of the wetting band increases. The reason for this apparent paradox is
that whilst the intensity of rainfall necessary to cause saturation is less
far a soil af low permeability, the duration af rainfall of that intensity
is longer far any given return period. This results in a qreater depth of
wetting band.
The value of permeability may be approximated by carryinq out
infiltration tests with a double ring driven into the soil at the bottom
of a trial pit or caisson at shallow depth. ldeally, tests should be
performed at successive depths to give a complete profile. Water is fed
from graduated bottles to the exposed surface in the inner ring and to
the annular space between the rings. The amount of water flowing out of
the bottle is measured with time, using the calibrated graduations. The
flaw under steady conditions may be used to determine permeability. A
 63

suitable field infiltrometer is shown in Figure 4.6 and typical results

are given in Figure 4.7.
The assumptions made when applying the approximate formula given
above result in an extremely simplified model for infiltration. For
example, if in the soil profile there exists a very thin band of material
of permeability lower than the overlying and underlyino materials, this
will actas a throttle on infiltration. Above the wetting band, positive
pore pressures will develop, while below the band full saturation is
unlikely to be achieved. Also, if the surface permeability is lower than
that of the underlying material, the surface acts as a throttle and no
band of saturation can develop. Similar analytical difficulties are
introduced as the degree of saturation changes throughout the soil profile.

4.4.4 Other Factors Affecting Groundwater Conditions

In localized areas, groundwater conditions can be significantly

affected by factors other than rainfall. These other factors should be
considered when interpreting piezometer data or estimating maximum
groundwater levels far inclusion in stability analyses. It is known that
leakage from water-bearing services occurs and, in addition, that cable
ducts (e.g. for telephone or power cables) convey water from sources of
leakage. This is of considerable importance in Hong Kong as such leakages
cause a rise in the local groundwater level and hence affect the stability
of slopes. Groundwater conditions may also be affected by pumpinq,
dewaterinq, the construction of deep foundations and the formation of new
cut slopes.
There are seven types of water bearing services normally found in
Hong Kong :
(a) reservoirs,
(b) fresh water mains,
(c) flushing water mains,
(d) sewers,
(e) storm drains,
(f) catchwater channels, and
(g) water tunnels.
Leakages from these services can be detected by chemical analyses of
groundwater samples (Geotechnical Control Office, 1982a). However,
chemical analyses cannot establish the amount of leakage occurring or
whether it significantly affects the stability of slopes.
The effects of groundwater pumping should also be carefully
considered. Slope designs based upon groundwater levels determined in
areas of active groundwater pumping can subsequently become inadequate if
pumping is stopped and groundwater levels rise (e.g. in the situation
of site redevelopment). When determining maximum groundwater levels for
stability analysis, the likely drawdown effects of nearby wells should be
assessed and it is recommended that the levels used in the analysis should
be based on the assumption of no drawdown.
Ground,1ater levels can also be affected by construction, both by
temporary dewaterino and by the construction of sheet pile walls. In
addition, a permanent foundation or underground basement may have a
 64

damming effect on the groundwater flow (Geotechnical Control Office, 1982a).

Allowances should be made far these factors when interpreting piezometric
data.
Surface protection also affects groundwater conditions. Uncracked
chunam or sprayed concrete will generally protect the surface from direct
infiltration but, at the same time, will reduce the rate of evaporation from
the slope surface. The combined effects create a delay in chances of pare
suction. The existing suction will reduce gradually durina the wet season
because of the surface protection, and it will build up slowly in dry spells
because of the low rate of evaporation.

4.4.5 Groundwater in Rock

The permeability of rock masses is controlled by discontinuity

geometry, which includes spacing, direction, discontinuity width and form,
as well as the degree of infilling and the roughness of the discontinuity
surfaces. These factors are all variable over smal l distances and make
both observation and analysis difficult.
The normal technique for assessing groundwater levels in soils requires
a piezometer to be installed in a short pocket of free-draining filter
material. If such a technique is adopted for rocks, the pore pressures
recorded will be those in the joints intercepted by the piezometer pocket
and may not be the most critical for design.
Examination of cut faces may do little to help interpret the results
of observations of standpipes as the rate of flow from relatively tight
joints in which there are high hydraulic pressures may be so low that all
seepage is removed by evaporation, givina the impression that the face is
dry (Coates, 1970; Hoek & Bray, 1981). As the pressure response in the
rock may be quite different to that in the overlying soil, it is often
necessary to insert separate piezometers and standpipes in the soil and
rock l ayers.
Despite these shortcomings, the standpipe system can yield useful
information on the distribution of groundwater in a rock mass, although
the interpretation in terms of fissure water pressure, as described above,
is very difficult.
Open joints at shallow depths in rock slopes presenta different
problem. Very intense rainfall overa short period may cause the joint
to fill up with water. For exposed rock faces, where open joints exist,
it is reasonable to assume that these joints could become full of water
to ground surface, and therefore necessary to analyse the stability of
individual blocks accordingly (see Section 5.3.2 on predicted worst
groundwater conditions).

4.5 SUBSURFACE DRAINAGE MEASURES

4.5.1 General

The factor of safety against failure on any potential slip surface

which passes below the water table can be improved by subsurface drainage,
thus reducing groundwater levels. This section discusses horizontal drains,
 65

drainage galleries, vertical drainage wells, cut-off and counterfort drains.

All of these will lower water levels.
In any subsurface drainage system, monitoring is important.
Piezometers should be installed to measure the pore pressure befare
construction, and should be read during and after construction to observe
the effect of the drainage works. In the long term, piezometer readings
can indicate impaired efficiency of the drainage system caused by siltation,
deterioration of seals or breakdown of pumps.
The volume of water flowing from any drain is directly proportional
to permeability and hydraulic gradient. Hhen a drain is installed, the
groundwater level will be lowered reducing the hydraulic gradient. The
seepage will, therefore, progressively reduce from its initial value to
a steady state value. This reduction in flow is not necessarily an
indication of drain deterioration. In low permeability materials there
may be no visible seepage from drains. In these cases, they will often
be operating successfully as seepage evaporates as it occurs at the outlet.
In rock masses, the groundwater flow will generally be confined to
joints, and therefore any drainage system must intersect these.
Hhere the drain is above the water table, consideration should be
given to providing an impermeable lining so that the drains do not recharge
the soil or rock. Hhere an unlined drain passes through partly saturated
zones, seepage from the drain can decrease the pore suction in the vicinity,
thereby decreasing stability.
In all gravity drains, the outlet to the collecting chambers should be
lower than the invert of the drain to prevent water backing-up the drain.

4.5.2 Horizontal Drains

The main advantages of horizontal drains are that they are relatively
quick and simple to install and they rely on gravity drainage. Hales are
usually 75 mm to 100 mm diameter, drilled at gradients of 10% uphill and
using a perforated or slotted casing. It is recommended that a fil ter be
incorporated into the drain to prevent erosion or clogging. Befare long
drains are contemplated, the construction and subsequent maintenance must
be considered. Choi (1977), Kenney et al (1977) and Prellwitz (1978)
discuss methods for the design of horizontal drainage systems but it should
be noted that most of these methods are based on ideal conditions (i.e.
homogeneous, isotropic materials and steady-state drainage).
Piezometers should be used during construction to monitor the effect
of the drains so that the spacing and number of drains can be adjusted to
achieve the desired water table drawdown. Furthermore, the performance
of the drainage system should be monitored to properly assess its continuing
adequacy. Clogging must be regarded as a real possibility particularly with
very long drains. Drains should be flushed, at regular intervals (possibly
once ayear) in arder to avoid siltation.
Tong & Maher (1975) describe the design of horizontal drain
installations that are grouted to obtain impermeable inverts.
 66

4.5.3 Drainage Galleries

Drainage galleries (adits) are tunnels excavated behind a slope face

far the purpose of lowering the groundwater table. Dueto their high
construction costs they are only used to control the water levels in
large slopes where no viable alternative scheme exists.
The effective cross-sectional area of a drainage gallery is generally
greater than the excavation itself dueto the disturbance caused by
construction. This effective cross-sectional area may be further
increased, if required, by the provision of radial drains drilled from
inside. In arder to retain a degree of flexibility so that radial drains
may be provided, it is necessary to consider this possibility from the
outset and ensure that the size of the gallery provided is adequate to
accommodate drilling equipment.
Where a gallery is constructed in highly-weathered rock, permanent
support is required in the form of a reinforced concrete lining. In this
case, the permanent lining should be surrounded with a properly designed
drainage filter so that there is a good hydraulic connection with the
material being drained. Weepholes then have to be provided through the
lining in arder to drain the filter.
A discussion on the optimum location and size of galleries far
man-made slopes may be found in Sharp (1970) and Sharp et al (1972).

4.5.4 Vertical Wells

Vertical wells can be installed and drainage can begin befare

excavation takes place. Wherever possible, permanent wells should be
drained under gravity through a system of horizontal drains ora drainage
gallery. In sorne instances, wells will require pumpino to maintain
drawdown. It is important that standby generating equipment is available
in case there is a power failure.
Because of the rise in the groundwater table between adjacent wells,
the depth of hale required far overall slope dewatering may be qreater than
the slope height. Alternatively, several levels of wells and staqed
pumping facilities can be used far particularly hiah slopes or deep
excavations.
To determine the position and spacing of wells around an excavation,
the regional flow characteristics of the area should first be determined
anct the sources of recharge defined. The studies should consider the
effect of well dewatering on the groundwater environment and, in extreme
cases, sorne system of controlled recharge of the groundwater system
outside the well line may be appropriate.
The design of wells, well screens and pumps is described by Johnson
(1982).

4.5.5 Cut-off Drains

Cut-off drains are intended to intercept shallow groundwater flowing

towards the slope. They are most effective if founded on an impermeable
 67

layer present at shallow depth.

An impermeable zone or membrane should be used as a cut-off downslope
of the drain, and the top part of the trench should be backfilled with
impermeable material. Runoff from the upper slopes should be collected in
surface water channels designed to the requirements given in Chapter 8.
The free-drainage material used to backfill the trench should be designed
to conform with the filter criteria given in Section 4.6. The size of
perforations in perforated pipes, slots in slotted pipe and width of joints
in open-jointed pipe should be based upan the grain size of the fil ter
material used as backfill to the trench (see Section 4.6.1 far details of
the grading of the fil ter in relation to slot size).
Pipes that are perforated or slotted over only part of their
circumference should be placed with the perforations or slots at the top
of the sectional-area so that the amount of water flowing in the filter
material below the pipe will be reduced. lf porous pipes are used, they
should be placed as tightly together as possible to prevent fine filter
material being washed into the pipe. As a precaution, the stability of
the slope should be checked assuming the drain forms a tension crack.

4.5.6 Counterfort Drains

The use of counterfort drains may be considered far soil or weathered

rock slopes where only shallow drainage is required. A tentative basis
for design is given by Hutchinson (1977). The trench should be backfilled
with free-draining material that conforms to the criteria given in Section
4.6, and the trench should be sealed at the surface with impermeable
material to prevent the drain collecting surface runoff. Porous, perforated
or slotted pipes incorporated in the drains should conform to the criteria
given in Section 4.5.5.

4.6 FILTERS
4.6.l Granular Filters

A graded fil ter is a material that, when placed against a soil, is

so graded that the migration of finer particles is prevented as water flows
across the soil/filter interface. Filters should be more permeable than
the protected soil and should be so graded that segregation does not
occur during placing. Filters are used to prevent fine-grained particles
from entering subsurface drains, the most erosion susceptible materials
being coarse silts and fine sands.
Table 4.1 gives details of the normal filter design criteria
applicable to soils in Hong Kong. The base soil particle size distribution
used far the design of filters should be obtained as described in Chapter
3, but without the use of dispersants. Where the base soil contains a
large percentage of gravel or larger-sized particles, the finer fraction
should be used far the filter design.
While the United States Army Corps of Engineers (1953) criteria are
applicable to silty soils, it has been found by experiment under relatively
low heads that the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers concrete sand is suitable
far use as a filter far all silts and finer soils. The grading of BS 882
 68

zone 2 natural sand is very similar to that of the U.S. Army Corps of
Engineers concrete sand. This is shown in Figure 4.9, which also shows
the grading of a free-draining material that may be used in conjunction
with this sand. The grading for BS 882 zone 2 sand produced from crushed
stone can be unacceptable, as this standard permits 20% of the material to
be finer than the 150 µm sieve (see Rule 6 in Table 4.1).
Where filter materials are used in conjunction with a coarser free-
draining material, such as crushed rock, the grading of the coarser
material should conform to the filter design criteria given in Table 4.1,
to protect the fil ter from erosion. Where filters are to be provided
between material of widely differing grain sizes, such as between
decomposed volcanic material and rockfill, two or more fil terzones may
be required.
Problems also arise when designinq filters to protect gap-araded
soils. Where sorne particle sizes of a soil gradation are scarce or
missing, the filter material should be designed on the basis of the finer
soil particles only. This is also true for layered soils.
Calculations for the design of filter gradings are conveniently
carried out in tabular form. An example of such a calculation is qiven
in Table 4.2 and shows the gradinq envelope of a drainage material suitable
for use with the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers concrete sand (Figure 4.9).
It should be noted that, although a filter grading envelope may be
designed conforming to all of the filter design rules, this does not
ensure that the fil ter produced also conforms to these rules. It is
possible to produce a filter that falls entirely within the specified
envelope but does not itself conform to Rule 7 in Table 4.1 (uniformity
coefficient). This type of fil ter is a problem if its uniformity
coefficient exceeds 20, as segregation is likely to occur. If such a
filter is used, special attention must be paid to its placing in order to
minimize such effects.
Material used for filters should consist of hard durable stone that
when placed, should be well compacted.
The minimum width of a zone that is to act purely as a filter should
be that which can be constructed without segregation of the material in the
zone where the protected soil boundary is directly in contact with free-
draining material. A minimum thickness of 450 mm is recommended for
machine-placed material. Where a thickness less than 450 mm is to be
placed, it may be necessary to hand-place the filter to ensure its
integrity. Where the filter zone is also to actas a drain, the thickness
of the zone should be sufficient to carry the maximum expected groundwater
flow while allowing free drainage of the protected material.
Where perforated or slotted drains are provided within a fil ter
material, the fil ter should be large enough not to enter the perforations,
slots or open joints in the pipes. The ends of the pipes should also be
closed to prevent the entry of the filter into the pipes (Spalding, 1970).
The criterion adopted by the United States Army Corps of Engineers
(1955) for the grading of the filter in relation to slot or hole size is :
 69

(a) Far slots

D85F 1· 2 (4.3)
slot width >

(b) Far circular hales :

D85F (4.4)
hale diameter > l.O

where D85F is the sieve size that allows 85% of the filter material to
pass.
The criterion used by the United States Bureau of Reclamation (1973)
far filter grain size in relation to pipe openings is :
085 of fil ter nea rest pi pe ~
2 ( 4. 5)
maximum opening of pipe drain >

The above equations have been found to representa reasonable range

over which satisfactory performance can be expected.

4.6.2 Filter Fabrics

As yet, there is little experience in Hong Kong with the long-term

performance of filter fabrics far permanent drainage measures. As a result,
it is recommended that filter fabrics are only used in negligible and low-
risk situations, as defined in Table 5.2. The two exceptions to this
recommendation are when the fabric is required to function far rare storm
events only or when the performance of the fabric can be monitored far a
period of at least five years and can be removed and replaced if it ceases
to function properly.
The most common form of filter fabrics are macte from synthetic
materials and are classified into three types : Non-woven fabrics, woven
fabrics and knitted fabrics. Problems that are associated with all fabrics
are :
(a) deterioration on exposure to sun light and
ultraviolet light,
(b) clogging,
(c) reduction in permeability dueto compression,
(d) reaction with chemicals in soils causin~
decomposition,
(e) microbiological growth on fabrics, and
(f) the formation of planes of weakness in the works.
If these problems are overcome by attention to design, construction
and quality control, fil ter fabrics can be very useful and can reduce
construction time.
A summary of design criteria far fil ter fabrics is given by Rankilor
(1981). It is important to remember that the fabric itself does not filter
the soil directly. It simply supports the soil interface between two soils
of different grain sizes, allowing an internal soil fil ter to build up.
 70

Fabrics with an equivalent opening size less than 150 µm and thick
non-woven fabrics may be prone to clogging. In sorne situations, fabrics
can contribute to higher stability as they are able to sustain tensile
stresses.
 71

5. DESIGN OF SLOPES

5.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter deals with the types of failure that occur in Hong Kong's
soils and rocks, and describes suitable methods for their analysis. The
design of cuttings and fill slopes and the treatment of unstable slopes are
discussed. Construction methods, where they influence slope stability, are
considered in Chapter 9.
It is common practice to define the stability of a slope in terms of a
factor of safety obtained from a numerical stability analysis. It is well
known, however, that any site investigation can quantify only approximately
the factors that influence slope stability. This is particularly tr,12
in residual materials where material properties may be highly variable over
a relatively small area and where pore pressures may vary rapidly during or
after intense rainfall. Therefore, there are certain situations where an
analytical approach may not yield satisfactory results. This is evidenced
in Hong Kong by a number of slopes that have remained stable for many years
even though numerical stability analyses indicate their factors of safety
to be less than unity. In sorne circumstances, engineering judgement, based
upon adequate knowledge and experience of Hong Kong conditions, is more
important than the numerical results of 'classical' analysis. This applies
particularly to natural slopes, but also to slopes and retaining structures
that were constructed rnany years ago and that have rernained completely
stable through a number of severe rainstorms.
In determining the appropriate factor of safety against possible slope
failure for a particular engineering or building project, an assessment
should be made of all new, modified and existing slopes that could
influence orbe influenced by the new works. This will frequently require
the assessment of slopes outside the immediate vicinity of the works. It
is also important to consider the likely volume and distance of travel of
debris resulting from a slope failure, and its effect on people and property.
For the stability assessment of existing slopes and for the desion of
new ones, it is recommended that stability analyses be carried out using one
of the well known engineering methods in conjunction with quantified
material properties and predicted pore pressure distributions. In sorne
circumstances, a non-analytical approach to stability assessment might be
thought to be more appropriate, but this should be applied only with the
greatest caution, after a thorough examination of the slope in question, and
with a knowledge of the slope's performance overa considerable time.
Ideally, the analytical and non-analytical approaches should both be applied
in all cases of stability assessment.
The rest of this chapter is concerned with the classical approach to
the stability analysis of slopes in Hong Kong.

5.2 FACTORS OF SAFETY

A widely accepted definition of factor of safety against slope failure
is the ratio of average available shear strength of the soil along the
critical slip surface to that required to maintain equilibrium (Bishop,
1955).
 72

5.2.1 New Slopes

An appropriate desiqn factor of safety against the failure of a slope

depends on the extent to which that failure could cause loss of life or
economic loss. Table 5.1 shows recommended factors of safety against loss
of life and against economic loss for new slopes. These factors of safety
are for groundwater conditions resulting from a ten-year return period
rainfall. There are three risk categories in each case (negligible, low and
high). The risk-to-life category reflects the likelihood of loss of life
in the event of failure. The economic risk category reflects the likely
magnitude of economic loss in the event of failure. Typical examples of
slope failure situations for each risk category are given in Tables 5.2
and 5.3.
It should be emphasised that the factors of safety against economic
loss and the typical examples of slope failures in each economic risk
category are for guidance only. These generalised statements do not cover
every slope failure situation. It is essential that the designer chooses
for himself an acceptable balance between the potential economic loss in
the event of a failure and the increased costs of construction required to
achieve a higher factor of safety.
Failures in the high risk-to-life category cannot be tolerated even in
the event of rare groundwater conditions. In addition to a factor of safety
of 1.4 for ~ ten-year return period rainfall, a slope in the hi9h risk-to-
life category should have a factor of safety of 1.1 for the predicted worst
groundwater conditions. The designer should determine these conditions
bearing in mind the factors outlined in Section 5.3.2.
In any borrow area or site formation project, the factors of safety
adopted in the design of slopes should be in accordance with the future use
of the area, with allowance made in the design for surcharge loadings
expected from subsequent development. Where the future land-use cannot be
determined, it should be assumed to be residential.

5.2.2 Existing Slopes

When analysing an existing slope to determine the extent of any

remedial or preventive works required, the performance history of that
slope can be of considerable assistance to the designer. There is, for
example, an opportunity to examine the geology of the slope more closely
than for an undeveloped site, and to obtain more realistic information on
groundwater. The designer is therefore able to adopt with confidence
factors of safety for proposed remedial or preventive works that are lower
than those specified in Section 5.2.1 for new works. As long as rigorous
geological and geotechnical investigations are conducted (which include a
thorough examination of slope maintenance history, groundwater records,
rainfall records and any slope monitoring records), the factors of safety
given in Table 5.4 may be used for the design of remedial or preventive
works, provided that the loading conditions, the basic form of the modified
slope and the groundwater regime remain substantially the same as those of
the existing slope. There will often be instances, however, where
particular circumstances will lead the designer to adopt, for remedial and
preventive works, the standards specified for new works (Section 5.2.1).
For the design of remedial or preventive works to a slope, it may be
 73

assumed that the existing slope has a m1n1mum factor of safety of 1.0
for the worst known loading and groundwater conditions. A designer who
chooses to use this assumption as the basis far a back-analysis approach
to the design of remedial or preventive works is referred to Leroueil &
Tavenas (1981) far an illustration of the pitfalls of such an approach. In
the case of a failed or distressed slope, the causes of the failure or
distress must be specifically identified and taken into account in the
design of the remedial works.
Where an existing stable slope will be substantially modified, or
where its stability will be affected by new works, the factors of safety
given in Table 5.1 should be achieved.

5.2.3 Natural Slopes

Natural slopes are frequently clase to limiting equilibrium over very

large areas, and preventive works can be expensive and difficult. It is
clearly not advisable to undertake extensive trimming-back of natural slopes
in arder to achieve what may only be marginal improvement in stability. In
such cases, disturbance of natural slopes and vegetation and the need far
costly preventive or protective measures may be avoided by siting structures
away from areas that could be affected by landslide debris.
Natural slopes need not meet the factors of safety given in Table 5.1,
provided that
(a) the slope is undisturbed (e.g. has not been and
will not be cut, stripped of vegetation, subjected
to increased loading or subjected to increased
infiltration by alteration of the natural drainage
regime), and
(b) a careful examination is made to determine that
there is no evidence of instability or severe
surface erosion.
In assessing natural slopes, consideration should always be given to
the possible presence of potentially unstable boulders.

5.2.4 Temporary Works

Factors of safety far temporary works should be the same as far new
permanent works but with due regard far the risk-to-life category during
construction and far the qroundwater conditions likely to occur during
the construction period.

5.3 STABILITY ANALYSES

5.3.1 Modes of Failure

When choosing a method of stability analysis far design, the probable

mode of failure of the slope must be considered. The method chosen should
model the failure mode.
The most common failures in Hong Kong's soils, fills and colluvium
 74

are very shallow, being controlled by depths of weathering and infiltration

during rainstorms. The failure surfaces are often roughly planar or only
slightly concave overa considerable portion of their area.
The structure of a material at less than its critical density can
collapse on ihearing and, if the material is saturated or nearly saturated,
high pore pressures can develop very rapidly. There is rarely any prior
warning of a failure occurring in this manner, and the resulting debris,
if liquified, can travel very large distances at high speed, even on
relatively flat surfaces. Materials of dry density less than critical can
be formed by inadequate compaction of fill, by deposition of colluvium in
a loose state or by weathering insitu.
Highly and completely weathered rocks may behave as soil in terms of
their engineering properties, and slopes should therefore be assessed by
analysing a wide range of potential failure surfaces throughout the mass.
In such materials, failure along relict joints should also be considered.
Failure in less weathered rock is always controlled by the joint system.
Typical failure profiles in weathered rocks and soils in Hong Kong are
shown in Figure 5.1.

5.3.2 Input Data

Details of topography, geology, shear strength, groundwater conditions
and external loadings are required for the analysis of slope stability.
(1) Topography. An accurate site plan is required showino the positions
of site investigation holes, joint survey areas and the location of cross-
sections to be analysed. Cross-sections must be surveyed to a detai l such
that they can be drawn to a natural scale large enough toread off
dimensions toan accuracy of about 0.1 m. A scale of 1 to 100 is usually
suitable. A larger scale, 1 to 50 or 1 to 20, may be required to obtain
accurate dimensions for the stabil ity analysis of slopes that are less than
ten metres high.
(2) Geology. The depth of weathering, presence of colluvium or fill
and the structure of the fresh and weathered rock should be assessed from
the results of the surface and subsurface investigations (Chapter 2).
For analysis, geological data must normally be interpreted in terms
of layers or zones of materials of like engineering characteristics. When
dealing with weathered rocks, one of the zonal schemes proposed by the
Geological Society of London (1972), the lnternational Association of
Engineering Geology (1981) or the British Standards Institution (1981)
may be appropriate for this purpose. However, there may be occasions when
it is more useful to develop an individual scheme to classify zones of
material for a specific site.
The details of site geology available for analysis are usually based
on a small amount of data, which is often open to more than one interpreta-
tion, anda range of possibilities must be considered when carrying out
stability analyses. Geological conditions should be continually assessed
during construction, and designs modified if geological conditions differ
from those assumed. The geological structure assumed for the design should
be shown on the slope cross-section.
(3) Shear strength. Shear strengths for the slope-forming materials,
 75

normally expressed in terms of the effective stress parameters c' and 0',
should be determined by testing representative samples of matrix materials
(residual soil and weathered rock) and discontinuities. The samples should
be tested at stresses comparable to those in the field, and should be
saturated, unless direct evidence is obtained by insitu measurement or
observation to indicate that the materials in the field do not become
saturated or near-saturated under the design rainfall conditions. Reference
should be made to Section 3.7.
The shear strength of an unsaturated material is usually substantially
greater than that of the same material in the saturated condition. However,
near-saturation may be achieved within both vegetated and surface protected
slopes for a ten-year return period rainfall, unless the slopes are
effectively sealed against both direct and indirect infiltration.
Therefore, soil suction should not generally be relied upon in designas a
factor contributing to long-term slope stability.
To remain effective, protective slope surfaces must be maintained. For
environmental reasons, vegetation is to be preferred to hard surfacing
materials (chunam and sprayed concrete) as a protective cover for the
prevention of surface erosion.
(4) Groundwater. Groundwater conditions should be assessed during and
following the site investigation by installing and reading piezometers, and
by observing traces of seepage. The levels obtained during the observation
period are unlikely to represent the peak levels that will occur Juring
the design storm. Therefore, an estimate must be made of the extent to
which water levels in the slope will increase in response to rainfall and
other factors. Reference should be made to Section 4.4.
Slopes should be designed for the groundwater conditions resulting from
a ten-year return period rainfall. In addition, slopes in the high risk-to-
life category should be checked to determine the sensitivity of their
stability to water levels above those predicted as a result of the ten year
return period rainfall. This requires the designer to consider the
predicted worst groundwater conditions. Amongst other causes, these worst
conditions may be dueto major leakage from services, the blockage of
filters or drains, exceptionally heavy rain (return period greater than ten
years) and the filling of tension cracks or open joints. The predicted
groundwater levels to be used in stability analyses for both the ten year
return period rainfall and the worst conditions should be shown on the slope
cross-section.
The possibility of formation of transient perched water tables at the
interface of layers of differing permeability must be considered from
examination of the material profiles within a slope and the catchment above
the slope. Perched water tables may form at the interface between colluvium
or fill and the underlying soil, between zones of weathering, or within zones
of weathering or colluvium. Such transient conditions normally form and
dissipate relatively rapidly and may be very difficult to detect by
observation of seepage or piezometric measurements.
For rock slopes, maximum water pressure may develop during heavy storms
as a result of tension cracks or open joints becoming full of water. The
fissure water pressure acting on the joint should be taken to be a maximum
at the base of the tension crack, reducing nearly to zero where the joint
daylights in the slope face. Water pressures can vary from joint to joint
within a rock mass, and the pressures measured by piezometers are only
relevant to the joints that intersect the filter surrounding the
 76

piezorneter tip. They can be relied upan only if the filter intersects a
single joint.
Leakage frorn services, such as sewers, storITT;Jater drains and water
rnains, can cause both saturation of slopes and rising groundwater levels.
Service trenches should norrnally be constructed as suggested in Chapter 9
but, where there are details of proposed services available, and where there
is any possibility of leakage into the slope, this should be taken into
account in the design.
(5) External loadings. Loadings frorn traffic, building foundations,
retaining walls, spoil heaps, pylons, blasting, pile driving, etc. that can
influence the stability of a slope rnust be included in the analysis, with an
appropriate allowance rnade for any safety factors that rnay already have
been incoporated into the loadings. If external loadings are to be
considered, the rnethod of analysis rnust allow for their inclusion.
Earthquake forces need not generally be included in slope stability
analyses in Hong Kong.

5.3.3 Methods of Analysis

Many rnethods of stability analysis are available for the design of

soi 1 s 1op~s. The rnajority of these a re based on 1i rnit equ i1 i bri urn, a lthough
sorne are based on plastic lirnit theory and sorne on deforrnation. Fewer
rnethods are available for the analysis of rock slopes, and alrnost all of
these are lirnit equilibriurn rnethods. The better known rnethods for soils and
rocks and water pressures are listed in Tables 5.5 and 5.6. The advantages
and lirnitations are given, and recornrnendations are rnade as to their
application. The references given in the Table are not necessarily the
original references but are easily accessible in books or papers where the
rnethods are given in enough detail for design office use.
Lurnsdaine & Tang {1982) reviewed the rnethods of analysis that are
cornrnonly used in Hong Kong, described the sources of cornputational error
that can occur and cornpared the results obtained frorn the sirnplified and
rigorous rnethods.

5.3.4 Three-Dimensional Effects

The rnajority of stability analyses assurne a slip of infinite width in

aplanar slope. This assurnption is reasonable in the rniddle of a slip, but
the ends of the slip are affected by shear on the end walls. The resulting
underestirnate of overall stability is difficult to quantify. Hovland {1977)
takes the cases of a cylindrical slip with conical ends and of a wedge with
two sliding planes. In the first case, he shows the three-dirnensional
effect to increase the factor of safety by 10% to 50% depending on the ratio
of the width of cylinder to height of slope. The rnaxirnurn difference occurs
when the cylindrical section is non-existent. In the case of the wedge, the
increase is again about 50% for soils with c/YH greater than one. However,
for srnall values of cohesion the difference reduces and for cohesionless
soils, there is a reduction of the factor of safety by about 5%. Hutchinson
et al (1973), by considering the earth pressures on the sides of a slide in
Etruri a Marl, show an i ncrease in factor of safety of 16% for the three-
dirnens iona l case.
 77

Plan curvature of the slope can also affect the overall stability of
a slope. Slopes with concave plans are theoretically more stable than
those with convex plans. However, drainage of convex slopes is better and
the lower pare pressures can reduce the difference in factor of safety.
The effect is most marked in jointed rocks. 0pencast mining experience
(Piteau & Jennings, 1970; Hoek & Bray, 1981) has shown that for concave
slopes with radii of curvature less than the slope height, the slope angle
can be 10º steeper than that predicted by conventional stability analysis,
while the convex slope should be 10º flatter. The influence of curvature
becomes negligible when the radius is greater than twice the slope height.
Corestones and boulders in a soil slope can increase both the strength
and density of the sliding mass (Holtz & Gibbs, 1956; Holtz, 1960). The
effect on the factor of safety cannot usually be quantified for routine
stability analyses.

5.3.5 Recommended Methods of Analysis

(1) Preliminary design and negligible risk slopes. For preliminary

design or for slopes in the negligible risk category, a time consuming
complex analysis is seldom justified, as the input data are often scanty.
Hoek's charts (Hoek & Bray, 1981), infinite slope and sliding block
analyses are most useful for a rapid assessment of the stability of soil
slopes.
(2) Low and high risk slopes. Non-circular analytical methods, such
as those by Janbu (1972) or Morgenstern & Price (1965), are recommended for
most soil slopes in Hong Kong. However, a sliding block or Bishop (1955)
circular analysis may occasionally be more appropriate.
The assumptions made in obtaining shear strength parameters and pore
pressures for use in the calculations are often such that a more rigorous
but complex method, such as that of Morgenstern & Price, is not justified
for the analysis. The Janbu routine method is sufficiently accurate for
most purposes and is recommended for general use, with the proviso that
there are circumstances under which the method does not work well (see
Table 5.5).
Where a more rigorous method is warranted, one of the more complex
methods, such as the Janbu Rigorous method or the Morgenstern & Price
method may be considered. Both produce results of similar accuracy,
although the former experiences numerical difficulty dueto the less
rigorous formulation of the equations used in its solution. However,
these difficulties can usually be overcome by alteration of the slices
used in the analysis. The Janbu Rigorous method has the advantage of
being far less demanding on computer resources than the method of
Morgenstern & Price. It is also possible to carry out the analysis by
hand calculation, unlike the latter method.
These two methods are useful for special cases; for example, where
the shear surface passes through two or more very different materials,
where high quality input data is available or when carrying out a back-
analysis of a failure.
There are fewer methods of stability analysis available for rock
slopes (see Table 5.6). The principal types of failure of rock slopes are
rotational, translational and toppling modes, and combinations of these
modes may also be possible. Rotational failure, either circular or non-
 78

circular, can occur in slopes of highly-jointed or shattered rock. In

these cases, analysis can be carried out by the methods of slices, as used
for analysis of soil slopes. Detailed methods of analysis of rock slopes
are given in Hoek & Bray (1981).

5.3.6 Reliability of Stability Analyses

The uncertainty associated with the design values of soil strength,

groundwater conditions and other input data, is not taken into account
directly in the usual stability analysis. Because of the innate variability
of all the parameters used in the analysis, and because of the inevitable
sparsity of test data, the reliability of the final calculated safety
factor may be low, and the actual safety of a design could be much less or
much greater than that c~lculated.
In principle, it would be possible to estima te the probabil ity of
failure of a design by regarding all the parameters as random variables,
and to assess the reliability in terms of this failure probability. In
practice, there will rarely be sufficient data to justify a full
probabilistic analysis but it will always be possible to estímate the mean
value of the safety factor (F) and its standard deviation (SFl- From these,
it is possible to determine a standardised reliability index (RF), which is
the difference between mean safety factor anda safety factor of unity
divided by the standard deviation :
R _ (F - 1) ( 5. 1)
F- SF
The significance of the reliability index in terms of the probability
of failure is shown in Figure 5.2.
Even without interpretation as a probability of failure, the re-
lt~bility index is a useful measure, particularly when comparing alternative
designs. If two designs have the same mean safety factor but different
reliability indices, then the design with the larger RF value will be the
safer of the two. Conversely, two designs with different mean safety
factors but an equal reliability index will be equally safe.
There are several ways of calculating the mean and standard deviation
of a function of random variable (Lumb, 1974), but the simplest and most
convenient for routine work is the Taylor series.
Normally, there are insufficient observational data to determine the
range of possible pore water pressures. It is therefore preferable to
determine the reliability index for a number of fixed values of pore water
pressure and to examine these using engineering judgement to decide if the
factors of safety determined for each water condition are adequate.

5.3.7 Sensitivity Analysis

Asan alternative to accounting for variability of the soil forming

the slope by the statistical methods described in Section 5.3.6, the slope
stability analyses may be repeated using differing values of c' and ~, and
different groundwater conditions. The effect on factor of safety as a
result of variations in these parameters can then be assessed and, if
 79

considered necessary, more or less conservative criteria may be adopted far

design, based upan the frequency distribution of the values of the
parameters obtained during testing and observation.

5.4 DESIG~ OF CUT SLOPES

5.4.1 Slope Profile

Cut slopes should be designed to the factors of safety in Table 5.1.

A slope may be cut at one angle far its full height, or alternatively, at
angles that vary according to the material through which the slope is cut.
In the case of soil overlying rock, the slope can be steeper through the
rock than through the soil. Berms may be formed at regular intervals up
the slope. If berms are provided, the stability of both the overall slope
and the slopes between berms should be checked. In Honq Kong, failure
frequently occurs in the slope above the top bench where the excavation is
formed in the most heavily weathered material and where the slope is most
susceptible to infiltration through the natural ground above the crest of
the slope.
If slopes are to be formed in fresh or weathered rock so that joints
that dip into the excavation are exposed, it may be safer and more economic
to form these slopes on a continuous profile parallel to the joints, rather
than providing berms on a slope that has intermediate steeper slopes (see
Figure 5.3). Consideration should be given at the design stage to the
method of forming the final face in rock excavations. Controlled blastino
techniques should be used to achieve an acceptable standard of finish.
Berms, where used, must be at least 1.5 m wide and should generally
be spaced at not more than 7.5 m vertical intervals. One of the main
advantages of providing intermediate berms with drainage channels is the
reduction in volume and velocity of runoff on the slope surface and the
consequent reduction of erosion and infiltration. Wide berms can also
catch debris from slips occurring higher up the slope, reducing the damage
to structures at the toe of the slope. They also improve access far
maintenance but can cause increased infiltration unless drains and surface
protection are well maintained. Benches can also reduce stability in
adversely jointed soils and rocks.
Excavation of soil and rock cuttings is discussed in Chapter 9.

5.4.2 Improvement of Stability

If the initial analysis shows that the stability of a proposed cut is

inadequate, the designer should first establish whether a change in the
geometry of the excavation is feasible to reduce the height or angle of the
cutting. Atan early stage in design, this may be the cheapest solution.
Otherwise, stability may be improved by the provision of retaining
structures, internal drainage to lower the permanent water table, anchors
and rock bolts, or alternatively, by a combination of these methods.
The design of retaining structures and the various factors of safety
required of them are discussed in Chapter 7. The construction methods are
discussed in Chapter 9.
 80

Horizontal drains or drainage galleries are effective only where the

original groundwater level is high, relative to possible failure surfaces.
Any such installation on which the safety of a slope depends will require
monitoring throughout the life of the slope. The desi9n of horizontal
drains and galleries is discussed in Chapter 4 and their maintenance in
Chapter 11.
Force may be applied to a potentially unstable rock or soil mass to
increase the nonnal stress on a potential failure plane, or to tie the
unstable mass to a stable one. The force may be applied directly, or
through a retaining structure in both soils and rock. Ground anchors may
be used to apply this force where the overall stability of a slope is to
be ensured. Guidance on the design of anchors is given in the Mddel
Specification far Prestressed Ground Anchors (Brian-Boys & Howells, 1984).
Rock bolts may be used where localised areas of instability are to be
remedial (see Sections 5.4.3 and 5.4.5).

5.4.3 Treatment of Rock Slopes

Most rock slopes, after bulk excavation, need sorne form of treatment
to ensure continued stability. Table 5.7 gives the range of applications
or various stabilisation measures, and Figure 5.4 shows typical situations
in which these methods may be used.
(1) Scaling. Immediately after excavation, loase blocks or boulders
should be removed from exposed rock faces. Potentially unstable blocks
should be removed carefully, without blasting, to prevent further loosening
of the face.
(2) Buttresses. Buttresses to support unstable rock masses may be
concrete or masonry gravity structures, which can be anchored to improve
stability. Drainage should be provided behind buttresses to prevent water
pressure building up in covered fissures.
(3) Dentition. Bands of soft material that are exposed in a rock
face should be trimmed-back from the face. The resulting slots should then
be filled with a suitable filter material protected by masonry or
reinforced concrete to prevent erosion of the soft material. In Hong Kong
rocks, these soft seams will normally only occur where weathering has
taken place along a joint, a fault ora dyke. This penetrative weathering
is indicative of water flow. Weepholes should therefore be provided in
the facing to ensure that the soft seam is adequately drained and that
high water pressures do not develop. Cavities, overhangs and open joints
can be treated in the same way as exposures of bands of soft material. If
required, concrete or masonry facings should be dowelled into the harder
rock in which the soft seam occurs.
(4) Sprayed concrete. Sprayed concrete (details are given in Chapter
9) can be used to provide surface protection far zones of weak or highly-
fractured rock. Where concrete is required to span between rock bolts or
other supports, it should be suitably reinforced with steel fabric that
can be attached to the rock surface with dowels and bolts befare spraying.
Sufficient weepholes should be provided where necessary to prevent a build-
up of water pressure behind the surface.
(5) Dowels. Dowels are untensioned steel bars, usually 25 mm to 32 mm
 81

diameter and 1 m to 3 m long, grouted over their full length into holes
drilled in the rock. They are used for reinforcing closely-jointed rock
and for anchoring reinforcement, concrete or masonry and small blocks of
rock. The design of dowels is discussed in Section 5.4.4.
(6) Rock bolts. Rock bolts are suitable for stabilising localised
areas but should not be used as a major slope support system. They are
generally tensioned steel bars that comprise a short anchorage zone in
sound rock andan unbonded zone in which tension is developed. The head
of the bolt is threaded and fitted with a nut. Tension should normally be
applied by a jacking system. The load developed is applied to the face by
means of a steel plate bearing onto the rock surface, although for weak or
badly-fractured rocks, a concrete pad may also be required. Typical rock
bolts are 25 mm to 40 mm in diameter, 3 m to 6 m long, and have a tensile
working load of up to 100 kN. The design of rock bolts is discussed in
Section 5.4.5.

5.4.4 Design of Dowels

Stress is induced in a dowel when movement occurs along the dis-

continuity being stabilised. In hard rock, dilation occurs as movement
along the discontinuity causes riding-up on the asperities. Provided the
bonded length is adequate on either side of the discontinuity, tension and
shear are induced in the dowel. The magnitude of these forces is dependent
on the roughness of the discontinuity, the orientation of the dowel to the
discontinuity and the relative movement necessary to develop peak shear
strength and peak dilation.
Simplified design methods for dowels are given by Sage (1977) and
Bjurstrom (1974).
For mild and high-yield steel dowels, the maximum stress should be
limited to 50% of the guaranteed ultimate tensile strength. An allowance
of 2 mm sacrificial thickness on the radius should be made for corrosion,
andan annulus of grout of 6 mm mínimum thickness should be provided around
the bar. lt is inappropriate to use prestressing steel for dowels unless
double corrosion protection is provided.

5.4.5 Design of Rock Bolts

Rock bolts provide positive support to the discontinuity being

stabilised by increasing the normal stress and, hence, the mobilised shear
strength.
The bolt anchorage in sound rock may be formed either by bonding or by
use of a mechanical device such as a torque-set bolt. The bond length
should be designed with a factor of safety of 2.0 against pullout.
Mechanical anchorages, where used for permanent bolts, should be grouted
after initial installation to provide the required bond length. Stresses
of up to 50% of the guaranteed ultimate tensile stress may be used, and
bolts should be proof-loaded to 1.5 times working load to demonstrate
adequate performance of the installed bolt.
Where prestressing steel is used in a rock bolt, it should be provided
with double corrosion protection. Single corrosion protection is considered
 82

adequate far high-yield or mild steel bars, provided an allowance far

generalised corrosion of 2 mm on the radius is made. Far permanent bolts,
single corrosion protection of the free length should consist of grout, a
grease-filled sheath, or other suitable protection method. The corrosion
protection of the head should be carefully considered, and the quality of
the protection provided should be consistent with that for the rest of the
bolt. Particular attention should be paid to detailing of the corrosion
protection system and to site supervision to ensure that the risk of
corrosion is minimised. Where grout is used, a mínimum cover of 6 mm should
be provided to the bolt.
Where persistent discontinuities occur, ties may be required between
rock bolts to prevent failure. These ties may be structural channel
sections with slotted hales cut to accommodate variations in the spacing of
the bolts or, alternatively, they may be cast insitu concrete beams.
The load required in a rock bolt to prevent sliding of a block on an
inclined plane may be calculated by referring to Appendix 3 of Hoek & Bray
(1981). The shear strength used in the calculation of bolt load should be
appropriate to the joint being stabilised.

5.4.6 Boulder and Rockfall Control

Where potentially unstable boulders are identified as a threat to

proposed development downslope, there are a number of possible measures
to improve stability.
1) Removal of boulders. Before development proceeds at the base of a
boulder strewn slope, unstable boulders should be removed or, if too large,
broken into small fragments by blasting or mechanical means to assist
removal.
(2) Breaking-up of boulders and repositioning. Where it is uneconomic
to transport boulders from the slope, breaking-up followed by repositioning
of the broken pieces on the slope may be a solution.
(3) Stabilisation of boulders insitu. A variety of techniques are
available including concrete underpinning, grout injection of boulder rubble
to form restraining buttresses, steel dowels and bolts, tyinQ-back v1ith a
combinatibn of steel mesh and sprayed concrete or with steel hawsers, and
surface protection combined with drainage to prevent erosion of supporting
soil from around boulders.
It may not be economically practica] to eliminate all rock and boulder
falls from cut faces and steep natural slopes. In these circumstances,
precautions should be taken to reduce the danger that such falls present to
life and property. Figure 5.5 shows sorne rockfall control methods suggested
by Fookes & Sweeney (1976). Fences can be provided at the base of slopes,
combined with energy-absorbing catchpits, to contain boulders within a
designed limit (Ritchie, 1963). Alternatively, the energy of moving
boulders can be dissipated by the use of deformable walls such as gabion
structures. Where space allows, boulder trajectories can be diverted by
protective embankments into areas where they cannot cause damage.
 83

5.5 DESIG'l OF FILL SLOPES

5.5.1 Kew Earthfill Slopes

Fill slopes should be designed to the factors of safety in Table 5.1

using shear strength parameters obtained from tests on samples of the
proposed earthfill material compacted to the design density. If a fill
slope is provided with berms, these should be at least 1.5 m wide and not
more than 7.5 m apart vertically. Surface protection and drainage should be
designed to prevent erosion (see Chapter 8 and 9).
The foundation far the fill should be carefully prepared by removal
of vegetation, topsoil and any other unsuitable material. If appropriate,
the foundation should be benched to key the fill into an existing slope, and
any inadequately stable slope material should be removed.
A free-draining layer, conforming to the filter criteria given in
Chapter 4, may be required between the fill and natural ground to eliminate
the possibility of high pare pressures developing where they could cause
slope instability. Where springs ar seepage-traces are found durina the
formation of a fill, suitable drains should be provided to collect the flow
from them and to discharge it outside the limits of the fill. Care should
be taken to prevent drains acting as a source of infiltration.

5.5.2 Treatment of Existing Earthfill Slopes

Where a slope of loase fill is to be stabilised to eliminate the

possibility of a flow-slide, the surface layers should be stripped to a
vertical depth of not less than 3 m and replaced with fill compacted to a
density of not less than 95% of British standard maximum dry density. A
drainage system may be required between old and recompacted fill to
prevent the development of water pressure behind the compacted face.
Alternatively, in sorne circumstances the required insitu density may be
achieved by the use of dynamic compaction techniques.
While the simplest method of restoring a failed slope is to remove
the slipped material and reform the slope ata safe angle determined by
stability analysis, this is not always possible because of the constraint
of land availability. In such cases, retaining structures can be
incorporated into the design to permit the adoption of flatter slopes and
to improve overall stability without the slope encroaching anta surrounding
land.
Where a slope must be returned to its original profile, the failed
material should be excavated and any steep failure surfaces benched prior
to receiving fil l. Drainage measures should be incorporated to deal with
any groundwater flow. Slopes may be reconstructed with compacted earthfill,
ar with cement stabilised soil, lean mix concrete, masonry ar rockfill.

5.5.3 Rockfill Slopes

Slopes composed of well-graded, free-draining rockfill materials are

not normally subject to saturation ar groundwater rise during rainfall, and
consequently the factors of safety given in Tables 5.1 and 5.4 are
inappropriate far potential failure surfaces within the rockfill mass.
 84

Rockfill does not easily lend itself to conventional shear strength testing,
but a conservative estimate of the angle of repose of the material may be
used as the safe slope angle, provided that it is properly graded and
compacted, and provided the foundation is stable. Sorne triaxial test data
on rockfill materials are given by Leps (1970).
A fil ter layer may be required under the rockfill to prevent under-
mining and the migration of fines into the fill. The preparation of the
foundation should be as for earthfill.
 85

6, FOUNDATIONS ON SLOPES

6.1 INTRODUCTIOK
The design of foundations for structures on or adjacent to slopes must
take into account the interaction between the structure and the slope.
Two criteria must be considered :
(a) the influence of the adjacent slope on the bearing
capacity and settlement of the foundation, and
(b) the effect the foundation will have on the stability
of the slope.
The first criterion recognises that there can be a significant
reduction in bearing capacity (both horizontally and vertically) dueto an
adjacent slope (Vesic, 1975; Poulos, 1976; Schmidt, 1977) and the second
criterion is important because the stability of a slope can be affected by
excavation for the construction of foundations on or adjacent to the slope,
the load imposed by foundations on or above the slope, or the temporary or
permanent change in groundwater regime caused by construction of the
foundation.
Typical foundation types in Hong Kong are spread footings, caissons
(hand-dug and machine bored) and piles (percussion, bored, precast and
cast-in-place). Spread footings and hand-dug caissons are the most common
because heavy machinery is not required for construction, the operation of
which is difficult on steep hillsides. Shallow foundations (spread
footings) are used for light loads, and deeper foundations (piles) are used
where the bearing stratum is at depth or where the stability of the slope
would be impaired by any additional load from the foundation.

6.2 SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS

6.2.1 Bearing Capacity and Settlement
The ultimate bearing capacity of a shallow foundation on a slope is
lower than that for the same footing on level ground. A general expression
for the ultimate bearing capacity of such foundations, which includes
factors to allow for the slope of the ground, is given by Vesic (1975).
Appropriate values for these ground-slope factors are given in Fi0ure 6.1.
This Figure is reproduced from Geoguide 1 (Geotechnical Control Office,
1982b) to which reference should be made :
(a) for guidance on the particular problem of
estimating the bearing capacity of a foundation
set-back from the crest of a slope, and
(b) for a discussion of other factors that can influence
bearing capacity.
Where shallow foundations are constructed at more than one level on a
slope, the foundations at the higher level may impose additional loading on
the lower ones. This additional loading must be taken into account in the
design.
In general, bearing capacity calculations do not allow for the fact
 86

that the soil forming the slope is already under stress, and so it is
important to assess the overall stability of the slope under the influence
of the loaded foundation. However, an acceptable factor of safety
against slope failure obtained from a stability analysis that includes
the influence of foundation loads, does not necessarily mean that the
foundation is acceptable in terms of settlement.

6.2.2 Slope Stability

As a general rule, the stability of a slope affected by foundations

should be checked if the slope angle is greater than ~•;2 (Vesic, 1975).
Where this is so, the foundation can be considered asan equivalent line
loador a surcharge imposing horizontal and vertical loads and incorporated
into the stability analysis.
The backfilling to a foundation may be poor, and so the stability
analysis should consider the possibility of a tension crack forming on
the upslope-edge of the foundation.
For shallow foundations on or above rock slopes, the stability
analysis should take into account potential instability dueto adversely
orientated discontinuities. The analytical methods of Hoek & Bray (1981)
are useful in this respect.
The stability of a slope can be impaired by excavation for the
construction of shallow foundations on or adjacent to the slope and the
demolition of structures supporting the toe of the slope. Both these
effects should be considered during the analysis. In order to minimise the
short term instability of a slope, excavations should be as small as
possible and should be properly shored.

6.3 DEEP FOUNDATIONS

6.3.1 Lateral Loads

The horizontal stresses in a soil slope vary throughout the slope and,
for deep foundations, the horizontal loading on the upslope side of the
foundation is larger than on the downslope side. However, in a slope that
has an acceptable factor of safety against failure, the difference in
horizontal load is negligible (Schmidt, 1977) and need not be considered
during the design of most deep foundations.
However, high lateral loading can be transferred to foundations in
situations where there is significant ground movement (i .e. where the slope
above or below the foundation fails or where the slope in front of the
foundation is excavated) or where there is only a small ground movement
(i.e. creep) but where the foundation is very stiff.
Various methods of analysis are available for the analysis of single
piles subjected to lateral loading dueto ground movement. Wang & Yen
(1974) and !to & Matsui (1977) use limiting equilibrium methods and suggest
ways in which arching between closely-spaced piles can be considered.
Poulos &Davis (1980) use finite difference methods; these, however, are
very dependent on the correct definition of the stress-strain characteris-
tics of the soil layers surrounding the piles (De Beer, 1977).
 87

Where possible, lateral loads on deep foundations should be prevented.

This can be achieved by either :
(a) stabilising potentially unstable slopes before
construction of the foundation, or
(b) by the provision of an annular sleeve around the
foundation.
An annular sleeve is a space of sufficient width between the foundation
and the surrounding soil so that both can move without interaction. The
space, which can be air filled or can contain a suitable compressible
material, must be wide enough to accommodate the ground movements expected
and the deflection of the foundation itself.
For air-filled spaces, when a lining has to be used to support the
soil, the lining must prevent the ingress of groundwater or surface water
into the space and must prevent the space filling up with soil. The plug
at the top of the air-gap between the lining, and the foundation should be
designed so that there is no load transmitted through it.
For spaces that are filled with a compressible material, the design
width should take into account the compressibility of the material itself,
especially as a result of the placement of wet concrete during construction.
In such circumstances, it may be appropriate to install the annulus
eccentrically around the foundation with the centre of the annulus upslope
of the centre of the foundation.

6.3.2 Slope Stability

Deep foun<iations can adversely affect the stability of slopes

(a) by transmitting vertical or horizontal loads
to the slope,
(b) by the removal of support during the excavation
for construction of the foundation, or
(c) by the temporary or permanent change in the
groundwater regime caused by the foundation.
To prevent the transmission of vertical loads onto a slope, the
founding depth for a deep foundation should be below any potential failure
plane within the slope. To prevent the transmission of horizontal loads,
an annular sleeve should be provided. In this case, the annulus may be
installed eccentrically around the foundation, but with the centre of the
annulus downslope of the centre of the foundation. Where these measures
are not possible and loads from the foundation are likely be transmitted to
the slope, the stability of the slope under the influence of these loads
should be assessed. However, this assessment is not easy as the methods
usually adopted for stability analysis (limit equilibrium methods) are not
compatible with those used to evaluate soil pressures (elastic methods).
When caissons or piles are closely spaced, there may be a reduction in
overall permeabil ity that would result in a rise in the aroundwater level
upslope of the foundation (Pope & Ho, 1982). This possibility must be
considered in the design, and any assumptions made should be checked by the
 88

installation and monitoring of piezometers after the foundation is in place.

Piles and caissons can be used to support slopes, and methods for their
design in these situations are given by Gould (1970) and Fukuoka (1977).
 89

7. RETAINING STRUCTURES

7.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter considers the forces exerted on retaining walls by soils.
Many important aspects will be covered only briefly because greater detail
is available in Geoguide 1 : Guide to Retaining Wall Design (Geotechnical
Control Office, 1982b). The design of ground anchorages is not included in
this chapter but guidance on many aspects of anchorage systems (e.g.
installation, proof testing, factors of safety and monitoring) is given in
the Model Specification far Prestressed Ground Anchors (Brian-Boys & Howells,
1984).
It is common practice to define the stability of a wall in terms of a
factor of safety obtained from a numerical stability analysis. This chapter
is concerned with this 'classical' analytical approach.

7.2 FORCES ON WALLS

7.2.1 Earth Pressures
Methods of calculating earth pressures are given in most textbooks,
far example that by Terzaghi & Peck (1967). Sorne discussion on the
limitations of these methods is given in Geoguide l. Very large wall
movements are required to mobilise the ultimate passive pressure; far
design purposes, the passive pressure should be limited to not more than
50% of the calculated ultimate passive pressure. Alternatively, passive
pressures may be determined by use of appropriate partial factors on shear
strenqth and wall friction, as recommended in Geoguide 1 far sheet walls.
If relative movement can occur between a wall and the supported soil,
the effects of wall friction may be taken into account when determining the
pressure acting on the wall.
The magnitude of the forces acting on retaining structures is affected
by the soil and structure interaction. Mover:ients of 1~all s necessary to
generate different pressure conditions, proposed by Wu (1975), are quoted
in Geogu i de l.
Design curves far active and passive earth pressures are given in
several publications, notable NAVFAC DM-7 (1971). These design curves are
reproduced in Geoguide l.
The adoption of active conditions far retaining wall design assumes
movement of the supported material. This may be unacceptable because of
possible damage to adjacent existing structures or services (National
Research Council of Canada, 1975). Under these circumstances, walls must be
designed to prevent movement of the supported soil r:iass (see Section 7.3.6).
When utilizing the effects of passive pressure in retaining wall
design, the possibility of excavation subsequently being carried out in the
passive zone should be considered. If this can happen, tbe wall should be
designed ignoring passive pressures.
There is little information available on the magnitude of the
 90

coefficient of earth pressure at rest far the insitu weathered rocks of

Hong Kong. However, sorne guidance is given in Geoguide l.

7.2.2 Water Pressures

The water pressure acting on a retaining wall behind which there is

inadequate drainage can be considerably greater than the active pressure.
Although, in practice, a drain is often used against the backface of the
wall, the most effective way of preventing the development of these
pressures is to provide an inclined drain between the backfill and the
insitu soil (Cedergren, 1977).
If an inclined drain is provided that is capable of carrying all the
flow, rainfall infiltrating from the surface flows vertically into the
drain without producing pore pressures in the soil or water pressure on the
wall. In contrast, for rain infiltrating into the platform above a wall
to reach a vertical drain, there must be a horizontal component of flow and
therefore positive pore pressures. Under these conditions, the pore
pressure is zero in the drain but positive in the soil mass, thus reducing
the shear strength and increasing the active pressure or reducing the
passive pressure. Further details on this, including sketched flow nets,
are given in Geoguide l.
Allowance for the effects of these pore pressures should be made by
including the total water pressure as another force acting on the trial
wedge. Detailed guidance on this is given in Geoguide l.
Compacted backfill of low permeability between the drain and the insitu
soil may have serious damming effects on groundwater flow and, as a
consequence, it may render a particular analysis and design of a wall
inapplicable. If adequate drains are not to be provided behind walls, for
example diaphragm, basement and sheet pile walls, the walls must be designed
to resist any water pressures that can develop after construction. Water
pressures acting on the back of a wall are accompanied by uplift pressures
that act on the base. These must also be included in the analvsis of
stabil i ty because they reduce the normal stress and therefore the res i stance
to sliding.
Figure 7.1 shows typical arrangements for drainage behind walls. The
long~term effectiveness of the drainage materials should be carefully
considered when preparing the detailed design. A channel at the top of the
wall prevents the ingress of runoff into cracks between the wall and the
backfill, and an impervicus base é)revents infiltration from the drain into
the foundation.
Services upslope of a wall should be installed as described in Chapter
9, as leakage entering the backfill can increase water pressure, and this
has been known to cause retaining wall failures.

7.2.3 Surcharge Loads

The magnitude of surcharge loads dueto traffic on adjacent highways in

Hong Kong is given in Table 4 of Geoguide l. Design methods far including
these loads and those dueto buildings, stock piles and construction plant
are also given.
 9]

7.2.4 Construction Loads

Backfill to retaining walls should normally be compacted in thin layers

using light compaction plant. This avoids imposing on the wall. the high
loads that are generated by heavy compaction plant. However, if heavy
compaction plant is to be used, this must be taken into account when
determining the loads for which the wall is to be designed. Lateral
pressures produced by compaction are discussed in Chapter 3 of Geoguide 1,
and guidance is given on methods of assessing lateral pressures produced by
compaction plant. Heavy compaction of backfill can cause these to be much
greater than at-rest pressures.
Wall designs should also take account of abnormal loads that may be
imposed during construction. These may be caused by earthmoving plant,
batching plants or cranes stationed above a wall.

7.3 STABILITY OF RETAINING WALLS

7.3.1 Base Friction

The value of the base friction angle depends upon the nature of the
materials used to construct the wall and upon the methods adopted for
construction. For walls without a key, the appropriate value of base
friction is 2/3 ~,. However, it may be possible to justify a higher
proportion of ~,, but only in those cases where it can be assured that the
excavation of the base will be carried out in the dry season, that
disturbance and deterioration of the subsoil is prevented by the con-
struction of an adequate blinding layer immediately after foundation
exposure, and that the works will be professionally supervised.

7.3.2 Bearing Capacity

Closely related to the problem of overturning of retaining walls is

the determination of bearing capacity. The forces acting on the back of a
retaining wall produce a non-rectangular stress distribution below the
base, and the maximum pressure should not exceed the allowable soil pressure
derived from consideration of the bearing capacity and settlement. A
number of methods for determining bearing capacity are available, but often
widely varying values are obtained usin0 the various methods. The method
of Vesic (1975), which is discussed in Section 6.4 of Geoguide 1, takes
account of slope angle, shape and depth of foundation and eccentricity of
resultant load.
Geoguide 1 also includes guidance on allowable bearing pressures for
jointed rock.

7.3.3 Factors of Safety

A retaining wall can fail by sliding, by rotation, as a result of

bearing capacity failure, oras part of a larger-scale slope failure.
Failure can also result from the structural failure of the wall itself,
particularly in the case of a masonry wall.
The factors of safety adopted for design must be applicable to the
 92

mode of failure being considered. A definition of each of the factors of

safety to be adopted is given in Geoguide 1 : Guide to Retaining Wall Design
(Geotechnical Control Office, 1982b). For free-standing walls,.whích derive
their resistance principally from gravity force and base friction, factors
of safety should conform with Table 7.1. Recommended mínimum values are
given for the two separate cases :
(a) for the design of a new wall where design parameters
are derived from geological and geotechnical
investigation, and
(b) for the analysis of an existing wall and for the
design of remedial and preventive works.
For the design of new retaining walls, reference should be made to the
general guidance in respect of risk to life given in Chapter 5 for the
design of slopes.
When analysing an existing gravity retaining wall to determine the
extent of any remedial or preventive works required, the performance history
of that wall can be of considerable assistance to the designer. There is,
for example, an opportunity to examine the geological conditions surrounding
the wall more closely than for an undeveloped site, and to obtain more
realistic information on groundwater. The designer is therefore able to
adopt with confidence factors of safety for proposed remedial or preventive
works that are lower than those specified in Table 7.1 for new walls. As
long as rigorous structural, geological and geotechnical investigations
are conducted (which include a thorough examination of wall maintenance
history, groundwater records, rainfall records and any wall monitoring
records), the lower factors of safety given in Table 7.1 may be used for
the design of remedial or preventive works, provided that the loading
conditions, the basic form of the modified wall and the groundwater regime
remain substantially the same as those of the existing wall. There will
often be instances, however, where particular circumstances will lead the
designer to adopt for remedial and preventive works the standards specified
for new walls (see Table 7.1).
For the design of remedial or preventive works to a gravity wall, it
may be assumed that the existing wall has a mínimum factor of safety of
1.0 for the worst known loading and groundwater conditions. In the case
of a failed or distressed wall, the causes of the failure or di stress must
be specifically identified and taken into account in the design of the
remedial works.

7.3,4 Retaining Walls with Keys

Where possible, deep keys should be avoided because the process of

constructing a shear key frequently loosens and softens the material on
which reliance is placed for passive and shear resistance. Complex section
walls, although requiring marginally less material, take longer to construct
and are often more expensive than simple walls with base widths increased
to provide sliding resistance.
When walls with shallow keys are used, Huntington (1957) suggests that
they be analysed, using effective stress parameters, assuming sliding
occurs on a horizontal plane through the soil under the key, and that both
active and passive forces are increased by the increased wall depth.
 93

7.3.5 Sheet Retaining Structures

The earth pressure that acts on an earth supportinq structure is

highly dependent on the amount of lateral deformation that occurs in the
soil. The flexibility of the wall, the nature of the lateral supports
(e.g. anchored or strutted) and the construction procedures themselves
strongly influence the resulting earth pressures.
The design conditions assumed far such walls are dependent upan the
way in which loads are induced at the support. Walls that impose loads on
their supports because of wall deformation, whether the supports be in the
form of floor slabs, struts or unstressed anchors, can be designed using
the pressure distribution rules proposed by Peck (1969) far the design of
braced excavations. These rules, which are reproduced in Geoguide l, were
based upan measurements of loads in struts durin0 construction, and they
supersede the rules previously published by Terzaghi & Peck (1967). They
were not, however, determined far soils of the kind found in Hong Kong.
If load is induced at the supports (e.g. by prestressing anchors or
struts) and the wall is forced against the retained material, the pressure
on the wall is dependent upan the imposed support loads and can have a
lower limit of active pressure andan upper limit of passive pressure.
Normally, the load applied to such walls is designed to prevent distress of
adjacent structures. Geoguide 1 provides guidance on the design of these
walls.

7.3.6 Settlements outside Excavations

The design of permanent retaining walls to prevent settlement of

adjacent properties is mentioned in Section 7.2.1, but unless the temporary
works are designed and carried out with equal care, serious ground
movements can still take place. Peck (1969) gives details of settlements
that have occurred around excavations in various materials supported by
systems using both unstressed and prestressed anchors and raking struts.
O'Rourke et al (1976) have extended this work. Peck makes the point
that movements depend to a large extent on the supported soil and that, if
good workmanship is used in installing and removing a well-desiqned, well-
constructed temporary bracing system, ground movements in dense sands
and relatively stiff, cohesive granular materials can be negligible. Poor
workmanship can make even the best design ineffective, and this requires
that construction of temporary bracing works be closely supervised. The
data provided by Peck (1969) and O'Rourke et al (1976) are reproduced in
Geoguide l; however, these are based on North American experience and
should only be used for approximate guidance in the soils of Hong Kong.
The construction of the Mass Transit Railway in Hong Kong has provided
sorne data for Hong Kong conditions, anda number of papers have been
published. Geoguide 1 provides further discussion on these.
 94

[BLANK PAGE]
 95

8. SURFACE DRAINAGE AND SURFACE PROTECTION

8.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter discusses the effects of surface water on slope stability
and describes suitable methods far designing surface drainage systems and
surface protection for slopes.
The main purpose of surface drainage and surface protection is to
improve slope stability by reducing infiltration and erosion caused by heavy
rain storms. The slope drainage system should collect runoff from both the
slope and the catchment area upslope and lead it to convenient points of
discharge beyond the limits of the slope. Surface protection should be
applied to slopes formed in materials susceptible to rapid surface erosion
orto weakening by infiltration. The two methods are often used together
as part of a preventive or remedial works design.
With the exception of vegetative surface protection, the techniques
used have been well establ ished in Hong Kong for many years. The design
methods, however, are largely empirical and should be used with care. There
are no absolute guidelines for design, and knowledge of local precedents on
similar slopes is an invaluable aid. It is particularly important that
designs make due allowance for existing drainage works that affect the
proposed site development.

8.2 CATCHMENT PARAMETERS

8.2.1 Runoff
Runoff from a catchment depends upon many factors which include
(a) rainfall intensity,
(b) the area and shape of the catchment,
(c) the steepness and length or the slopes being drained,
(d) the nature and extent of vegetation or cultivation, and
(e) the condition of the surface and nature of the
subsurface soils.
The determination of runoff.by reference to unit hydrographs (Linsley
et al, 1982) has been found to be successful in many countries. In Hong
Kong, the method was used for the design of drainage systems for small
catchments but was not found to offer any substantial advantage over design
methods using empirical equations to represent the complex relationship
between rainfall and peak runoff. The "Rational Method" is commonly
adopted because it is both simple and straightforward to use and, far the
relatively srnall catchrnents in Hong Kong, it yields satisfactory results
(Tin, 1969). The formula is :
KiA ( 8. 1)
Q= 3600

where Q = maximum runoff (litres/sec),

= design mean intensity of rainfall (rnm/hr) which is dependent
upon the time of concentration,
 96

A = area of catchment (m 2), and

K = runoff coefficient
The runoff coefficient cannot be determined precisely. The recommended
value of K far slope drainage is 1.0. Use of this value will aenerally
result in an overestimation of runoff, especially on naturally vegetated
slopes, and hence lead to overdesign of drainage systems. However, this
additional drain capacity is useful in that it makes sorne allowance far
silting, which is a very common problem. Nevertheless, the drainage should
be designed to minimise siltation and prevent the possibility of debris
causing blockage.

8.2.2 Area of Catchment

The catchment area is determined by reference to contoured plans and is

defined as that area draining to the point in the drainage system under
design. Where natural catchments are considered, the boundaries will be
defined by the topographic contours, overland flow taking place at right
angles to the contours. Where the hydrology of a catchment has been
affected by the construction of catchwaters or pipe discharges, the effects
of these constructions must be considered. In the case of a catchwater,
the catchment area draining to a stream downstream of the catchwater is
normally reduced, although allowance should be made far the flow from any
spillways to the catchwater provided on that stream. The construction of
drainage discharges on the stream, by diverting flows from adjacent areas,
may lead to substantial increases in the size of the catchment and this
should be allowed far when determining catchment area.
In the case of the point in the drainage system under design having a
number of subcatchments upstream, the maximum runoff should be determined
by direct application of the Rational Formula to the total area of the
whole catchment contributing to that point, and not by summation of the
maximum runoffs from each of the subcatchments.

8.2.3 Time of Concentration

The time of concentration is defined as the maximum time taken by

surface water to travel from the catchment boundary to the point in the
drainage system under design. Usually this corresponds to the line of flow
from the most remate part of the catchment, but for catchments that do not
have a single well-defined remate point on the boundary, it is good practice
to check the calculation far a number of different flow lines, since the
time of concentration depends on the average slope gradient as well as the
the length of the lines of flow. Far natural catchments, the time of
concentration is calculated using the following equation, which is a
modified form of the original Bransby-Williams equation
t = 0.14465 [ H'·'LAº·'] (8.2)

where t = time of concentration (min),

A = area of catchment (m2),
H = average fall (m per 100 m) from the summit of catchment
to the point of design, and
 97

L = distance in metres measured on the line of natural flow

between the desiqn section and that point of the catchment
from which water would take the longest time to reach the
design section.
The nomogram in Figure 8.1 may be used far rapid solution of equation
8.2, an example of the use of the nomogram being given on the Figure. A
mínimum time of concentration of one minute should be used. The time of
concentration is required far the determination of the desiqn intensity of
rainfall.
Special attention should be paid to catchments where the stream course
has been channelled and straightened. In such cases, the time of
concentration will be much shorter than that indicated by the Bransby-
Williams equation; it should be calculated by adding the time of travel
within the drainage channel during peak flow to the time of concentration
calculated from the Bransby-Williams equation far the most remate
subcatchment to the drainage channel.
Far slopes constructed in urban areas, the determination of the peak
flows from areas above the slope may be complex when the effects of existing
drainage systems within the natural catchments are, as they must be,
considered.

8.2.4 Design Intensity

Because mean rainfall intensity reduces with duration, the greatest

runoff occurs when the duration of the storm is equal to the time of
concentration. The maximum intensity far any given return period, which
is a measure of the frequency of occurrence, may be determined by reference
to intensity versus duration rainfall curves far the area considered.
Figure 8.2 gives the intensity versus duration curves from Royal Observatory
and King's Park data, as reported by Peterson & Kwong (1981) based upan
original work by Cheng & Kwok (1966). Far many years, these curves were
considered to be representative of the whole territory. Recently, the
Royal Observatory has advised that their validity in different locations
should be confirmed by undertaking an independent analysis of data obtained
from the nearest autographic raingauge station to the location of interest.
A map of Royal Observatory and Geotechnical Control Office raingauge
stations is given in Figure 8.3. At present, there is no information on the
magnitude of deviations from Figure 8.2 far other locations in the
Territory. Far routine slope drainage design in small catchments, the
additional work required to analyse the nearest raingauge data is not
considered to be justified, and continued use of Figure 8.2 is recommended.
However, far the design of majar drainage structures such as culverts or
nullahs, it is recommended that the procedure of analysing additional
rainfall data from as clase as possible to the site should be adopted.
The design of all drainage works on steep slopes, the stability of
which could be affected if the drains cannot carry the runoff, should be
based upan a two hundred-year return period storm. Temporary drainage far
use during construction should be designed on the basis a ten-year return
period storm although, if the construction period extends over several wet
seasons, the design parameters should be greater.
 98

8.3 DETAILED DESIGN OF DRAINAGE SYSTEMS

8.3.1 General Design Considerations

In view of the cost and maintenance considerations, the number and

length of surface channels should be kept to a mínimum far the design of new
slopes. The requirement far surface drainage is heavily dependent on slope
geometry. Wherever platforms or berms are incorporated in the design,
surface drainage will be necessary to ensure that ponding and infiltration,
or localised erosion at low points, is prevented. Benches cut in hard rock
may be an exception to this rule, but problems of concentrated flow at low
points causing damage further downslope should be carefully assessed befare
deciding to omit surface channels. When new channels are designed to
discharge through existing outfalls, the capacity of the outfalls and the
risk of erosion damage beyond the site limits should be checked as part of
the design.
Trash grills and sand traps should not be provided above or on slopes.
In the case of slopes susceptible to surface erosion, it is prudent to
construct a sand trap at the slope toe or other locations convenient for
inspection and maintenance. Runoff in the channel should then pass over
the sand trap and through a trash grill to prevent material from entering
and blocking any storm drains into which channels discharge. As trash
grills can rapidly become choked by twigs and floating debris, grilled
openings should be large enough to pass the maximum flow when partially
blocked. Far normal situations, 50% of the opening should be assumed to be
blocked and, for slopes below areas covered with dense vegetation, 75% is
probably more appropriate. Figure 8.4 shows a typical sand trap arrange-
ment. It should be noted that strict adherence to design note 5 on Figure
8.4 may lead to sand traps of such large capacity as to be impractical in
many cases. This note refers toan acceptable design capacity for average
flow conditions and is for guidance only. For slopes in erodible materials
in steep terrain, the land area available for constructing sand traps may
severely restrict the capacity, in which case the need far regular
maintenance should be stressed. If space is so severely restricted that
provision of a sand trap is impossible, an alterative is to construct a
sumped catchpit at the toe of the slope channel, which shoul~ be accessible
far manual or mechanical de-silting.
Streams can carry large rocks or boulders during heavy rain, which may
block or damage the slope drainage system. If the stream course is strewn
with rocks and boulders, a rock trap (an example is shown in Figure 8.5)
should be provided, together with suitable access for maintenance. Blockage
or damage to channels can increase local infiltration which, if not checked
in time, may bring about progressive failures to a large area.
Instructions regarding the inspection and maintenance of silt and rock
traps and grills should be included in the designer's handing-over notes
(see Chapter 11).

8.3.2 Layout of Slope Drainage

Runoff should be conveyed by the most direct route away from

vulnerable areas of the slope, particularly from behind the top of
slope. Runoff should be led down the larger slopes in several stepped
channels and should not be concentrated into only one or two. Streams
 99

intercepted by a slope should be conveyed directly down the slope. Any

change in direction needed to rejoin the stream course should occur at the
toe of the slope.
0n slopes susceptible to erosion, a system of chevron drains (as shown
on Figure 8.6) is recommended. 0n rock, chunamed, stone-pitched or other
slopes not susceptible to erosion, a system of berm and stepoed channels
should be used where berms are incorporated in the slope design. If such
slopes are constructed without berms, surface drains are normally provided
only at the crest and toe of the slope, although drains with irregular
spacing and direction are often constructed on small benches on the slope
face during remedial works to large failure scars.

8.3.3 Types of Channel

Channels for slope drainage should be open concrete-lined U-channels or

half-round channels. Pipes should not be incorporated in slope drainage
systems.
Concrete-lined channels backfilled with free-drainina stone, or
unlined trenches containing porous pipes surrounded with free-draining stone
(known as French drains) should not be used. In the former case, the
carrying capacity of the channel is seriously reduced by the presence of
the stone. In the latter, the stone surround in the unlined trench creates
a source of infiltration, the porous pipe not conveying any water until
the ground in which the trench is excavated is incapable of accepting any
more infiltrating water. In both cases, the surface of the stone eventually
becomes blocked with organic debris and topsoil in which grass and other
vegetation can take root. The system then becomes ineffective as a drain.
Cut-off drains can be used at the top of a slope to intercept sorne of
the water flowing into the slope from infiltration further up the hillslide.
These drains are most effective where there is a shallow impermeable layer.
The drain should be excavated upslope of possible failure surfaces to avoid
acting as a tension crack (see Chapter 4).

8.3.4 Channel Design

The mínimum gradient for channels is determined by the velocity of flow

sufficient to remove silt. The velocity should not be less than 1.3 m/sec
for the peak flow occurring with a frequency of at least once in two years.
The channel size, which depends upon the gradient adopted, may be
determined from Figure 8.7. Channels larger than 600 mm may be designed
using the charts developed by Ackers (1969). Alternatively, assuming a
maximum permissible velocity of 4 m/sec anda roughness factor of 0.013,
Manning's formula can be used
V = 1n [Rª•'7 5 ,.sJ (8.3)

where V = velocity (m/sec),

n = roughness factor,
A
R = hydraulic mean depth = P'
 100

A = wetted cross-sectional area (m2),

P = wetted perimeter (m), and

S = gradient of channel

Stepped channels are not particularly effective as energy dissipators.

However, there would seem to be no practicable alternative. The flow in
stepped channels is turbulent, and sufficient freeboard must be allowed for
splashing and aeration. The stepped channel details shown in Figure 8.8 make
some allowance for splashing and are the most effective used in Hong Kong to
date for reducing the velocity of flow. In the absence of any experimental
data, the size of the stepped channel and gradient of the invert may be
determined using Figure 8.7 by assuming a velocity of 5 m/sec through the
minimum section (at the top of each step). At the top of slopes, the velocity
is lower and the cross-sectional area of flow greater, but splashing and
aeration is less. Therefore, the section adopted for the stepped channel may
also be used to cross narrow berms.

8.3.5 Changes in Direction

At any change in direction, the pattern of flow in the channels is affected.
Channels in which the velocity is approximately 2 m/sec should change direction
through bends of radius not less than three times the width of the channel.
This radius should be increased where the velocity is greater than 2 m/sec or,
alternatively, sufficient freeboard should be provided to contain the
superelevation of the water surface (Chow, 1959).

Where a stepped channel crosses a berm, a hydraulic jump may form which
must be contained within the channel. The splash allowance provided for the
stepped channel may therefore be extended across the berm.

8.3.6 Junctions of Channels

Junctions of channels pose the greatest problem when designing slope
drainage. They inevitably cause turbulence and splashing, and any chamber
constructed to contain this is vulnerable to blockage by debris. Avoidance
of such chambers is recommended, except possibly at the base of the slope, where
the deep channels required to contain the splashing would cause a hazard if
left uncovered.

At junctions, the smaller channel or channels should be brought in at

half the width of the main channel above the invert of the main channel. The
channels should be deepened with an added freeboard allowance to contain the
turbulence, splashing and backwater effects.

Where channels are to discharge into a stepped channel crossing a berm,

they should be curved into the stepped channel.

If excessive splashing and turbulence is expected at a particular

junction or change in direction, consideration should be given to providing
a baffle wall, as shown on Figure 8.9, or a catchpit, as shown on Figure 8.10.

The tops of all channels should be flush with the slope surface
(Figure 8.11). Where possible, an apron that drains towards the channel
 101

should be provided to return any splashing to the channel. This applies

particularly to stepped channels (Figure 8.8).
All surface channels into which subsurface drains discharge should be
designed to prevent the subsurface drainage outlets from becoming drowned.
lt this cannot be done, a separate system should be designed for the
subsurface drainage outfalls.

8.4 VEGETATIVE PROTECTION MEASURES

8.4.1 General Design Considerations

Vegetation on man-made slopes aids erosion control and serves important

landscape functions. Because of these attributes, the use of vegetation for
slope protection is increasing in Hong Kong. The effect of vegetation on
slope stability is a complex interaction of mechanical and hydroloqical
factors that are ciifficult to quantify. As yet, there are no firm design
rules, but in recent years there has been rapid growth in local experience
with a variety of vegetation types, and this knowledge can be of valuable
assistance to the designer.
There are certain conditions that make it difficult to establish and
maintain an effective vegetative slope protection, and these must be
carefully considered in design. Nevertheless, the designer should consider
vegetation as the primary protection method for all engineered slopes in
soil and weathered rock (material decomposition grades IV, V and VI). Rigid
protective measures should only be employed if specific requirements for
slope angle, location or maintaining low infiltration rates preclude the use
of vegetation. Even in these instances, sorne combined rigid and vegetative
treatment may be possible and advantageous.

8.4.2 Vegetation Succession

Recent use of vegetation on man-made slopes in Hong Kong has concentrat-

ed on grassing, rather than shrub or tree planting. As a general rule, a
single species of vegetation should not be planted in isolation. On natural
slopes in Hong Kong, vegetation exhibits a natural succession towards
broadleaf mixed woodland as the clímax condition. To achieve clímax
vegetation cover on engineered slopes in a relatively short time, shrubs and
trees should be planted in addition to grass. Consideration should also be
given to appropriate vegetation management techniques to assist the natural
succession process.

8.4.3 The Effects of Vegetation on Slopes

It is widely appreciated that slope vegetation is beneficial in terms

of erosion control and its contribution to landscape quality. However, the
overall effect of vegetation as a slope stabilising mechanism cannot be
easily categorised as adverse or beneficial. The effects of vegetation
on slope stability are listed in Table 8.1 and are broadly classified as
either hydrological or mechanical factors. It should be appreciated that
the net effect of the hydrological factors is difficult to quantify
precisely, as it depends on the complex interaction of many elements of the
hydrological cycle on, above and below the ground surface (Kirkby, 1978).
 102

The results of detailed research studies carried out elsewhere provide

support far the use of vegetation as a net beneficial mechanism, primarily
through the effect of root reinforcement (Prandini et al, 1977; Gray, 1978;
Gray & Megahan, 1981; Gray & Leiser, 1982). The traditional view in Hong
Kong has been that the need to limit infiltration capacity is the overriding
consideration, and this has resulted in the widespread use of chunam or
other rigid protection measures. With growing awareness of the unpleasant
environmental aspects of chunam, it is clear that detailed local research on
the slope stabilising effects of vegetation is required.
Until such time as further data from local studies are available, it is
recommended that designs far new slopes that include ven,etative surface
protection should allow for direct infiltration while neglecting the
beneficial effects provided by the vegetation. For stability analyses of
existing slopes that have an existing shrub and tree cover, it may be
appropriate to investigate and quantify the beneficial factors given in
Table 8.1. Guidance on suitable methods far assessing these factors is
given by Gray (1978), Schiechtl (1980) and Gray & Leiser (1982). Where it
can be clearly demonstrated that direct surface infiltration is a critical
control of stability (as opposed to infiltration in the catchment area above
the slope), and stability cannot be improved by flattening the slope, then a
rigid surface protection should be considered in arder to reduce
infiltration.

8.4.4 Limitations on Slope Vegetation

Successful establishment of vegetation on a newly-formed slope is

governed by several factors related to the time of planting and the
steepness, location and material composition of the slope.
The planting season in Hong Kong is generally related to higher
temperature and rainfall, as shown in Figure 8.12. The optimum planting
season far grass is March to May. However, planting between early February
and late September will generally be more successful than planting done in
the winter months. The optimum planting season for shrubs and trees is
April to June, but this car, sirnilarly be extended from early March to late
August if necessary. Should planting be required outside the planting
season, provision should be made far frequent watering. Alternatively, the
planting could be delayed until the following season, with temporary erosion
control measures employed in the interim period.
The steepness of the slope has a majar effect on the effort required to
establish vegetation. Sorne general guidelines are given in Table 8.2.
Where vegetation is planned on particularly steep slopes or difficult sites,
advice should be sought from foresters, horticulturists or landscape
architects. lt may be advantageous to select tree species of low mature
height for planting on the steeper slopes to reduce the risk of uprootina
in typhoons. On slopes located in a restricted urban setting, it may be
desirable to plant only grass and shrubs to limit the height of the
vegetation.
Slope-forming materials may also have a direct effect on establishinq
slope vegetation, as the fertility, moisture availability and resistance to
root penetration are all determined by the composition of the materials.
As a general rule, routine planting techniques may be used for all types of
vegetation in soil and completely decomposed rock. In less weathered
 103

material, establishment becomes increasingly difficult, especially far

shrubs and trees, and consideration should be given to the use of special
techniques such as planting in formed pockets or benches on the slope
backfilled with soil. Trees should generally not be planted on steep rock
slopes where root-wedging along joints could cause instability. All soils
and rocks in Hong Kong should be regarded as relatively infertile, and
appropriate fertilisers should be added at the time of planting, as
discussed in Chapter 9.
With regard to slope location, protected north-facing slopes are
generally easier to vegetate compared to the more severe south-facing
exposures. Vegetation is adversely affected by exposure to salt water,
severe air or water pollution, erosion from wave action or running water and
pedestrian traffic. If present, these factors should be controlled or
alternative types of surface protection should be considered.

8.4.5 Vegetation Species

Planting on newly-formed slopes should commence with grass, anda

particular selection of species should be made to achieve a vigorous
covering capable of controlling surface erosion. Low maintenance
requirements, low fire hazard in the dry season and compatibility with other
slope plantings are other desirable factors that should also be considered
in species selection. As there are no universally applicable grass species
far all Hong Kong slopes, expert advice is often required to achieve
specific project objectives. A list of the most commonly used grass species
is given in Table 8.3. Planting techniques are discussed in Chapter 9.
Shrub and tree planting should commence after the grass has become
established, so that a stable vegetative cover can be attained. Planting
should be carried out in the months of March to August after several days
of wet weather (Figure 8.12). Considerable local experience with shrub and
tree planting has been gained recently, and the most successful species are
listed in Tables 8.4 and 8.5. While all the species listed have proved to
be acceptable and successful on both cut and fill slopes in Hong Kong,
there are considerable differences in their habits and tolerances to extreme
site conditions, as shown in the Tables. Planting stock is available
locally far all the species listed. The Tables are not intended to be
exhaustive or exclusive, and other species may be suitable far particular
si tes.
Slope plantings should generally consist of both shrubs and trees, and
include a mixture of species. Typically, a planting programme might consist
of 75% trees and 25% shrubs, with particular species limited to not more
than 30% of the mix. Trees are usually planted as seedlings or whips, as
discussed in Chapter 9. Shrubs should generally be planted in a grouped
pattern rather than randomly dispersed among the trees.
The assistance of a landscape specialist can be very helpful in
drawing upa planting programme. On difficult or unusual sites, such as
those in a marine environment ar any site where planting design is
important, the advice of landscape specialists should be sought early in the
project. Sorne suggestions far such sources of information are given in
Chapter 12. Further guidance may be found in the publications by Schiechtl
(1980), Gray & Leiser (1982) and the Urban Services Department (1971, 1974,
1977).
 104

8.5 RIGID PROTECTION MEASURES

8.5.1 General Design Considerations

The primary uses of rigid surface protection on slopes are to reduce

rainwater infiltration and to prevent erosion of the slope-forming
materials. By reducing infiltration, rigid surfacings can contribute to
slope stability either by preserving soil suctions in partially saturated
material or by restricting the development of positive pore water pressures
on potential failure surfaces. To achieve these functions, the following
three aspects of the surfacing material must be considered.
( 1) Permeabi l i ty. The l ovier the permeabi l i ty of the surface
protection, the greater will be its effect in minimising infiltration. The
effect of rigid surface protection in limiting infiltration can be assessed
by measuring the change in degree of saturation before and after rainfall,
which is dependent on the permeability of the surfacing material relative
to the underlying soil. This aspect is considered in more detail in
Chapter 4.
(2) Durability. The effectiveness of the protection can be reduced
considerably by cracking and spalling of the surfacing material dueto
temperature changes, wetting and drying effects or poor bonding of the
protection to the underlying material. There is, however, very little
information on the design lives of various types of rigid surfacing. Much
depends on the thickness of surfacing as well as the type of material and
quality of workmanship during construction.
(3) Strength. The strength of the surfacing material is important
in resisting erosion by running water. It also indirectly affects
durability and permeability. This property is most commonly adopted in the
material specification because it is easy to measure.
In view of the unsightly effect of large areas of rigid surfacing on
the surrounding scenery, it is recommended that the most satisfactory type
of surface protection is a ve~etative cover, and this should be adopted
whenever possible. In cases where a rigid surfacing is required, its
adverse impact on the environment can be reduced by planting trees in rings
formed on the surface, as described in Chapter 9. As a general rule, the
area of rings for planting should be limited to a small percentage of the
slope area to maintain the integrity of the surface cover and to minimise
infiltration. The rings should be spaced fairly evenly over the whole area
of the slope. Trees with shallow, spreadinq root systems which rnay cause
cracking of the rigid cover should generally be avoided. Specialist advice
should be sought for particular planting design requirements.

8.5.2 Chunam

Chunam is a common type of surface protection used on slopes

constructed in Hong Kong. It is now declining in popularity as a
permanent slope protection measure for environmental reasons, but is still
used extensively for certain slopes such as temporary slopes on construction
sites and steep existing slopes.
The typical thickness of chunam surfacing is 40 to 50 mm for permanent
works but may be slighly reduced for temporary measures. lt should cover
 105

the entire slope surface to be protected except where openings are required
for drainage weepholes or vegetation planting beds (see Chapter 9). It is
good practice to extend the chunam beyond the slope crest for a short
distance to join up with a surface channel ciesigned to intercept runoff
from above. This will reduce surface infiltration immediately behind the
chunam surfacing and provide safe working space for the maintenance of the
surface channel.
Where water is observed seeping from the surface to be protected,
or where water seepage may be expected to develop as a result of heavy
rainfall (e.g. below valleys truncated by the cut slope), appropriate
drainage measures should be provided to prevent the build-up of water
pressures behind the chunam. The current general practice is to provide
weepholes of 50 mm diameter at 1.2 m centres in each direction. It is,
however, recommended that such drainage measures should be located by
inspection of the slope surface prior to chunaming, and not applied
indiscriminately.
It should be recognised that the effectiveness of chunam in preventing
infiltration decreases with age and, for high risk-to-life slopes, the
surface cover should be inspected periodically for signs of deterioration
and replaced as necessary (see Chapter 11).

8.5.3 Sprayed Concrete (Shotcrete)

Slope protection applied by spraying mortar onto the surface of a slope

is an alternative to chunam plaster and, for large areas of slope surface,
application of sprayed concrete may be quicker and cheaper than chunam. It
has been reported that shotcrete with a low water/cement ratio is relatively
impermeable if properly applied. However, gunite (shotcrete containing
fine aggregate) is less permeable than conventionally-placed mortar (Tynes
& McCleese, 1974).
Design considerations for spray concrete are similar to chunam. In
Hong Kong, shotcrete is most commonly used on rock cut slopes. In such
cases, it is particularly important that drainage weepholes should be
located at rock joints showing evidence of seepage.

8.5.4 Masonry

Various methods of slope surface protection incorporating masonry

blocks are widely used in Hong Kong. These range from dry random rubble
blocks to mortared courserl masonry. The most common type is a mortared
random rubble facing (stone pitching) with typical thicknesses of 200 to
300 mm. A thin layer of concrete is often provided as a backing to the
stone blocks. These are the most durable and effective type of surfacings
for erosion control. Recent studies of masonry retaining structures by the
Geotechnical Control Office have indicated that oood-quality stone pitchinn
acts as a retaining wall and therefore helps to maintain slope stability by
providing a measure of slope support. However, this effect has not been
studied in detail and should not be considered in the design of new slopes
or the assessment of stability of existing slopes with stone pitched covers.
It is good practice to bed the masonry on a layer of free-draining material
and to provide weepholes, both at the base of the structure and between
blocks at points where seepage is observed or suspected.
 106

[BLANK PAGE]
 107

9, CONSTRUCTION

This chapter deals with those aspects of construction that influence

the safety of slopes, or that are peculiar to and affect the safety of
structures that maintain slope stability.

9.1 CONSTRUCTION CONTROL

The importance of the designer being adequately represented on site
throughout the construction period cannot be overstated. This is
particularly true for geotechnical engineering, the success of which depends
largely upon the experience of the geotechnical enqineer or engineering
geologist supervising the works on site. The designer is failing in his
duty if he does not advise his client that it is inadequate to rely purely
upon the obligations placed upon the contractor, under the terms of the
contract, to guarantee that the quality of the permanent works and safety of
the temporary works meet the intent of the designer. The extent to which
the designer is represented on site will depend upon the size and complexity
of the particular project. Site staff may range from one inspector of works
on a small project to a resident engineer aided by several assistant
engineers and other supervisory staff on a major project. Where fill is to
be placed, the site staff should include persons experienced in carryin0 out
the necessary field and laboratory testing.
Site staff should be familiar with the conditions assumed in the
design. Should the actual conditions vary markedly from the assumed
conditions, the attention of the designer must be drawn immediately to the
changes. The designer should also arrange to visit the site frequently to
ensure that conditions remain constant.
Site staff should keep detailed records of progress and of the
conditions encountered when carrying out the work. Weekly progress
photographs should be taken from positions agreed with the designer before
work commences and should be supplemented as the need arises. Photographs
should be dated, and descriptions of weather conditions, time of taking
photographs and points of interest, particularly if not part of a series
of routine progress photographs, should be attached. All tests that are
carried out should be given a serial number, and details of the location,
weather conditions, date and time of testing should be recorded. As-
built drawings should be prepared as the work proceeds.

9.2 TEMPORARY WORKS

The Po Shan Road failure (Government of Hong Kong, 1972) demonstrated
the critical effect that constructional activity can have on slope stability.
Clearly, temporary works should be designed to minimise their effects on
adjacent slopes and structures. In desianing temporary works, due regard
must be paid to conditions that may arise during their life. If works
extend into the wet season, the design must include facilities for adequate
drainage of the site and must make allowance for changes in groundwater
level (e.g. the effects that changes in groundwater level have on the loads
on struttina to excavations). The works must be carried out in a manner to
ensure that.the effects on adjacent slopes and structures are kept to a
minimum.
 108

The design and construction of temporary works must not significantly

alter the conditions assumed in the design of the permanent works. If
conditions are changed, the design of the permanent works must be amended
to take account of the new circumstances.
Factors of safety adopted in the design of temporary work should
reflect the risk posed to the public, the work force and the structure.
If, for example, an occupied building could be threatened by failure of a
temporary embankment, that embankment should be designed with the same
factor of safety against slope failure as a permanent embankment. Where
failure of a temporary embankment involves no risk to the public, the
embankment may be designed with a lower factor of safety (see Table 5.1,
Chapter 5). The consequent costs of failure should be weighed against
the savings made in working to the lower factor of safety. A greater
responsibility for the regular monitoring of the performance of the works
and, when required, for their maintenance is placed on those supervising
the project when lower factors of safety are adopted.
Throughout the construction period, all temporary works should be
subject to regular inspections by an experienced engineer or technician.
Signs of distress in any structure or slope should be recorded and steps
taken to alleviate the distress. Where conditions are more severe than
those assumed for the design of the temporary works, the design should be
reviewed and the works modified accordingly.

9. 3 SITE FOR,!ATION AND BORROW AREAS

The formation of large flat areas on hillsides may cause a large

increase in the infiltration of rain water into the ground. Before
development, surface water tends to be shed rapidly from steep slopes so
that infiltration lasts for a period approximately equal to the duration of
the rainstorm. On flat surfaces, water ponding will increase both the
amount and the duration of seepage into the ground. This, in turn, could
lead to a rise in groundwater flow producing instability close to, or sorne
distance away from, the point of infiltration.
The greatest risk occurs where a platform is left open without any
surface seal or drainage, pending future development. Once development is
complete, a large part of the formation is likely to be paved or protected
so that infiltration is kept to a minimum. Where no immediate development
is proposed, the surface should be sealed and graded towards drains to
promote surface flow away from the surrounding slopes. Also, temporary
bunds should be provided along access roads and at the edge of platforms.
Thus, the design of these areas requires the consideration of local
stability of the excavated slopes and the capacity and adequacy of drainage
at all stages of development.
The factors of safety to be adopted in design should be decided in
accordance with the future use of the area formed. When the responsible
authority is unable to advise on the future use of such areas, it should be
assumed that platforms adjacent to slopes are intended for r2sidential
purposes. If the future scheduled use is for recreation, a lower factor
of safety may be appropriate since the area is unlikely to be in use durinn
or immediately following heavy rain.
Areas of filling constructed as part of the formation or its access
 109

roads should be properly placed and compacted to the standards given in

Section 9.5.
The importance of the visual impact of site formations on the
environment cannot be over-emphasised. Landscapinn proposals should
constitute part of the design for the area and include a consideration of
formation levels, landform, nature of the ground, drainage, surface
protection and their combined effects on slope stability and the adjacent
land. Vegetation should be used in preference to other forms of protective
cover for slopes (Chapter 8).
The slopes should be closely inspected during construction to provide
the necessary data and records for verifying the design assumptions.
Piezometers should be monitored after completion of a site formation in
order to provide post construction water levels.
The slopes and drainage system should be regularly monitored, inspected
and maintained after the site formation is completed. Where responsibility
for any area passes to another Office or Department, a report containing
site investigation, laboratory testing, design and construction data should
be formally handed over together with a clear statement of the extent and
purpose of the monitoring to be maintained.

9.4 EXCAVATIONS
9.4.1 Programme

The programming of works involving excavations must take into account

Hong Kong's heavy seasonal rainfall, vihich usually begins in April and ends
in October. Excavations that result in high slopes and the associated
drainage and surface protection should preferably start in October and be
completed by April. lf excavations are carried out during the wet season,
the surfaces of the slopes formed must be protected and drained as
excavation proceeds, drainage around the crest of the proposed excavation
having been provided as a preliminary operation. \·Jhere necessary, temporary
conduits should be provided to carry the discharge from those drains already
completed. If trenches on or above slopes have to be excavated during the
11et season, this should be done with extreme care. ldeally, they should be
excavated and backfilled in short sections. Precautions should always be
taken to prevent viater collecting in the trench.

9.4.2 Methods

Excavation in the residual soil and completely weathered rock zones may
be carried out using conventional bulk excavation methods, but care must be
taken to avoid loosening tne finished surface which may lead to severe
surface erosion and siltation. Trimming shouid be carried out with light
earthmoving equipment or by hand as appropriate.
In highly vieathered granite, core boulders will be encountered. If
these have to be removed, this should be done as excavation proceeds. They
should not be left protruding from the exposed face until bulk excavation
is completed, when access will be difficult and when their removal may
threaten any development in progress below the formed slope. Boulders may
be trimmed using plugs and feathers or hydraulic splitters. If blasting is
 110

to be used to trim them to the required slope profile, the amount of

explosive should not be excessive, as over-blasting can loasen boulders
sufficiently to allow them to be subsequently dislodged from the face of
the exca vati on.
Where boulders threatening existing developments have to be trimmed,
precautions must be taken to protect these developments during the trimming
operations. This may be accomplished by means of wire nets or bamboo
protective barriers, but their design must take account of the trajectories
and impact of falling debris.
Excavation in the slightly weathered to fresh zones normally requires
blasting which, if not properly controlled, can lead to shattering of the
rock mass and to a general loosening and opening-up of joints. To avoid
blast damage, rock may be presplit (Langefors & Kihlstorm, 1978; Hoek &
Bray, 1981). Presplitting is accomplished by drilling a row of closely
spaced and usually small diameter hales along the line of the final face.
The height of a presplit face between benches should not normally exceed
15 m in arder to maintain drilling accuracy. In Hong Kong rocks, a hole
diameter of about 75 mm ata spacing of 700 mm has been found effective for
presplitting, and this could be taken as a first approximation, but tests
to determine the most effective system for a particular location should be
carried out. These hales should be lightly charged with a cartridged
explosive with a diameter less than half that of the hole drilled. The row
of presplit hales should be detonated without any delay period between them
and befare the main excavation charge is fired. This should forma clean
fracture plane along the final faceto which the main excavation can break.
Due regard should be given to ground vibrations in designing the size of
the blasts. To further limit the possibility of damaging the final face,
it may be necessary to reduce the burden, spacing, and exposive charge in
the line of blast hales of the main excavation which are adjacent to the
presplit face. The presplit fracture acts as a vent path for the explosion
gases of subsequent blasting, but does not protect the rock behind the
presplit row from vibration. Presplit blasting is not usually successful in
well-jointed hard rocks where the joints are open and are inclined to the
presplit line.
Smooth wall blasting or postsplit blasting, in which the line of hales
is fired after the main blast, is an alternative method to presplit blasting.
The method is often used to clean up faces that have been affected by heavy
blasting but is generally less effective in producing a clean finished face
than presplit blasting.
When excavation is complete, all rock faces should be scaled of loase
blocks, even if blasted by either of the two methods described above.
During excavation, the designer must visit the site frequently to
examine the exposed faces for signs of conditions that are more severe than
those assumed in the design. Relict joints may be present in the weathered
rock zones. 1-Jhere these are seen in excavations, particularly if they are
majar joints dipping out of the excavated face at angles greater than 20º
to the horizontal, they should be drawn to the attention of the person
responsible for the design of the works. The shear strength of the material
infilling relict joints is often considerably lower than that of the
weathered mass, and instability can develop very quickly along these sur-
faces. Where rock •is being excavated, such examinations should include a
comparison between the exposed joint system and that assumed in the slope
 111

stability analysis and design. When a difference exists, the design should
be checked and, if necessary, amended. Random joints, or combinations of
joints that do not appear in the analysis should be surveyed and, if they
form potentially unstable blocks, should be stabilised. Signs of seepage
should also be noted during excavation and should be compared with
assumptions on the location of the groundwater table made for the purpose
of design.
Areas of over-excavation on slopes flatter than 1 on 1.5 may be made
good with suitable fill compacted to 95% of British Standard maximum dry
density (BS 1377, test 12). The surface on which fill is to be replaced
should be benched, and fill should be placed in horizontal layers, with
care being taken to ensure that the compaction of the fill at the surface
of the sl ope meets the requi red standard. 1-/here it is necessary to
reinstate over-excavated slopes that are steeper than 1 on 1.5, cement-
stabilised soil or concrete should be used with due regard being given to
drainage of groundwater and seepage.

9.4.3 Effects of Vibrations

Constructional operations such as blasting, pile driving or the

movement of heavy plant can cause ground vibrations and possibly air
vibrations as wel l. Ground vibrations can have a detrimental effect on
adjacent buildings, slope stabilisation measures and retaining structures
and can cause discomfort to residents. Air vibrations can be in the audible
range (20 to 20 000 Hz) or in the concussion range (below 20 Hz). Audible
frequencies give rise to complaints, but air concussion can cause building
damage, principally by the breaking of glass (DuPont, 1980).
Ground vibrations have been studied by Langefors & Kihlstorm (1978)
and others, anda relationship between peak particle velocity and structural
damage established (Hoek & Bray, 1981). Amplitude was previously.used as a
measure of blastinn effects but peak particle velocity has been found to
correlate better with the effects of ground vibration.
Current practice in Hong Kong is to limit peak particle velocity to
25 mm/s, orto 13 mm/s at particularly sensitive structures such as service
reservoirs, radar installations, etc. Any proposal for blasting must be
submitted to the Mines Division of the Labour Department for approval.
It is important to monitor vibrations during pile driving and blasting
operations, anda good quality vibrograph (velocity seismograph) is required
that is capable of measuring and recordinq in three mutually perpendicular
directions. A detailed dilapidations survey should also be carried out on
adjoining buildings prior to, and at regular intervals during, construction
so that any damage can be assessed.
Ground vibrations and airblast during blasting can be effectively
controlled by limiting the weight of charge per delay and by careful design
of blasthole layout and firinn sequence (DuPont, 1980).

9.4.4 Support

The design of strutted excavations is described by the Geotechnical

Control 0ffice (1982b). The method of analysis of the forces acting upon
 112

the support system assumes sorne degree of yieldinq and, as a consequence,

movement of the supported material. lt may not therefore be acceptable
far designing the supports of excavations where movement could endanger the
the stability of adjacent buildings or slopes and cause damage. The
supporting system must be designed and constructed to prevent significant
movements of the soil mass.
The support of excavations by various methods is discussed in detail
in Dismuke (1975), who presents typical design calculations.

9.4.5 Drainage

The effect of rainfall in reducing the stability of slopes in Hong

Kong is well documented (Lumb, 1962, 1975). The provision of adequate
drainage on any majar excavation is therefore of prime importance. Befare
excavation commences, concrete-lined drainage channels, designed as
described in Chapter B, should be constructed around the crest of the
proposed excavation to collect runoff from above the excavation. lf
construction works are scheduled to extend into the wet season, temporary
drains should incorporate silt traps suitably constructed to prevent
seepage of water from the traps into the ground. Where silt traps are
provided, they must be cleared regularly and the material removed from the
trap deposited where it will not be washed into the drainage system during
subsequent rainfall.
Ponding on the surface of the excavation should be prevented. In the
case of excavations far foundations, basements and service trenches, this
will be accomplished best by pumping from small, preferably concrete-lined,
sumps, which will limit the amount of infiltration through the base of the
excavation. The excavated surface of the general site formation and all
temporary drains should fall to concrete-lined surface channels discharging
to either a stream course ora stormwater drain. Drainage channels should
be designed to the standards given in Chapter 8.
The construction of temporary works may cause a lowering of the
groundwater table. As this can result in the settlement of adjacent
structures, the possible effects of groundwater lowerin0, which will be
more significant in the fine-grained marine deposits than residual soil and
weathered -rock, should be considered.
The siting of stockpiles of material, which will eventually be placed
in the excavations, must not interfere with pre-existinq surface water
channels that maintain the stability of adjacent slopes. Although stock-
piles may not affect adjacent works when first formed, the effects of
erosion, dueto rainfall and general construction traffic, can lead to the
migration of material, and this should be borne in mind when they are sited
i ni ti a lly.

9.4.6 Excavation for Drains, Channels and Pits

If possible, excavations far drainage works should not be opened during

the wet season. If this is unavoidable, the excavation should proceed from
the lowest to the highest point in the drainage system and should be carried
out in sections. Each completed section should be lined befare the adjacent
section of excavations is opened up. This will prevent erosion and
 113

infiltration through the bed of the channel. Spoil from the excavation
should be removed to a position where it cannot affect the drainage system.

9.4.7 Excavation for Services

Trenches excavated on or above slopes provide a location where

infiltration of water into the hillside can eventually lead to slope
instability. A trench cut into the toe of a slope can also undermine its
stability and should not be permitted. Trenches loosely backfilled with
soil will permit almost as much infiltration from the surface asan open
trench and will permit the lateral flow of water along the trench through
the backfilled material. Excavations far services above slopes should
therefore not be opened up during the wet season unless unavoidable. When
such excavations are carried out in the wet season, the trench should be
protected against the ingress of runoff from the surface in which the trench
is excavated by means of sand bags, concrete kerbs or small compacted
earthfill bunds along each side of the trench. Pumps should be provided at
all low points on the trench to maintain the bottom in a dry state, anda
watchman should supervise the maintenance and functioning of pumps at all
times when work is not proceeding. On completion of work, the trench should
be backfilled in layers not greater than 150 mm deep, and each layer should
be compacted to not less than 95% of British Standard maximum dry density
(see Sections 9.5.1 and 9.5.5).
In the case of trenches far drains or ducts where pipes are not
surrounded with concrete, the first layer of backfilling material should be
placed and packed with care. This layer should be entirely free from large
rocks ar debris likely to penetrate or otherwise damage the service.

9.5 FILL
9.5.1 General

The disastrous landslides at Sau Mau Ping in 1972 (Government of Hong

Kong, 1972) and 1976 illustrate the dan9ers inherent in slopes formed from
loase fills being subjected to prolonged and heavy rainfall. On
liquefaction, the material in the filling mass can travel great distances
at high speed. Thus, where failure could endanner lives, temporary
earthfill structures, even if far access roads and spoil heaps, should be
designed and constructed to the same standard as that required far permanent
works (see Chapter 5).
Wherever possible, construction programmes should be arranged so that
fill is placed during the dry season, when the placement moisture content
of the fill can be controlled more easily.
The basic requirements far all fills to be placed in or on slopes in
Hong Kong is that they should, in general, be compacted to at least 95% of
British Standard maximum dry density (see Chapter 3). In sorne exceptional
cases, such as fills forming platforms that do not and will not support
structures, the degree of compaction specified far sorne of the fill may be
reduced to 90% of Standard, providing that the fill forming the peripheral
slopes is compacted to 95% (see Figure 9.1).
Surfaces upan which fill is to be placed should be stripped of all
 114

trees, logs, brush, undergrowth, boulders, loose filling and debris of any
nature. However, care must be taken to preserve and protect from injury
all trees not required to be removed. The topsoil should be stockpiled for
future landscaping needs. Tap roots and other projections over 40 mm in
diameter should be dug out to at least a depth of 450 mm. The resulting
holes should be filled with acceptable material and properly compacted.
l·Jhere there is very soft level ground, the use of geotechnical fabrics
should be considered. Care must be taken, however, not to damage the
fabric during placement of the first layer of filling. Alternatively,
rockfill can be used to forma more stable surface on which further
placement and compaction of fill can proceed.
It is recommended that the surface of the natural ground be scarified
to a depth of 200 mm prior to compaction to the required density.
Horizontal benches should be cut into sloping ground to a width satisfactory
for operation of compaction plant. This will result in a series of steps
up the slope as the filling increase. All obstructions should be removed
to permit proper operation of compaction plant.
0n large-scale filling operations, it is good practice to construct a
test fill to determine the depth to which the fill can be placed and
compacted to the required standard with the intended equipment. The
results should be plotted as shown in Figure 9.2, and the appropriate
depth and number of passes of the roller can then be estimated. This
allows for easy construction control by a foreman or inspector of works,
but control field density tests (see Section 9.5.5) must be carried out
at frequent intervals to check that design densities are in fact being
achieved. If the type or condition of the fill or the compaction equipment
changes, additional tests should be carried out to ensure that the number
of passes of the roller required to achieve the specified dry density has
not changed from that defined as the result of the initial compaction tri al.
The results and location of each test carried out as part of the
routine quality control should be recorded on standard sheets (an example
of a suitable record sheet is given in Figure 9.3). A record should be
kept of the volume of material delivered to the site during each shift.
Records should be clear and should describe the action taken in the event
of a test failure.

9.5.2 Compaction of Rockfill

Rockfill should be predominantly hard durable pieces of material

containing not more than 25% by weight of material classified as grade 111
and no material classified as grade IV, V or VI. Strong fresh granite is
ideal rockfill material, as the particles are unlikely to shatter during
placement.
Vibration is usually the most efficient method of compaction far
rockfill. However, the method of spreading the material ultimately
determines its effectiveness. Vibrations are transmitted through contact
points between particles, and so the dampening action is greater where
there is segregation and large voids within the fill.
 115

9.5.3 Compaction of Earthfill

Earthfill should not contain boulders, rock or unsuitable materials

such as topsoil, roots, tree stumps or rubbish. Lumps of fill should be
broken up when the layer is being graded prior to compaction.
Compaction should be carried out as soon as possible after deposition.
In no case should the rate of application of the filling exceed the capacity
of plant based on its operational speed and compacting ability. Fill should
be placed in such a manner that adequate drainage of the work area is
maintained during construction. A properly graded and rolled surface sheds
water and prevents ponding. Undulations in the general plane of the slope
must not be permitted. Fill placed on the surface of an embankment should
be compacted befare closing the site for the night or at the onset of rain,
so that delays caused by rainfall are limited. Fill adversely affected by
rain should be allowed to dry out, or should be removed from the surface
of the embankment, befare filling recommences.
At embankment edges, spreading of the fill under the influence of the
placing and compactina equipment makes compaction difficult. Embankments
should therefore be built oversize and should then be trimmed back to the
desired profile. The oversized section should be compacted to the same
standard as the remainder of the embankment to ensure that the surface
exposed by subsequent trimming has been adequately compacted. Density
tests should be carried out in the exposed surface to check that the density
of the surface material is as designed. Operations should be suspended
where satisfactory results cannot be obtained. When making edge runs on
fill, the compaction plant should be driven in a forward direction, uphill
if practicable, with the reverse run being made well clear of the edge
area.
Care must be taken during compaction of fill not to damage adjacent
structures or buried services by the use of plant not suitable for the
field conditions. Ingold (1979) has studied the effects of compaction on
retaining walls and notes that excessive compaction can result in earth
pressures exceeding those allowed for in design.

9.5.4 Compaction Control

The most effective method of quality control during a construction

project is to establish all the required test data prior to the material
being delivered to the formation. Particle size distribution, Atterberg
limits, optimum moisture content, maximum dry density and any other
required characteristics should be known befare placement of material beoin~
The sampling of stockpiles is particularly important, and care should be"
taken in the identification of individual samples with respect to the
location of such samples in the stockpile. Several samples should be taken
from a stockpile to avoid acceptance or rejection of material based on the
results of a single sample. Any evidence of a change in material should be
immediately recorded. Changes in colour, texture, moisture content,
particle size distribution, etc. are good indications that quality may not
be satisfactory, and it is the testing officer's responsibility to report
this information as soon as possible. Change in material quality is not
necessarily reflected by a change of colour.
Where crushed products are being used, the chances of significant
 116

changes in quality are reduced and testing can usually be restricted

accordingly. Furthermore, most crushed material should be produced to sorne
type of specification, thus ensuring uniform quality.
Compaction should take place at ornear the optimum moisture content
(OMC), and strict job control is essential to ensure that this condition
is achieved. Each layer of filling should be watered by proper sprinkling
equipment which gives a uniform distribution of water throughout each lift
over the whole area. Drying-out of the underlying compacted material
should be prevented by periodic watering, covering with sheeting or further
filling. If the fill material becomes too wet, dry material may be
incorporated into it by mixing. Moisture control can be most critical in
weathered volcanic rocks with high silt contents, and the range of target
moisture content should therefore be restricted. Methods far measuring
moisture contentare discussed in Section 9.5.6; however, the optimum
moisture content can be roughly estimated by squeezinq a sample of the
material. lf the material crumbles, it is usually dry of optimum. lf free
moisture remains on the hands, the material is wet of optimum. Material
that just holds together without free moisture is very clase to optimum.
The behaviour of compaction equipment is also another means of
assessing the amount of moisture in the fil l. Far example, if the fill is
too dry, the surface of the layer will tend to break-up, especially under
vibration. Too much moisture will result in sponginess under the action
of the roller; high pare pressures will be generated, and any amount of
additional rolling will have no effect.

9,5.5 Measurement of Insitu Density

(1) Sand replacement method. This method is described in BS 1377

(1975) (tests 15{A) and 15(8)). The two tests differ only in the size of
equipment, the second being more suitable far coarse-grained soils. The
method is accurate but requires considerable care. The calibration of the
sand is sensitive to humidity and should be checked daily. The sand should
be oven-dried and stored far about a week far the moisture content to reach
equilibrium with the atmospheric humidity. lf the sand is to be used
again, it should be dried and sieved to remove any fill material befare
further use. The test should not be carried out when compaction plant is
operating nearby.
(2) The densometer (ASTM 0-2167 63T). The densometer allows a much
simpler and more rapid determination of density. The equipment consists
of a rubber balloon attached to a measuring cylinder that can be
pressurised. The equipment is partially filled with water. A zero
reading is determined by setting up the equipment on a smooth flat surface
and pressurising the system until a mínimum volume is recorded in the
cylinder. A hale of a suitable size, with walls as smooth as possible and
with a hemispherical base, is du9, care being taken to collect all the soil
removed from the hale. The soil from the hale is weighed anda sample
from which the moisture content can be obtained is taken. The equipment
is then placed over the hale and pressurised, the mínimum volume in the
cylinder being recorded. The difference between the two recorded volumes
gives the volume of the hale. From this volume, the moisture content and
the weight of material removed from the hale, the density can be
calculated.
 117

This method is not suitable for testing very low-permeability clays

nor readily-compressible soils where the test hale can be distorted by
the applied pressure. The apparatus is cumbersome and prone to leakage.
(3) Core cutter method. A sample of the fill is taken using a thin-
walled core cutter (BS 1377) test 15(0)) which can be either driven or
jacked into the fill. The weight of the sample is measured and, with the
known volume of the core cutter, the density is determined. The samplíng
process can change the density of the fill, and the presence of gravel ín
the fill can cause disturbance of the sample and give rise to errors in
determining density. This method is not recommended for normal compaction
control.
(4) Water replacement method. This method is suitable for determining
the field dry density of a natural or compacted coarse-graíned soil that
includes gravels, cobbles, boulders and rock. The method ís similar to the
sand replacement technique but on a larger scale, using a plastic sheet
to retain water in the excavated hole. It is generally desirable to perform
a field sieve analysis on the excavated material.

9.5.6 Measurement of Moisture Content

(1) Standard methods. The best method of determinina moisture content

is by oven drying (BS 1377, test l(A)) but this has the disadvantage of
taking twenty four hours before a result is available. A decision on
whether fill requires more compaction to meet the specification is therefore
also delayed for up to twenty four hours.
Moisture content can be determined using a microwave oven, but this
method requires individual calíbration to ensure adequate soil temporature
control. Samples may also be dried by spreading the soil over the bottom
of a large metal tray that is heated directly by gas burner; however,
heating is uneven. The result is obtained more rapidly than if the rapid
methods described in BS 1377 are used (see below).
(2) Rapid methods. Two rapid methods for site use are given in BS 1377
(tests l(B) and l(C)). They are notas accurate as the standard method and
cannot be used for soils containing large proportions of halloysite, gypsum,
or calcareous or organic matter. They are, however, generally suitable
for Hong Kong soils. Soil moisture content may also be rapidly determined
using the Speedy Moisture Content Tester, which measures the pressure of
acetylene gas released when carbide reacts with the soil moisture. However,
this method is not sufficiently reliable for strict control.
Any rapid method used for construction control should be checked
occasionally against the standard oven dryina method, anda calibration
curve should be drawn up showing the relationship between the moisture
content determined by the two methods. The moisture content used
to determine the dry density is the equivalent oven determined moisture
content obtained by reference to the calibration curve.
Rapid compaction control can also be achieved using Hilf's method
(United States Bureau of Reclamation, 1974). The fill is sampled using the
same replacement technique: The result is adequate for compaction
control but should be checked against densities obtained using the results
of oven-dried moisture content tests. Present evidence indicates that this
method may overestimate relative compaction. A typical field sheet is given
 118

in Figure 9.4.
0ther methods, including the nuclear gauge method, require further
research befare they can be used with confidence in Hong Kong.

9.6 SURFACE PROTECTION

9.6.1 Grass

Grass can be an effective erosion control measure on slopes when

combined with a system of surface drains. Grass also acts as a pioneer
species in aiding subsequent establishment of more deeply-rooted shrubs
and trees. To establish grass on a newly-formed slope, consideration must
be given to actual slope conditions, grass species and season of planting,
as discussed in Chapter 8.
Several techniques have been used in Hong Kong far planting grass.
These include hydroseeding, sprigging, turfing and broadcast seeding~
(1) Hydroseeding. Hydroseeding is the application of grass seed,
fertiliser and mulch in aqueous solution by sprayino. A green marker dye
is often added to the mix, and occasionally soil stabilisin9 chemicals
are added. The relative advantages of this plantino technique are that
a wide variety of seed species are available, and they can be quickly and
cheaply applied to large and/or steep slopes.
A typical hydroseeding mix is shown in Table 9.1. The upper limit of
application rates should be adopted on difficult sites. Follow-up
applications of fertiliser are also recommended in addition to the initial
application listed in Table 9.1. The follow-up fertiliser is normally
applied at about one half of the initial rate. Far difficult sites, two
repeat applications should be made. Follow-up fertiliser should be applied
no sooner than two months after hydroseeding, but should be applied
within the growing season (March to September). As topsoiling is not
usually done in conjunction with hydroseeding, compensations far particular
soil deficiencies may also be considered in the fertiliser programme.
lf there is potential far severe erosion on a newly-formed slope, then
the upper limit of the mulch rate listed in Table 9.1 should be adopted
anda temporary erosion control fabric used. The fabric should be placed
over the slope after hydroseeding is completed. lt serves to reduce
raindrop impact and erosion while the grass is becoming established (a
period of approximately six weeks). Care should be taken to select an
erosion control fabric that serves this purpose without inhibiting the
growth of the grass.
(2) Sprigging and turfino. Sprigginn and turfing are the direct
application of grass plants with developed blades and roots. Turfing
implies that a continuous mat of grass is laid on the slope, while
sprigging is the planting of individual or small qroups of plants at 70 mm
to 150 mm intervals. The advantage of these methods is the reliable
results often achieved, especially when qrassina must be done outside the
normal planting season. The technique is limited by the slower application
methods and the availability of planting material, both in quantity and
species selection. Control of unwanted vines or weeds in the planting
material can also be troublesome.
Topsoil is often placed on the slope prior to sprigging or turfing.
 119

While this practice aids establishment of the grass, it increases the

erosion potential of the slope until the grass is established. Any topsoil
application should therefore be limited in depth on the steeper slopes, and
consideration given to a more comprehensive fertiliser prooramme in lieu of
topsoil.
Particular attention should be given to proper transportation and care
of the grass stock prior to planting. Fertiliser may be applied at the
time of planting (approximately 60 g/m 2 of NPK fertiliser; see note 4 of
Table 9.1) anda follow-up application at one half the initial rate later
in the growing season.
When sprigging or turfing is done on slopes steeper than 1 on 1.5,
pegs should be used to fasten the plants on the slope. Erosion control
membranes are seldom used in conjunction with sprigging or turfing but
may be beneficial when there is a high erosion potential.
(3) Broadcast seeding. Broadcast seeding is the application of grass
seed by hand or mechanically on a prepared soil surface. It is most often
used as a repair or maintenance technique on small or isolated areas. Care
should be given to evenly spreading the seed on a prepared soil surface or
unreliable results can be expected.

9.6.2 Trees and Shrubs

Planting of shrubs and trees on slopes enhances slope stability and
adds considerably to the landscape amenity. Seedling trees of one or two
years of age have been successfully planted on slopes in Hong Kong. Shrubs
have been planted less extensively, but they can provide an effective
coveri~g of vegetation where trees are undesirable because of their height,
where pioneer vegetation is needed on difficult sites or where greater
diversity of vegetation is desired.
Seedling trees or shrubs may be planted in pits excavated into the
slope as shown in Figures 9.5 and 9.6. Pits excavated for planting should
not be left standing open in the wet season. Fertiliser at the rate of 50
to 100 grams per tree should be mixed with the excavated soil before
backfilling. lncorporation of peat moss, leaf compost or other organic
matter will aid establishment. Seedling trees may be planted at approx-
imately 1.5 m to 2 m spacinos and should not be planted closer than 1 m
to surface drainage channels or other utilities.
Certain shrubs can be successful planted as seeds, although these will
take several years to become effective surface protectors. Trees and shrubs
should be planted early in the growina season to assist establishment of
roots and to minimise watering requirements, as discussed in Chapter 8.

9.6.3 Chunam
Chunam is a cement-lime stabilised soil used as a plaster to protect
the surfaces of excavations from erosion and infiltration. The recommended
mix for chunam plaster, the proportions being measured by weight, is one
part Portland cement, three parts hydrated lime and twenty parts clayey-
weathered granite or volcanic soil. The soil should be free from grass,
roots, humus and other organic matter.
 120

The cement and lime should be mixed dry befare adding the soil. The
minimum amount of water consistent with the required workability should then
be added to the mix. If the water cement ratio is too high, severe cracking
can result.
Befare p]acing chunam on an existing slope all vegetation, topsoil and
roots should be removed and the slope graded. To hold the chunam in
position during placing, 25 mm diameter bamboo dowels 300 mm long should be
driven into the surface at 1.5 m centres on a staggered pitch until only
25 mm of the stake projects from the surface. The chunam should then be
applied to the surface in two layers, each not less than 20 mm thick. The
surface of the base layer should be suitably scored with a trowel or left
with a rough surface to provide a key far the second coat. This should be
placed after the first coat has taken its initial set, but without an undue
delay. Twenty four hours between coats would normally be considered
sutiable. As the chunam is intended to provide an impermeable surface, it
should be placed in as compacta condition as possible, and the final
surface should be trowelled smooth to improve runoff.
Trowelled chunam can cause excessive reflection of sunlight and, as a
consequence of the resulting glare, discomfort to anyone in the area. To
reduce this effect, colourants may be added to the chunam in the top layer.
Suitable colourants are manganese dioxide or ferrous oxide powder, which may
be added to the mix far the top coat ata rate of 3% by weight of the cement
content. The extent to which sunlight is reflected is dependent upan the
smoothness of the finished surface, and final trowelling with a wooden
float rather than a steel float may reduce the amount of reflection.
Chunam is normally placed with no regularly-formed construction joints,
although care should be taken to ensure that the joints that do occur in the
top and bottom layers do not coincide. When regular bays are formed, sealed
joints should be formed between the bays. Chunam used to protect temporary
excavation surfaces should be placed in one layer not less than 20 mm thick.

9.6.4 Sprayed Concrete

The general principles of the sprayed concrete method are discussed in

the Earth Manual (United States Bureau of Reclamation, 1974), anda draft
Code of Practice far the spraying of concrete is published by the
Association of Gunite Contractors (1978).
Spraying concrete onto the surface of the slope is an alternative slope
protection measure. The specifications far the materials used are identical
to those adopted far conventional concreting, although the aggregates are
specially selected to meet not only the requirements of the finished surface
but also to prevent segregation while the concrete is being pumped. In
general, the maximum grain size of the aggregate far slope protection should
not exceed 10 mm. Mesh or steel fibre reinforcement can be provided where
necessary.
In Hong Kong, careful consideration must also be given to the problems
of drying and consequent shrinkage-cracking that can occur when sprayed
mortar is used far slope surfacing. Having designed a mixto meet the
requirements far segregation and strength, it should be used in a test
panel prepared and constructed under the conditions that will obtain
during slope surfacing. The performance of the panel with respect to
 121

durability, impermeability and shrinkage should then be assessed and, if

necessary, the mix should be redesigned to meet all the requirements. The
applied mortar should be cured for not less than seven days. The surface
obtained by concrete spraying is rougher and therefore less reflective than
chunam and, in practice, creates fewer problems of glare. Rebound material
should be removed from the surface after completion of spraying.
Drainage facilities (such as weepholes) should be included in the
sprayed surface, especially where seepages were noted prior to surface
protection works.

9.6.5 Masonry
Various methods of slope protection incorporating masonry blocks, which
are aesthetically pleasing, have been used in Hong Kong.
Masonry blocks should be bedded on a mínimum 75 mm thick layer of
free-draining crushed stone or gravel conforming to the criteria for the
design of filters (see Chapter 4). Joints between adjacent blocks should
be filled with a one part to three parts cement sand mortar to prevent
infiltration between the blocks and the establishment of grass and other
vegetation in the joints that would impede runoff. Weepholes draining the
bedding material should be provided at the toe of the masonry wall.

9.6.6 Planting on Impervious Surfaces

To improve the appearance of large areas of chunam or concrete surfac-
ing, selected planting of trees or shrubs is permissible in specially
prepared beds. Such beds should be formed in the surface as shown in
Figure 9.6. Sections 8.4.1 and 9.6.2 give other relevant information on
this topic.

9.7 SERVICES
It is bad engineering practice to route ducts (pipes containing
electricity or telephone cables) and conduits (pipes conveying water, gas
or sewage) close to the crest of a slope. All possible steps must be taken
to prevent leakage affecting the stability of the slope. As a general
rule, all drains, services, and other pipes should not be placed in a slope
nearer to the crest of the slope than a distance equal to its vertical
height. This is a mínimum standard, but each case should be considered on
its own merits.
In cases where the proposed development cannot be modified to permit
the siting of ducts and conduits outside this crest area, the slope should
be designed to the factors of safety given in Chapter 5, taking into account
the effects of possible water leakage. Asan alternative, services can be
housed within a sealed trench, ducting system or sleeve drained to a
suitable discharge point ata surface drain or natural stream. The ducting
system should be designed with a drainage capacity equivalent to a pre-
determined leakage rate. It is recommended that discharge from the ducting
system be monitored at six monthly intervals.
 122

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 123

10. FIELD INSTRUMENTATION

10.l INTR0DUCTI0N

Instruments are installed in the field to provide information on

specific parameters for design and construction control, and for long-term
monitoring of performance. The most common use for instruments in Hong Kong
is for the measurement of pore water pressure. Instruments that measure
movement and stresses during and after the construction of slopes are also
used, but to a more limited extent.

10.1.1 Planning Field Instrumentation

Careful planning and design of an instrumentation scheme is essential.

This should include :
(a) definition of objectives, hazard warning levels and
contingency plans,
(b) decisions on the type, number, location and frequency
of measurements,
(c) organization of personnel, instrument purchase,
installation, monitoring, data processing and
reporting, and
(d) other factors, such as accessibility and the effect
of the instruments on construction.
A flow chart that broadly identifies the different stages in planning
an instrumentation scheme, based on work by Franklin (1977), is given in
Table 10.1.
The number of instruments to be used in any scheme should allow for
a percentage of instrument failures. When selecting instrument types to
be used, the planner should attempt to incorporate cross-checks in the
system by using different types of instruments rather than duplicating
instruments of the same type.
Sensitive instruments tend to be more expensive, may have a restricted
range and can sometimes be less reliable than those that are less sensitive.
It is often more appropriate to install a greater number of cheap, reliable
but less sensitive instruments when the potential behaviour of the slope or
structure being monitored is unknown. It is important to judge an
instrument system on its overall accuracy rather than on the quoted
sensitivity of each individual component.

10.1.2 Calibration, Installation and Reading

Reliability under site conditions is usually more important than

absolute precision, and it is essential that instruments can be calibrated
not only prior to their installation but also from time to time during the
life of the monitoring system. Where instruments are expected to remain
in use for several years, the possibility of instrument drift cannot be
ignored, particularly when electrical instruments are used. The complete
system, including the detecting device, associated electronics and recorder,
 124

should be calibrated as one unit. All instruments, particularly those

that are sensitive to weather and gravity variations, must be calibrated
locally. Probe-type instruments, which are easier to calibrate, are
unsuitable far situations in which continuous monitoring is required,
Instruments should always be installed by technicians who are fully
conversant with the equipment and who have detailed knowledge of the
factors influencing the performance of the equipment. Manufacturer's
installation instructions are seldom adequate, and installation, particu-
larly of complex instruments, is best supervised by an experienced
instrumentation engineer. Instruments should be installed well in advance
of the time they are required to monitor performance so that checks on
drift and background noise level can be made anda datum established far
subsequent observations. They should be well protected against corrosion,
moisture, other aggressive agents and vandals.
The instruments should be read systematically by a suitably competent
person who has an understanding of the purpose of each instrument. The
frequency of reading will depend upan the situation and the nature of the
changes that the instruments are bein9 used to monitor. Readings are
often most critical in inclement weather conditions. Far example,
piezometers in decomposed granites may require reading several times a
day during and after heavy rain. Readings should be recorded on standard
field sheets that include details of the probable range of readings from
the instruments being observed. Any readings that indicate a marked
change in conditions should be checked immediately. The functioning of the
instruments should also be checked when unexpected readings occur, although
in sorne cases a complete check may not be possible.
All instrument readings should be plotted on a time base so that the
significance of the variation can be assessed more easily. Examples of
typical plots are given in Figures 10.1, 10.2 and 10.3.

10.2 GROUNDWATER LEVELS AND PORE PRESSURES

10.2.1 Measurement of Groundwater Levels

Groundwater levels taken in investigation hales during drilling

(Chapter 2) are not reliable dueto the effects of the flushing water on
the groundwater regime. Far reliable observation, the groundwater level
should be allowed to stabilise, and this may take several days after
completion of drill ing. The level of the water table can then be measured
in an open borehole, but the response time is very slow and infiltration
of surface water into the hale may cause the hale to actas a recharge
well. Asan alternative to leaving the casing in position, a smaller-
diameter standpipe may be installed in the hale, around which the borehole
may be backfilled with material removed from the hale. Observations of
the groundwater level in such a standpipe are more reliable than those
obtained during drilling, and standpipes should be installed in any hale
that is not to be used far any other form of instrumentation. The
standpipe installation can be improved by using a perforated pipe over the
lowest 1 m to 2 m, and by backfilling the hale with fil ter material. The
top 0.5 m to 1 m of the borehole should be filled with bentonite and cement
to prevent infiltration.
A smaller standpipe will give a shorter response time than that of a
 125

standard borehole casing. However, if the hale penetrates more than one
water bearing zone, flow between zones can occur, and water level measure-
ments obtained from the standpipe will be meaningless. If the length of
filter surrounding the standpipe is limited and is sealed to connect with
one particular zone of soil or rock, the installation acts as a crude open
hydraulic piezometer (Section 10.2.3) with a very slow response time. The
installation of a suitably placed piezometer is however preferable, as
the information obtained can be more easily interpreted.

10.2.2 Measurement of Pore Pressures

Piezometers are used to measure pare pressure. They consist of a

cavity separated from the soil or rock by a porous element (the tip) and a
device for measuring the water pressure in the cavity (Hanna, 1973; Vaughan,
1974).
The measurement of pare pressure requires that the piezometer tip be
sealed into the ground, in the specific zone in which a knowledge of pare
pressure is required, by placing it in a sand pocket in the borehole.
Bentonite is used to seal the pocket above, and sometimes also below, and
the hale is grouted. The length of the sand pocket should be at least
four hale diameters long, preferably 600 mm to 1 m, and the grout used to
seal the piezometer in the borehole should have the same or lower
permeability than the surrounding soil.
A grout mix suitable for soils is one part cement to one part bentonite
to six parts water. Where large water lo,51,s have been recorded when
drilling in rock, this mix may require modifi_c:ation to avoid grouting large
volumes of the rock. Grout volumes used should be checked and compared
with the volume of the hale over the length intended to be grouted. Poor
sealing of the piezometer in the hale will permit the migration of water
from different levels, and may permit surface water to infiltrate into the
piezometer. Readings taken from such an installation will, at best,
indicate the level of the water table but, more probably, the borehole will
actas a sump, and the readings obtained will be of no significance.
Bentonite balls formed from wet powdered bentonite, although difficult
to handle and place, make a satisfactory seal in a borehole. Compressed
bentonite pellets, which swell to many times their original size, are much
easier to place than bentonite balls. However, they may artifically reduce
the pare pressure for long periods in low permeability soils and, therefore,
they should be used with care.
The choice of piezometer type depends on the predicted water pressures,
access for reading, service life and response time required. Hong Kong
soils are normally sufficiently permeable that response time need not be
considered when selecting piezometers. The advantages and disadvantages
of the different types of piezometers are given in Table 10.2.

10.2.3 Open Hydraulic (Casagrande) Piezometers

This consists of a porous tip, generally about 40 mm outside diameter

and 300 mm to 600 mm long, wi th a stand pi pe norma lly 20 mm interna l
diameter (Figure 10.4). The top of the standpipe should finish above
ground level and should be capped and protected from damage by a drained,
 126

locking cover box (Clayton et al, 1982). Beneath road surfaces and
pavements, the piezometer must finish below ground level, and drainage of
the cover box is especially important to stop surface water entering the
piezometer.
The response time of this type of piezometer is comparatively slow,
but the effect does not become serious until the soil or rock permeability
is less than about 10- 7 m/sec. At this permeability, the response time is
about 1.5 hours far a piezometer with a 150 mm x 600 mm sand pocket anda
20 mm diameter standpipe. The response time is inversely proportional to
the soil permeability. If the pare pressure temporarily drops below
atmospheric, the piezometer discontinues reading but, being self-deairing,
it resumes satisfactory operation without maintenance. Standpipes of less
than 12 mm diameter may not be self-deairing (Vaughan, 1974). The long-
term reliability of these piezometers is very good, except that they are
rather more susceptible to vandalism than sorne of the other types.
An electrical dipmeter is the most commonly used method of measuring
the water level. When the water level is fairly clase to the surface, a
simple method is to lower a small diameter polythene tube down the standpipe
and blow down the tube. The change of resistance and bubbling that occurs
when the end of the tube is submerged can be felt and heard.
The bubbler system far automatic recording is an extension of the
second method. A small-diameter air line is taken to the piezometer tip,
anda very small gas flow is passed down to it to produce several bubbles
per minute. The pressure of the gas measured is equal to the height of
water in the standpipe above the end of the bubbler tube. This method can
be used far automatic recording of the piezometric pressure from a number
of piezometers by using an electronic pressure transducer anda scanivalve
system (Pope et al, 1982).
A common method of recording maximum transient water levels in
piezometric tubes in Hong Kong is by using a string of buckets (Brand et al,
1983). These piezometer buckets (Halcrow buckets) are tied to a weighted
nylon string at selected depth intervals above the normal base water level
in the standpipe. The highest transient water level is read by drawing the
string of buckets to the surface and recording the upper limit of filled
buckets. The accuracy of water levels recorded in this way depends on the
spacing of the buckets. It is recommended that they be placed 0.5 m to 1 m
apart in critical piezometer installations.
Where artesian pressures occur, they may be measured using a Bourdon
gauge or mercury manometer fitted directly to the standpipe or, alter-
natively, indirectly using a cap fitted with twin tubes thus forming a
deairable closed-system.

10.2.4 Closed Hydraulic Piezometers

A twin-tube closed hydraulic piezometer with a low air entry pressure

ceramic fil ter can be installed in a sand pocket in the same manner as a
standpipe piezometer. Because head losses are negligible in a well
installed system, hydraulic leads can be taken fairly long distances far
remate reading, but a permanent gauge house is required if a Bourdon gauge
or mercury manometer is to be used far pressure measurement. Portable
pressure measuring systems using pressure transducers and portable deairing
 127

units, which eliminate the need for a gauge house, are available. In order
to avoid cavitation, the pressure-sensing unit and the connecting tube must
not be more than about 7 m above the measured piezometric level (Penman,
1978). On slopes, piezometer tips can be installed in holes drilled atan
angle of 10º to 15º above the horizontal, but packers will then be required
during gróuting to ensure complete sealing of the hole.
The response time is quicker than that of an open standpipe, but is
dependent on the method of pressure measurement. The system is not self-
deairing, and regular manual or automatic deairinq is required to maintain
satisfactory operation.

10.2.5 Pneumatic Piezometers

This piezometer comprises a porous tip capped with a flexible diaphraom

that controls a pneumatic val ve. The val ve operates when the pressure in
the pneumatic system equals the pressure in the piezometer cavity. The
piezometer tip can be installed in a sand pocket in the same way as a
standpipe piezometer. As they cannot be deaired after installation
(Clayton et al, 1982) pneumatic piezometers are of limited use in Hong Kong
soils and should not be used where soil is unsaturated or where negative
pore pressures exist. The long-term reliability of these instruments is
not yet proven in Hong Kong.

10.2.6 Electrical Piezometers

Electrical piezometers are unsuitable for partially saturated soils,

and therefore have a limited use in Hong Kong soils. They comprise a
porous tip isolated by a flexible diaphragm, the deflection of which is
measured by vibrating wire or resistance strain gauge (Hanna, 1973)
Response to pore pressure change is rapid. They have the same deairing
problems as the pneumatic piezometer, and the calibration, which is liable
to drift (change with time), cannot be checked after installation.
Vibrating wire systems are more reliable than resistance systems. The
major disadvantage of electrical resistance systems is drift. Instrument
life of vibrating wire systems is moderate and of resistance systems is
often very short.

10.2.7 Measurement of Pore Suctions

Suction is negative pore water pressure, relative to atmospheric

pressure. In the range of zero to minus one atmosphere, direct
measurement of pore suction can be made using a closed hydraulic system
(Bishop et al, 1961).
Tensiometers are the most suitable devices for measuring pore suctions
applicable to slope stability problems in Hong Kong. The measuring range
of the vacuum gauge of a typical tensiometer is generally between zero and
-80 kPa. This means that, if the ceramic tip is 3 m vertically below the
gauge, the effective measuring range for the pore pressure at the tip is
between 30 and -50 kPa. When measurement of suction at great depth is
required, a caisson may be excavated and tensiometers installed through
the sides of the caisson (Sweeney, 1982). The reliability of a tensiometer
 128

depends on a good contact between the soil and ceramic tip, and the
complete absence of air from the system. During installation, therefore,
it is important that this contact is achieved so that a preferential path
for downward seepage of water does not form between the tensiometer tube
and the soil.
A tensiometer cannot be used to measure suction greater than one
atmosphere because of cavitation. For measurement of suctions larger than
this, psychrometers may be used (Richards, 1971).

10.2.8 Location of Piezometers

The majority of slope failures in Hong Kong are shallow slips occurring
along distinct geological boundaries. Infiltration from the ground surface
can result in the development of perched water tables at the boundary
between two materials of different permeability and can cause slope failure.
It is therefore important to position piezometers at depths where there are
changes in mass permeability so that perched water tables can be detected.
Piezometers at greater depths are useful for determining the permanent
groundwater level.

10.3 SURFACE MOVEMENTS

10.3.1 Significance of Movements

Landslides in Hong Kong soils often occur without warning and, for
these, movement measurement is sel dom useful. However, measurement of
movements and deformations associated with retaining structures, anchor
systems and soil and rock slopes can be important. Methods of measuring
surface movement are discussed in Sections 10.3.2 to 10.3.5 and subsurface
movement in Section 10.4.

10.3.2 Structural Cracking

A tell tale placed across a crack should be designed to indicate if

further movement of the crack has occurred since installation; they should
also show magnitude and direction of the movement. All tell tales should be
marked with the dates of installation.
The simplest form of telltale, suitable far monitoring continuing
movement of walls, comprises one or more strai9ht lines scribed across
a crack. Two lines at right angles will shown any movement in the plane
of the face on which the lines are scribed.
Glass plates, mounted across a crack using mortar pats or epoxy resin,
are common and are easily installed, but they do not indicate clearly
the direction of relative movement. The glass often breaks either through
shrinkage of the mortar pats on which it is set or vandalism; glass plates
are therefore not recommended.
A more robust telltale, which can be used to measure progressive
movement, is shown in Figure 10.5. Movement of the overlying metal strip
can be measured relative to datum lines scribed on the underlying plate;
these datum lines being offset by recorded distances when the tell tale is
 129

installed. Movement normal to the face can damage the metal strip and
prevent continued reading. To overcome this problem, a second telltale
may be placed a short distance from the first, with the overlying strip
bonded to the opposite side of the crack. By measuring the separation
of the two plates with a feeler gauge, movement normal to the face can be
determined.
Mechanical deformation gauges (e.g. demec gauges) can be used for
accurate measurements. Two gauge points are attached to the structure on
either side of a crack, their spacing being fixed using a special locating
bar. The gauge comprises an invar steel beam with two conical gauge points,
one fixed at one end of the beam and the other pivotinq on a knife-edge.
The deformation is recorded by a dial gauge, the movement being magnified by
a simple lever system. Temperature compensation is achieved using an invar
steel reference bar. Very high accuracies, which are probably higher than
required for monitoring crack movement, can be achieved with this instrument.
A vernier dial gauge used in conjunction with reference studies is a simpler
method, the accuracy of which is usually adequate for this form of
monitoring.

10.3.3 Rock and Soil Slopes

The methods discussed in Section 10.3.2 are also applicable to the

measurement of movement on joints in fresh or slightly-weathered rock.
Surface-mounted gauges are, however, unsuitable for moderately-weathered
rock and weaker materials.
Steel pegs, grouted with epoxy resin into hales drilled in the rock on
either side of a joint, can be used to monitor relative movement. Usually
three pegs are used, two on one side of the joint and one on the other. On
soil slopes where movement across a crack is to be monitored, the pegs
should be set in concrete beacons on either side of the crack. The top of
the pegs should be centre-punched, or preferably have conical seatings, for
precise positioning of measuring instruments. The distances from one peg
to the two pegs on the other side of the crack or joint are measured using
a vernier caliper ora mechanical extensometer. The change in relative
level of the pegs can be determined using a spirit level on a straight edge
between the pegs.
Démec gauge seatings can be used asan alternative to steel pegs.

10.3.4 Surveying

Relative movements can be assessed using precise surveying techniques,

and measurements of absolute movements can be obtained if a fixed datum
located outside the zone of influence of the moving masses is used. It is
important that the instrument error of the surveying method is less than
the mínimum required accuracy of the movement measurements. The movements
measured are often very small, so the reference points used should allow
accurate positioning of measuring instruments. Suitable reference points
are described by Burland &Moore (1974), Cheney (1974) and Hanna (1973).
 130

10.3.5 Photogrammetry

Measurements of movement can be made using stereographic pairs of

photographs taken with either a phototheodolite or sorne other form of
precise camera. A series of photographs is taken from two fixed stations
on a base line parallel to the face or slope being studied. The camera
axes should be parallel and normal to the base line. Where possible,
fixed ground control points at the top and bottom of the slope should be
installed, and at least two should appear on both photographs of each
stereopair. If it is not possible to set up fixed ground control points,
the points used for control must be accurately surveyed for every pair of
photographs. The accuracy of the measurements of movement is dependent
on the precision with which the ground controls are surveyed. Steep slopes
are more suited to photogrammetric survey than shallow ones because the
accuracy varíes with distance from the focal plane of the camera.
Descriptions of both the technique and the equipment and its use in
geological mapping are given by Ross-Brown & Atkinson (1972) and Ross-Brown
et al (1973). Photogrammetry has been used to monitor movements of dams
(Moore, 1973) and to map joint movements U1oore, 1974; Burland et al, 1977).

10.4 SUBSURFACE MOVEMENTS

10.4.1 Inclinometers

An inclinometer can be used to assess movements both of and behind

retaining structures, and sometimes prefailure movements of fills and cut
slopes. It comprises a tilt measuring instrument contained within a
torpedo that travels in a grooved or square casing to maintain horizontal
alignment. A common inclinometer uses a Wheatstone bridge to measure the
angle of tilt, while others use photographic methods, vibration wire or
resistance strain gauges. Inclinometers based on servo-accelerometers are
increasingly being used for high precision work.
The most commonly used inclinometer casing in Hong Kong is aluminium
tubing. The backfill between the casing and the surrounding soil, which is
generally cement-bentotite grout, should be of the same stiffness as the
surrounding soil. Wherever possible, the inclinometer casing should be
installed -in a pre-grouted drillhole with clean fresh water inside the
casing to overcome its buoyancy during installation. The inside of the
tube should be cleaned with fresh water once a month, and the pH of the
water after flushing measured. If the pH of the flushed water is alkaline,
implying that there has been leakage of grout into the tube or that
corrosive alkaline agents are present, the tube should be cleaned until the
water is neutral .
When inclinometers are installed to detect the movement of slopes, it
is convenient to have the axis of the casing at the riqht angles to the
slope face. The fixity of the inclinometer base should be confirmed by
ground survey. Inclinometer readings should be taken on both faces of the
instrument, and the average readinq should be recorded. An example of an
inclinometer record sheet is shown in Figure 10.6.
 131

10.4.2 Slip Indicators

The position of a slip-surface can be obtained using simple

instruments. One of the most commonly used slip surface indicators
comprises two identical, relatively short lenqths of rod within a flexible
tube installed in a borehole, one length of rod beino kept at the bottom
of the hale and one at the top. The zone in which shear is occurring is
found by raising the rod from the bottom of the casing and lowering the
other from the top until the rods cannot pass through the casing. The
same instrument can also become a crude inclinometer by using a series of
rods of various lengths and assessing the curvature of the tube by finding
the length of rod that can just pass down the casing.
Among other methods that are available is the shear strip which
comprises a series of parallel resistances. The depth at which the shear
strip fractures is determined by measurement of the resistance. A second
type comprises a bubbler tube device connected to a thin glass tube within
a larger diameter metal pipe. The air pressure required to continually
pass bubbles into the ground decreases when shearing breaks the glass tube.
The Japanese pipe strain gauge has foil strain gauges mounted in a PVC pipe,
and deformation or shear can be monitoring by recordinq the change of strain
in these gauges.
10.4.3 Extensometers

An extensometer comprises tensioned wires or rods anchored at different

points in the borehole, and measures the movement of the anchor points,
relative to a surface datum, along the line of the hale in which it is
installed. Extensometers are most suited to measuring deformation of, and
behind, retaining structures and in soils and rock stressed by anchoring or
affected by excavation.
Relative movements between the face and the end of each extensometer
rod may be measured with a dial gauge, or with a linear displacement
transducer far remate reading. The wire of the more simple tensioned
wire extensometer is taken over pulleys, anda constant tension is
maintained with weights. Alternatively, the tension may be maintained by
spring cantilevers in the measuring head and the deflections of the
cantilevers measured by dial gauges or transducers.
In confined spaces, the protection of the tensioning system of wire
extensometers is difficult. Rod extensometers with removable measuring
heads are less subject to damage. Readings can be affected by thermal
expansion of the metal and, far precise measurements, temperature
corrections should be made.

10.4.4 Settlement Gauges

Settlement gauges (far installation in either fill during construction

or boreholes), remate reading hydraulic gauges and profile gauges are all
described by Hanna (1973).
 132

10.5 LOADS AND STRESSES

10.5.1 Load Cells for Rockbolts and Anchors

Only load cells suitable for long-term monitoring of rockbolt and anchor
loads are considered in this Section.

The anchor load can either be determined at intervals, by measuring the

force required to jack the anchor head away from its seating, or it may be
monitored continuously with a compression load cell between the anchor head
and bearing plate. The types of load cell available and their advantages and
disadvantages are given in Table 10.3.

10.5.2 Earth Pressure Cells

Measurement of earth pressure is unlikely to be required in soil slopes
in Hong Kong. In large excavations, cells may be specified to measure the
contact pressure between the soil and a retaining structure. Effective stress
can be computed by installing pressure cells with piezometers. The type and
position of a cell should be chosen with great care, because the introduction
of the cell into the soil causes a redistribution of the stresses around it,
and the errors depend on the geometry of the instrument. Details of the types
of cell available and the problems that may be encountered when using them are
given by Hanna (1973).
 11, MAINTENANCE

11.1 INTRODUCTION

Regular inspections and maintenance are essential for the continued

stability of well designed and well constructed slopes. fihile those
responsible for design may not be able to do anything after completion of
construction to ensure that recommendations for maintenance are followed,
careful design and detailing can reduce both the amount of maintenance
required and the physical labour involved.
When handing-over a development, the designer should provide a data
base containing information of relevance to the slope. These data will form
the basis of the slope maintenance records. The designer should recommend
a programme of maintenance in accordance with Table 11.1. Such a programme
should include guidance on maintaining and reading installed instruments
and should indicate the probable range of readings that will be obtained
if the structure is functioning as designed. If, during the lifetime of
the development, the readings obtained from instruments indicate conditions
more severe than those allowed for in the design, the owner should be
advised to obtain specialist advice. Instrument readings should be kept
on standard record sheets, an example of which is shown in Figure 11.1.
The owner of the slope should appoint a maintenance officer. This officer
would be responsible for ensuring that the maintenance inspections and
recommended remedial works are undertaken.
It should be noted that maintenance should not be considered to
include ground anchor monitoring, which is a specialist procedure, nor
monitoring the condition of the slope to check the design assumptions,
which should be the responsibility of the designer.

11.2 FREQUENCY OF I~SPECTIONS

For slopes that have been in existence for many years, it may be
necessary for the maintenance officer to screen all the slopes under his
control to decide the frequency of inspections in view of the current
consequence of failure. It is not reasonable that the inspection frequency
should be related to the number of slopes to be maintained. As detailed in
Section 11.3, inspections should be carried out at the technical officer
level and at the engineer level. The recommended intervals between
inspections at both levels are shown in Table 11.1. If frequent inspections
are carried out and the follow-up preventive work is completed, there will
be no need to attempt the difficult task of trying to undertake the
maintenance inspections and preventive work in the brief period between the
wet seasons.

11.3 INSPECTION REPORTS

It is essential that all inspections should be properly recorded and
that a system should exist to transfer inspection recommendations into
remedial works, preventive works, or detailed investigation. Where a data
base exists, the reports should be added to produce an historical record of
the slope. The inspecting officer should always check that the last set of
recommendations have been fully implemented. Photographs should be used as
 134

records where appropriate. An example of three pages of a maintenance

inspection record sheet is shown in Figures 11.2, 11.3 and 11.4.

11.3.1 Technical Inspections

The purpose of these insoections is to ensure that the slope is not

deteriorating. These inspections may also be used to identify slopes that
need to be upgraded into a higher risk-to-life category. It is important
that guidance notes are issued to the technician. These would highlight
such points as the fact that the crest and all berms must be inspected.
Such notes should be the responsibility of the maintenance officer. lt is
important that worrying points should be brought to the attention of the
maintenance officer. Routine repairs should be carried out without delay.

11.3.2 Engineering Inspections

lt is not intended that the inspection by an engineer should solely

check up on the technical inspections, although this should be a side
benefit. The brief of the engineer would be largely to consider whether
the risk-to-life category of the slope needs to be modified because of any
changes in the slopes surroundings, for example, increased pedestrian traffic
on an adjacent pavement. He should consider systems of slopes and retaining
walls, causes of failures, and look for dangers that have developed since
the design was completed. If an engineering inspection indicated that
routine work was needed, then this would indicate that the technical
inspections were not being properly carried out.
In cases where the slope is technically complex, has a history of
failure, or the risk-to-life is high, the engineer might consultan
engineering geologist ora geotechnical engineer. Where improvement works
would require an investigation, then this should be made clear to the
maintenance officer.

11.4 MAINTENANCE
11.4.1 Instruments

The instruments that are most likely to be installed and used for
continued monitoring are piezometers (Chapter 10). The accuracy and
serviceability of these instruments relies, among other things, upon
preventing the ingress of water and foreign matter into the standpipe. The
surface boxes for the instruments should be examined during each inspection.
All standpipes should have tight-fitting caps, and all surface boxes should
be drained. lf necessary, caps should be renewed and drains cleared.
Other instrument installations should be checked to ensure that they
are functioning under the conditions specified by the manufacturers.

11.4.2 Slopes and Slope Surfacing

All slopes should be examined for signs of movement indicative of slope

failure. However, in other aspects, the inspection and subsequent main-
tenance required for a colluvium, fill or soil slope v✓ ill differ from that
 135

required far a rock slope. As soil slopes rarely show signs of progressive
failure (slips occur very quickly when slopes become saturated), inspection
and subsequent maintenance should be principally directed towards preventing
the infiltration of water. Forms of surface protection, other than grass,
are generally brittle and therefore are susceptible to cracking. Inspection
records should give details of crack positions, lengths, widths and
relative movement. Telltales (described in Chapter 10) ar gauge measurement
points, should be installed on new cracks where appropriate. During
inspections of grass-covered slopes, the positions, depth and extent of
erosion scars should be noted.
Rock slopes can show signs of proaressive failure by movement along
joints. Where joints appear to be opening, tell tales or measurement points
should be installed to monitor progressive movement. Closely-jointed rock
is likely to deteriorate generally and not show signs of movement along
any one joint or series of joints. Colour ~hotographs of such faces taken
during each inspection will assist in assessing the extent to which the
slope has deteriorated. Erosion around isolated blocks or boulders should
be recorded.
During inspections, seepage traces on and adjacent to all formed
slopes should be recorded. Flow from seepage sources, weepholes and
horizontal drains should be recorded and; where possible, should be examined
far signs of migration of sol id material, indicating internal erosion. Far
the effects of cracked services on flow from these sources, see Section
11.4.3.
The development of vegetation on slopes, if allowed far in the design
of the surfacing, can be beneficial both aesthetically and structurally.
Rigid surface protection adjacent to trees should be examined far signs of
deterioration as a result of root action, and repaired or replaced as
needed. Rock slopes in the vicinity of trees or.shrubs should be examined
far blocks that have been destabilised by root-wedging.
Routine maintenance of all slopes should include the removal of
undesirable vegetation. Cracked rigid surfaces should be repaired by
cutting a chase along the line of the crack and filling it with material
of a suitable mix. On inclined surfaces, it is good practice to cut the
chase in a manner that prevents the ingress of water through any shrinkage
cracks that may develop between the original surface and the repair.
Cracks in surfaces comprising masonry blocks set in and pointed with
cement mortar will tend to follow joints between blocks. The affected
joints should be cleaned and repaired.
Rigid slope surfaces that have been undermined by groundwater flow
should be removed, the source of the flow identified, the flow stopped or
taken to the surface by means of horizontal drains, and the surface made
good.
Eroded grass slopes should be regraded, if necessary with fill compact-
ed to a density not less than that required in Section 5.5.2. The fill
should be compacted in horizontal layers and not in layers parallel to the
slope. If necessary, the eroded area should be benched and graded so that
fill is not placed against extensive vertical surfaces. This treatment
will be required if the vertical eroded surfaces against which fill is to
be placed are greater than 600 mm high. Befare placing fili, all
 136

concentrations of free-draining material found in the eroded area should be

removed. The repaired surface should be replanted with grass, protected
from further erosion by a protective membrane until the grass is establish-
ed, and fertilised as appropriate. Details are given in Chapter 9.
Rock slopes are not usually completely surfaced. They may, however,
require local surfacing to prevent water from entering open joints. Care
must be taken to ensure that, while the surfacing or capping prevents
ingress of water, it does not prevent seepage. Such work should include
the provision of weepholes where necessary.
Where there are traces of seepage from a slope in areas where weepholes
are not provided, the source of the seepage should be investi9ated and
adequate drainage provided.

11.4.3 Suriace Drainage

Records should be kept of those features of the drainage systeffi that

require modification to reduce routine maintenance. lnspection records
should include
(a) position and extent of broken and cracked channels
and catchpits,
(b) position and extent of silted-up sections of channels
and catchpits,
( c) position and extent of deteriorating channels and
catchpits, and
(d) details of construction works, possibly outside the
boundaries of the development, from which mud and
debris could migrate to block the drains of the system
being inspected.
In addition to formal maintenance inspections, it is advantageous to
pay particular attention to surface drainage systems in the wet season. If
it appears possible that a drainage system can be blocked by soil washed
from works on an adjacent site, preventive action should be taken. As
discussed in Section 8.3.1, it is ereferable to have trash grills and sand
traps or sumped catchpits, befare slope drainaqe feeds into other drainage
networks. Material from these trash grills, sandtraps, and sumped
catchpits, together with that from conventional catchpits and channels,
should be removed regularly, and disposed of where it cannot be washed
back into the drainage system during subsequent storms.
Cracks in channels should be repaired with cement mortar or with a
suitable plastic sealing compound. If a channel cracks from settlement, the
settled section should be removed and reconstructed in such a way that it
is not susceptible to damage from further settlement. A mortar repair to
a channel that is settling is only a temporary measure. lihere channels
are found to be settling, flexible sealants can be used to repair cracks,
but majar repair works should not be carried out during the wet season.
Most flexible sealants, whether bitumen or epoxy based, require that the
material on which they are to be placed is dry. The efficiency of the
sealant will be severely limited unless the manufacturer's instructions are
fol l m,ed.
 137

Where sections of channels have to be rebuilt, this work should only

be done in the dry season when the existing channels may be safely removed.
All reconstructed sections of channels should be built in accordance with
the recommendations contained in Chapter 8. The reconstruction of channels
toan increased capacity may require reconstruction of all channels
downstream of the repair.
Pipes should not generally be used for surface drainage on slopes.
Where pipes have been used and are found to leak or have to be replaced,
they should, if possible, be replaced with channels constructed as described
in Chapter 8.

11.4.4 Subsurface Drainage

The efficiency of horizontal subsurface drains will, in general,

decrease with time. When interpreting the records of flow from horizontal
drains, it should be remembered that any initially high discharges should
decline as the drains lower the groundwater regime anda steady state is
achieved. lt is therefore important to record flows from individual drains
during each inspection, and to correlate these with rainfall records for
that area and with the readings of the piezometers which should be installed
asan integral part of any subsurface drainage system. Where increased
flows are recorded, the discharge should be examined for any signs that the
water originates from leaking services. lf these exist, the appropriate
utility company should be notified and requested to trace and repair the
leak. The discharge from drains should be examined for signs of migrating
sol id material, and chemical analyses should be employed, if necessary, to
assist in positively dientifying the source.
If the piezometer readings indicate a rise in groundwater level and, at
the same time, the discharge from the horizontal drains decreases, it should
be concluded that the efficiency of the drainage system is decreasing. It
may be possible to partially reinstate the system by flushing the drains
with a suitably designed compressed air and water jet. In general,
horizontal drains should be pressurised with water in an attempt to clear
the filter material surrounding the drains as the resulting infiltration of
water into the slope may cause slope failure. If flushing of the drains
fails to raise the effectiveness of the system toan acceptable level,
additional drains should be installed. Routine maintenance of an horizontal
drainage system should include if possible the removal of obstructions at
the outlets, removal of silt from the inside of the pipe, and cleaning or
replacement of internal filters.
Drainage galleries should be examined for signs of structural distress.
The locations and rates or inflow should also be recorded, and this should
be compared with the total discharge. When increases in flow occur, which
are nota direct result of rainfall, the discharge from the gallery should
be checked for signs that indicate leakage from sewers and water mains.
A comparison of previous records of the locations and rates of inflow may
indicate the probable location of the leakage giving rise to the increased
flow. Radial drain hales installed within the gallery should be inspected
in the same way as horizontal drains. Flow measuring devices within the
gallery should be checked to ensure that they are functioning properly and
the measuring edge of V-notches should be examined for, and subsequently
cleaned of, adhering debris or slime. Stilling pools behind V-notches
should be cleared of settled sand and silt.
 138

Should the gallery show signs of distress, expert advice should be

sought. No remedial measures should be carried out until this advice has
been obtained.

11.4.5 Services

Stormwater drains, sewers and water mains are the services most likely
to affect slope stability. However, other conduits such as telepi'lone ducts,
electric cable ducts and disused pipes can also transmit water into slopes
and reduce their stability. During routine inspections, all services
should be examined far signs of leakage or water flow. Where this is
detected, the service duct should be treated as described in Chapter 9.
The inspection records should include a drawing showing the position and
nature of all services in the vicinity of the slope. The appropriate
organization should be requested to test water mains and sewers where
leakage is suspected and where it could lead to instability of the slopes
being examined.

11.5 ACCESS
Access should be provided to all berms, channels and drainage galleries
to permit inspection and maintenance. Far all new slopes, proper access
should be included in the design. Lockable gates should be provided to
prevent unauthorised entry and vandalism.
 139

12, SOURCES OF INFORMATION

12.1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter summarises the main sources of information relevant to the

broad field covered by this Manual. It deals with sources of geological and
geotechnical information overseas, and with sources of geological,
geotechnical, topographical, hydrological and meteorological information
available in Hong Kong itself. lt does not aim to be comprehensive as far
as overseas sources are concerned, mentían being made of only the main
information centres that are most readily accessible from Hong Kong. A
more comprehensive coverage is given to local sources of information.
The full names and addresses of all the organisations mentioned in
this chapter are assembled alphabetically in Section 12.5.

12.2 OVERSEAS SOURCES OF GEOTECHKICAL INFORMATION

A number of information services in the fields of earth sciences and

geotechnical engineering are available from overseas agencies. Sorne of
these are comprehenisve in scope, whilst others are restricted to the supply
of photocopies of known publfcations. Most of the majar organisations
involved in these activities were represented at the Workshop on Geotech-
nical lnformation Systems held in Bangkok in 1976, and the Proceedings of
this Workshop (Brand & Brenner, 1976) should be consulted far full details
of the services available.

12.2.1 Asian Iniormation Center for Geotechnical Engineering

(AGE)

AGE was established in 1973 to provide a worldwide low-cost geotechnical

information service, with particular emphasis on Asia. lt operates from the
Asian Institute of Technology in Bangkok. The annual subscription entitles
members to receive a number of regular publications. The Current Awareness
Service (quarterly) contains a listing of the contents of all recently
published journals, books, conference proceedings, etc. Asian Geotechnical
Engineering Abstracts (biannual) contains abstracts of items published in
Asia. The three volumes of Holdings Lists contain complete listings of the
holdings of geological and geotechnical publications in the AGE collection.
The quarterly AGE News keeps members informed of geotechnical engineering
activities around the world.
Members of AGE also receive the AGE Digest, which contains in printed
form the 30 000 entries stored in the computerised AGE data base. Any
published item can be readily retrieved from the data base (or more slowly
from the Digest) using the comprehensive system of keywords. The cornputer
tapes containing the data base can also be purchased from AGE.
AGE provides bibliographic and reference services to its members. It
will also supply by airmail copies of any published item held in the very
extensive AGE collection to both members and non-members.
 140

12.2.2 Geotechnical Abstracts and Geodex

Geotechnical Abstracts and the Geodex Retrieval System together form
an integrated geotechnical information retrieval system that has the
endorsement of the International Society for Soil Mechanics and Foundation
Engineering. lt operates on the basis of a simple 'peep hole' card system
to retrieve the code numbers of abstracts of books, papers, etc contained
in a series of printed booklets.
The abstracts for the system are produced by Geotechnical Abstracts,
which operates under the aegis of the German National Society for Soil
Mechanics and Foundation Engineering. Each month, 128 selected abstracts
are published of items that have appeared worldwide. The abstracts are
available as a paper edition for use with Geodex, oras a card edition for
those who wish to maintain a conventional card file.
The Geodex Retrieval System has been in existence for many years.
Prior to the commencement of publication of Geotechnical Abstracts in 1969,
Geodex produced its own abstracts on individual file cards, and the system
was very comprehensive in its coverage of the world's geotechnical
literature. Since 1969, Geodex has continued to use its manual abstract
retrieval system in conjunction with Geotechnical Abstracts. The System
now uses 347 punched keyword cards, one card for each keyword used in
indexing the Geotechnical Abstracts. Keyword cards selected as being
appropriate to a particular geotechnical problem are simply stacked on top
of each other to locate the abstracts of publications that satisfy the
selected key works.
Both Geotechnical Abstracts and the Geodex Retrieval System can be
obtained by annual subscription, either separately or together. Twelve
issues of Geotechncial Abstracts are published annually. The Geodex card
system is updated every four months, subscribers receiving a replacement
deck of punched cards updated on the basis of the previous four months'
Geotechnical Abstracts.
Since 1982, Geotechnical Abstracts has also produced a monthly
publication entitled New Geotechnical Titles, which is a catalogued listing
of recently published items. This serves as a 'current awareness' sPrvice,
and it is automatically sent to anyone who subscribes to Geotechnical
Abstracts.

12.2.3 Other Overseas Services

0ther than those described above, there appear to be no other
geotechnical information retrieval systems in the English language that
are available internationally on a subscription basis. There are, however,
sorne excellent libraries throughout the world that will orovide copies
of published papers on request.
The British Library has a very comprehensive collection of material,
and a prompt airmail postal service is provided. They are l inked with
virtually all major libraries in Britain and are therefore able to locate
almost any publication that is available anywhere in the country.
0ther notable sources of geotechnical information in Britain are the
British Geological Survey, the Geological Society of London and the
 141

Institution of Civil Engineers. There are also many notable University

l ibraries.
Good collections of aeotechnical literature are held by the Norwegian
Geotechnical Institute and the Swedish Geotechnical Institute. Aoart from
having probably the finest geotechnical engineering library in the ,mrld,
the Norwegian Geotechnical Institute also houses the unique Terzaghi
Collection which contains all of Terzaghi 's original manuscripts and
project reports, together with a large number of historical documents
from other pioneers in geotechnical engineering.
Good geotechnical libraries are also maintained by the Laboratoire
Central des Ponts et Chaussées, France and by the Division of Applied
Geomechanics, CSIRO, Australia.

12.3 LOCAL SOURCES OF GEOTECHNICAL INFORMATION

12.3.1 Published Information Specific to Hong Kong

More than 600 items are known to have been published specifically on
aspects of the geology and geotechnical engineerina of Hong Kong. These
are listed in the Bibliography on the Geology and Geotechnical Engineering
of Hong Kong (Brand, 1984) produced recently by the Geotechnical Control
Office and available upan request. A selection of the more important
publications is contained in the Hong Kong Bibliography on page 159 of this
Manual.
In addition to published material that is readily accessible to
members of the general public, there is a large amount of 'unpublished'
material available in Hong Kong that is valuable in the context of
geotechnical engineering investigation and design.
The City Hall Public Library contains a reference section that
contains a number of published documents on the geology and geotechnical
engineering of Hong Kong, together with sorne unpublished reports. It
also houses an Hong Kong Collection of considerable interest. Unfortunately,
no direct access is permitted to the shelved items, and items required for
examination must first be located in the card catalogue system. A coin-
operated photocopying machine is available for public use.
The University of Hong Kong, the Chinese University of Hong Kong and
the Hong Kong Polytechnic each has a large library. The first two, in
particular, have collections of general geological and geotechnical
information. All three, however, can only be used by members of the
general public by special permission, although this is usually not difficult
for bona fide visitors to obtain. The University of Hong Kong maintains an
outstanding Hong Kong Collection, which contains a good deal of unpublished
information, as well as a large number of master's and doctor's degree
theses on geological and geotechnical tapies. Coin-operated photocopiers
are available in the library for general use.
The Public Records Office of Hong Kong is the central repository for
the permanent archives of the Hong Kong Government. The majority of its
holdings date from 1945, but it does have sorne earlier material. It
maintains catalogued collections of maps and photographs dating from 1860,
together with almost complete collections of the Hong Kong Government
 142

Gazette, Blue Books, Sessional Papers, Annual Departmental Reports,

Ordinances and Regulations, and Hong Kong Hansard. The Sessional Papers
are of particular interest because, from 1889, they include the Annual
Reports of the Director of Publ ic Works which give information on failures
and remedial works. Also of great value is the comprehensive newspaper
collection held by the Public Records Office.

12.3.2 Geotechnical Information Unit of the GCO

The Geotechnical Control Office has an established Geotechnical

Information Unit which maintains a large collection of published and
unpublished documents that are specific to Hong Kong. This collection of
information may be referred to by bona fide users. Photocopying facilities
are available.
A full copy of every 'short' publication listed in the Bibliography
on the Geology and Geotechnical Engineering of Hong Kong (Brand, 1984) is
kept in the Geotechnical Information Unit of the Geotechnical Control
Office, together with copies of the title and contents pages of the 'lon~'
publications. These copies are contained in bound volumes by year of
publication and then in alphabetical arder of authors' surnames. Full
copies of sorne of the long publications are also available in the
Geotechnical Information Unit, but these are shelved separately. Copies
of future publications will be added to the collection as they become
available.
The Geotechnical Information Unit also maintains a large collection
of 'unpublished' documents that are directly concerned with the geology
and geotechnical engineering of Hong Kono. This includes records of
landslides, site investigation reports that show drillhole logs and
laboratory test results, and factual reports and drawings prepared by
Government Departments and Consulting Engineers for a wide range of large
and small building and civil engineering projects.
The documents contained in the Geotechnical Information Unit can be
accessed on a geographical basis by means of a simple map referencing
system which has been devised for this purpose. A computerised retrieval
system is now being devised.

12.3.3 Government Departments

Several Government Departments possess information that is of value for

geotechnical engineering in Hong Kong, but this is often not readily
accessible. Arrangements can usually be made, however, for specific
information to be made available to bona fide users.
Each Government Department retains its own files on projects that
were carried out under its control, and copies of design reports and
record drawings of completed projects are usually made available for
examination to those who require the information for design or construction
purposes.
The Buildings Ordinance Office retains detailed records of private
developments for about seven years after their completion, after which time
the files are transferred to the Public Records Office. Permission to view
 143

a particular set of records may be obtained from the Secretary of the B00,
who will require to know the address of the property and the lot number.
The Highways Office of the Engineering Development Department has
records of the design and construction of the majority of the Territory's
roads. lt also has copies of drainage plans and location plans of disused
Second World War defence tunnels, together with details of remedial works
carried out on these. The Civil Engineering Office of the same Department
maintains record drawings of marine works and certain trunk drains and
sewers.
The Water Supplies Department maintains records of all the facilities
under its control, which include water mains, catchwaters and reservoirs.
It has a comprehensive system of stream gauging in the main catchment areas,
and this information is published in annual reports on rainfall and runoff.
The Lands Department maintains records of lot boundaries throughout
the Territory, and these may be viewed by appointment. The Department is
also responsible far the production of topographical maps and aerial
photographs, which may be purchased by members of the public from the
Department's Sales and Distribution Counter. Tables 12.1 and 12.2 list
the aerial photographs and maps that are currently available.
The Royal Observatory collects detailed weather information on a
continuous basis, and rainfall records are published monthly and annually
far public use.
The Government Secretariat Library contains certain information that
could be useful from an historical point of view. This includes Sessional
Papers, Administrative Reports, Statistical Abstracts and Legislative
Council Minutes. The Photographic Library and Reference Library of the
Information Services Department hold sets of old photographs, microfilms
of newspaper cuttings and other useful material.
Copies of any Government publications in print may be purchased from
the Government Publications Centre.

12.3.4 Other Local Sources

Sorne of the locally published newspapers have good photographic

collections to which access is permitted upan request. There are also
several interesting prívate collections of old photographs.
It may sometimes be found useful far nearby residents to be consulted
about the details of a specific past incident. Good qualitative descrip-
tions of failures, etc. can often be obtained in this v1ay, but the details
of such things as timing are often unreliable.

12.4. INFORMATION ON SERVICES AND UTILITIES

lnformation on services and utilities is often of importance far the

design of new slopes, retaining walls or site formations, or far the
execution of remedial or preventive works. The addresses of the majar
private companies and Government Departments concerned with services and
utilities in Hong Kong are included in Section 12.5.
 144

12.5 ADDRESSES OF ORGANISATIONS REFERRED TO IN THIS CHAPTER

This section contains an alphabetical listing of all the organisations

referred to in this chapter.

Asian Institute of Technology British Geological Survey

Website: http://www.ait.ac.th BGS Library
Website: http://www.bgs.ac.uk

British Library Buildings Department

Website: http://www.bl.uk (Formerly Buildings Ordinance Office)
HKSARG*
Website: http://www.bd.gov.hk

China Light & Power Company Ltd. The Chinese University of Hong Kong
Website: http://www.clpgroup.com University Library System
Website: http://www.lib.cuhk.edu.hk/

City Hall Public Library Civil Engineering Office

Leisure and Cultural Services Department Civil Engineering and Development
HKSARG* Department
Website: HKSARG*
http://www.cityhall.gov.hk/en/library. Website: http://www.cedd.gov.hk
php

CSIRO Library Services Geodex International Inc.

Website: http://www.csiro.au P.O. Box 279
Sonoma, California 95476, USA

The Geological Society Geotechnical Abstracts

(Formerly Geological Society of London) 38 Römerstr., 5OOO Köln 5O
Website: http://www.geolsoc.org.uk Germany

Geotechnical Engineering Office Geotechnical Information Unit

(Formerly Geotechnical Control Office) Civil Engineering and Development
Civil Engineering and Development Department
Department HKSARG*
HKSARG* Website: http://www.cedd.gov.hk
Website: http://www.cedd.gov.hk
 145

Highways Department Hong Kong and China Gas Company Ltd.

(Formerly Highways Office) Website: http://www.towngas.com
HKSARG*
Website: http://www.hyd.gov.hk

Hong Kong Electric Company Ltd. Hong Kong Polytechnic University

Website: http://www.heh.com Pao Yue-kong Library
(Formerly Hong Kong Polytechnic Library)
Website:
http://library.polyu.edu.hk

Institution of Civil Engineers Library Laboratoire Central des Ponts

Website: http://www.ice.org.uk et Chaussées
Website: http://www.lcpc.fr/

Lands Department Norwegian Geotechnical Institute

HKSARG* WebSite: http://www.ngi.no/en/
Website: http://www.landsd.gov.hk

Online Government Bookstore PCCW Limited

(Formerly Government Publications (Formerly Hong Kong Telephone Company
Centre) Ltd.)
Information Services Department Website: http://www.pccw.com
HKSARG*
Website: http://www.bookstore.gov.hk

Public Records Office Swedish Geotechnical Institute

Government Records Service Website: http://www.swedgeo.se
HKSARG*
Website: http://www.grs.gov.hk

The University of Hong Kong Water Supplies Department

University Library System HKSARG*
Website: http://lib.hku.hk Website: http://www.wsd.gov.hk

* Denotes “The Government of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region”

 146

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 147

REFERENCES
Ackers, P. (1969). Charts far the hydraulic design of channels and pipes.
Hydraulics Research Station, Hallingford, Hydraulics Research Paper
no. 2, 46 p.
Akroyd, T.N.W. (1969). Laboratory Testing in Soil Enqineering. Soil
Mechanics Ltd., London, 249 p.
Allen, P.M. & Stephens, E.A. (1971). Report on the Geological Survey of
Hong Kong. Hong Kong Government Press, 107 p. plus 2 maps.
Association of Gunite Contractors (1978). Code of Practice far the Spraying
of Concrete, 0therwise Known as Gunite or Shotcrete. Association of
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 158

[BLANK PAGEJ
 159

HONG KONG BIBLIOGRAPHY

This Bibliography contains selected references to useful publications

on the geology and geotechnical engineering of Hong Kong. A more
comprehensive list is given by Brand (1984).
Allen, P.M. & Stephens, E.A. (1971). Report on the Geological Survey of
Hong Kong. Hong Kong Government Press, 116 p. plus 2 maps.
Anderson, M.G., McNicholl, O.P. & Shen, J.M. (1983). On the effect of
topography in controlling soil water conditions, with specific regard
to cut slope piezometric levels. Hong Kong Engineer, vol. 11, no. 11,
pp 35-41.
Beattie, A.A. & Attewill, L.J.S. (1977). A landslide study in the Hong Kong
residual soils. Proceedings of the Fifth Southeast Asian Conference on
Soil Engineering, Bangkok, pp 177-188.
Beattie, A.A. & Chau, E.P.Y. (1976). The assessment of landslide potential
with recommendations for future research. Hong Kong Engineer, vol. 4,
no. 1, pp 27-44. (Discussion, vol. 4, no. 2, pp 55-62).
Beattie, A.A. & Lam, C.L. (1977). Rock slope failures - their prediction
and prevention. Hong Kong Engineer, vol. 5, no. 7, pp 27-40.
(Discussion, vol. 5, no. 9, pp 27-29).
Beattie, A.A. & Mak, B.L. (1982). Design and construction of an anchored-
buttress caisson retaining wall. Proceedings of the Seventh Southeast
Asian Geotechnical Conference, Hong Kong, vol. l, pp 465-480.
(Discussion, vol. 2, pp 277-278).
Bell, G.J. & Chin, P.C. (1968). The probable maximum rainfall in Hong Kong.
Royal Observatory, Hong Kong, Technical Memoir no. 10, 154 p.
Berry, L. & Ruxton, B.P. (1960). The evolution of Honq Konq Harbour basin.
Zeitschrift für Geomorphologie, vol. 4, no. 2, pp 97-115 (plus 7
plates).
Boonsinsuk, P. & Young, R.N. (1982). Analyses of Hong Kong residual soil
slopes. Proceedings of the ASCE Specialty Conference on Engineering
and Construction in Tropical and Residual Soils, Honolulu, pp 463-483.
----------~----------
6owle r, R.A. & Phillipson, H.B. (1982). Landslip preventive measures - a
review of construction. Hong Kong Engineer, vol. 10, no. 10, pp 13-31.
Brand, E.W. (1981). Sorne thoughts on rain-induced slope failures.
Proceedings of the Tenth International Conference on Soil Mechanics and
Foundation Engineering, Stockholm, vol. 3, pp 373-376.
Brand, E.W. (1982a). Analysis and design in residual soils. Proceedings
of the ASCE Specialty Conference on Engineering and Construction in
Tropical and Residual Soils, Honolulu, pp 89-143.
Brand, E.W. (1982b). Moderator's Report on slope stability with special
reference to residual soils. Proceedings of the Seventh Southeast
Asian Geotechnical Conference, Hong Kong, vol. 2, pp 27-57.
 160

Brand, E.W. (1984). Bibl iography on the Geology and Geotechnical

Engineering of Hong Kong to December 1983. Geotechnical Control Offic~
Hong Kong, 59 p.

Brand, E.W., Borrie, G.W. & Shen, J.M. (1983). Field measurements in Hong
Kong residual soils. Proceedings of the International Symposium on
Field Measurements in Geomechanics, Zurich, vol. l, pp 639-648.

Brand, E.W., Burnett, A.O. & Styles, K.A. (1982). The Geotechnical Area
Studies Programme in Hong Kong. Proceedings of the Seventh Southeast
Asian Geotechnical Conference, Hong Kong, vol. 1, pp 107-123.

Brand, E.W., Hencher, S.R. & Youdan, D.G. (1983). Rock slope engineering in
Hong Kong. Proceedings of the Fifth International Rock Mechanics
Congress, Melbourne, vol. 1, pp Cl7-C24.

Brand, E.W. & Hudson, R.R. (1982). CHASE - An empirical approach to the
design of cut slopes in Hong Kong soils. Proceedings of the Seventh
Southeast Asian Geotechnical Conference, Hong Kong, vol. l, pp 1-16.
(Discussion, vol. 2, pp 61-72 and 77-79).

Brand, E.W. & Phillipson, H.B. (1984). Site investigation practice in Hong
Kong. Site Investigation Manual, International Society for Soil
Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, in press.

Brand, E.W., Phill ipson, H.B., Borrie, G.W. & Clover, A.W. (1983). In-situ
direct shear tests on Hong Kong residual soils. Proceedings of the
International S m osium on Soil and Rock Investi ations b In-situ
Testing, Paris, vol. 2, pp 13-17. (Discussion, vol. 3, pp 55-56.

Brand, E.W., Premchitt, J. & Phillipson, H.B. (1984). Relationship between

rainfall and landslides in Hong Kong. Proceedings of the Fourth
International Symposium on Landslides, Toronto, vol. l, in press.

Brand, E.W., Styles, K.A. & Burnett, A.O. (1982). Geotechnical land-use
maps for planning in Hong Kong. ~P~ro-=--c7 e:..:e:..:d...:.i~n¿g-=--s~o~f----;t~h-=-e_F~o~u:.:.r~t~h=-=-Co~n~g~r~e.:-.s-=-s~o"-'--f
-=t:. :.h-=.e.cl;..;n;..:t:.;:e"ar',én=-a-=--t o:.:.n:.::accl_A:.=ss:..:o:..:c:..:i-=a-=t-'-iº-=--n~o:..:f--=E:..:.n.,_g n:. :.e:.:ec.:.r. .:.i:. :.n"-g--'G:..:e:..:o:..:l_:::o.,_gy,_ , New De 1 h i , vo1 . 1,
1.:.:· 1.:.:·

pp 145-153.

Brenner, R.P. & Phillipson, H.B. (1979). Sampling of residual soils in Hong
Kong. Proceedings of the International Symposium on Soil Sampling,
Singapore, pp 109-120.

Brimicombe, A.J. (1982). Engineering site evaluation from aerial

photographs. Proceedings of the Seventh Southeast Asian Geotechnical
Conference, Hong Kong, vol. 2, pp 139-148.

Bryant, J.M. (1982). Engineering geological appl ications of aerial

photograph interpretation in Hong Kong. Proceedings of the Fourth
Congress of the International Association of Engineering Geology, New
Delhi, vol. 1, pp 155-166.

Burnett, A.O. & Styles, K.A. (1982). An approach to urban engineering

geological mapping as used in Hong Kong. Proceedings of the Fourth
Congress of the Association of Engineering Geology, New Delhi, vol. 1,
pp 167-176.
 161

Buttling, S. (1983). Slurry trench stability in Hong Kong - a state of the

art review. Hong Kong Engineer, vol. 11, no. 4, pp 49-51.

Carlyle, W.J. (1965). Shek Pik Darn. Proceedin s of the lnstitution of

Civil Engineers, vol. 30, pp 557-588. Discussion, vol. 35, 1966,
pp 145-169).

Chappell, B.A. & Tonge, W.A. (1975). lnvestigations for the Aberdeen Tunnel.
Tunnels & Tunnelling, vol. 7, no. 6, pp 52-54.

Chappell, B.A. & Tonge, B. (1976). Design pararneters for Aberdeen tunnel,
Hong Kong. Proceedings of the Syrnposiurn on Exploration for Rock
Engineering, Johannesburg, vol. 1, pp 181-188.

Chen, T.Y. (1969). The Severe Rainstorrns in Hong Kong during June 1966.
Supplernent to Meteorological Results, 1966. Royal Observatory, Hong
Kong, 82 p.

Cheng, T.T. & Yerg, M.C. (1979). The severe rainfall occasion, 16-18 June
1972. Royal Observatory, Hong Kong, Technical Note no. 51, 108 p.

Chipp, P.N., Clare, D.G., Henkel, D.J. & Pope, R.G. (1982). Field
rneasurernent of suction in colluviurn covered slopes in Hong Kong.
Proceedings of the Seventh Southeast Asian Geotechnical Conference,
Hong Kong, vol. l, pp 49-62.

Chiu, T.N. & So, C.L. (Editors)(l983). A Geography of Hong Kong. Oxford
University Press, Hong Kong, 299 p.

Choi, Y.L. (1974). Design of horizontal drains. Journal of the Engineering

Society of Hong Kong, vol. 2, no. 4, pp 37-49.

Davies, R.V. & Henkel, D.J. (1980). Geotechnical problerns associated with
the construction of Chater Station, Hong Kong. Proceedings of the
Conference on Mass Transportation in Asia, Hong Kong, paper J3, 31 p.

Davis, S.G. (1949). Hong Kong in Its Geographical Setting. Collins, London,
226 p.

□ avis, S.G. (1952). The Geology of Hong Kong. Governrnent Printer, Hong
Kong, 231 p. plus 14 plates & 3 rnaps.

Dunnicliff, J.D. (1968). lnstrurnentation of the Plover Cove rnain darn.

Géotechnigue, vol. 18, pp 283-300 (plus 2 plates).

Eastaff, D.J. (1964). Sorne aspects of Stage 1 of the Plover Cove water
scherne: Influence of geology on the design of Stage l. Proceedings of
the Engineering Society of Hong Kong, vol. 18, pp 5.33-5.38.

Elliott, S.G., Ford, S.E.H. & Oules, J. (1967). Construction of the Plover
Cove darns. Proceedings of the Ninth International Congress on Large
Darns, Istanbul, vol. 4, pp 85-110.

Endacott, G.B. (1962). Reclarnation in Hong Kong: a retrospective view.

The Far East Engineer, vol. 3, no. 4, pp 50-53.

Endacott, G.B. (1963). Sorne early problerns of water supply in Hong Kong.
 162

The Far East Engineer, vol. 4, no. l, pp 54-58 and 80.

Endicott, L.J. (1980). Aspects of design of underground railway structures
to suit local soil conditions in Hong Kong. Hong Kong Engineer, vol. 8,
no. 3, pp 29-38.
Endicott, L.J. (1982). Analysis of piezometer data and rainfall records to
determine groundwater conditions. Hong Kong Engineer, vol. 10, no. 9,
pp 53-56.
Engineering Society of Hong Kong (1969). The Hong Kong water resources
survey. Proceedin s of the Engineerin Society of Hon Kong, vol. 23,
pp 2.1-2.16 plus 2 drgs .
Flintoff, W.T. & Cowland, J.W. (1982). Excavation design in residual soil
slopes. Proceedings of the ASCE Specialty Conference on Engineering
and Construction in Tropical and Residual Soils, Honolulu, pp 539-556.
Foott, R. (1982). Moderator's Report on settlement. Proceedings of the
Seventh Southeast Asían Geotechnical Conference, Hong Kong, vol. 2,
pp 353-363. (Discussion, pp 369).
Ford, S.E.H. & Elliott, S.G. (1965). Investigation and design of the Plover
Cave Water Scheme. Proceedings of the lnstitution of Civil Engineers,
vol. 32, pp 255-293. (Discussion, vol. 35, 1966, pp 342-358).
Forth, R.A. & Platt-Higgins, P.M. (1981). Methods of investigation of
weathered rocks in Hong Kong. Proceedin s of the lnternational
Symposium on Weak Rock, Tokyo, vol. 2, pp 159-166. Discussion, vol. 3,
pp 1387).
Fredlund, D.G. (1981). The shear strength of unsaturated soil and its
relationship to slope stability problems in Hong Kong. Hong Kong
Engineer, vol. 9, no. 4, pp 37-45. (Discussion, vol. 10, 1982, no. l,
pp 41-42 and no. 6, pp 57-59).
French, B. & Squire, S. (1980). Physical Geography for Hong Kong. (Second
edition). Oxford University Press, Hong Kong, 192 p.
Gardiner,_ T.L. (1965). Blasting in Hong Kong; a Guide for Users of
Explosives. Government Press, Hong Kong, 88 p.
Geological Society of Hong Kong (1983). Proceedings of the Meeting on the
Surficial Deposits of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, edited by W.W.S. Yim &
A.O. Burnett. Geological Society of Hong Kong, in press.
Geotechnical Control Office (1979). Geotechnical Manual for Slopes. ( Fi rs t
edition). Hong Kong Government Printer, 242 p. plus 19 plates & lcírg--:-
(Reprinted with corrections, 1981).
Geotechnical Control Office (1982a). Mid-levels Study : Report on Geolooy,
Hydrology and Soil Properties. Hong Kong Government Printer, 265 p.
plus 54 drgs.
Geotechnical Control Office (1982b). Geoguide 1: Guide to Retaininq Wall
Design. Hong Kong Government Printer, 154 p.
 163

Goudy, A.P. {1965). Shek Pik submarine pipeline, Hong Kong water supply.
Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers, vol. 30, pp 531-555.
(Discussion, vol. 35, 1966, pp 145-169).
Government of Hong Kong (1972a). -~-----,--',=~~-~~-~---
Interim Report of the Commission of
1nqui ry into the Rainstorm Disasters, 1972. Hong Kong Government
Printer, 20 p.
Government of Hong Kong (1972b). Final Report of the Commission of Inguiry
into the Rainstorm Disasters, 1972. Hong Kong Govern~ent Printer, 91 p.
Government of Hong Kong (1974). Buildings 0rdinance (and Building
Regulations). Laws of Hong Kong, Chapter 123, revised edition 1974.
Hong Kong Government Printer, 292 p. (Many amendments up to 1983).
Government of Hong Kong (1977). Report on the Slope Failures at Sau Mau
Ping, August 1976. Hong Kong Government Printer, 104 p. plus 8 drgs.
Grace, H. & Henry, J.K.M. (1957). The planning and design of the new Hong
Kong airport. Proceedin s of the lnstitution of Civil En ineers,
vol. 7, pp 275-305 plus 2 plates & 2 drgs . Discussion, pp 305-325).
Greenway, D.R., Anderson, M.G. & Brian-Boys, K.C. (1984). lnfluence of
vegetation on slope stability in Hong Kong. Proceedings of the Fourth
lnternational Symposium on Landslides, Toronto, vol. 1, in press.
Guilford, C.M. & Chan, H.C. (1969). Sorne soils aspects of the Plover Cove
marine dam. Proceedings of the Seventh International Conference on
Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Mexico City, vol. 2,
pp 291-299.
Hencher, S.R. & Martin, R.P. (1982). The description and classification of
weathered rocks in Hong Kong for engineering purposes. Proceedings of
the Seventh South-east Asian Geotechnical Conference, Hong Kong, vol. 1,
pp 125-142. (Discussion, vol. 2, pp 167-168).
Hencher, S.R. & Martin, R.P. (1984). The failure of a cut slope on the
Tuen Mun Road in Hong Kong. Proceedings of the International
Conference on Case Histories in Geotechnical Engineering, St Louis,
Mi ssouri , in press.
Hencher, S.R., Massey, J.B. & Brand, E.W. (1984). Application of back
analysis to sorne Hong Kong landslides. Proceedings of the Fourth
International Symposium on Landslides, Toronto, vol. l, in press.
Hencher, S.R. & Richards, L.R. (1982). The basic frictional resistance of
sheeting joints in Hong Kong granite. Hong Kong Engineer, vol. 11,
no. 2, pp 21-25.
Ho, D.Y.F. & Fredlund, D.G. (1982a). lncrease in strength dueto suction
for two Hong Kong soils. Proceedings of the ASCE Specialty Conference
on Engineering and Construction in Tropical and Residual Soils,
Honolulu, pp 263-295.
Ho, D.Y.F. & Fredlund, D.G. {1982b). A multistage triaxial test for
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 164

Hong Kong Joint Group of the Institutions of Civil, Mechanical and

Electrical Engineers (1962). Proceedings of the Symposium on Hong Kong
Soils, edited by P. Lumb. Ho1,g Kong Joint Group, Hong Kong, 149 p.
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Hong Kong Water Authority. (Annual). Hong Kong Rainfall and Runoff. Hong
Kong WaterAuthority, vol. 1 (1966), vol. 2 (1967) ... vol. 18 (1983).

Hudson, R.R. & Hencher, S.R. (1984). The delayed failure of a large cut
slope in Hong Kong. Proceedings of the International Conference on
Case Histories in Geotechnical Engineering, St Louis, Missouri, in
pres s.

Hunt, T. (1982). Slope failures in colluvium overlying weak residual soils

in Hong Kong. Proceedings of the ASCE Specialty Conference on
Engineering and eonstruction in Tropical and Residual Soils, Honolulu,
pp 443-462.

Huntley, S.L. & Randall, P.A. (1981). Recognition of colluvium in Hong Kong.
Hong Kong Engineer, vol. 9, no. 12, pp 13-18.

Insley, H. & McNicholl, D. (1982). Groundwater monitoring of a soil slope

in Hong Kong. Proceedings of the Seventh Southeast Asian Geotechnical
Conference, Hong Kong, vol. 1, pp 63-75.

Kennard, R.M., Harman, P.T. & Boyd, M. (1982). Reinforced earth in an Honq
Kong context. Proceedings of the Seventh Southeast Asian Geotechnical
Conference, Hong Kong, vol. 1, pp 497-513.

Koo, Y.e. (1982a). Relict joints in completely decomposed volcanics in

Hong Kong. eanadian Geotechnical Journal, vol. 19, pp 117-123.

Koo, Y.C. (1982b). The mass strength of jointed residual soils. Canadian
Geotechnical Journal, vol. 19, pp 225-231.

Koo, Y.e. (1982c). The influence of relict joints on slopes in weathered

water-laid volcanics in Hong Kong. Proceedings of the Seventh
Southeast Asian Geotechnical Conference, Hong Kong, vol. 1, pp 23-30.

Koo, Y.C. & Lumb, P. (1981). Correlation between rainfall intensities and
groundwater levels in the natural slopes of Hong Kong. Hong Kong
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Lai, K.W. (1981). A note on the seismogeology of Hong Kong. Hong Kong
Baptist College Academic Journal, vol. 8, pp 147-164.

Lai, K.W. & Taylor, B.W. (1983). The classification of colluvium in Hong
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Lam, H.K. (1980). Earthquakes. Royal 0bservatory, Hong Kong, Technical

Note no. 28, 55 p.

Lau, R. (1972). Seismicity of Hong Kong. Ro al 0bservator

Technical Note no. 33, 30 p. (Reprinted with revision

Lawson, C.R. (1982). Geotextile Fil ter Studies on Hong Kong Decomposed
 165

Granite Soils. ICI Fibres, Interim Report, 57 p.

Leach, B. (1982). The development of a groundwater recharge model for Hong

Kong. Journal of Hydrological Sciences, vol. 4, pp 469-491.

Leach, B. & Herbert, R. (1982). The genesis of a numerical model for the
study of the hydrogeology of a steep hillside in Hong Kong. Quarterly
Journal of Engineering Geology, vol. lS, pp 243-259.

Lee, P.K.K. & Ma, K.O. (1982). The use of decomposed granite in reinforced
earth structures. Proceedings of the Seventh Southeast Asían
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Lo, C.P. (1978). Landslide mapping with the CPI plotter. Photogrammetric
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Lumb, P. (1962a). General nature of the soils of Hong Kong. Proceedi n s

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Lumb, P. (1962b). Effect of rain storms on slope stabil ity. Proceedi ngs of
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Lumb, P. (1962c). The properties of decomposed granite. Géotechnigue,

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Lumb, P. (1964). Multi-stage triaxial tests on undisturbed soil. Civil

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Lumb, P. (1972). Landslides in flona Kong. Proceedings of the First

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Lumb, P. (1977). The marine soils of Hong Kong and Macau. Proceedinas of
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 166

Proceedings of the Third International Conference on the Applications

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 167

Phillipson, H.B. & Chipp, P.N. (1982). Air foarn sampling of residual soils
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 168

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remedial measures for a residential development at Tsuen Wan, Hong Kong.
Quarterly Journal of Engineering Geology, vol. 14, pp 175-193.
Styles, K.A. (1982). Aerial photograph interpretation - terrain
classification. Proceedings of the Seventh Southeast Asian
Geotechnical Conference, Hong Kong, vol. 2, pp 149-158.
Styles, K.A. (1983). Delineation of Colluvial Deposits in Hong Konq using
the Technique of Terrain Classification. Proceedings of the Meeting
on the Geology of Surficial Deposits in Hong Kong, Hong Konq, in press.
Styles, K.A., Burnett, A.D. & Cox, D.C. (1982). Geotechnical assessment of
the terrain for land management and planning purposes in Hong Kong.
Proceedings of the First International Symposium on Soil, Geology and
Landforms: Impact on Land Use Planning in Developina Countries, Bangkok,
pp Fl6.l-Fl6.9.
Styles, K.A., Hansen, A., Dale, M.J. & Burnett, A.D. (1984). Terrain
classification methods for development planning and geotechnical
appraisal: a Hong Kong case. Proceedings of the Fourth International
Symposium on Landslides, Toronto, vol. 1, in press.
Sweeney, D.J. (1982). Sorne in situ soil suction measurements in Hong Kong's
residual soil slopes. Proceedin s of the Seventh Southeast Asian
Geotechnical Conference, Hong Kong, vol. 1, pp 91-106. Discussion,
vol. 2, pp 93-96).
Sweeney, D.J. & Robertson, P.K. (1979). A fundamental approach to slope
stability problems in Hong Kong. Hong Kong Engineer, vol. 7, no. 10,
pp 35-44.
Taylor, B.I,. & Randall, P.A. (1983). Engineering geology of colluvium in
Hong Kong. Proceedings of the Meeting on the Geology of Surficial
Deposits in Hong Kong, Hong Kong, in press.
Tong, P.Y.L. and Maher, R.O. (1975). Horizontal drains as a slope
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vol. 3, no. l, pp 15-27.
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Tregear, T.R. & Berry, L. (1959). The Development of Hong Kong and Kowloon
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(Reprinted with revisions from Far Eastern Economic Review, vol. 25,
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Hong Kong Government Printer.
 169

Vail, A.J. (1984). Tv10 landslide disasters in flon0 Kono. Proceedinos of

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press.
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Composition effect on suction of a residual soil. Proceedings of the
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 170

[BLANK PAGEJ
 171

TABLES
 172

[BLANK PAGE]
 173

LIST OF TABLES

Table Page
No. No.
2 .1 Guidance on Site Investigation 175
2.2 Content of Site Investigation 176
2.3 Material Decomposition Grades for Weathered Granite 177
and Volcanic Rocks in Hong Kong
2.4 Common Types of Core-barrels, Casings and Drilling 178
Rods That Are Used in Hong Kong
2.5 Sample Quality Classes 179
2.6 Notes on Logging 180

4.1 Filter Design Criteria To Be Used in Hong Kong 181

4.2 Typical Calculations for the Design of Filters 182

5 .1 Recommended Factors of Safety for New Slopes 183

for a Ten-year Return Period Rainfall
5.2 Typical Examples of Slope Failures in Each Risk-to- 184
1ife Category
5.3 Typical Examples of Slope Failures in Each Economic 184
Risk Category
5.4 Recommended Factors of Safety for the Analysis of 185
Existing Slopes and for Remedial and Preventive Works
to Slopes for a T€n-year Return Period Rainfall
5.5 Methods of Stability Analysis for Soil Slopes 186

5.6 Methods of Stability Analysis for Rock Slopes 187

5.7 Rock Slope Stabilisation Measures 188

7.1 Recommended Factors of Safety for Gravity Retaining 189

Walls for a Ten-year Return Period Rainfall
8.1 Effects of Vegetation on Slope Stability 190
8.2 Slope Angle Limitations on Establishment of Vegetation 190
8.3 Characteristics of Grass Species Commonly Used in 191
Hong Kong
8.4 Characteristics of Shrub Species Commonly Used in 192
Hong Kong
8.5 Characteristics of Tree Species Commonly Used in Hong Kong 193
 174

Table Page
No. No.
9 .1 Typical Hydroseeding Mix 194

10.1 Schematic Flow Chart for Planning a Monitoring 0peration 195

10. 2 Piezometer Types 196

10.3 Load Cell s 197

11.1 Interval between Maintenance Inspections 198

12 .1 Summary of Aerial Photographs Available from Lands 198

Department
12.2 Map Catalogue 199
 Table 2.1 - Guidance on Site Investigation

Risk Category Forrned Slope Classification Angle of Natui·al Hillside in the Vicinity ot the Site

Soi l Oº to 20º 20º to 40º GrPat.r-r than 40º

Categor·y '.b. Loss ot Life

Economi e Los s Fedlun,•s Rock
Hetaining
Wa ll
Fi 11 Cut ílPstript.inn of Sitf' lnvf'stigation

'. 1 l.:> 111 ,. :, íll /.:> ni 3 n1 Assess111enl of surr·ounding geolugy

anrl t.npograrhy for indication of
A~ fur· O'' to 20 Mor·e detai led
gcology and topography sur·vey.
As íor <'.O"' to 40º. Area outside
confines uf si le Lo be exdm i ne U
stability Visual exa111ination of ror the steeper slopes inforrnation for instability of soil, rock and
so1 l and rock tormrng the site 01 on s017 and roe~. JQint strenqth bou1ders above the site.
Negl igible b. 1 struc- Anql e ¡. SO' ;, JOº tu lis' usl!J fur the e111lJdr1k111enL parameters. Survey of hydro l ogi cal
features affectiny lhe ~ile.
Loc,s access
on n:inor roads
Specialist Adv1ce - Requirernent (A} '.Jpecialist Advice - Requirement (l:l) Specialist Advice - Requirement (B)

'. /-ew (only s111all

occup1es ;ire-
He1qht /· 15 111 1 10 rn 7. 5 1:1 fi ITI Geology and topography survey of
c,itf' and surrounding ¿rea. Su i 1
As for Oº to 20º. Survey of
hytJrological featur·es affecting
As for 20° to 40°. Extend outside
limits ot site to permit analyses
misp,; thrPcitrnrd). cinf1 rock joint st.rPngt.h fJCl o the site. uf sloµes above and below the site.
for foundations and cut
b. Anf) le ¡ 60'' 1 3íl"' f-or embankments steeper than l on 3,
r·ecolllpacted strength parameters ot ,_.
L0v1 darn,1gf'. Loss
of access on
fil l . For cuts, informa ti un on
']roundwater level.
..._,
u,
sole access
rnads.

Spccialist Advicc Rrquirí'mPnt. (B) Specialist fldvicc Rcquircmcnt (B) Specialist fldvice Requirement (C)

Morse than a few. fiel ght IS m 10 m 15 m 6 m Dctailcd geology and As for O" to 20" Sur vey uf As for- 20""' to 40" Extend investí-
' survey of site and hycirologic,11 fP,Jturrs ,lfff'r:tinc¡
the site Extend investir¡ation
gvt.ion morf' wirlely nutside limits
of site to permit analyses of
b FxrPSC, i Ví' a r·ea. So1l and rock .ioint
structura1 Ang l f' > fiílº 30° paran1eters for foundations and l oC:a l l y outs i de l i mi ts of the stabil1ty of slopes above and
damaqe to cut slope:.. Recor11pdl Led ~ Lreny l11 to perrn1t analyses ot slopes below the site.
res1dePtial and paramctrrs for fill. Far cuts, above drid beluw Lhe site.
Hi (}h industrial infonration on qroundwater level.
structurPs.
Loss of access
on reg10nal
tr-unk routes.
Specialist f\dvice - Requirement {B) Special bl Advice - Re1.1uirement (C} Specia1ist Advice - Requirement (C)

Note (1) This Table is interided to guidilnc:r only. Each situation rnust be assesscd on its merits to decide whether· ur r1ol U1e recu111111eridetJ invesliydliun prucedures dr·e riecessdry ur if peculiar condili1.rns
r·equire even more deta1 examination.
(2) Whilst U1e illmve yives an indication of the requ1rements tora s1te rnvestigation under certarn general conditions, Table 2.2 y1ves more precise informat1on on how the above requirements can be met.
(3) For slores on which therP are unstable bou]d(:rs, the services uf dfl experier11..ed ~euLechriical engineer or- engineering geologist will always be necessary.
(4) Risk category should be assessed with reference to both present use and developmcnt potcntiill of the are.:i
(5) Formed slope classification to Lie based upon either slope height or angle wh1chever gives the h1ghest nsk category.
(6) Re17uireme11ts for Sf1N:i,1lic;t advicr
(A) Services of an experienceci geoterhniral t'nginrcr or engineering geologisl nuL nel..12'c,'c>dry.
{B) '.Jerv1ces ot an exper1enced geotechnical engineer or enr¡ineering qeoloqist tn rlPprnci nn lor:ation rrlativc to dcveloped or developable land.
(C) Ser-vices of experienced geotechnical eng1neer ·or engineenng geologist essential.
 176

Table 2.2 - Content of Site Investigation

Angle of Natural Hillside in the Vicinity of the Site

Ri s k Ca tegory
Oº to 20º 20º to 40º Greater than 40°

Bl O El Gl Bl Cl O El Gl A Bl Cl O El Fl Gl
Negligible C2 E2
G3 G3

A Bl Cl O El Fl Gl A Bl CI O El Fl Gl A Bl Cl O El Fl Gl
Low C2 E2 G2 B2 C2 E2 F2 G2 B2 C2 E2 F2 G2
G3 G3 E3 G3

A Bl Cl O El Fl Gl A Bl Cl O El Fl Gl A Bl Cl O El Fl Gl
High C2 E2 G2 B2 C2 E2 F2 G2 B2 C2 E2 F2 G2
E3 G3 E3 G3 E3 G3

A. Examination of terrestrial photographs, aerial photos and geological maps.

B. Survey of l. topographical, geological and surface drainage features.
2. hydrological features.
c. Geological mapping of l. surface features.
2. structures.
D. Investigation holes, such as tri al pits, boreholes or drillholes, as appropriate.
E. Sampling l. quality class 4 )
2. quality class 3 ) see Table 2.5
3. qua l ity class 1 or 2 )

F. Field measurements of l. groundwater level.

2. permeabi l ity.
G. Laboratory tests l. classification tests.
2. density tests for fill materials.
3. strength tests for soils and rock joints.

Note : (1) This Table is intended to provide guidance only.

(2) Vane testing may be appropriate in marine silts or other fine grained soils.
Installation of instruments for long term monitoring of displacements and
pore pressures, should be considered during the site investigation stage
(Chapter 10).
(3) Chemical tests will be required if aggressive soil/water is suspected in
the vicinity of steel or concrete.
 177

Table 2.3 - Material Decomposition Grades for Weathered Granite and

Volcanic Rocks in Hong Kong(!)

Grade Descri pti on Typi ca 1 Distinctive Characteristics( 2)

Residual soil A soi 1 fcrr,1ed by weathering in place but with original texture
VI of rock completely destroyed.

Rock wholly decomposed but rock texture preserved

Completely
No rebound from N Schmidt hammer( 3 )
V decampo sed
Slakes readily in water( 4 )
rock
Geological pick easily indents surface when pushed

Rock weakened so that large pieces can be broken by hand

Positive N Schmidt rebound value up to 25
Highly
Does not slake readily in water
IV decampo sed
Geological pick cannot be pushed i nto surface
rock 5
Hand penetrometer strength index grea ter than 250 kP/ )
Individual grains may be plucked from surface

Completely discoloured
Moderately Considerably weathered but possessing strength such that pieces
II I ctecomposed 55 mm diameter cannot be broken by hand
rock N Schmidt rebound value 25 to 45
Rock material not friable

Discoloured along discontinuities

Slightly
Strength approaches that of fresh rock
II decampo sed
N Schmidt rebound value greater than 45
rock
More than one blow of geological hammer to break specimen

I Fresh rock No visible signs of weathering, not discoloured

Note : (1) This Table is based on Maye (1955) and Hencher & Martín (1982).
(2) These characteristics may be affected by moisture content and microfracturing.
(3) N Schmidt rebound hammer values are far the hammer held horizontally. After
seating' blows, take the average of the highest five of ten blows at the
same location. Only record as zero if there is no rebound. This index
test is not applicable far the description of drillcore.
(4) Samples which are already saturated are less likely to slake.

(5) The presence of residual quartz in decomposed coarse grained rocks can result
in wide variation of hand penetrometer values. Take an average of ten values
avoiding disturbed or friable areas and divide by two to arrive at the
s t rength i ndex.
 Table 2.4 - Common Types of Core-barrels, Casings and Orilling Rods That Are Used in Hong Kong

Core-barrels Casings Rods

Bit Comments
Core
Name Type Retractar Li ner
Outside
Oiameter Size o.o. I.O. Size o.o.
Oiameter (mm) (mm) (mm)
(mm) (mm)
N size 54 NW 89 76 NW 67
H size 76 HW 114 102 HW 89
P size Oouble tube Without None 92 PW 140 123 HW 89
SW 168 156 HW 89
106 118 106 HW 89 Isolated use
TNW 75.6 61.5 NW 89 76 NW 67
T2-76 Thin wall 76 62 NW 89 76 NW 67 Isolated use ,_.
doubl e tube Without None 101 84 PW 140 128 NW 67 Used with mazier ____.,
T2-101 co
T6-101 101 79 NW 89 76 NW 67 Isolated use
7
6 mm 0[ HW casing can be
Mazier Triple tube With plas tic 101 72 PW 140 128 NW 67 used, although this
-
is not recommended
HMLC With or Spl i t 88 64 HW 114 NW 67
Water Triple tube steel 102
Air/foam
without liner 91 64 HW 114 102 NW 67
106 118 106 NW 67 Isolated use
4C-MLC
(SMLC) Wi th or Spl it
Water Triple tube without steel 139 101 sw 168 156 HW 89
Air/foam liner 145 101 sw 168 156 HW 89
Note : (1) Flush jointed casings and rods (W series) are now used instead of the flush coupled systems
(X series).
(2) This list is not exhaustive and should not imply the exclusion of other recognised core-barrels
and casing/rod systems.
 179

Table 2.5 - Sample Quality Classes

Qual ity Purpose Soil Properties Typical Sampling

Class Obtainable Procedure

Pistan thin-walled
Laboratory data sampler with water
1 on undisturbed balance. Air-foam
soil s Total strength flush triple-tube core
parameters barrel.
Effective strength Block samples.
parameters
Compressil:Jility
Density and porosity
Water content Pressed or driven thin
Laboratory data Fabric or thick-walled
on undisturbed Remoulded properties sampler with water
2 insensitive balance.
soil s Water flush triple-
tube core-barrel.

Pressed or driven thin

Fabri c or thick-walled
Water content samplers. Water
3 examination and Fabric balance in highly
laboratory data Remoulded properties permeable soils.
SPT liner samples.

Labora tory da ta
on remoulded
4 soils, Remoulded properties Bulk and jar samples
sequence of
strata

Approximate
5 sequence of None Washings
strata only
 180

Table 2.6 - Notes on Logging

A. Trial Pit Logs

(1) All faces of the trial pit should be logged. The orientation
of all si des should be recorded· and preferably shown in a
plan sketch on the log.
(2) Water levels recorded on logs should be dated and the time
noted.

B. Borehole Logs

(1) Water levels should be read and recorded (a) befare boring
starts in the morning, (b) after the lunch break, and (c)
at the end of the working day.
(2) The sections of the hale from which the undisturbed samples
are recovered should be shaded in on the lag to indicate
percentage recovery. The number of blows required to drive
the sampler should also be recorded.
(3) The standard penetration test result is given asan N value.
(4) Results of all field tests should be given on the lag.

C. Drillhole Logs

(1) Quantity and colour of water return are estimated visually.

(2) Penetration rate of drilling, if required, can be given by
any convenient method using numbers or diagrams, providing
the system is explained on the logs.
(3) Core recovery can be shown graphically, numberically or by
both methods.
(4) Various fracture indices which are measured on the core can
be given. Those shown on the logs are RQD and average
fracture spacing. Other indices (not shown) are: fractures
per metre overa given length, usually shown as a diagram;
percentage of sol id core recovered, usually indicated as a
number and maximum, minimum and mean core lengths, given
as a diagram ora number.
(5) Details of instruments can either be shown in diagram form
oras a note.
 181

Table 4.1 - Filter Design Criteria To Be Used in Hong Kong

Rule Number Filter Design Rule Requirement

1 D15Fc < 5 x D85Sf

2 D15Fc < 40 x D15Sf Stabil ity

( i . e. the pores in the
filter must be small
enough to prevent
infiltration of the
3 D50Fc < 25 x D50Sf material being drained)

4 Should not be gap graded

5 D15Ff > 5 x D15S e Permeabi l i ty

(i.e. the filter must
be much more permeable
than the material
6 Not more than 5% to pass 75 µm sieve being drained)
and this fraction to be cohesionless

7 Uniformity Coefficient 4 D60F 20 Segregation

< DlOF <
(i.e. the filter must
not become segregated
or contaminated prior
Maximum size of particle should not to, during, and after
8 be greater than 75 mm insta 11 a t ion)

Note .. .
(1) For uniform soils (, .e. DIOS
D60S
< 4) the criterion given in
Rule 2 should be 20 x D15Sf.
(2) In this Table, D15F is used to designate the 15% size of the
filter material ( i . e. the size of the sieve that allows 15%
by weight of the filter material to pass through it).
Similarly, D85S designates the size of sieve that allows 85%
by weight of the base soil to pass through it. The subsc ri pt
e denotes the coarse side of the envelope and subscript f
denotes the fine side.
 182

Table 4.2 - Typical Calculations for the Design of Filters

Filter 0esign Rule Soil To Be Protected Fil ter

(mm) (mm)

Dl5F e < 5 x 085Sf 085Sf = 1.0 Dl5F < 5

e

Dl5F e < 40 x 015Sf 015Sf = 0.18 015Fc < 7.2

050Ff < 5 x 0155c 050Sf = 0.48 050F e < 12

015Ff > 5 x 0155c 0155c = 0.35 015Ff > 1.75

Uniformity Coefficients 010 060 Uniformity Coefficient

D60F f
4 < < 20 1.4 6.0 4.3 0.K.
DlOF f

D60F
4 <
e < 20 4.0 16.5 4.1 0.K.
DlOF e

Note (1) In this example calculation, the soil to be protected is

the USCE sand filter (A) shown in Figure 4.9. The
calculated grading far the drainage material is also
shown in Figure 4.9.
(2) The filter design rules used in the calculation are
those shown in Table 4.1.
 183

Table 5.1 - Recommended Factors of Safety for New Slopes

for a Ten-year Return Period Rainfall

Recommended Factor of Safety against Loss of

Life for a Ten-year Return Period Rainfall
RISK TO LIFE

ECONOMIC
RISK Negligible Low High

·~uE~
o~
e n::!
Negligible >1.0 1.2 1.4
o'+-
u e
w·~
n::!
.µ cr:
~ -o
·~ o
n::1·~
O)~
n::! QJ
Cl...
>, e
.µ ~
QJ ::::,
4- .µ
n::! QJ
(/) cr: Low l. 2 l. 2 1.4
4- ~
o n::!
~ QJ
o >,
.µ 1
u e
n::! QJ
lJ_ f-
-o n::!
QJ ~
-o o
~4-
E v,
E v,
o o High 1.4 1.4 1.4
~__J
cr:

Note (1) In addition to a factor of safety of 1.4 for a ten-year

return period rainfall, a slope in the high risk-to-life
category should have a factor of safety of 1.1 for
the predicted worst groundwater conditions.
(2) The factors of safety given in this Table are recommended
values. Higher or lower factors of safety might be warrantec
in particular situations in respect of economic loss.
 184

Table 5.2 - Typical Examples of Slope Failures in Each Risk-to-Life Category

Risk to Life
Example
Negligible Low High

(1) Failure affecting country parks and lightly used ..¡

open-air recreation areas.
(2) Failures affecting roads with low traffic density. .¡
(3) Failures affecting storage compounds (non-dangerous .,¡
goods).
(4) Failures affecting densely used open spaces and
recreational facilities (e.g. sitting-out areas, .¡
playgrounds, car parks).
(5) Failures affecting roads with high vehicular or .¡
pedestrian traffic density.
(6) Failures affecting public waiting areas (e.g. .¡
railway platforms, bus stops, petrol stations).
(7) Failures affecting occupied buildings (e.g. .,¡
residential, educational, commercial, industrial).
(8) Failures affecti11g buildings storing dangerous .¡
goods.

Table 5.3 - Typical Examples of Slope Failures in Each Economic Risk Category

Economi c Ri s k
Example
Negligible Low High

(1) Failures affecting country parks. .¡

(2) Fáilures affecting rural (B), feeder, district
distributor and local distributor roads which are .¡
not sole accesses.
(3) Failures affecting open-air car parks. .¡
(4) Failures affecting rural (A) or primary .¡
distributor roads which are not sole accesses.
(5) Failures affecting essential services which
could cause loss of that service for a temporary .¡
period (e.g. power, water and gas mains).
(6) Failures affecting rural or urban trunk roads or .¡
roads of strategic importance.
(7) Failures affecting essential services, which could
cause loss of that service for an extended period.
(8) Failures affecting buildings, which could cause .¡
excessive structural damage.

Note : These examples are for guidance only. The designer must decide for himself
the degree of economic risk and must balance the potential economic risk in
event of a failure against the increased construction costs required to
achieve a higher factor of safety.
 185

Table 5.4 - Recommended Factors of Safety for the Analysis

of Existing Slopes and for Remedial and
Preventive Works to Slopes for a Ten-year
Return Period Rainfall

Recommended Factor of Safety Against

Loss of Life for a Ten-year Return
Period Rainfall

Ri sk to Life Negligible Low High

> 1.0 l. 1 l. 2

Note tl) These factors of safety are minimum values to be used

only where rigorous geological and geotechnical studies
have been carried out, where the slope has been standing
for a considerable time, and where the loading conditions,
the groundwater regime and the basic form of the modified
slope rema1n substantially the same as those of the
existing slope.
(2) Should the back-analysis approach be adopted for the
design of remedial or preventive works, it may be assumed
that the existing slope hada minimum factor of safety of
1.0 for the worst known loading and groundwater conditions.

(3) For a failed or distressed slope, the causes of the

failure or distress must be specifically identified and
taken into account in the design of the remedial works.
 Table 5.5 - Methods of Stability Analysis for Soil Slopes

Failure
Method Assumptions Advantages L imitations Reference Recommenda ti on
Surface

Fdilun:' '.:>urfacc assurnplions alwdys

an approximat ion. Method may only
Suitable for long slopes.
Infinite Straight Any vertical slice is representative Simple hand calculation Lambe & Whi tman especially those with a thin
be u sed ror slip surfaces where the
Sl ope 1ine of the whole slope method ( 1969) layer of weathered soil over
length to depth ratio is large and
rock.
end effects can be neglected.
Does not consider the deformation
The sl iding mass can be divided into
of blocks. Result sensitive to the Useful where there is a weak
Two or more two or more blocks, the equilibrium
Sl iding
strai ght Suitable far hand calculation angle to the horizontal chosen for lambe & Whitman stratum within or below the
81 ock of each block is considered the i nterb l ock forces and the
when 2 or 3 blocks are used. (1969) slope and when the slope rests
l i nes independently using interblock
inclinalion of the surfacc~ between upan a very strong stratum.
forces Lhe blocks.

Cons i ders force and moment

equil ibrium for each sl ice. Rigorous
method assumes values for the Simplified method compares
Circular railure surrace not always
vertical forces on the sides of each well with finite element
suitable for Hong Kong slopes but Useful where circular failure
Bi shop Circular slice until all equations are deformation methods (average Oishop (1955)
large r·adius ci rcles can sometimes surfaces can be assumed.
satisfied. Simplified method F within 8~0. Computer
pro(Jrams reudily uvailuble. be used.
as sumes the resul tant of the
vertical forces is zero on each
s l ice. ......
(X)

Bishop &
Morgensterns Circular
llse<, Blshup's <_;Ímplificd ml.'thod with Simple to use. More accurate Limi ted to homogeneous soil s and Bi shop & Morgenstern
Limited usefulness.
°'
an avPrayP ru value. than Hoek's charts. <_;]opes flatter than 27º ( 1960)
Charts
Sl iding mass considered as a whole.
Limited to homogeneous soils and Very useful for prcl iminary
Hoe k' s Lower bound solution, assuming Sl ope angl es from 10º to 90º
Circular five specified groundwater Hoek & Bray (1981) calculatior1s or for srnal l low
Cha rts normal stresses are concentrated at given. Very simple to use.
conditions. risk slopes.
one point.

General i sed procedure con si ders Publ i shed fo factors are far
force and moment equilibrium on each homogeneous materials and routine
Realistic shear surfaces can
sl ice. Assumptions on line of procedure can give large errors in Jonbu (1972) Very useful for the majori ty
action of intersl ice forces must be be used. Routine analysis s l opes composed of more than one
Janbu Non-ci rcu1 ar can be easily hundled by a of soil s 1opes in Hong Kong.
made. Vertical intersl ice forces material. ractor of safety is Routine method given Limitations of routine method
proqramablc calculator or
not included in Routine procedure usually underestimated in these in HoPk & Bray (1981) musl be considered.
by hund.
and calculated r then corrected to cases. General i sed method does
allow for vertical forces. not have the same limitations.

Usually unnecessarily detailed

Considers forces and moments on Considered more accurate than No simplified method. Computer for Hong Kong soil s where
Morgenstern Morgenstern & Price strength and pare pressure are
& Pri ce Non-circular l'dLh slice, sirnila-r to Janbu Jan bu. Computer pror¡rams solution necessary, often very time
GPr1er·r:1 I i~,Pd procPdure. (19G5) not known with accuracy. Most
readily available. consumí ng.
useful for back analysis of
landslides.
A modification of Morgenstern & Considerable reduction in Computer progrumes not yet rea di ly
Sarma Nun-circu1ar· Price which reduces the iterat.luns comput.iw-J t.i1nc wit.hout loss availablc but can be used with a Sarma (1979)
Can be used as an alternativc
required by using earthquuke forces of accuracy. calculator. to Mor(Jensleni & Price.
 Table 5.6 - Methods of Stability Analysis for Rock Slopes

Method Failure Assumptions Advantages Limita ti ons Reference Recommendation

Surface

Both sliding surface

Plane
Failure
I Single plane
with tension
I and tension crack
strike parallel to
the slope surface.
Watei:- pressures in
te~s,on crack and on
~oments n?t considered
in analys1s. Can give
crack Release surfaces are ~l1ding plane can be over est1mate of factor' Hoek & Bray ¡us:ful where plane
present so there is included simple of safety on steep (198l) fa1lure can be assumed
no res; s tan ce on anal ys is method. s lo pes where topp l i ng such as on sheet j oi nts.
lateral boundaries. could occur.

Line of intersection
of joints ctips less
.
Tens,on crack and
,
' , , ~
,._..
Two joint steeply than rock water pressures can
We~ge
Fa1lure lpla~esf?rm
3 d1mens1onal f~ceanddaylights
w1thin the face. beincludedin
analys1s. _Charts, 1Moments not consider di Hoek & Bray ¡useful · Charts can be
wedge. Both joint planes wh1ch_cons1der e (1981) used far a preliminary
remain in contact fnct,on only, are assessment.
during sliding. available.

Analysis assumes that Not yet a rock slope

Toppling Stepped sorne blocks will slide Limited to a few simple! Hoek & Bray design tool but may
Failure cross and sorne topple. cases with su1table (1981) occas i ona 11 y be
j oi nts Water pressures not geometry. useful.
included.
o o
ro !20 ro ""Tl -1
CT :;o
.01. . :go
<.O ""Tl ""Tl
-s en -s o ll> :.: ll> -o
OJ (D -'• ("') ~-ro ~-~ :z ""Tl
~~ o..
o.. ::::, V, ""
01 ro e: ~-
~
e: <.O
~
e: ::::,
01 01
3 ~.
01

rt-S-r,0 -s ::::, -s ro -s ro ro ~

...... 111 Q.I """S ro <.O ro ro e:

o~~ -s
::::, ~ ro

~
""O

~ ~ ~ ~
(/) ro
""
ro
rt
()
:::r

<.... <.... <.... <.... Flatten slope rn

:X
()
01
<.... <.... Bench <
01
~-o
rt

<.... Local excavation ::::,

-1
01
<.... Gunite facing CT
~

ro
<.... !
Permeable u,
(masonry) facing ...__,

<....
Local structural (/)
"dentition" rt
-s :;o
e: o
<.... <.... <.... Buttress () ()
rt
e: ""
-s (/)
01
<.... <.... <.... Ancho red wa ll ~
~

o
(/) -e,
- - -- --- (/) -1 ro
e: ):,
<.... Strap ""O
-e,
CJ
......
(/)
rt
o r 01
-s ...... ~.
CT
<.... <.... Dowel rt (/)
):,
-1
...... V,
<.... <.... <.... <.... Bolt o 01
:z
3:
~.
rt
o
<.... <.... <.... Anchor rn
):,
::::,

(/) 3:
e ro
:;o 01
<.... 1 <.... <.... <.... Drainage ditch rn V,
1 (/) e:
-s
Screeded (paved) o ro
<.... <.... <.... <.... -s V,
surface ~.
01
::::,
<.... <.... Short drainholes 01
<.O
ro
Long drainholes
<.... <.... /adits
<.... <.... <....
Move
structure/highway :;o
o
()
<.... <.... <.... Rock trap ditch ""
-+,
01

<.... <.... Rock frap fence/ ~

wall n
o
::::,
<.... Netting rt
-s
o
<....
Scaling of loase ~

blocks

881
 189

Table 7.1 - Recommended Factors of Safety for Gravity Retaining

Walls for a Ten-year Return Period Rainfall

Recommended Factor of Safety for a

Ten-year Return Period Rainfall
Mode of
Failure
Remedial and Preventive
New Walls Works to Existing Walls

Sliding 1.5 1.25

2.0 1.5
Rotation
(For a masonry wall, the resultant force
should lie within the middle-third)

Existing value to be maintained

Bearing if below 3.0. For a wall with
Capacity 3.0 a toe slope, overall stability of the
of the slope must be adequate

Slope Refer to Section 5.2

Failure

Note : (1) The factors of safety for remedial and preventive works
are mínimum values to be used only where rigorous
structural, geological and geotechnical studies have
been carried out, where the wall has been standing for
a considerable time, and where the loading conditions,
the groundwater regime and the basic form of the
modified wall remain substantially the same as those
of the existing wall.
(2) Should the back-analysis approach be adopted for the
design of remedial or preventive works, it may be
assumed that the existing wall hada mínimum factor of
safety of 1.0 for the worst known loading and groundwater
conditions.
(3) For a failed or distressed wall, the causes of the
failure or distress must be specifically identified
and taken into account in the design of the remedial
works.
 190

Table 8.1 - Effects of Vegetation on Slope Stability

BENEFICIAL FACTORS Type

Interception of rainfall by foliage, including H

evaporative losses
Depletion of soil moisture and increase of soil H
suction by root uptake and transpiration
Mechanical reinforcement by roots M
Restraint by buttressing and soil arching M
between tree trunks
Surcharging the slope by large (heavy) trees * M
Arresting the roll of loase boulders by trees M

ADVERSE FACTORS
Surcharging the slope by large (heavy) trees * M
Maintaining infiltration capacity H
Root wedging of near-surface rocks and boulders M
and uprooting in typhoon

Legend ·
H hydrological
M mechanical
* This mechanism may be either beneficial or adverse to
stability, depending on particular site factors (see Gray,
1978).

Table 8.2 - Slope Angle Limitations on Establishment of Vegetation

Establishment of
Slope Angle
Grass Shrub/Trees

Low in difficulty; routine Low difficulty; routine

Oº - 30º planting techniques may planting techniques may
slope be used be used

Increasingly di ffi cult far

30° - 45° sprigging or turfing; Increasingly difficult to
slope routine application far plant
hydroseeding

Greater than Special consideration Planting must generally

45º slope required be on benches
 191

Table 8.3 - Characteristics of Grass Species Commonly Used in Hong Kong

Grass Botanical Height Characteristics

Name (m)

Root system is extensive and strong,

effective far erosion control,
Paspalum compatible with shrub and tree
Bahia 0.3-0.5 planting, well adapted to wide range
notatum of sites, good shade, drought and
wear tolerance; early growth rate may
be slow.

Root system is extensive, effective

Bermuda Cynodon 0.3 far erosion control, well adapted to
dactyl on a wide range of sites; browns in
winter.

Cenchrus Root system is extensive and strong,

Buffel ciliaris o. 7-1. 5 fire and drought tolerant, will grow
on infertile sites.

Root system shallow but effective

Carpet Axonopus far erosion control, usually planted
compres sus 0.1-0.2
by sprigging/turfing; prefers moist
conditions, browns in the winter.

Eremochloa Wil l grov1 on i nfert il e sites, easi ly

Centipede ophuroides 0.2 established, effective far ero si on
control.

Rhodes Chloris 0.5-1.0 Tufted*, aggressive, fire tolerant;

gayana not recommended far general use.

Perennial Lolium Quick germination and good early

Rye perenne 0.1-0.9 growth, winter sowing recommended;
does not survive very hot 1-1eather.

Tufted*, aggressive; chokes out other

Weeping Eragros ti s 0.5-0.9 grasses, browns in winter and may
Lave curvula create a fire hazard; not recommended
far general use.
Legend .
* Tufted denotes a cluster of shoots arising from a common root
system, and may not be as effective far erosion control as
nontufted grasses.
Note : All species listed are perennial (long- lasting).
 192

Table 8.4 - Cflaracteristics of Shrub Species Cornmonly Used in Hong Kong

Growth Extreme
Shrub Species Rate Conditions
Tolerated

e: e:
V) -~...,o -~...,o
-~...,
QJ
V) V) re re
Scientific Common ...,
QJ
..., ..., ...,
QJ ::::, ::::,

Name Name -~ -~
V)
V)
~
V)

-o
-~ -~ -~
V) V) V)
E o QJ
..., -~
::::,
3:
>,
_o,¿
V)

...,
V)
o
>,
-o
e:
re
~

re
V) -o o u c.. re ..Cl ~
re QJ
:;:
~ o QJ X .e ~ ::::,
~ V) o:: 3: w V) :::i o::

Allamanda Cathartica Allamanda ✓ ✓

Duranta Repens Golden Dewdrops ✓ ✓

Gordonia Axil l ari s Gordonia ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓

Hibiscus Species Hibiscus ✓ ✓

Melastoma Species ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓

Nerium Indicum 0leander ✓ ✓

Rhaphiolepis Indica Hong Kong Hawthorr ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓

Rhododendron Species Rhododendron ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓

Rhodomyrtus Tomentosa Rose Myrtle ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓

Thevetia Peruviana Yellow 0leander ✓ ✓

Tithoni a Diversifol ia Mexican Sunflower ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓

Note : Terms used in Tables 8.4 and 8.5 are defined as fol lowed ..
(a) Wet soil s : groundwater level near the surface for most
of the year.
(b) Exposed sites : windy site with southerly to westerly
aspect (dip direction).
(e) Shady sites : shaded by buildings ora steep northerly
aspee t.
(d) Salt spray : marine sites usually within 100 m of the sea.
•·.
(e) Typhoon tolerant : resists breakage of limbs in a typhoon
or, if broken, is able to regenerate.
(f) Fire tolerant : able to regenerate after being burned.
 193

Table 8.5 - Characteristics of Tree Species Commonly Used in Hong Kong

Growth Extreme
Tree Species Height Rate Conditions
Tolerated
1

+->
1 e:
re
V, s.. +->
(lJ (lJ e:
Scientific Common '
1
V,
(lJ
+->
·~
V,
(lJ >,
~

o
re
s..
Name Name E +-> re
·~+-> +->
i V, (lJ
E' ·~ -~o
~ s.. ~

JI ·~
r--.. '.f) "O V, o.. o
r--.. E (lJ V, +->
s.. :::, >, V, V, >,
s..
(lJ
(lJ
"O
+->
V,
·~
"O
3
o
_:,¿
u +-'
o
o..
"O
re
+-> (lJ
s..
i1
~

> e: re (lJ
::,:
~ o (lJ X ..e: re
o:::::, l.J._ V) cr: 3: w V) V) l.J._

1✓
'
Acacia
Confusa Acacia ✓ ✓ 1

' ✓ ✓ ✓
1
¡

Albizza Lebbek 1 1

✓ !
✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
1

Lebbek Tree 1

1
'

Alnus Japanese
Formo sana Alder ✓ ✓
1

l
Bauhinia
Bauhinia ✓ ✓
1

Species 1

~-- ~--------~- i
1

Casuarina Horsetail 1
1

1
1

Equisetifol ia Tree ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ¡ ✓ ✓ ✓
i
--
Casuarina Long-Lea ved ✓
Stri eta Ironwood ✓
1

✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
·---·

Celtis Chinese
Sinensis Hackberry ✓ 1
✓ ✓ ✓
1

Eucalyptus
✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Torrel liana
Leucaena White
Leucocephala Popinac ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓

Pinus* Slash ✓
Elliottii ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Pine 1

1
Tristania Brisbane Ji
Conferta Box ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
1

Legend
* May be adversely affected by the disease pine wi lt nematode in
sorne locations
Note (1) See Table 8.4 for definition of terms used.
(2) All species listed have provento be acceptable and
successful on both cut slopes and fill slopes and have
sufficient root systems to resist uprooting in typhoons.
 194

Table 9.1 - Typical Hydroseeding Mix

Application Rate( 2 ) Mi X ( l)
(g/m2) Component

25 - 30 Grass seed( 3 )

100 Fertiliser( 4 )
(NPK)

170 - 250 Fi brous mu lch

Note . ( 1) Dye and soil stabiliser may also be included.

(2) Application rate should be computed on slope distances
rather than horizontal or vertical projections of area.
(3) A three species mix containing chiefly Bermuda and Bahia
is often used (refer to Table 8.3).
(4) This rate is for a chemical composition of 15 : 15 : 15
(Nitrogen : Phosphorus ; Potassium) and should be adjusted
when other compositions are used. Follow up fertiliser
applications are also recommended.
 195

Table 10.1 - Schematic Flow Chart for Planning a Monitoring Operation

1 2 3
GROUND BEHAVIOUR GENERAL MONITORING DETAILED
WARNING LEVELS PLAN MONITORING
ANO PLAN
CONTINGENCY ACTION

PROJECT DEFINITION TERMS OF REFERENCE PERSONNEL

Geometry; geology; Monitoring objectives; No. of persons; alloc-
groundwater; stress; budget ation of responsibi-
construction lities; liaison and
programme reporting channels

'
WHAT TO MEASURE
Displacement; water;
GROUND BEHAVIOUR pressure; load INSTRUMENTS
Mechanism; critical Selection; calibra-
locations; magnitudes; tion; detailed
rates layout
WHERE TO MEASURE

CONTINGENCY PLANNING
Decisions on hazard
ldentify key locations
and depths; establish
priorities '
INSTALLATION
Define installation
warning levels; action locations, times and
plans if warning levels procedures
exceeded WHEN TO MEASURE
Project duration;
frequency of readings;
frequency of reports '
MONITORING
Define detailed
monitoring programme

DATA PROCESSING
Draft & print data
sheets and graphs;
set up computation
procedures

REPORTING '
Define reporting
requirements; timing;
contents; responsi-
bilities .
 Table 10.2 Piezometer Types

Other
Remole Long Term
Type Range Response Dea i ri ng Recommendation
Readinq Reliabilit.Y
Advantages Di sadvantages

First choice for

Not normally, Cheap, simple to read measurement within
Open Atmospheric
buL possible & maintain.
Hydl"i:IUl ic to top of Slow Self dcairin9 Very good Insitu Van da l dama ge often positive pressure range
with Halcrow permeubi 1 i ty unless very rapid
(Casaqrande) standpipe irreparable
buckets or mcdsurement possible response or remate
level bubb l er sys tem rea di ng requi red

Depends on pressure
measuring system
1) Mercury manometer-
Closed very good Gauge house usual ly
Hydraulic Any 2) Bourdon gauge - Fairly cheap. Insi tu required. Regular Useful when remate
~
(Low air positive Modera te Can be dea i red Yes poor in humi d permeabi l i ty deairing necessary. reading required and far
e
entry prcssure atmosphere measurement possible Une ove red tubi ng l i ab le artesian pressures
~
pressurc) 3) Pressure trans- to rodent attack
~

~
ducer - moderate
but easily
ru
replaced
e
o. Cl o sed -1 Fairly cheap. Insitu ,_.
Hydraulic atmuspherc permeability As above. Very regular I.D
(High air to any Mor-Jera ll' Can be deu i red Yes As above dea i ri ng requ i red when Useful for measuri ng cr,
measurements in low
entry posit.ivP. permeabi l i ty soi l are measuring suctions sma 11 sucti ons
ru rressure) prP.ssure possible
>
·~ Cannut be Yes No method of checking Only suitable when tip
Any Modera le to poor but
~
Rapid dea i red. Sorne head loss Fairly cheap. No i f pore water or pore almost always below
Pneumati e positive very l ittle long term air pressure is
·-·
~
pressure Only parlially
self deairing
over long
di stance
ex peri ene e ava i l ah le.
yauyc house requi red
meas u red
groundwa ter leve l and
no lurge suctions occur
o
~ Signal quality
degenera tes wi th time.
Instrument l i fe about As above. Expens i ve.
El ectri e Any ten years but
vibrating - pos i ti ve Rapid As above Yes but special Zero reading l iable to Not generally recon1nended
cable requi red reliability of dri ft and cannot be
wi re type pressure
instrument that cannot checkcd
be checked is always
suspect

Any Yes but with

El ectri e
positive As above care because of As above Not recommended
res is tance Rapid Poor
pressun~ transmi ss ion
type
los ses

-1 to Vanda 1 dama ge often

e Modera te Cheap, simple to read Fi rst choice far
Tens i ometer pos iti ve Can be deaired Yes Good irreparable. Regular
o to rapid and maintain measuring pare suction
pressure dea i ri ng requi red
·~
~
Instrument life onc to
u
Below -1 Short di s tances two years. L i tt le Not accurate between Research staqe at the
~ Psychrometer Variable Not relevant
atmosphere only long tcrm ex peri ence O and -1 atmosphere moment
~
availdblc
 Table 10.3 - Load Cells

0ther
Type Long Term Remote Reading Recornmendation
Reliability Advantages Disadvantages

Not with dial System fails if load Most suitable for

Hydraulic gauge, possiblE Simple to cell or hydraulic tubei long term monitoring
Load Cel l Good with linear opera te l eak. Gauge needs to be if a transducer is
displacement connected permanently used
transducer

Not continuous reading.

Jack must be Not very suitable for
Good No, access pressurised until long term regular
Hydraul ic Jack except pressure required to Simple hydraulic anchor head begins to monitoring. Removable ,._.
gauges subject measure system move. Difficult to jack suitable for I.O
to corrosion just lift head, large occasional testing
-...J

movements often
occur
Cheap, Reading requires Suitable for rock bolts
Photoelastic Good No simple to install practice. and small anchors
easily replaced Limited to low loads

El ec tri cal Remote reading Fairly expensive. Most suitable where

(vibrating- Modera te Yes not affected by Calibration may drift remote reading
wire type) (up to 10 years) environment but recalibration required
possible

Electrical No As above.
(resistance Poor (a few metres Simple, Stain gauges very Not suitable for
type) is possible) easy toread susceptible to long term use
corros ion
 198

Table 11.1 - Interval between Maintenance Inspections

Recommended Interval

Inspecting 0fficer Slopes in the Negligible

Slopes in the High or
Risk-to-life Category Low Risk-to-life Category

Technical 0ffi cer 6 months 1 year

Engineer 2 years 5 years

Note ( 1) Slopes in the high, low and negligible risk-to-life

categories are defined in Chapter 5.
(2) In certain cases where the risk-to-life is high, it may be
necessary to seek advice from a geotechnical engineer.

Table 12.1 - Summary of Aerial Photographs Available

from Lands Department

Year of Photographs Remarks

1924, 1945, 1949, 1950, 1954 Photographs taken by RAF. Partial

1956, 1959, 1961, 1962, 1963 coverage of the territory only

Photographs taken by Hunting Survey

1963, 1964, 1967 Ltd. Full coverage of the territory
available

Photographs taken by Crown Lands and

1968, 1969, 1970 Survey 0ffice. Partial coverage of
the territory only

Photographs taken annually by Lands

1972 onwards Department. Full coverage of the
territory available
 199

Table 12.2 - Map Catalogue

Price per
Code Coverage Number of Copy (1984)
Sheets (HK$)

Large Scale (Basic)

Plans
1:600 (50 ft. to 1 in.) Hong Kong 140 10.00
1: 1 200 (100 ft. to 1 in.) IH & lslands 1000 (approx.) 10.00
1:1 000 (replacing 1:600 HPJC Kowloon 126 10.00
and 1:1 200 series) Hong Kong 192 10.00
NT & lslands 1132 10.00

Medium Scale (Derived)

Plans
1:2 500 HP2.5C Urban 73 10.00
1:5 000 HP5C Urban 20 10.00
NT 11 10.00
1: 7 500 Street Maps SM7D Urban &
NT Township 22 10.00
1:15 000 SM15D Urban 2 (1 HK & 10.00
1 Kl n.)

Topographic Maps
1:10 000 L884 Full (Obsolete) 62 2.00-3.00
1:20 000 HM20C Full 16 10.00
1:50 000 HM50CL Full 2 16.00
1: 100 000 HMIOOCL Full 1 6.00

Specia l Maps

l. Official Guide Map TMlOOCL Full 1 8.50

2. Countryside Series
(a) Hong Kong lsl and CM25C 1 10.00
(b) New Territories-
West CM50C 1 10.00
(c) Lantau & lslands CM35C 1 10.00
(d) Sai Kung & Clear
Water Bay CM25C 1 10. 00
3. Geological Report &
Map/Map only 60. 00/16. 00
4. Streets & Places
Guide Books
i ) Vol. 1 HK & lsl ands 20.00
i i ) Vol. 11 Kowloon & NT 20.00
5. Maps for HK Annual
Reports 6 2.00

Miscellaneous

Aerial photographs - copies available by special order 16.00

Approved Town Planning Development and Layout Plans Varíes
 200

[BLANK PAGE]
 201

FIGURES
 202

[BLANK PAGE]
 203

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Page
No. No.
1.1 Idealized Weathering Profile in Granitic Rocks 207
2.1 Geological Map and Aerial Photograph that Identify 208
Sorne Major Structural and Lithological Features
2.2 Sheet 0ne of Log of Drillcore Shown in Plates 209
2.2 to 2.14
2.3 Sheet Two of Log of Drillcore Shown in Plates 210
2. 2 to 2.14
2.4 Sheet Three of Log of Drillcore Shown in Plates 211
2. 2 to 2 .14
2.5 Sheet 0ne of Log of Drillcore Shown in Plates 212
2.15 to 2.26
2.6 Sheet Two of Log of Drillcore Shown in Plates 213
2.15 to 2.26
2.7 Sheet Three of Log of Drillcore Shown in Plates 214
2.15 to 2.26
2.8 Definition of Sampler Proportions 215
2.9 Core Recovery and Fracture Indices 215
2.10 Example of Description Sheet for Rock Mass Survey 216
2.11 Example of Data Sheet for Discontinuity Survey 217
2.12 Example of a Stereoplot 218

2.13 Legend for Use on Logs 219

2 .14 Tri al Pit Lag - Example 1 220

2 .15 Tri al Pit Log - Example 2 221
2 .16 Tri al Pit Log - Example 3 222
2.17 Example of Sheet 0ne of Dril l hol e Log 223
2.18 Example of Sheet Two of Drillhole Log 224
2.19 Example of Field Sheet for Water Absorption Test 225

2.20 Example of Calculation Sheet for Water Absorption Test 226

2.21 Example of Results and Calculation Sheet for Falling- 227
head Test
 204

Figure Page
No. No.
3.1 Typical Stress Paths and Strength Envelope for 228
Undrained (CU) Triaxial Tests
3.2 Example of Triaxial Test Soil Properties Data 229

3.3 Example of Triaxial Test Graphical Data 230

3.4 Example of Triaxial Test p'-q/Stress Path Plot 231

4.1 Simplified Representation of the Hydrological Cycle 232

4.2 ~ Index for Hong Kong Catchments 233

4.3 Typical Changes in Water Table, Degree of Saturation (s) 234

and Pare Water Pressure (u) Dueto Rainfall
4.4 Typi cal Pi ezometer Responses 235

4.5 Effect of Permeability and Degree of Saturation 236

on Wetting Band Thickness for a Ten-year Return
Period Rainfall Event
4.6 Double-ring, Constant-head Field Infiltration Test 237
Apparatus
4.7 Typical Results from Field Infiltration Test 238

4.8 Cut-off Drai n 239

4.9 Grading of a Sand Filter Suitable for All Silts 240
and Finer Soils
5.1 Typical Failure Profiles in Weathered Rocks and 241
Soils in Hong Kong
5.2 Probability of Failure Versus Reliability Index 242

5.3 Effect of Benches in Adversely Jointed Rock 242

5.4 Various Methods of Stabilising Rock Slopes 243

5.5 Rockfall Control Measures 244

6.1 Bearing Capacity Data 245

7.1 Drainage Details for Retaining Walls 246

8.1 Nomogram for the Rapid Solution of the Bransby-Williams 247

Equation
8.2 Curves Showing Duration and Intensity of Rainfall in 248
Hong Kong for Various Return Periods
8.3 Distribution of Raingauges in Hong Kong 249
 205

Figure Page
No. No.

8.4 Typical Sand Trap Arrangement 250

8. 5 Typi cal Rock Trap Detai l 251

8.6 Plan Showing Junction of Tributary Channels with Main 252

Channels

8.7 Chart for the Rapid Design of Channels 253

8.8 Typical Details of Stepped Channel 254

8.9 Typical Details of Junction of Stepped Channel and 255

U-channel at Toe of Slope

8.10 Typical Details of Catchpits 256

8 .11 Typi cal U- channel Detail s 257

8.12 Planting Season in Hong Kong 258

9 .1 Typi cal Detai l of General Fil l Are a Empl oyi ng Dual 259
Compaction Standards

9.2 Typical Compaction Trial Results 259

9.3 Record Sheet for Density Tests in Compacted Fill 260

9.4 Field Sheet for the Hilf Method of Rapid Compaction 261
Control

9.5 Seedling Shrub or Tree Planting 262

9.6 Detail of Tree Rings on Impervious Slope Surface 262

10.1 Example of a Piezometer Record Sheet 263

10.2 Example of a Telltale Record Sheet 264

10.3 Example of an Anchor Load Record Sheet 265

10.4 Open Hydraulic (Casagrande) Piezometer 266

10.5 Tell tale 266

10.6 Example of an Inclinometer Record Sheet 267

11. 1 Example of a Slope Maintenance Record Sheet for 268

Piezometer Readings

11. 2 Example of Sheet One of a Maintenance Inspection 269

Record

11. 3 Example of Sheet Two of a Maintenance Inspection 270

Record
 206

Figure Page
No. No.
11. 4 Example of Sheet Three of a Maintenance Inspection 271
Record
 207

Zones of Weathering (based

on Ruxton & Berry, 1957)

Structureless sand, silt and clay.

Zone May have boulder concentration
A
at the surface
1--------------------------1------
--- -----------

Residual material with corestones.

Zone Rock percentage is less than
B 50%, and corestones are rounded
and not interlocked

Corestones with residual material

Zone Rock percentage is 50 to 90%
e and corestones are rectangular
and interlocked

More than 90% rock. Minar

Zone residual material along majar
D structural discontinuities which
may be considerably iron stained

Figure 1.1 - Idealized Weathering Profile in Granitic Rocks

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~ Reclamation ~
~ Colluvium undifferentiated (determined by API} I+ +H"t'K+ ~ Hong Kong Granite Photolineation (determined by API}

li!m:::e+:\] Alluvium undifferentiated

~- Quartz monzonite 1: v ~B~ v 1 Dominantly pyroclastic rocks with sorne lavas

Figure 2.1 Geological Map and Aerial Photograph that Identify

Sorne Major Structural and Lithological Features
 209

DRILLHCL:: No ALC/12
Sheet L of 3
1

Feature HKHA - Geotecr'r.ical Advice

Type of Coordina<::es E 34071
drilling :
Rig
Rotar1_ ____ _
: _D-1 _____ _
N =1Ii1I~=====
Ari:::rle from ~or' zonta1 :.JQ_º __ _
Location
Ground level
Ap ~ei Chau Site 'B ___ _
+86.5J m.P.C. ______ _
Bit T.C. & Diamond _ 3ea r' ng Water ta:ile level See_piezometer sheets

Notes e.g. Colou" Dep:h Reduced

level legend C-es:::ri pti on
water return cavino
ins'.:.rumentation - diane:er ' m. p. e,.

•
• --.
1 .90 m .
... . Pink to ye'.lm,-bro•¡,¡n wi'.:.h
creamy ·,1h~te ~atches soft SILT
with oc:::asional black s¡::ECKls-s
-..
..
....... • and sorne l inonite sta-:nea
1-el ict discontirJities.
-.
:
• decomp::ised ve 1can i e

90:: 1<.·ater
retu"'r from
•
.. 68 m to
•
10.c::
.
~
m

. • .
.
~,
.. .
..... 4 5(1
.
.
..
ITI
~ '/ .
,-
,-
,- .. Creamy ,1hi -ce wi th prnk ar.d
lJ,t, soft SILT 'rl'ith
.
:
,-
,- HXC 2. 15 ; .t
,_ 5
re 1i et
l stained
-:
........
,-
at at
.:
,-
11. 67 19. DO Complete y decimposed volcan1c
~

,-
..
' hrs.
.
~

~
HMLC TUFF.
V:
..
.
~ 2/3 ~,
~

~
X

.
.
~- C7 rr 6. 3:J m .
~ 80. 20
at
8.00
~
.
hrs. L. Pir, ,,,-ith vellow brown soft
:e fir11 srlr.
-.
..
~

Con1Jlete,y decomposeci ·,olcanic

...
....
.._)

X
TUFF. -.
:
t 79 .08 7. 42 ITl
'::" • Light grey soft to firm

-- • SI LT wi th ~ed brown s te. 7ned

"Elict discc,nti11ui"':.ies.
-3

.... 8. 35 rr
Completely oecor1posed TUFF.

.
......
1- Yello,1 wi::.h red brm~n ::i~tches
fin1 SILT.
-.
.

,-
HXC ~.86,
....
.... 9
Comrle"':.ely decompoSEC TUFF, V •
-.
.

1-
at
9.58 19.00
at 77. 29
~ I✓ Light grey with occasiona ~
1-
1-
t-
hrs. • creany yello·,1 patches and dark
bro·,.¡n stained disconti~uities
i- fin1 sandy SILT.
1-
1-
• • 1-ighly deccmposed porphyr.tic
TUFr.
~
1-- - - · -
3/3
- 1......- i....- lD ·•- - 1 - - - 1-- -'-- -
~egend Remar,s I:50
W. R. Water return Se0 sheet 3 for stand~i::ie p1ezorneter installation.
Large disturbed sample
Logged by ~ ll..!: _
Checked by :_Jb_P_
1
1
Undisturbed sample
Standard penetration test
Piezoíill:'ter tip
Date: 12/81'...?9 __
o Maz'.er sample
~ Perrneability test
m ~,oi s ture content

Figure 2.2 - Sheet One of Lag of Drillcore Shown in Plates 2.2 to 2.14
 210

DRILLHOLE No : ALC/12

1 Sheet Z of 3

Feature HKHJl. - Geotechnical Advice

Type of
drilling : _Rota1y
Rig _D-1 ______ _
____ _
Cocrdinates : E 34071
N I11_s]_-=_-=_
Angle from ho"izontal :_9Qº__
= Location
Sround level
Ap Lei Chau Site 'B' __ _
+86.80 m.P.D.
- -------------
Bit T.C. & Diarrond _ Bearing N_-_:_E_-:_ __ _ Water table level : See _E'.ezometer sheets

t,,·otes e.g. Colour Depth Reduced

\'jater return caving & leve l Le gene Description
i nstrumentat ion di ame ter m. ~ .D.

-
.. 5/3 1.26 r
at light grey hard modera':.ell
deccmposed medi Jm gra i ned
-
-
.... 8.00
hrs. poq;r.yr"itic TUFF.
I I l_:
-
.. Disccntinuities :losely spaced . ---
"....
'"

ruc 7 .65 rr
at at
:1.55 :9.00
m hrs.

1.48m
at
8.00
hrs.

_i ght grey tJ grey e; reen ha rd II -:

slighi:ly dec~rnposed fine TUFF.
-
:
No wai:er return
fro:n 10. e::. m to
)iscon~inuities clcse1y
spaced. --
. 20. 00 rr
:
.... Oark grey rar::! slightl_y
-
.. c:ecci11posed porphyritic TUFF
JI -
\/ :
.- -
~1s-.--
SP~
with occasio1cl inchsi::ins.

.
'" -
: ---
...t - ---
-
: NXC 14. 80m
--
-- --
- at at ---
:-
- 16
11.55 19.00 - -
m hrs.
--- ---
:: 6/3 - -
15.96fi --- :
----
: 7/3
at --17 -
---
8.:)0
-
hrs.
---
TN\1 1

-
--- :.
-- --
: -
- - --
........-- --:
=-18
-
~
.....-
~
.. .....
t-
...... ._1,
t
~
--
-
...::.. --
~

1:u-

~--- . _...__ ~ 1--

11:
-
Legend Rema ns Scale 1:50
~.R. '"ater retL<rn See sheet 3 for standpipe piezorreter insta11ation. Logged by :_ __,tl:.f_
Large d1strubed sarr.ple
lt Undistrubed sample
Standard penetration test
Checked by :_Jb,P_
Da te : llJB/79
1 Piezorneter tb
Contractor: _______________ 1
o Mazier sample
Date started : __ f1ªJJ9 ________ _
~ Permeabi l i ty test
m Moisture content Date fi'1ished: lü_j'J/79 _ _ __

Figure 2.3 - Sheet Two of Log of Drillcore Shown in Plates 2.2 to 2.14
 211

DRIUHOLE No ALC/12

Sheet 3 of 3

Feature HKHA - Geotechr."!_E~_t.dvic~.

Type of Coo..-cinates c. 34071
drilling _B-0<!.IL ___ _ N =Df?I_-=._-_-=_ Locatior : Ap Lei Chau Site 'B'____
Rig j):J _____ _ Angle from horizonta 7 ;_9Qº_ _ Ground level +86.50 m.P.D. ______ _
Bit _J ,_f._&_Dj_a~o!J._C_ Bearirig N ___ E ____ _ Water table level : See piezometer sheet~

~otes e.g. Co'our Depth Reduced

water return caving & leve l Legend Descript'.on
instrumentation ::iiane:er m.P.D.

metres 56 50 O 50
,-~ -r-- - - - - - - - - - - - - - ~
... 20 _ _,.;:,.~:..;:;_ ~,..,.v'..,,...,,- -r- - .. - - VV Vr- - - - - - - - - - - -.- -:
,- - / v v Dark grey slightly decomposed •
,-

-
·/ V V V porphyritic "'."LIFF v.·ith occasional -
,-
,-
it;n~~i:>e ~ 79
~ 53
V>'~V inclusions. II~
,- 24.00 rn ~ ~ 0 VVVVV Discontinuities moderately s:iaced :

- -
~ 21 55.31
~r/
"/,;1~/
V V V
21.19m
-
-:

--.
,- 14 .8511 7
.
,- at
19.00 É ~~t Dark. g"ey hard sl icihtly 11.

. hrs . ~ gs•;,::~ 54
decorrposed fine grained TUFF.
-:
.
,-
~Át .
--....
t- 7 /3
>-
:: 8/3
,-
NXC
at
11. 55
"
- No 1,,ater
return from
20.00 m to
25.08 m
:

......
~ 22

.......
~

'"
64.50
r/ u
Light to dark grey hard slig~tly
decomposed porphyritic TUF:: .

D.;sccrtinuities closely spaced.

.
:.
rr-:
.
,- ..
,- ...
~ -.
,- ........
' - 23
..
--. ...t:
63. 11
-.
-..
Light grey green hard slightly

,-. .. . decomposed fine grained TL"FF .

D"scontinuities very closel_y II_:

.
...
1- ::- 24 spaced. .
1:.
.
,-
,-
,-
5. 07íl
at

-..
19.0C

-
t,..B/3 hrs.
..... 61. 42

..
--.
Drillhole ccmp1eted .
~
...
1-
1-
-..
---.....
...
1-
.
.
1-
1-16
1-
-..
1-
1- :
...
,-.
..t:..... -:

-
,-
..
-....
...
l-27

---
.
.
-.
--::- ---
--28
.
.
.

........
1- - .
....
:
:
,- ...... -.
.
.
,-
,-
1-
..
......
~ 29
.
.
.
::
-- ......... -
.
.
.

-- ......
.
...
-- Legend
L-30
Renarks
-L. .. L- - 1 . -

Standpipe piezometer installatiDn

.....__ t--- - -
Scale
-~ -
1 50
W.R. Water return 1. Tip at 24.00 m; perforatea at 21.CO m - 24.0C m.
Logged by :_ ~Lf.
Large d-:sturbe::l sariple 2. Sanc/gravel filters at 18.JO n - 25.JB rn.
11 Und is turbed samp le
Standard penetration ':est
3.
4.
Bertoriite ball seals at 15.00 n - 18.00 n
Hale grouted from :5.00 m to surface.
Check.ed by :.._Jl_P_
Date : [email protected]
1 Piezometer tiJ
J Mazier sample Contractor: ------=------------ 1
¡ Permeab'.lity test Date started : 2/3/79
m Moisture content Oa':e finished: 10L3/79

Figure 2.4 - Sheet Three of Log of Drillcore Shown in Plates 2.2 to 2.14
 212

DRILLHOLE No PPF7
Sheet 1 of 3

Type of Coordinates E _l5.4J.a_ ____ _ Fea tu re : Slope 11-NW-B/C39 ____ _

dr'.lling : f_o1_a_ry..z.~a.!_e!:_f..!_u2_h_ r.. 21332 - - - - - Location : Police Pla.1in9...Fields__ _
R1g DR5 _______ _ Angle from horizorital : _9Q_º __ Ground level: +70.00 m.?.D. ______ _
Bit T.C._ard Dic1mond _ Bearing Water table lel/'el See ~ezoneter ::ilots_

No".:es e.g. Colour Depth Reduced

wai::er return caving & level Legend Descri pti on
i nstrumentati on diame".:er rn. P. e.

¡
metres O 5D nin/m
1--- -,--- -.-- - . - - -1--- - - - - · -
~ 28/2 801 wc. ter
- -
:
o -
NX
- - - , ; n r , ..... -
1/.1
-- - - .~,--- --------- ... -:
Loase browri silty coarse SAl'ID. _
~ retu rns 1 _ J 2C
-
~
1-
J.50
l•Jl
:_
- r/
. + ... Completely decom¡::osed GRANIE . ' ---
1- m1 1 - ~2 18 . + .. · -
~
- 1
::_-1 --+-'-9_·º-º--,~¡,.s''~.,¡,.+-----1 1.00

~ - ~01 mm 0~ + .+ Loase :o aense orange brown :

-
-~
si lty coarse SANC.
:- 1 /.(,~
n~ 12
n•_:
-
~~
Highly decomposed GRANITE.

l" t,- ·+
-
-
-

¡_
--
~ 2.50 0.35
1 :
½V~
,,92•[/V 16 --
:::..- 127 18.00 - / /VII
¡(
---
"l/J
~
ma 1.45
,J8.00 : NX 32 '.4
:
-
t.. 31·2~º =--3- ./
-:
.+
•tt" '°' -
_mlm //V~
~-~
V /G:::
20 --
3.59 2.JD -_- 66.41
--

~.
~ 127 , 12 .,JJ
: "" j J.5o : V/~ + + Moderatel.Y weak yel lowish brown -
V/11
~
13.DJ
~~ 51
+ + +
+ +
coarse gra i r1ed rred i um joi n:ea
modera:el:1 ::lecomposed GRANITE.
nl.:
-
~~ --
+ + +
-
--- + +
+ + + ---
---
+ + --
+ + +
-5 70 + + ---
-- + + + -
: + + :
5.50
127
- 64. 45 5. 55
--
ma Loose to mediurn dense yellow -
2. 01 24 brown silt.Y coarse SANO. -
18 .00 IC
-6-
--
- 6.JO 5. 50
""Z/3 127 101 mm V Highly decomposed GRANITE.
D8.00
-
---
: mm
--
V
'i 14
+
.+ ---
-- ---
--
--- 7 ---
--
+
-- --
----
7. 50
127
mm --- 17
+ ..
-:
-

- -- - + :
~ -8
-
: --
-- -
-- -
8. JO 28
-
-- 104
mm -_ --
-- NX 24
. +. -
-
--
9.00 1.50
104 12.00
2. s:
-
-9- ---
mm
13. 00
: 101 mm + .. :
-

>--- - - -10-·
t- 1
-
15

-~-=-~
·+.

-~--
-:
-
-

Legend Renarks : Sea le 1:50

W.R. ll'ater return
f Large disturbed sam¡::le Logged by : ~t-
1 Undisturbed sample Checkec 'Jy :_J_lP_
t Staridard penetration test
~ Piezometer tip Date : 12/3/]9
O Mazier sarn¡::le Contractor: -- 1
~ Permeability test Date started. -z3L;2!L;7 9 -_-_-_-_-_-_-_-:.__
m Moisture content Date finished : 8 3 7 9 _ _

Figure 2.5 - Sheet One of Lag of Drillcore Shown in Plates 2.15 to 2.26
 213

)RILLHOLE No PPF7
Sheet 2 of 3

Fea tu re ll-NW-B/C39 ________

Type of
drillirlg Rotary, waterflush_
Coardi na tes E 35}l48_ - - - - - -
N 21332 _______ Location
': ~olice Pl<!ring_Fields ___
Anc;le from hcriz:intal : 9.Qº_____ Gro une leve 1 +70.0 m.P.O. _______
Rig
Bit
Q.R: - - - - - - - -
T.C. and Diamond __ Bea rirlg N -- E -- Water tab'.e level
' See piezone-::er ~lots
----- -----

~- e

il ____
~

-e
e'-
·:; _¿
e-
o.
µ> t~ Nctes e.g. Colour
water return caving
Depth
&
Reduced
level
• o
3~~
~

o
o,'
o
e•
~~ Legend Oe$cription
~
.
o

ui ~- 1~
e
-C oC •µ
• o
instrumentation diar;ieter m. P.D. ~-~ ~

_____________
1---7-
D ~

me tres o so ;.._
min/m .._
1--- - r - - - r-- -
t 2;J
r-- -
80'o water
~10 --
~~ -D-~ .
H1ghly decomposed GRAN! TE. . -
Iv':

~
>- return
23 ♦-:
,...>- ~90,~ +. :.
>- 10 71
10-r 59 29 'Í"/.r, 10. 71 . -
'" 104 ~

~i:::, '.1'.1 + ++ --
''""
Strong, pale pink and grey
,....
~E; -,,
am
......t_ 11 + + coarse grai~ed widely ~ointed rr-:
t ...... ,:/,~ I, ,1 + + +
+ +
slightly decomposed GRA.llITE.
--.
.--
~

-:
~~., ..
~
88 + + +
...>--
.
~
'.1 + +
~
t - + ++ .-
.l:
1-
.t
::- 12 ~t , . 1, 'V
+ +
+ + + -:
..... 3/3
2. 71
d8. 00
lC. 65
l
- l½r~t + +
+ + + ~
:
..
.
t..
08.0D ~

1-
1-
1-13
~f,I,
~tt
f1/, 'Vt 86
+ +
+ + +
+ +
+ + + -
..
..
~t~
1-

-t 1-
1-
,__
1-
V,/,Vr, l.1r,
+ +
+ + +
.... .
-.
.

-...... ..
2. 78
t" 56. 29 13. 71
12, 00
,- 1-
.
10. 34 1-
~ .+·
.
~
Loase to medium dense yellowish

-..
].J. 00 I\J' _:
...
"-- 14 brown silty coarse SAND.
1- ..
t
~
29

1- -. =-
~
~
·+
. .'+
+. ·...
dighly decomposed GRANITE.
~
..
.l:,...
5/3
~4. 71
104
5. 76
13.00 ~
NX
7'¡.,lJ
97 r,,r, 36
--.
-

.,... ITTO Dry t-15- +

1- s
08.00
6. ~o
~

...... 101 mm
~
~v :
1-
12 .CO
....... 288 . ·+.
---.
!
13. s,1 11

-t
t"
13. oc
12. 16
i ......... ~8
½C::
+
--..
.
1--
.... 6/3

-t,... ~6. 45
~:, ¡
15. 00 ,i
......'-16
...
....1-
53. 55
~;,'. l
'/.
53
+

16. 45
.
-.-
-.,.... 104 l. 25
= 12. co
12. ge
'..."
t~1,
~r~
½v"
+ +
+ + +
+ +
.
Moderately strong, grey and
p4nk ccarse grainec medium ru:
-
.. 13. oc
~

~
~E;:::
,98' '.1 SS
+
+ +
+
jointed moderately decomposed
GRAtHTE . -:
-
.-
1-
't"" ..........
~

~,,,
'.'.% .I + + +
+ +
+ + +
--
~/'
t
...
:- 52. 05 ~•:::, + +
17. 95 ---
--...=---
17.95 12. JO
~ 7/3 104 118.001
IMl 15.o 1 ...... NX
18
,gt ::: 63 .·+· .. _oose to me::l'.un dense yel lov.-is~
orown silty coarse SA.'-W . IV :
-
•• .
.. 18.25·08.001
!J'
mm
2. 75
6
t:
~

~
,01r
~ +·
.·_+·
H1ghly decomposec GRANITE. -.
..
~
~ 28
....t 12. 00' ~

~ :, + -:-

_tt
1//. .. :+:

.--..
~

1-
1- .. ..
1-

.
1-
1-
F::t +·
.. + .
-.
..
-/f 38

t--
Legend
.__ -~
1-
1-
L- 20 - ' -

Re11arks
V,/,
- ~ .,_;.......-·..:.
- Sea 1e
-~ -.
1: 50
\11.R. Water return Logged by:_ !i.C_
Large dist·Jrbed samole
11 Undistrubed sample
Standard ¡::enetraticn test
Checked by :Jbf'_
Date · 12/3/7~
1 Piezometer t'p
Contractor --
Mazier sample
□
•
m
Permeability tes:
Moisture content
Date starte::l: 28/2;79
Date finished: 8/3/79 - - 1

Figure 2.6 - Sheet Two of Lag of Drillcore Shown in Plates 2.15 to 2.26
 214

DRI LLHOLE No PPF 7

1 Sheet J of 3

Feature :1-NW-~C39 ________

Type of Coordinates

~ª12=====
E 35448
crilling 3-Q~i'...t.!@~f.li¿gl_ N Location : Poli ce Plaving Fields ___
Ri g ~L ______ Angle from horizontal _]º-"._ ___ Sround 1eve 1 -70.0 m.P.D. ________
Bit !.,_~ fild_Qi¿_mQ!!.d_ _
' E_-..::.. _ _ See _pi ezc,meter .el ots _
' Bearlng
' '- - - - ~ater table level
'
.
·--~· . ... . ~- .
o

1
- e
·-
e a

~
u eo
o o
g,·::;
~..::::
u
u-

3-
t~
o •
~ >
Notes e.g. Colour
water return caving
instrumentation diameter
Deptn

'
Reduced
level
m. p .D.
~t
8;* ..
o~
w e
~~

~ e
o
=~
~·
~
O
uU
~---
• e
X
Legerid Description
u
i
1:.

-~- -----1- =-
metres o
-----
- wate.- 60%
20
-49_33 '68
50
.,
min/m
38-- - - +207 7------------
See sheet above -
IV •
~ 7/3 20.17 ~

~e:;
~ ~~
returns '"" ~01 mm ♦ ♦ ♦ .
... -.
~ ID4 ♦ + Strong, oale pink and grey

Éi 1//,
mm ♦ ♦ + 11edium jointed slightly
~
~
~
Jiezome-<:er tip
.,,,,
'//
"'10º' ',// 105 95 ♦
+
♦
♦
♦
decom¡:csed GRANIE. 11 •
:.
~ ~
-:
~ ,,,~~~
,- + +
...... at20.17m t- 11
... 48. 77
.........
21. 23
... 13. 25 .
-.
++ ♦
t18. co + + Moderately strons grey and

...~8/3
17. 37
::-... 3

~ ~~
♦ + +
pink ccarse grained mediurn
~
~
,-
08.00
...... 48.00 §~ ♦
22 .00
♦
jointed modera-<:ely ::lecoriposed
GRANITE.
I: I:
.
... , - 21
..
~
+ ♦
~
-~ ♦
Strong, ::icle pink and grey

---
95 8: + +
~
'/,, 11ediurn jointed sli,:rhtly 11 •
....... ~ ~~ + + + .:
~
decompcsed GRANIE.

~ v,,~~
... -- + +
+ ♦ ♦ :
...
~

,-
9.60
12.C0 -- + ♦ -
-..
-
-- 23 + + +

~ ~~
~ 14. 93
~ 13.CO
:
+ + --
t + + + .
::- -
~ [:;:~ -.
+ +
: + + ♦ --
-- -
~
87 96
~
+ +
~ [:;:~
.
: - 24 + + ♦ -:
~ V,
v~
---
~

~
+ +
~ + + + -
....
~
-- 1 + ♦ .:
~
~ -
-- ~v + + +
+ +
-.
-
~~
~
~

...
>- -
-- 25
+ + +
+ + ---
~
-- J:'~ 93 88 + + + --
......
~

~~ ---
+ +
t :
- + + ♦
+ + -
~~
13.4c,
t is.oc,
: 44. 05 -
---
25. 95
16
...
~ -- Hale completed at 25.95 11
---
-
t
~
~
;:_
::-...
......
:
--
---
~

-
>-
~
~
>- 27
.........
~

--
.......
~
....... ---
~

...
~ ......... --
-
¿a
::--
-t -:
i-

- --...
t
--
-
~
~

.......
~ -- ~ 29 -..
~

...
~
= ... .
.
t.
--
~

-...t.
~
-.
.
.
>-- · -
Legend
~
- · >-- -- -- -- t--30-----> - -

Rerrarks Piezometer installation

---- - - ------- ---- - --
Sea le 1 :50
W.R. Water return l. Piezometer tip at 20.17 m.
l..arge di str·Jbed sam¡::1 e 2. SarG fil-cer fro'll 20.32 to ~9.32 m. Loggec by;_ .!K....
1
t
Undisturbec sample
Standard penetration test
J. Bertonite ball seal from 22.32 te 20.32 rr ar.d ~9.32 to 17 .32 m.
4. G"outed from 25. 95 :o 22.32 m and 17 32 to s urface.
Checked by : il~
1 Piezometer tip Oate : 12/3/7_9
D
~
Maz1er sample
Fermeability test
Contractor : - -
Date started : 2!}/J/79 - - - - - - - - -
rn Mo sture content
I
Date -Fini shed : '§j3179
- 1

Figure 2.7 - Sheet Three of Lag of Drillcore Shown in Plates 2.15 to 2.26
 215

Area ratio _(Net projected area of sampler)

-(Projected area of sample core)
02w - 02e
02e

Inside clearance =( ID of sample tube)-(Dia.at cutting edge)

(Dia. at cutting edge)

0utside clearance=(OD of shoe -(0D of sam le tube

0D of sample tube)
=Dw - Dt
Dt

Figure 2.8 - Definition of Sampler Proportions

RQD
(Core lengths greater
Core Fracture than 100 mm measured Core
run index on centreline) recovery

T
· . 23 m

'
/ 1
2
3
1
1
4

l. 5 m .33 m 1.4
1

ffll

5
6
7
1.24 m
l 8
8
I.15 m

1.50 = 5 · 3;m run ~ = 6 3% l. 40 = 93%

l. 50
1.50 º

Figure 2.9 - Core Recovery and Fracture Indices

 GENERAL 1NFORMATION Day Month Year
Northing or
Chainage Eastings Elevation

$~~ 17 ,', 18 19 1
Method of0 Co-ordinates 1
Site IA1N1Y1W1H1E1R1EI Date 11 l OI Ol 3 17 16 I OperatorlA I e1 location 3 or cr.~1nage
(metres) 1 1 1 1 11 1 1 1 I 11 I I I I I 1
! By co-ordinatcs
2. Ch;aina.91:
3. On :att;atchcd m;ap/
drawing /photograph

Locality ~ Size .of [I] [I] Photograph[IJ Slope d i p M

~
No. of supplementary sheets Sketch Remarks
type local,ty of d1Scont1nu1ty data 32 m high. Sians of instabilitv.
1. N.i.tural
cxposurc
2. Construction
rxcav.i.tion
3. Tunnct
1. > 10m 2
2. 5- 10m2
3.1-Sm2
J.. <lm2
S Linc survty
O. No
1 Yu.
Dip
direct,on ™
1 OO
Sorne wedge failures have occured

ROCK MATERIAL INFORMATION

~
~ G]
Gra,n size Compressive
Colour
strength
Rock type GRANITE
1_ pinkish
------------ N
t-'
1 Light 1. pink 9. grey 1. Vr.ry coilrsr( >&0 mm) 1. Vcry wcak - c.i.n bt brokcn in !h• hand Oualifying tums m
2. Dark 2. rcddish
3. ytllowish
2. rtci
3. ycllow
10_ bl¡¡ck 2.Co:usc (2-60mm)
3. Mcdium (60µ - 2mm)
2. Wtak - crumblts unbtr firm blow:¡; with • pick
3. Mod. strong - indcnh.; with a pick
to dts:cribt rock Sligbt.!_y weatherecG __
J.. F"1nc ( 2- OOJJ)
J.. brownish J.. brown J. Strong- brc2ks with single h2mmcr blow
_ moderatelz.. weathered _
5. ol iYC 5. ol ÍYC S. Vtry fine(< 2JJ) S. Vtry s1rong - rcquircs scYcr.i.l h2mmcr blows to bre.i.k
6.
7.
grunish
bluish
6. grun
7. blut
on joints. ______
8. grcyish 8. whitc

ROCK MASS INFORMATION UNE SURVEYS TO DETERMINE DISCONTINUITY SPACINGS

Plunge Trend Length of No. of
of line of line line ( me tres) fractures Spacing Remarks
ITJ f ~ No. of major [1]3
~
St
Fabric Block s,ze ate O
weathering
2 discontinu,ty
set
Line 1 0,0 1 1 ,o 1 1610 J.17 f:. ~arel f fl9p~ 1 1 1
0
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
l. Blocky
2. T.i.bul2r
1. Ycry l:argt { >8m3)
2. L2rgt ( 0.2 - 8m3)
t. Fr•sh
2. S1i51htly
Line 2 0,0 1 o 1 1 1 ,4,8 ,Í+¡O r~ ~e~ml lrvrl I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

3. Columncr 3. Mcdium (0.008 - 0.2 m3 l

•. Small {0.0002- 0.008m3J
3. Modtr2tcly
4. Highly
Line 3 8,0 110,0 1 1312 1510 zt Centre
1 1 1 \in,e pf, slpP,e , 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

S. Vcry ,m211 ( O. 0002 m 3 ) S. Complctc!y Discontinuity spacing 1. Ext. widt (<2ml J.. Mod. widc ( 60 - 200 mm) 7. Vcry n2rrow (4!6mm)
6. Rcs;idú2l soil 2. Vcry widc (600mm- 2m) 5 Mod. n:arrow (20- 60mm)
3. Wide (200- 600tnm) 6 N:arrow 1 6 - 20mm)

Figure 2.10 - Example of Description Sheet for Rock Mass Survey

GENERAL INFORMATION
Day Month Year
Seq 1- l7
~ ~
Discontinuity data of
No ~ Site!A,N ,v ,w,H,E ,R ¡E Date! 1 1 O I O 1 3 17 ! 1 sheet No. l____i_1J

NATURE ANO ORIENTATION OF DISCONTINUITIES ~

"~ ,,,, --~\, 1,0 ,, ~ .., 1:,"
~q, ~ . '"~ (:,'l., (:o-.:. (,.q; ~~ q,", q,(',~ . q,~ ·v--~
Chainage Dip ,l'-,:; ~-;¡,{:' ('.,,., º.if"""'"(~-s," ~ .,~,<-- ,,,...""' _,,,,...,« ~'Q.' _,,,,.,._(
\>-'< ',(' e,O '<-' V ~ ~' '<' ~ '<' ... '<' ,..,.,,,_, .,_,

1 1 1 1 ' 3 2 5,6 1 ,7 1 8 1 1 4 4
3i5 12 1 15 1 o 1 2¡o ¡0,5 1 1 1 1 ' ' 1 1 ' ' 1 ' 1 1 1
1 ' 1 1 1 4 2 8,6 3 1 1 1 3 1 1 1 '1 5 5 2 1- 15 1o 1 1 '1 o ;014 1 1 ' 1 1 1 ' 1
1 1 1
' 1 1 1
1 ' 1 1 1 5 2 8,6 2 13 1 5 ' 1 '1 9
7 2 1- 12 1o 1- 1 1 - 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
' 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 ' 1 1 6 2 6,6 1 1 7 ' 6 1 1 ¡7 6 6 ,5 14,0 1 - 1 1- 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 , 1 , 7 2 8,4 2,4,6 1 4i3 4 4

1 ,2 1 12 o1 ,2¡0 '1 O ,5 1 Sho~
1
hple1 shows
1 1 1
50i;nm1 rriovement
1 1 1 1

11 1 1 1 8 2 5,5 1 14 1 9 1 12 i 4 5 2 ,- 1 3 1o 1 1 15 i 1 1 o 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
' ' 1 1 1 1 1 1
N
,_.
11 1 1 19 1 4,4 ,6,4 ,2,5¡0 3 4 14 2,0,0 ,3¡0 ¡O 18 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 --..,

11 ,2,0 2 9,0 1 14 14 1 1 1i 9 7 6 15 12,0 1 oi 5 ¡0,5 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I

1 1 1 2 1 1 2 8,2 2 ,3 1 4 1 13 1 3 4 2 ,- 11 oo I 11 i 5 ¡0,3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 ,2,2 2 8 1 1 2 13 1 2 1 1 ¡4 7 2 1- ,2,0 1- 1 1- 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 2 3 2 612 1 1 4
1 14 1 1 1i 3 5 2 ,- ,5,0 1 1i o ;015 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 2 1 4 1 810 2,6 ,3 11 1 8 i o 3 4 14 210,0 ,4¡5 i 2 1o 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

' ' 1 1 1
' '
Type Dip, Dip direction Persístence Aperture Nature of infilling Consistency of infilling Roughness Waviness water
O. Fault zont ( Exprcsscd in ( Exprcss.:d 1. Wide t >200 ,THT, l 1 Citan Soil strength Rock strrngth l. Poi ished Expru.s 1. Ory
1, Faull dcgrus) in metrul 2 twlod. wide:{60-200mm) 2. Surlict stiining l. Soft S.Wnk 2.S.licktnsided w.i.nlrngth 2. Su.p.i.gr
2 .Joint 3. Mod. narrow( 20-60mm) 3. Non- cohuive 2. Firrn 6. Mod. strong 3. Smooth & 2mplitude 3.Slighl flow<0.11/Hc
J. Cluv¡¡¡gc 4,N;nrow {6- 20mm) 4. Cohesivc 3. Stiff 7. Strong 4. Rough in mc1ru -'-Mod. flow 0.1-1 1/s.u
4_ Schist05Hy S. Vcry n2rrow (2-6 mml !i. Ctrmntcd 4. Hird S. Vtry st ron~ 5.0dintd ridgu 5. High flow >0.1 1/sec
S. Shc2r 6. Ext. nilrrow 6. C.1.lcitt 6. Small slopr
6. Fis.sur• (<2 mm) 7. Chloritc, tille 1. Vtry rough
7. Tcnsion cr¡¡ck 7. light 8. Others - spccify
8. Foti.i.tion
9_ Bedding

Figure 2.11 - Example of Data Sheet for Discontinuity Survey

 218

Joint planes or joint

set concentrations
N
1• 50º /118º
2 • 70º /212º
3 • 29º /075º
4 • 85º /314 º

X 2/3 ,, /
Daylight envelope -- ,,
- .,,,1/4
X
/

Friction xx3 4
circle
(~ = 35º) _J

Toppling
1 envelope ~
Slope great circle _J Slope
direction = 140º
angle = 60º

Interpretation :
UNSTABLE - Plane 1 daylights and dips at more than 35º
- Plane 4 may result in toppling
- Planes 1 and 2 combine to forma daylighting wedge that
dips at more than 35º
STABLE - Plane 2 does not daylight
- Intersections 1/4, 1/3, 2/4, 3/4 do not daylight
QUESTIONABLE- Plane 3 and intersection 2/3 daylight but dip at less
than 35º. Would be unstable if friction angle less or
water pressure reduces strength.
- If pole 3 represents concentration of set, check that
individual points do not daylight or form wedges.

Legend :
el Pole of plane (plane 1)
xl/2 Pole of line of intersection (planes 1 and 2)

Note : ( 1) vlater is not taken i nto account

(2) Cohesion and characteristics of individual joints are not
taken into account
(3) Wedges may not actually be developed in the field
(4) Results should be checked by a site visit

Figure 2.12 - Example of a Stereoplot

 219

SOILS SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

~ Bou l ders, Cobbles 1~

6
~ ~ f! Breccia

1 oo o o ºo
: 1 Gravel 1 o .
o .
o o
o o o o
:1
o
o Conglomera te

I> .••..• :.<••·1 Sand 1 ·..• :I Sandstor.e

1xxxxxxx
X X X X1
Si lt Si ltstone
1 11 11 11 1

1 1 Clay Mudstone

I''"',..,, .."'.~' ,...w 1

Peat ~ Shale

METAMORPHIC ROCKS

~ Sl a te, Phyll i te ~ Quartzite

~ Schist

IGNEOUS ROCKS
(a) For general use
[•·. <·.• 1 Weathered granite [··.. ".•.··..·.·.;, ;.[ Weathered volcanic

J; • : 1 Granite [~ y
01 Volcanic
(b) For detailed use
1++ +
+ + + +1
+ + .... Granite • .. ~ "I
1·.+:.+·:.+·:+·. Rhyol ite

1·+ X ...
X X 1
+ + + Granodiorite V~/·t·~-~:'.t:-'.:¡ Andesite, Trachyte

[~ X
X
X
X ~[ Diorite, Syenite 1~
V
V
V
V ~[ Agglomerate

1 .l -¡ 1
~uartz monzonite 1 V ll 1/ ll V 1
ó. V !:J. \/ ll Volcanic breccia
Ademe 11 ite)
1·+: + ·..... ··+' 1 Microgranite ¡ vvvvvvvvv l Tuff
~+ :+:.+:+:. v v v v·v
(Gran1te porphyry, Felsite)

~· X= . X '. X~
X . X ,X
Microdiorite - Syenite
(Porphyrite, Porphyry)
I"'~.-.!-~<.
" ""· "·:1
:.(. Microgabbro
(Dolerite)

Figure 2.13 - Legend for Use on Logs

 220

TR!AL PIT NO. TPN 6

FACE C Sheet 3 of

Type o f excava tor Con tractor Study area

Location
Type of pump (if used) _J'jj2 _ _ _ _ _ Date dug : _llLJ.L-ª2___ _
Ground le\/el : _BL_0.2._1!.!..?~,---
Timbering ._N.i.l ____ _ Date backfilled _?{_4~2_ _ _ _ Coordinate

Profi le of face C
Water
ConC:itions Oescri pt ion Grade
t-~--Width = m

Loos;-;;i'l~ ~ ~ r e ~ b ~ s i l t y
fine to medium SANO with sorne angular i;ravel
of concrete and pieces of glass, plastic and
other general rubbish; roots througtiout.
( FILL)
86. 69 D.4
Loase to mediurn dense brown textureless sandy

-
SILT with yellow-white sub-rounded cobbles
and gra\/el of moderately and highly
decomposed granite with iron-stained patinas;
UlOO
roots throughout (SLOPE\>IASH).
:_!!-,-C':-'""'1.Top 100 mm is greyish brown humic sandy silt,
( D.8)
ld to;:isoil.

Damp .. ...-:.....:... . . Very dense yellowish brown-white SAND (HIGHLY

DEC:JMPOSE:l GRANJ-;-E) wi th cores tones of very
te /+ + " · .
l. 2 m 85 .89 .1 weak highly to moderately deco:nposed GRANITE IV
·•.. ·.; + + + + ,· . and with rel~ct joints; dry. with
Dry
.'/ + + + ¡.. sorne
lll/
·/+ + ++++++ l :. IV

+ + +
+ +
··A> I
Dry to + + + /!•
2.0 m 85. 09 + + /- •• · .
t-----+-----+----t--2.0-1-----~-~-~-~~---1------------------+---t
Trial pit complete at 2.0 m depth as
instructed.

2. 5

3.0

3. 5

4.0

4. 5

Legend Remarks : Plan : I j N

Scale 1:25
•
I [] t
Smal l di sturbed sample Large granite corestone is

-...'
Large disturbed sample exposed adjacent to Face D.
Undisturbed sample, vertical Logged by ; - I.G.
Squatter pl atfor:n adjacent to Checked by : _ _ _
Undisturbed sample, horizontal ."ace A.
l!I Block samJle Date 18/3/82
~ater sampl e
Insitu density test
'
m Moisture content
Fig. No.

Figure 2.14 - Trial Pit Lag - Example 1

 221

TRIAL PJT NO. TPN

FACE B and D Sheet of 2

Hand d_.!:!,9 _____ _ Study area

Type of excavator Contractor
Location
Type of purrp ( if used) Ni1 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Date dug :_1&/1/BZ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Ground level : 83.71 m.P.D. _ _ _ _
Timbefl ng Nil _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Date backfilled :_fl4.L_Bl._ _ _ _ _ _ _ Coordinate E 41376. 14 N 19198. 55
Depth Profi le of face
Water Reduced Depth
conditions ( samp le l evel (me tres) 1 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - t Description Grade
& tests) t-----\ilidth = 1.4 m - - - - - t

-o- Concrete (surface of oerm)

Corrpacted light brown fine to coarse SANO
with sorne angular gravel of slightly
decomposed grariite; layered s'.:ructure with
horizontal layers of angular gravel up to
70 mm thick; sorne angular cobbles of granite
0.S from 0.4-0.6 m depth. (FILL)
82. 57 0.6 ~..:;;....:.~~ri'r~:;::j~;'t;-::::~:::;-:~~:-;;-::;'-=:::-~;:-:-:=---i---t
Large angular BOULOERS of ;:iirk 1~ith iron
staining slightly decomJosed granite;
+ boulders are in point contact with voids
between. ,: FI LL)
1.
82.07
rge angular BOUL)ERS and sorne cobbles of
ightly decomposed granite in a matrix of
ium dense light brown fine to coarse SANO.
Dry to ILL)
1.5 m a:. 57 l. 5
.. . ·. +. ------- - -----
Damp : • Dense I ight brown fine to :::oarse SANO with
.. A. . .. ·,'o..
(,. . .o .. sorne angular gravel of moderately and nighly

-l
de:::omposed granHe; no layering. (FILL;

UlOO
·. O; derived from decompcsed granite)

Oamp to <:J . l) Fill is well compacted; excavation by pick

resul ted in groove marks.
2.1 m {2. O) 81. 07
Trial pit complete at 2.1 m depth as
i nstructed.

Profile of face

-+----width ª 1.4 m-----t

i-a~~~~~....,.~~~~=-~'-"Churiam, 10 mn thi:::k, over sand/lime ;-iortar,

25 mm üick, over 1 ight b"m,m SANO wi th sorne
-t-.,..-C~~--'-c---,.oe=----:---r-'-:=--;9rav el . ( FI LL)
r~---------------~,
Larger angular BOULDERS and sorne cobbl es of
sl ightly decomposed granite in a matrix of
medium dense 1 ight brown fine to coarse
SANO. (FILL)

. .' A
. ·. v. Dense light brown fine te coarse SANO wi th
Oamp to sone angular gravel of moderately anc: highly
1.6 m O.·: decomposed granite. (FILL)

Legend

•
-...'
111
Small disturbed sample
Large disturbed sample
Undisturbed sample, verticc.l
Unidsturbed sample, horizontal
Block sample
Water sampl e
Insitu density test
Remarks

Voids in boulder layer appear to

be present beneath benn only. Pla{n
...., D
o~C B
0
berm
ncretolN
~
Scale

Logged by
Checked by . __
:25

Date ,_ _!llQ@_2_

m
' Moisture content
Chunam C
slope
Fig. No. :

Figure 2.15 - Trial Pit Log - Example 2

 222

Slope No.: 11SW-B/CR685 __ _ TRIAL PIT No.

TP - 6
Location : Garden Road
--------- Sheet 1 of 1
Logged by Excava ti on method: Han~ il.imb~ .2.hori !!l!. fu lj_ Date Excavated : .l-.L 1981...
hei_gb:U__
Date 5.1.83 Co-ordinates:E. 34444.44 N. 15555.55 Date Backfilled: 20.1.1983
Samples Oepth FACE A : FACE B FACE C FACE O
& Tests m. width 1.60 m width 1.40 m width 1.60 rn width 1.40 rn

1
1 o
♦ lA e 7..r o l(

18. 'º
<::>
~ X .
- F, \\ .
2 2 X
111
♦ 2A •
7
7.J""
2B •
B~ul3er

3
♦ 3Ae
3
-u-
x r- Brick .
.
.
e:::::>
3B•

.f.
4 4 L X
♦ 4A • 7.I"" o )C o o
4B e l( X Oo
o o
l( X X O

Base of pit

Legend Description Grade Plan (not to scale)

:_.,,__. F·,· Loase, light brown gravelly silty SANO (FILL)
·..;_;,.:,¡:Loase, light brown silty SANO with sorne
•0 ~F 2 gravel and rnany roots (FILL)
:>r-_-o·.·: Loase.to rnediurn dense, reddish brown, clayey
·ó .·,;:. silty SANO with sorne gravel and pieces of
glass and brick (FILL)
a...;....:...::.--'-l
Soft dark brown, organic, clayey SILT with
trace of gravel (OLD TOP SOIL)
9'-....L.-'-'-'I
Soft, reddish brown gravelly, silty CLAY
(COLLUVIUM MATRIX). Slakes easily. Hand .1. Plate bearing ♦ Large dist .
Penetrometer strength ~ 40 kPa. No rebound test sarnple
L..._...::...J to N Schmidt harnrner lnsitu density -undist. sarnple,
y ,.
test hori .
Moderately decornposed (grade 111) sub-angular 111
m Moi sture 1 Undist. sarnple,
,.O r
and angular cobbles of volcanic rock
content test vert.
.& Water sarnple li! Block sarnple
f' (COLLUVIAL FRAGMENT) N Schmidt harnrner
O r rebound value 32
J Seepage i:::J Photograph
Small dist.
f' • D • sampl e + Bench rnark
Contractor : CONTRACTOR NAME
Works Order No. : .JL1~5- ___ _ ENGINEER NAME

Figure 2.16 - Trial Pit Log - Example 3

 223

DRILLHOLE NO. : LTN 11

Sheet No. 1 of 1
Study a rea Job No.
------------------ ·------
E _jfi'.E_.~_
Co-crdi na tes : _ogged by TG
Loca:ion ------------------ N _J:t.f_S.2..,~_

Con::ractor Groi.,nd 1e\lel :_9_;;,_. .Q_J!!.. .2..,Q,__ Date of works :

-----------------
22/2/82 te 25/2/82

DeJÜ Sample
Dai l y
Core of Core Reduced Oescri pt ion of strata Grade
pr-o- .eg end De~th
barrel Casing Fielc ::ests, sa;rples 1 evel
gress (si ze) and instrumentation Rec.
. [ªW:. F1

m (mm) o 50 m m. F·.o.
'

~
21 . 1 lrspection J. t Concrete s l ab, 100 mll th i :::k. L-
ex:::avated to 1 . 5 m 1-
de::ith. Reccvered as angJl ar COBBLES and l erg e L

GRAV:L of medium to coarse grained L

N' 1.0 sl i g1tly d ecompc sed grani te; 11atri x L...

1
1os t.
L-
':e" ll.L :1
L-
1-
1-
2.0 ~

L-
L

X L

L-
3.0
L...
L-
1-
L
'!/' L

~- 4.0 L...

t
%
,. 5 o
L

L..

'-
~

5 4 86.2 '-

.. Ni 1 recovery.
( F I LL 1'1: pr::ibably preví ous cultiva ti on
L

L..
::O 6.0 te·"race)
L...
✓

'-

.5 ~ 1 ? L

~
,¡ y
? L
,:,;, 7 .o L...
I Brow1 \ '-
Ji and b l ack el ayey sandy s:LT w1tr

8
SPT - - rVil traces of rel i et grani te texture
7.:) 84.1 L
( 7. 5-8 .O) ( C:)MPLETEL Y DECOMPOSED 3RANITE).
~

·• . +.
,_
L

·+ ·+. I
22 2 8.0 • -]
-+·+ S .2 83.
Strong pi ~k with i r~n sta"ning coa rs e
to mediun grained widely jointed
\ ~ VI
23 )
( 120)
' sl ightly decomposed GRAtH TE.

/'Yi
~

T2-18'. 8. 2 Pi ezo·nEter + + '-

( 120) - LTN l la 76 o ro
+ + + Modera te l y weak sl ightly to modera te 1y
decomposec zen e at 3. 2-8. 7 m, recove red ~
+ + '-
/// as angLlar ccbble-size core JlECes.
+ + + 9. J L--

V/ + +
+ + +
Sub-,,ertical incipient b l ack s'::a'red
joirts frcm 8.7-9.~ >: frorn !0.8- ~
L

]'.

0
93 ni l ll.0 a.e very el ese spaced pl 2nar L-
+ + "
iron-stained sub-hor' zon!al joints. L-
+ + + 10.)

Ré>marks Legend Type oº bar; ng/d,..ill . ne;

Fro11 si te fomation draw· n,:: ria. ¡)_/31)794, cric mal 't/R Water return Fotary water f" ush
ground l 2VE1 befo re con~tructi on oº fi 11 plaiform and
playgrou'ld was a pro~. 86 m. p.).
• Smal l disturbEd sa·nple
Di a·neter of bori ng/dri 11 in~
f
U75, JOC
Large d1stJrbed samp le

Lndisturbed dri ve
e oc . 6. :.:J m 140 mm
6 se . B. 20 m 120 mm
8 20 L .50 m [,)] mm
samp les of 76 1l71 or
Mo rn i ng / ev en i ng water 1eve' s l:Jü mm di a. (blow '.l . 50 . 12.10 m 89 mm

Da te 22-2 22- 2 23- 2 23 2 14-1 14-2

count, der,::th) :2. -º . 18.10 m 75 mili
□ r Mazier sample
lH De;:ith . B.O 8. ,J 13. 1 13 .1 ]8. l SP, Standard r:ienetratio'l Casing tu bes
test ~ ·valL,e; (blo1,· O. 00 6 . 50 Px
Casing . B.O 8.0 11.1 l 2. l l 1 .] coun t/ pen. , deprn :1 6 so 8. 20 l 06
.-Ja ter
1
3.0 2. 9 3. :i 7 .B 7. 6 :§: PermeaCi 7 i ty test 8 . 20 11. 10 Nx

Figure 2.17 - Example of Sheet One of Drillhole Log

 224

DR'.LLHO,E NO. l TN ll

Study Area ~ ob Ne. Sheet No. : 2 of 2

----------------- ·------
E _4~4V.JL
Location ---------------- Co-ordinates
N ..1,-1.s~,L Logged by : TG
Contractor ---------------- Ground l evel :_9..l.Ji_o:...PJ_
Date of Works
22/2/82 to 25/2/82

Depth Samp ~ e
Dail y
Cor e of Core Reduced
pro- Leg,er¡d Jepth Description o' strata Grade
g ress
barrel casing F' el d tests, sampl es Re:::. qo. l evel
( s" ze; and "nstru11e'ltat1on ;{, ., F1

rn (m-r.) J 50
. m m. P.O.
T2-1:Jl

- t?j /
+ +
+ +
100 r i l + + +
+ +
+ + + 11. e 80.6
Slig'ltly éecomposec GRANITE ( see Sheet 1
for details).
....
....
....
~
11

... 38 n il 3. 75
..'.'
+.+ l\il recovery frcm 11.0-11.5 m and ~

V ·+ + 11 .8-12. 1 m.
....-~ sp- -2: ~

(L.5-11 ' . + . +. J ar samJle Ne. 2 ccntains pi nk SANO 1<.'ith

>- 'I
1' l s-=ine sil i::; rel i et grani te i::exture.
• -2 . + . T. >-
.. : :OMPLETEL Y o::cCMPCSEC GRANITE)
·t +. -12. 1-1-- 79 .5- t-
>---
TNW l~9 l //,
86 /
+ + +
+ +
o .: +:+ +.+_
12 5 79. l Stror.g plílk ccarse to medi:,n grained
rrainly 1videly ~ointed s1 ightly decompcsed
>-
~
t---
Il

;/
35 6
be:::omin~ fresh below 13 .2 m, GRAN ITE.
~ 12 .8 78 .8 Modera te l y,h i g 1 l y de:::om;iosed zone a t iI I/1V
23 - 2 + + + :2.5-12.8 m re:::overed a5 angular cobbles. -11
- + + Sub-horizortal joint with grade 111
-
24 - 2 // + + + fri nges at 13. l rr; pl anar s11coth ti qh t
jcints, 40", at l 2. 95, 13. 2 and 14, 8 lll; -
// 73 1.11 + +
+ + +
+ + 14. J
close jcinted zone, undul ati rg, ;;rnooth to
rcugh, black-stained a t 15.0-15.Jir.
Ni l joi rts 15. 5-17. 1
"·
-
-
-

~
+ + +
+ +
-
100 + + +
-
nil
+ +
Si,b-verti cal incipient ~oints wi th
cílorite vein i nfi; l , 1-2 mn thi ck, at
-
// 15. O 17.1-17.6 m; undulating, iror-stained, -
..
+ + +
ti ght, SJb-norizontal jo'nts at 17. 1 Hl -
..
1//
/1co/ 78 5. O
+ +
+ + +
acd 17. 2 1·1; planar, sncoth, tight joi rt
with «:aclinite coating at 18. J m.
-
- l
+ + -
1// + + +
+ +
16. D --
L/ 97 l. 29
+ + +
+ +
--
-
½
/
+ + +
+ +
+ + +
17.0
-
-
-
1//j
·~· Pi ezometer + +
~ ":N + + + -
l lb
/ /
-
24 2
~
(89)
2.:
..
.
)D:;,-~ 100 ni l + +
+ + +
-18.
73. 5 -
--
/
'
Ori ll hol e complete a"'.: 18.1 m depth.
-
---
-~

>-
>-
'
Reriarks Legend -:-ype of bcri rg/dri 11 i rg

Pi ezometer :.. ~¡,, . lb installed at 17. 5 m dEJth bel 01~· ground ',R ha ter return Rotary water fl ush
surfa-:::e 'ili th sane; fi lter from 18.1 Hl to lD. 5 n, be~toni t2
sea l from 10.5 111 to 8.5 m; pi ezcmeter .. rn lla installed at
• Sma 11 di s '::L rbed sar1p le

8. O m dep"'.:h below grour:d sJrface with sa rd fil ter from

8.5 m te 6. 5 m, bentonite seal from 6.5 m to 4. 5 m and
cement-bent:rnite grout from 4.5 m to g rou nd surface.
f
U7 6,: O:J
Lar~e distJrb2d samp7e

Undisturbed drive
Ciarreter of tori ng/dri l l i ng
C.00 6 JO m 140 mm
E. 5C 8. 20 m 120 mm
samp les of 76 mrr -::ir 8. 2C - 11 . JO m 101 mm
Morning/eve:-iing water leve l s IDO mm d-ia. ( blow l l.5C - 12. 10 m 89 mm
count, de¡:,th) 12. 1 e - 13. 10 lll 75 mm
Date
1 □M ~azier samp le
BH depth 1
SPT Standard penetration Casing tu bes
See S1eet l test N 1:a 1ue; ( blow O. OC - 6. JO m p,
Casing 1
,,:ount/pen., dept'l) 6. se - 8. 20 m 106
Water 1
2 Pe.-meabi 1 i ty tES t 8.20 - 12. 10 m fh

Figure 2.18 - Example of Sheet Two of Drillhole Log

 225

FIEL □ DATA FROM WATER ABSORPTION TEST

DRILLHOLE No. ____ T3 ___ TEST No. __ 4_ ___ _

Date of test _JVJl/JS ______ Tested by _______ MKF __________ _

Packer type (delete as necessaryTested section from J9_._8J_m_to _2_2__,_ª-~Dl-
single/double Depth of hale at time of test __ 33.84 m__
pneumatic/hydraulic/mechanical Details of casing at time of test ___-____ _
Packer pressure --- · - - - - - - - --- -- Gau9e height above ground level __ 1.32 m _
Depth to centre of test section (measured down line of drillhole- -21.34 ------·
m
Depth to groundwater level (measured down line of drillhole) _________ _

FIRST PERICO Gauge pressure 124 kPa

-------------

Time (minutes) o 5 10 15 Average

1

Flowmeter Flow
Dipstick reading ( l ) 218.6 229.3 239. 9 , 250. 7 (7/min)
i i

Water take ( l ) 10.7 1

1 o. 6 1 10.8 1 2. 14
SECOND PERIOD Gauge pressu1·e __ 248 tPa __ _
Time (minutes) O 5 i 10 15 ! Average
:' Flow
Flowmeter
readinCJ ( l ) 281.8 296.4 311.2 326.3 (l/min)
Dipstick 1

Water take ( l ) 14.6 1 14.8 1 15.1 1

THIRD PERIOD Gauge pressure __ 3z2_ _l<~a_ ___ _

Time (minutes) o 5 10 15 Average
Flowmeter Flow
reading ( l ) 255.9 276.6 297.5 318.5 (l/min)
Dipstick
Water take ( l ) 20.1 1 20.9 l 21.0 l 4. 17
FOURTH PERIOD Gauge pressure __ 248 kPa __ _
Time (minutes) O 5 10 15 Average
Flowmeter Flow
Dipstick reading ( l ) 54.5 69.9 85.4 101.1 (7/min)
Water take ( l ) 15.4 l 15.5 ¡ 15.7 ! 3. 1O
FIFTH PERIOD Gauge pressure __ l24_kP_§ __ _
Time (minutes) o 5 10
7 15
Average
' Flow
Fl owmeter reading ( l )
Dipstick 377. 3 388. 61 400. o 411 . 5 1
(7/min)
Water take ( l ) 11.3 1 11.4 1 11.5 1 2.28

Figure 2.19 - Example of Field Sheet for Water Absorption Test

 226

WATER ABSORPTION TEST

DRILLHOLE No. - _ l)_ - - - - TEST No. 4
-------

Test section from 19.81 m to 22.86 m

Date of test - - -24/11/75
--------- Depth of hale at ti~eoft;st _ -33~84-;;;-_
Packer type (delete as necessary Diameter of hale in test area - - _ !_O~ _mf!l. __
SÍR§le/double
pneumatic/hydraulic/mechaRical Drillhole inclination from horizonta}_~Qº_
Packer pressure ____________ Casing details ______ -------------
Rock type _______ GRANITE GRADE_lI_ ____
FLOW GUAGE PRESSURE FRICTION HEADLOSS TOTAL HEAD
LEGEND OF
hea-d of in basi c in extra h
TEST SECTION q units water pipe rods or
l itres/min kPa work pipes (2+3+6-7-8)
___ 3.05 m___ ------ m m
m m
( 1) ( 4) ( 5) (6) (7) (8) (9)
VERTICAL DEPTH
TO GROUND-
WATER FROM
2. 14
2.96
4. 17
124
248
12.6
25.2
37.8 ......(b
/ 35.26
47.86
G.L. _ _?~-}~ m(2) 372 .'<:) 60 .116
• o,'
HEIGHT OF '
......
~'l,o,
PRESSURE 3. 1O 248 25.2 47.86
GAUGE ABOVE 2.28 124 12.6 35.26
G.L. __1__'.¿2_ m(3) //
1
i
5
~

QJ
....., 1
,,
:::,
<::
4
-~E : #
.....__ v~ ~
V1 3 ~A
~
QJ
5-
....., ,~
·~
r- 2
_.--e > :::;.---
~
~ ~
~
o-
~
~
1
\ ~
¡ ~~
o 10 20 30 40 50 60
h (metres)
FROM GRAPH q¡h = - _3_.~l5_l¡_ - - Tested by Calculated
100
L = 7h"q = 2.06
---------
lugeon units by
where l = length of test section in metres MKF
1--------- L._-------

Note If groundwater level unknown ar below test section use depth

to centre of test section.

Figure 2.20 - Example of Calculation Sheet far Water Absorption Test

 227

FALLING-HEAD PERMEABJLITY TEST

FJELD DATA : Barehale . . . . . . . . . . . . Date ............

Depth 07
Dril l hale ............ Observer . . . . ABC
. . . .. . . .
Time Time af water ht
on elapsed below top ht =
clock of casing (d1 - dt) ha Use anly CLEAN water far the test.
min sec = dt Has water been added during baring? ')15/No
o 9. 601 m 3 .129 m 1. 000
Interna 1 di ameter af
1 o 9.854 2.876 0.919 casing = 127 mm
2 o 1O.109 2.621 0.838
--
?7
3 o 10.300 2.430 o. 777 . -
o
"O
4 o 10.484 2.246 0.718 Depth of casing = 1. 07 m I{= - -~
above G.L. ....,
5 o 10.668 2.062 0.659 G. L. "O

, ., .,
6 o 10.826 l. 904 0.608 "
~-
. -~
7 o 10.985 l. 745 G.558 Depth of water
~

-o
o
8 o 11. 100 1. 630 0.521 at time of test .e
= 11 . 66 m bel ow ....,
9 o 11. 227 l. 503 0.480 G. L. .e

10 o 11. 366 1.364 0.435

15 o 11. 824 o. 906 0.290 - ~ w- ,__ -----w _.,_
20 o 12.065 0.665 0.212
Depth of casing
= 10.67 m below
G. L.
l. o
0.9 -- - - --
0.8 - 1 1
O. 7 - 1 1
O. 6 - Depth af hale 1 1
= 12.9 m bel ow 1 1 L = 2. 23 m
0.5
ÍT = 12.0 min G. L. 1
1
1
1
..+,J: o 1
..e !..e: o. 4 - ---~-.J- _L_

4-- 0.37 ~ - - · - - -
~
o
a,
::, 0.3>- 1
';;; 0.25>- 1
> Diameter of hal21
0.2- 1 below casing,
1
D = 140 mm
0.15>- 1

0.1 ' ' ' ! . . '

o 2 4 6 [l 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
Time (mi n)
CALCULA TIONS :
K =A
FT,
0,)40 2 TT
where : A = 4 = 0.01539 m2
F = 2.5 (based an case (d) in Figure 7 in B.S. 5930 : 1981)
T = 12 mi n x 60 = 720 sec
A -- 0.01539 = 8 5 x 10- 5 m/s
therefare : K -- TT 2.5x720 ·

Figure 2.21 - Example of Results and Calculation Sheet far

Falling-head Test
 Bi-modal
01-03 strength / /
q = 2 envelope /

N
N
o:,

_
Material
dilating -1- Material
compressing _
P' = 01 '+0 ,. '
2 '

Critical
pressure

Figure 3.1 - Typical Stress Paths and Strength Envelope for Undrained (CU) Triaxial Tests
 229

TRIAXIAL COMPRESSION TEST - SUMMARY OF SOIL PROPERTIES

Consolidated undrained with p.p.m. Single stage

Project Ref. B.H.No. A

Sample No., Type & Nominal Dia. 2/M/76 Depth 5.7-6.3 m

3
115
Befare I After Befare I After Befare After
Di ameter of spec imen __ mm 76:~ 76. O ! 76.0
~~g_t__h__o_f__ sp_e_c_im~n_____ mm 152.0:, 152.0 1
152. O!
VOLUME OF SPECIMEN _ crn 689.5~_L664.71y_89.54_J{3f37.04 689.54j670_.~4
3

~Wet mass of specimen 9¡1302.1

-1------- - - --,.-
1308.1 1313.7 1313.7 1318.7 1318.1
------- ___ ___..,.__________._ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

Drymassofspecimen
1------- - -- - ----,, - -------
91024.1, 1031.9
------r----------- --
--------------r------ -
1037.1 ___ .,. ___ ~

Mass of moisture ____g__~2_78.0_,}8~_-Q __?81.8 . 282.0 281.6 - 28_1._-_(l_

MOISTURE CONTENT % 27.1 27.7 27.3 27.3 27.2 27.1
~WET DENSITY - -- Mg/~ 3-cl.89 T • 1.91_, -~-1.91 - -
...----------- - - - - - ---- -- - ----------- -+-- --+- - - - +- ------ - - -t- - ----+----- - .,¡__ -- --·-- - -

~_Y_DENSHY _____ Mg/m 3 L49 t l_-54__ 1~50 ~-l_.~~--J-50' 1 ~

Specific gravity _ _ ____ 2.69_j . 2.68____ -~-2-~~--i----
VOID RATIO 0.811 i 0.746 0.791 0.732' 0.769, 0.721
~- ~------ ------i--- - ----------------t----

DEGREE OF SATURATION % 90.0 : 92.5 94.0 1

----- - - - - - - - - --------+--- --4- - --·- --------1'--~-----f

SATURATED MOISTURE CONTENT % 30. 2 : 29. 5 28.9

Sketch of failed specimen

Red, yellov1ish
Red, brown & Red, borwn &
brown & black
Soi l Descri ption black very black very
gravel ly very
clayey SILT/ clayey very
el ayey si lty
SANO si lty SANO
SANO
COHESION e' kPa 3. 1
-·- ------ - - - - -- -- --- --- ___ ,________ - + - - - - - - - t i
ANGLE OF INTERNAL FRICTION~'deg 36.6
----- - - - - - ,-. - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - t i
LIQUID LIMIT (%) ---- ----
-- --- - -- --- - ------ - -- - - - - - - - 1
PLASTIC LIMIT (%) ,

-f§*'' _ ~:~0 ~ :; _fi- - ·= _-_l1--_-_-_=:=====~--º====:

6

>,! SILT 0.002-0.06 mm 36 32 23

ror------- ---- -------------- -------
* 1 CLAY <0.002 mm 20 24 21

Figure 3.2 - Example of Triaxial Test Soil Properties Data

 230

TRIAXIAL COMPRESSION TEST - GRAPHS

a '
Deviator Stress ¡----1, /Pare Pressure versus Axial Strain (%)
03

Project Ref. BH.No. A (Sample 2) Depth 5. 7-6.3 m

6 í
1

"'
t,
....___ 4-
- rl
t,

2
1
ro 80,
CI... 1

.o.e.
60 -
(IJ
s..
::::, 40 -
VI
VI
----..:115
(IJ
s.. 20
CI...
(IJ
s..
o
o
CI...
-20 - 35

240 - 1

220 ~
~---115
200
ro
CI...
.o.e. 180
~
160
"'
t,
1
rl
t,

VI
VI
(IJ
s..
35
+'
V)

s..
o
80
+'
ro 60
>
(IJ
o 40
20
o
o 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26
Axial St rain ( %)

Figure 3.3 - Example of Triaxial Test Graphical Data

 B. H. Spec. IDepthi (01-03). 1 1 Strain at xd Nat. Sat.
o1~ (cr1-CT3 )e }e :,u
failure Mg/ m/c m/c B= !'so
'"o
O 3e : (01'+r;3
No No ' (m) 1 kPa kPa kPa 2 2 m3 % % 3
! (%) '--'·
<D
.,~- A 1 5.7 110 49 159 55 104 i 23.03 11.49 27.1 30.2 1.00
n
e+
lO
e:
'
<D ------t-·
2
' --- -- ----
6.0 168 r' - -1--- --~-- ------ -
64 i 232 '. 84 148
-------
-t-
1
------

8.33
1
1. 50 27.3 29.5
--

0.99
n
o
::::l
lfl
o ---i
;o
w 1
1
3 6.3 210 ¡ 83 293 105 188 17.35 l. 50 27.2 28.9 0.98 ~-
~

D.
>----<
:e,
+> OJ ><
Note e= end point e+ >----<
:e,
<D
rn D. r
X
OJ 120 e:
::::l
n
o
3
-o ;o D. 3:
"Cl
'~-
~
<D OJ ;o
<D --+,
rn
o--+, ::::l U)

100 <D
D.
U)
>----<
---i o
z
'~-
:E
OJ ~
~-
e+ ---i
::r rn
~-
X
OJ
ro
o...
-""
80 "Cl
U)
---i 1
N
w
,~
~

---i
~

N
.::r:
C)J
"Cl

<D 3: "Cl
z r
lfl
e+ ----=
~

o o
b 60 ---i
-o
-
1
r-l
X (kPa) e degrees 1 tan e :e, .,
o
1
.o
----
U)
-b
2.5
J
30.8
L
O. 596
- - - - --------
~

U)
OJ
U)
---i
;o
e+ 40 1
3
-o rn
'm ~'= Sin- tan e= 36.6 degrees
lfl
--- - - -----·------ --
~

<D ~-
U)

::::l
U)
U)

-
lfl -- - - - - ---- ,.

"-' LO "Cl
"Cl ,_ X _ 3 .1 kPa
~

<D
:e,
---i
OJ
20 e - Cos ~' - o ::r:
e+ ro
::r -o lfl U)

e+ e+
"Cl _, OJ
~ <.O
o 07 <D
e+ o --J
o 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 1
O)

w
(01
1
+03
1
)/2 (kPa)
3
 232

J J J ¡ JRainfall

t Evapotranspiration
Infiltra ti o
'>
"'- rfacet
"'- noff
echarge ~
Evaporation
'>
vaporation
Colluv'iu 1 Spri ng
1 seepage t t
Weathered ~~~~
rock

Bedrock

Legend :
-w - Water table
-1w1- Perched water table
22222 Impermeable stratum (aquiclude or aquitard)

Figure 4.1 - Simplified Representation of the Hydrological Cycle

 Estimated upper limit of ~ index for 43
storms occuring in eight catchment areas
100

..--.
s... 75
.s::

----
E
E
~

X o o
o
This result does
(lJ
"O
1

o not follow the N

'°¡
e o w
...... o o general pattern 1 w
o
,E; o for the catchment
o
concerned
1
o o
o o
o o o o
~
o
2sr o o
o
o
o
/
o
o o o'
o
o o
o
o
o o o
o ,_i__,

1
- · - · _ ~ _ L _____ _l_ _ _

2 3
_¡ ____ _¡ __ l __ l
4
L.J. L .. _
20
5 6 7 8 9]0 30 40

Duration of Rainfall (hours)

Figure 4.2 - ~ Index for Hong Kong Catchments

 234

Ground Pare Water Pressure

surface Degree of Saturation (Atmospheric pressure=0)
O 25 50 75 100 -u O +u

....
./ ,
/

.. /

I (/)

...
(lJ

::,
(lJ (/)
"O > (/)
<tl •r- (lJ
(lJ
.e +' ...
<tl o.
o,
e
<tl
(lJ
e:
...
(lJ
+'
...__________ . 4- <tl
o 3:
~..,~ ¡------ . ......._ (lJ
e: ...
o o
(lJ

.., ......._ N O.

~. ---- +'
Dry season ~ . ...,., ...
<tl

water table J
::,
+'
<tl
V)

Depth Depth

Legend :
- w -Conditions at time t 0 (Befare the rainfall)
- · -Conditions at time t 1 (Immediately after the start of rainfall)
- ·· - Conditions at time t 2 (After a long period of rainfall)
.,. Rise in water table or increasing saturation and pare water
pressure dueto rainfall

Figure 4.3 - Typical Changes in Water Table, Degree of Saturation (s)

and Pare Water Pressure (u) Dueto Rainfall
 235

SEASONAL
RESPONSE
1 - Littl e or Non e ')
L - Multi ple Peaks 3 - Single Peak
STORM 1

RESPONSE ¡
1

'

A - Multi ple
Peaks
p

'b-_ ____
p

'[>, 1
p

-,, ,, .,
'[>__ - .....
,,, ,. - ' ....... ' ' -- .....
c.. _ _ _

.. - ' --

T T T

p p
B - Single
Symmetrical
Peak
pt '
~ ___ fL _____ , ,. -
'
' ~-,
' ---- -- ¡,, ,,
,
' -- --
t----
...- ',.
/
--
T T --
T

't>---- -
p p p
e - Single
Asymmetri cal
Peak
' ____
~---L ,_ ,," ,-
',_,,[>, ....
--
--1 v'
, , .....
'
T T T

p p p

D - Slight
-----~---- ' ¡,."
,,,.
,.- '... '
/"', .... ...._ ¡,, , ,
'
_,r-::-- - - --
-- -- ....

--
T T T
p p
Pt
E - None
L---------- ' -,. , ,.- .... _., / ' / - -- ' ....
-- -- ,,,"
,
'
.,.---- ......
.... .....
'
T TI T
Legend
p

'
- - -- - Seasonal response Piezometric level Storm event
Storm response T Time

Figur-e 4.4 - Typical Piezometer Responses

 236

OLn OLn O Ln o Ln
.......
. . . .
s::t"M MN
00 00
N
O
.-1

O o
o
o
lX 10- 5
I'\.. '\. '\.
9
8
7
" "'
\.
\.

\.' \. \
\.

'\ "\. " \.

•
\.
6 ' '• ' \ \ \ \ \

5
\ \ "' \ \ \ \ \
4
\ \' \.\ \ \. ' \ ' \.
\
3
\i'
\.\ \ \ \ \ \
1

u
(1)
V1 2 '\\\ \' \\ '\ '\
\
\\\ \\ \ '
----
E 1

-"'

>,
.µ
1x10- 5
9
1

\
\
\
\
\

\
1

'
\
'
\ \
\
8 1

·~ 7 1
!
\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \
..o
ro
(1)
E
s...
6
5
!
1

···-\\ \
\ \ \
\ \ \

\'
1 \ \
\
(1)
o... 4 i \ \\ \ \ ' '\ \
·~o
<.n 3
!

➔• ---
\\ \ \ \ 1\ \ \
2 \\ \\ \ ' \ ' \ \ \
1x10- 1 1 i
.3 .4 .5 .6 .7 .8.91 2 3 4 5 678910 20 30

Depth of Wetting Band (h) (m)

Note ( l ) This chart has been prepared assuming runoff is 50% and
porosity (n) is 40%.
( 2) Curves have been plotted far the various degrees of
saturation (Sf - S0 ) shown.

Figure 4.5 - Effect of Permeability and Degree of Saturation on Wetting

Band Thickness far a Ten-year Return Period Rainfall Event
 Bench mark

Test pit
or
caisson
------------ --------

-10 litre
stiff plastic N
Level suprorting wooden bottles with w
..__,
frame with windows--------+-----~ calibrated
graduations

Constant test head 1 "* 11 i Li ,,}

-~-----~-+-
,"nLi " U
Sti ff nylon
tubing
»x 1 supplying
/A__., water

\ 0uter steel ring,

diameter 600 mm
Test surface hand
excavated and levelled
Inner steel ring, diameter 300 mm

Figure 4.6 - Double-ring, Constant-head Field Infiltration Test Apparatus

,--. 250
E
E

O)
e
¡y_ 200 1 - - - - - - - - +
s....
(lJ
e
e
,_,
(lJ
-o 1501 -
~

t/1

·~
e

e N
o w
·~
+-'
co
<tl 100 -----t-----

s....
+-'

4- Ponded level 0.175 m above test surface

c
,_,
(lJ
50 -----+------ - t - - - Asymptotic infiltration rate
>
·~ oº 2.30 x 10- 3 m/min
+-'
<tl
~

:::::,
E o
o o 1 _J
:::::,
u o
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110

Time ~nce Test Started (minutes)

Figure 4.7 - Typical Results from Field Infiltration Test

 Impermeable
backfi ll - - ~ /Water table

Chuoam I' ,..-- .,...__;:,,,._;:::-_:::,,,\

.

_/' 11,-'
1

;r;/ \_Fil ter

~ 1/
1'·Impermeable
membrane
N
w
I.D

Rock
~ Critical slip
surface

Figure 4.8 - Cut-off Drain

 LOG SETT .. ING VELOClTV IN CM./SEC BRITISH STANDARD- TEST SIEVES
le ron• mm
T
1O 1
4
1 f 1
63 150 21d. 300 425 600 H~ 2 3:35 6·3 1o \4 2o 20
1
3 .5

~k \ \ ' ' 1i 1t \\' \ 1\

'
1 '.~

0' \' y~ ~ ~ J. \ V\ ~
1

1\ \
80

~ 1\\ \\ V u \ \ \ 1\}
'y
70

"z
"'u,
.." 60
) \ ~~
:\ \ l.Y 1
\ \1
\
V ) ,_~y

I"
w '
<O 50
~
~
~ 40
~l'J "'✓
"
1, 'w 1~ ,\~· ~~
.. t..,.' J
w

30
I ' ) \ '-<

~
N
+>
o

~ 11 \ y' j
\

,~
20)
1

~ ~\ 1\' JJ ~
ji
1O
,k ~\
'y ~
o
mm O 002 O 006 0·02
.
0·06
(\\ y
0·2 0·6
1...1,. ~~ \' 6 20

Note (1) Filter A - This envelope describes the United States Corps of Engineers concrete sand which will
actas a filter for all silts and finer soils. The grading of BS 882 Zone 2 natural sand is very
similar to the United States Corps of Engineers concrete sanq.
(2) Filter B - This envelope describes the drainage material associated with the sand filter (A) and
has been derived using the filter rules of Table 4.1. The number of each rule used is shown on
the diagram at the appropriate point on each grading curve.

Figure 4.9 - Grading of a Sand Filter Suitable for All Silts and Finer Soils
 241

Building
Wall platform
Road

Fill slope/retaining wall failures Scale

O
~
lm

I
I
/
I
I
/
/
/
/

Cut slope failure Scale~m

Natural slope failures Scale O ~ m

Legend :
- - - - Pre failure geometry
- - - - - Post failure geometry
- - - - Extent of debris
Note : The sketch sections shown in this Figure are of failures
that occurred in 1982.

Figure 5.1 - Typical Failure Profiles in Weathered Rocks and Soils

in Hong Kong
 242

50
~

40 7
...
a,
::::,

-~
<U 30
u.. 7
1
4-
o
>,
.µ 20
-~
..o
<U
..o
10
o
...
n. 2.3% 0.14%
o L-.
___J
1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0
Reliability Index

Figure 5.2 - Probability of Failure Versus Reliability Index

Potentially unstable wedge

failures on benches dueto
daylighting joints- 1
1
1

Standard slope Fissuring parallel to

pro fil e sheet joints.

(a) Potentially unstable slope aggravated by cutting benches

into rock with parallel sheet jointing.

Modified slope profile~~--~

Standard slope
profile

(b) More stable slope is formed by laying back at the angle at which
the sheet joint is dipping. For a reasonable range of orientations
of the sheet joints, there may be little extra volume of excavation
required.

Figure 5.3 - Effect of Benches in Adversely Jointed Rock

 243

Weak material trimmed

Reinforcing bars back and replaced with
or mesh lapped reinforced concrete
to dowels bars

Weepholes at Filter layer formed of

intervals for sandbags or graded filter
intermittent seepage
Longitudinal drain
for steady seepage

~ Structural facing Sprayed concrete

keyed or dowelled
at base
DETAIL OF DENTITION

-,~~~
Weepholes ~~ ~. _.·
-- -- Joint or
_....-~ 1 zone of
I low shear
r _L strength
~
~~­
~~
=--

zone
Rock ___-
anchors ~

Inclined
drainhole ~

~-
Formation level

--- \

\
Figure 5.4 - Various Methods of Stabilising Rock Slopes
 244

\ Free hanging mesh nets Hanging nets

\spe,ded fcom abo,e or chai ns for
blocks tumbling
from above
1
1

\
1
/
/
Bench as __ L Supports
rock fa ll stayed by
col lector , rock anchors
1
1
or deadmen
1

-"'
Move / / "
✓r I'
structure
to safe
1 1
- >- Loose bl ocks to be
~
1 1

distance 1 1 scaled from any

-1 1 · face without nets
1

W~rning
s1gn~~----;:::::;:ill,--+J,

Fence J 1

~'
or wa l l ',_ Rock trap di tch

Figure 5.5 - Rockfall Control Measures

 245

SHAPE FACTORS
B ~
Se 1 +r·
Ne
sy B
l-0.4I

Sq + f tan 4>'

!NCLINATION FACTORS Effective area A' ; B' L'

where B' B 2eb
- iq L' ; L - 2e
1
ic Íq
Ne tan ?
m+l
H
i '( [1 - V + BLcCot 4>' ]

m 800
m+l 600
iq iy 400
pro vi ded the 300
where inclination of load is 200
in the direction of B.
100
Hmax; V tan 1' + Ac 80
v 60
z
TIL T FACTORS . 40
z
?'
30
- tq .
u 20
te; tq - - - - ~ z
Ne tan e' 4--
o 10
ty ; tq ; [1 - oc tan 1 ']
2 V,
<lJ 8
:::,
,o
6
where : oc is in radians > 4
3
GROUND SLOPE FACTORS 2
1 - 9q
1.0
9c 9q Ne tan 1' 0.8
0.6
0.4'----"---'--....L.~L-...L-~L-...L-~-...L-~
O 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Angle of Shearing Resistance 4>'
where : o: < 45 º, w < 45 º and JJ < ó
(degrees)
BEARING CAPACITY FACTORS
Note (1) Data applies to shallow foundations only Os B.
4>'
(2) Far 0 ~ - a check should be made far overall slope stability.
2
(3) Far the effects of nonhomogeneous soil and soil compressibility and scale
effects reference should be to Vesic (1975).
(4) Where the foundation is set back from the crest of the slope,
refer to GCO (1982b).

Figure 6.1 - Bearing Capacity Data

 246

Protected surface

Drainage
channels

Fil ter
rainage mate layer de-
laced in hes signed in
ags accordance
v1i t.n Cha pter
4
batter Filter layer
oesigned in
accordance Chaper
Longitucinal porous pipe 4
~~- lmpervious base Ora i nage
to drain material
Subsoi l
pioe laid Bl i nd i ng l ayer
to gulley

Bl inding layer

(a) CANTILEVER/COUNTERFORT (b) CANTILEVER/COUNTERFORT

usec 1<hen (a) is not possible

Filter layer designed

in accordance with
Chapter 4
Filter layer
designed in
accordance Orainage material
v1ith Chapter placed in hessian
4 bags

Ora i nage
material
Blinding layer
as (a)

(e) GRAVITY TYPE (d) GRAVITY TY?E

used when (e) is not possible

Note ( 1) For ease of construction, v1here filter layers are constructed ata steep incline, filter
material c,ay be placed in hessian bags.
\later pressure should be considered in design for types (b) and (d).

Figure 7.1 - Drainage Details for Retaining Walls

 247

100
90
80
70
60
so
40

30

20

Solution
A, H➔ R, L ➔ t 10
g
Example 8
A = 1 X 10 6 mz 7
H = 1 m/100 m 6

L = 1 000 m 5

4
therefore
t = 36 min 3

H L t
6 R
10 m2 m/100 m m min

Legend :
t Time of concentration (min)
H Sl ope (m/100 m)
A Catchment area (m 2 )
L Distance from catchment boundary to the design section (m), far
which t is a maximum

Figure 8.1 - Nomogram for the Rapid Solution of

the Bransby-Williams Equation
 500¡;;¡

400
350
~ 300
!...
..e
E 250
-----
E
~
Return
~
200 Period
>,
.µ (years)
·~
V)
e: 150 1000
<lJ
.µ 500
e: 200
......
~ 100
~

ro
100 50 N
4-
e:
90 ~
(X)
·~
ro 80 20
oc: 10
e: 70
ro
<lJ 60 5
::E:

50
2
40
1 l. 5 2 3 4 5 6 78910 15 20 30 40 50 60 70 8090100 120
Duration, Time of Concentration, t(min)

Note The intensity-duration rainfall curves are from Peterson & Kwong (1981) - A design rainstorm
profile far Hong Kong, Technical Note No. 58, Royal 0bservatory, Hong Kong. Data from tilting
siphon records 1947-1980 (Royal 0bservatory) and instantaneous rate-of-rainfall records
1952-1980 (King's Park).

Figure 8.2 - Curves Showing Duration and Intensity of Rainfall in Hong Kong far Various Return Periods
 -~ t
,-·-·--·-·- -¡ v : " ~. o

, ·/ -;;J'•"
.-c1;s
r _/\o/4 2v
~I (~

J,-1 ( ,, -,~"s ,,r2 ~- - ,, """''Y,;;:, (/

[

r ♦"' tN
-~~
/tJ, (\ (~
0
C( (
" ;' d°'
/ ,,--
Ul 't;
(_,/ / "' "' 5---l;J~v/cftl.-t!
----✓-/
(

f
✓-
+'".
"'"'•"" ..
•
1

º•140
o.,
♦ .,,,
;
~
"',
e\
"'~-.,"J,, /
f 0--1,4'
0
,/
\
7~
u• -r ,I)
';l/1j J\
.
\,_J-'\ '

'f ' '-

e-._

/\
0

~ '
t
(~
/ o'" .,.
.,,. •"' ,,,.-z.
J/ ,-- -\. _ 11/\-•1 '(,.J
"v
\
J'" •"
"'" • "' Os, 1/ u,. ) V - 1,/\) º1./!'- '" A

•• ___,.-~- /'._-/
+'
.,, ♦,, '"~'" "" .,~
' ! ' -~
~t j ' ,-.r\"'
fJ/Z\c-i~•""
. ,"' "'./ r_· \.J'·
',
'·, ----✓ _/' . -, ♦"
\- -. ; :,• +'".,,. (") . / C-,\ .• ,, 1

o e'-~ ---"?' \ ,>'¿_V

--/s-,,
_é½\' ,.. ....
N
'O
\.// ? 'f ' . •'"
, \ 1, •'"' . •·"' \1\ \.,_
-- " l
,,
'·J'O~
t \
{! \ "' , , \ I Q
[)
·¡J Z _,_z ... ••oc•""'e,, -\~~-¡
1 \)
L.. ..4 • '°
~
/\♦)"♦ .~\; \
F'O
62 --iº / '

V\( / .'
.1" 1./ - \, • ~·· •,. ..(,.'~\ \ - '
...
e~ /,.,.~ , )\ KOI "'"'"A\ AKU 3 / \ l7•t( "\\ ;
•'°') ·, ') \
,o '.',, • • •

\J
.'V'----,
I

•.
----,\
-
r
f:J
c.J .,-;;,-;¡,,,.,,_
•"1 o-·• --,.¡:¡:,,
--
/

,_
,

--"/'-)
..., '"
•

-------~'°'--
,,. -,
....
'•

-.
\,,(,
~/
l. ,,.
C-) ,)
,

'.) _, /'L
I
0

íl( "
,•

-
,.r/( • •' ( o (,-,
) I '7 '

_ .,\ ~" .,,. ."".•..' ~ . .,

're
/\)( /
/ \_¡o,;,

. [,, ~-'J
-,
'" ) .. ,,,

~\
/ A"" rn,AA,rn
\_ .6.Hl6
.,,., ~º:&,os
.. •,,., j '
V \\/'-- o
1,j'·, :'.)

,~ 1 ;
~
\_,,
d 'o
',cale
1 G 1 2 l
-=-=--t::.:____w__
, 5
=--- e ' B 9 :O
....,¡--------- kn,

/ ,,. -
~;T' / ' ·;;,,:¡.t·" _,..
111~ t ' '" '

~'?
--~,;,! ,. ) .::.,, \ '._¡¡;.,, Legend
1

-J ·: ,./'7 '-':: ,, . ¡" :-~"" l,

', \1 ·e,
1--, ,->/ ~ el
, J e ,~.
l-, ''.' ~
~'--. ( ,,,' o ' (' /' '"' \
Royal Observatory gauges

'✓r~/'e / / r¿ ~
/
(nos. 1 to 169)
,- .,_.

·<' \ / ~
~
''> (,_;;~,:, ( ,ei'
\ J
(-J'-.
•"
¿( 1 \' ,...._J "" 1 ~. • Ordinary
J) ) /
/'-o , ✓- -.fr
e\ \,, /.,.-'---r , ,••!
·- n ~.,;·· + Autographi e
~
/ ~.,, ,/ /
1
¡,, ,
'1 '··
• Ordinary and autographic
!.- . ''---,_/\) ,, ,-, o o Monthly
D
/J~\/
u ~
Geotechnical Control Office gauges
(nos. Hül to 22, KOl to 08, NOl to Nl4}
"~ • Automatic

Figure 8.3 - Distribution of Raingauges in Hong Kong

 250

Cover slabs if required

-
lnlet
1 in F
Max. design water eve

~8M
300 min. •·:·.

-
.• 4 +
. "' 1 Outl et
-_a ..

50 thick perforated face slab Graded stone filter lower ]ayer size 150 rrm,
upper layer size 40-75 mm

SECTIONAL ELEVATION

L I .750 min..

SECTIONAL PLAN

SECTION A-A

Note (1) All dimensions in millimetres.

(2) Normally far drains of 900 rrm dia. and below. Far bigger drains and steep terrain, sand
trap should be specially designed.
(3) Size
Depth D f 750
Width : W ~ 3B
Length : L = 4.80 0.67 h 0.5 F -0.5 >, 4B
(4) Graded stone filter shall be crusher run granite aggregate.
(5) Capacity DWL to be according to size and nature of catchment, providing detention time not
less than 5 minutes far max. design flow of inlet.

Figure 8.4 - Typical Sand Trap Arrangement

 251

To suit natural channel

SECTION A-A

Natural stream course 7

--------- ---~------- ---

1

3S 4S
1

11 1
' 1

7
í

i
1
t'.
1
1------- - .

'
V)
L.()
'
1

: V) '
)
1

_L
¡

~~
1

L
Si,ed t,-~1• 1 1 1

design flow 1 Gri 11 spaced to catch

boulders in natural
stream bed

PLAN

Figure 8.5 - Typical Rock Trap Detail

 Slope line
Chevron drains
at 7 500 mm
e/e down slope
225 mm

U-channel 3W radius
Top soil Concrete ~---+----+---+-- St eppe d
and turf lined channels channel
N
01
N

SECTION A-A

Baffle wall
(see Figure 8.9)
PLAN
CHEVRON DRAIN

Figure 8.6 - Plan Showing Junction of Tributary Channels with Main Channels
 200 000
::-- - - ,.... - - - l,.t::'.'. I/ _,, - J ;,... 7 / , , .,, ~ Size of
channel
Channel dimensions
:::~- - - ~ - ~ 1 - .... 1... ..:::::~r:......,C::I,;,.(' ....__...u;, "'.,b,~~ L, // ..;/_,,, l.,;/
(mm)
100 000 shown by
,,
,_
.,/
-..;
----: ~ .- ~
dotted salid
l i ne l ine
t t
50 000 - e-- - e----
1~
- ·- ._::,.'-, ,,, 1- ' -i.. - / - .,,
OJ ..r---i-. T::;":

,:~
+-'
- -r-.. l.,,, L, V L..._ i,...__ -....._,¡,.., 1-. 1,, '•..,¡.., 900U
=>
....._t---._ .... ·: ✓ - ~ V - ...r:~ ~ ~ y.~f-..;:._,1-1..
"
-r-- -..
l, / l,,..h1,,'-L ,.(1,.._h1,... 1,.. b, - "- t:,~

""
'-
¡:-_~
l./
/
:::,, - ..... k' / t--1/
,.._L/1'--.._....
.,. t--- 1-,. L l,t¡. --- - l>C. ~ 1-,.. f-- 1--- .,..
750U
675U
CL

~
10 000
~~J ~/
V

1..,V r--:,..:;:: .
i,
t-- ... l.?'1~-1-..t')lc'..._ 1::~ :.t::
- -
~~t:- ::.~~~ 11-
e,-~
C.,.t-,. V
600U
900HR

"'-
+-'
\ ~

.,, t,
..;

.....
I✓
...._ _,,, 525U 750HR U-shaped
l.,. channel (U)
=- 5 000 ~
=-\'e>lj.,
/ ,,, 450U
675HR
600HR
yJj, - ., ~ t.. V - .C. l.,,' ~... I ✓ -- '•i...
a, '-"'
~ I/ Dr-..,,... V ¡., 1.... -r--1/ 1,,.c: ¡_;¡ ..... i,... .... 375U 525HR
" 1
_

"'"
.e
u 0f' ,V L,L,L r_,¿_ : : - k,__ __,, 1/ 1/ [::; k ,_ ~ k:~~ ::: r--~ 450HR
4-
o w r--.
1~~
r-,. [.,,,
t;,~,_ ...... "'
1
V
,/ -.. f.- 1-
b
i,c,:L
1/
- ..
r-~ ,-.. ,,
L, t-,..t-
L,),.,.
le:: 300U
375HR t t
~

;;" 1 000
r 1 . v 1,t> ~ / . 1-
1- 1-..
,_~ ,_._ ~
1
v I/
./
1,," ~I< ~~
- e-- - e--
~<
' ~
~
225U . , N '1 ~
u
~§,...~ ..... 300HR N
u,
"'CL U ..---; - _. 1•

"'
u 500
_. / -- V -"l~T; w
...1.'S .V 1/ l7J... 1,, V . ,- t-..
~ "
1

IV' , ,,, 1/ I, l. ~ '-- V l.,, L ,- ,_ 225HR T

L,, r::;; L ¡;, L / DK , 150U Half-round
,, ¿ _,,, .. - .__ ....
channel (HR)
V ¡,,,L / ,, ,, <L i,,," L / e / r--

100
P'l ~ ~-~~ t~ -~ ~~ ~pf' -,_-~ 150HR
co
s o
N
o
""
o
st
O
u-,
O
<..O
O
r--..
000
co
O'I ~
o
"'
o
o
o
o ºº
º ºº
ºººº
ºº
<::tu-, ºº
º lO r---.COO'IO
o
o
~ N
"" "'
Gradient (length/fall)
DESIGN METHOO USING CHART
(a) Normal channel (b) Stepped channel
Solution Exampl e : Solution Example :

~
l. Runoff l. Enter Runoff = 4 000 litre/min. 2. Runoff l. Enter Velocity = 5 m/sec.
'o;'
""
:g .:::
6 v.
1 '°,.>°e,.>~
2. Enter Gradient = 1 in 40
3. Read channel required = 225 U ar 300HR .e:
'-'
.,
§ !
-1N·
't1 .,_ ~
V)
,t,
'°,.>o
0,..
Ce-
2. Enter Runoff = 20 000 litre/min.
3. Read required channel size = 300U
4. Read velocity = 2.2 m/sec. (<4 m/sec . .'.OK) 4. Read requi red gradi ent = 1 in 14
"'. 2. Gradi ent ~ 4. Gradient

Figure 8.7 - Chart for the Rapid Design of Channels

 254

Concrete apron

il
t_j f2-~ ¡_.!_,,T
SECTION A-A

This dimension varies

to suit the slope but
not to exceed 1 m --------------,

Design channel
depth, d = s + H/2----1

..
E
Gradient from o
Figure 8.7 o(Y')

LONGITUDINAL SECTION

Dimensions of Stepped Channel

Nominal size of Thickness Thitness Splash allowance
channel H(mm) t(mm) b mm) s(mm)
225 to 300 100 100 200
375 to 675 100 150 350
750 to 900 125 200 400

Figure 8.8 - Typical Details of Stepped Channel

 255

Min'.d + 450 mm measured

from lowest invert of
the stepped channel

Varies but > h/2

d = s + H/2
(See Figure 8.8)

L
j • h• j

SECTION A-A

- - r E
E
o
Con e rete apron o
\.O
1

1
~
1
~

/ti
1
3:
:e
LO Q)
-- -- - - -~
~

'+- -
'+-
/ti 1
ro
E
1
Concrete apron E
1 o
o
. -- j
\.O

PLAN

Figure 8.9 - Typical Details of Junction of Stepped

Channel and U-channel at Toe of Slope
 256

Step irons to
be provided if
Varies height of
catchpit
exceeds 1500

125 thick wall and

slab suitably
reinforced

t------+---Arrangement
of openings
to suit site
conditi ons
Concrete ··.-0 • ..

blinding • • . <>, . . . . .

SECTI0N A-A

U-channel
Ste; channel ~ Í Concrete benching

. . .1
- ---- - \
1
-
I

/ Channel
5sl_l_____
N
~
1 - - - - 1 - '__,'

Arrangement of
-'--------+---------' openings to suit
LO
N
......
12
7-!= __. Varies
PLAN
--j . ~
5 site conditions

Note All dimensions in millimetres

Figure 8.10 - Typical Details of Catchpits

 257

Impervious
surface

This dimension varies to suit

fall on channel

20

.o

H 1 t 1
1 •

Dimensions of U - channel

Nominal size of Thickness t (mm) Thickness b (mm)

channel H (mm)
225 to 600 150 150

675 to 1200 175 225

Figure 8.11 - Typical U-channel Details

 258

Planting Season for Grass

Planting Season for

Shrubs and Trees

s..
Q)

.µ
.o
E
U) Q)
:::s .µ
1 01 c.
Q)
1~ V)

>, 1 ...... o
400 >-- s.. 1
¡M 1 (V")

n:, 1 1
:::s
s.. ~I 1
E
E
.o 1 ;,, 1 1

~I ::.:: 1
~

z: _J
e:( _J
w e:(
~ u...
z:
200 - ...... 1
1
1
....... 1

...... 1 1
e:( 1
o::: 1
1
1 1
1
1 1
o 1 1 1

30 - 1
1 1
1

1
u 1
1
o 1
1
1
w 1 1
z: o:::
e:( => 20 - 1 1
w r- 1
1
::.:;~
w 1
Q...
::E:
w
r-
10
J F M A M J J A s o N D

MONTH

Legend
~ 0ptimum time
C:J Good time
CJ Fair time

Figure 8.12 - Planting Season in Hong Kong

 259

General fi 11
compac ted to 90% max. t d

Layer 1.5 m thick may be

compacted to 95% max. ;,(d Face zone compacted
to reduce infiltration to 95% max. z;.d
through surface----~
Width of face
zone and angle
of slope to
depend upan
---- aterial used
Drainage to be provided in
abandoned water courses.
Min. 300 mm drainage layer
to comply with filter criteria
for fil l

Note Maximum dry density (max. xd) from B.S. 1377, Test 12.

Figure 9.1 - Typical Detail of General Fill Area

Employing Dual Compaction Standards

Compaction Trial - Site B 3rd. Feb. 1983

1 ton vibrating roller - No.731

2.0 ----- 150 mm uncompacted layer

- 1.9
"'E
:;::;- 1.8
------ 225 mm uncompacted layer

~ 1.7
VI
¡::
a.,
1.6
Cl
>, l. 5
s...
Cl
1.4
l. 3 o 2 4 6 8 10 12
Number of Passes of Roller

Figure 9.2 - Typical Compaction Trial Results

 From to
F!LL COMPACTION RECORD
Project Specification requirements : Method of control :
(a) Relative compaction (%) (a) Conventional □
Fill location (b) Moisture content (W 0 - Wt) + % to % (b) Rapid compaction □
Fill Characteristics Compaction Density (Mg/m3) Moisture
Insitu Density Test Plant Content (%)
Laboratory Accept
Date Compaction Compacted Insitu Insitu Max. Rel. Rel. · or Remarks
Plan Location Layer (1) Test Ref. No. Roller( 3) I ns itu Opt.
No. Type(Z) Source Layer Thickness No. of Bulk Dry DO Comp. Moist. Reject
19 Ref. No. Method (mm) Passes Type Xft l>td (%) Wf Wo Wo-Wf
Xfd

°'
o

Note: (1) SR - Sand replacement (2) Unified soil classification (3) PN - Pneumatic tyred
RB - Rubber balloon ST(V) - Steel drum}
( ) (V) if vibrating
WR - Water replacement SF V - Sheepsfoot
Specify roller static weight

Figure 9.3 - Record Sheet for Density Tests in Compacted Fill

 261

Fi 11 bul k dens ity l(ft Mg/m 3

Max. con verted

2.2 bulk dens ity l!'.cm Mg/m 3
7a
---
en
:,::

....,>, 2. 1
wº - wf m %
V,
e:
cu
o
Degree of 2'ft 100
.,, compaction
X
%
'; 2.0
o:,
Xcm
-o
cu
....,
,._
cu
> Fil l moisture
o
e:
content wf %
u
-o
e: 0ptimum
~~
"'>, moisture content wo
....,
1.8
V,
e:
cu
Fill dry density Xfd Mg/m 3
o
.,, Lab. max.
';
o:, l. 7 dry density Mg/m 3
( deri ved from X7 d
Hi lf' s method)
Description of Soil/Remarks
1.6 ~~-~~~~~~~~~~~-~-~-~-~~
-4 -3 -2 -1 O +l +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 +7 +8

Added Water (z) Percentage of Fill Wet Weight

Determination of Converted Bulk Dens i ty Determination of Fil l Moi sture

Content

Added water ( z) , o Wet soi l + container g

r-

Mass mould + base + sample g Dry soil + container g

Mass mould + base g Container number g

Mass of sample g Moisture 1oss g

Volume of mould cm 3 Dry soil g

Bul k density xb Mg/m 3 Moisture content Wf %

Con verted bulk

density "e Mg/m 3

Converted bulk density "bulk

(1 + 1~01

0ptimum moisture content W

0
= Wf + Zm ( lOO + Wf)
100

Figure 9.4 - Field Sheet for the Hilf Method of Rapid Compaction Control
 262

Grass Shrub or tree

seedling,
150 to 600 mm
height

r-Enriched
1
backfill
Pi t type
excavation
(300 x 300 x 300 mm) ~-

Figure 9.5 - Seedling Shrub or Tree Planting

/Top soil retained

Impervi ous ¡
surface
Plain concrete
class 20/20
cast in place Concrete
tree ring
Impervious

l. surface
~ - - - - 600 mm min. dia. + dia.
of tree if the tree is
established
Note Precast concrete tree rings may also be used.

Figure 9.6 - Detail of Tree Rings on Impervious Slope Surface

 263

Site ........ Road

150
148
146 ~nstalled
2/4/83
o
. 144 Pl___d!)' ____
.
o... 142
V)
QJ
s.. 140
-1-'
QJ o----o----"---
::E:
138
136
134
¡,2
132
Apri l May June July August
1983

250

200

150

~ 100

50

Legend :
-0--0---0--- 0bserved piezometric response
O Piezometer tip level

Figure 10.1 - Example of a Piezometer Record Sheet

 264

Site ............ Street Telltale No. 3

Wall 75 m long, 3.2 to 6.4 m high
Crack : 25.4 m from left hand end, 2.7 m above ground
l evel
16

~
-rcl
E
E Oº
14
....ro H Installed 1/12/80
u 12
,,-
.....s..
Q) 10
> 10/82
8
.....
e:
Q) 6
E
Q)
> 3
o
:::.::
-'><'.
u 2
ro
s..
u o
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26
Crack Movement - Horizontal (mm)

24
22
20
18 Total movement -~~ /
I

/
/
16 I
~ - - Movement
,I normal to
~ 14 I
' crack
I
.....e: 12 I .'
, /
/
/
(IJ
I
.'
E /
(IJ
>
10 I
I
o I
:::.:: 8 .,- -......._
-_, I
I
/ - / ~ Movement
/ parallel to
6
,.-·-·
__ ,,,. ---·- ..,· / crack
4
i
,-._ ·-·-·'
2 ,,,,• .,,,,..✓

o
N D J F M A M J JASO N D J F M A MJ JASO N D
1981 1982

Figure 10.2 - Example of a Telltale Record Sheet

 265

Site Blank Road

Anchor No. C4 Load cell Vibrating wire

Free length 22.5 m Deakin No. 738241
Fixed length 6.0 m Capacity 1 000 kN
Strands : 7 No., 12.5 mm

Stressed 5/9/81
520
........
~ 500
··--·· ··--··--··--·· ··--··--
-o
<O
480 'Lock off' load
o
_J

~
460
o
..r: ·--·
u 440
e:
c:c
Working load
420
September O N D J FMAMJJASONDJFMAMJ J
1981 1982 1983

40
u
0
30
r
:::¡
20
+-'
~
Q.)
10
o..
!u
t-
o

September O N D J F M A M J J A S O N D J F MA M J J
1981 1982 1983

Figure 10.3 - Example of an Anchor Load Record Sheet

 266

------ Lockable cover

cover box

~ - - - Cement - bentonite grout

Piezometer tip

Figure 10.4 - Open Hydraulic (Casagrande) Piezometer

Non corroding metal

cover strip

Recording base
plate ..
in structure

Figure 10.5 - Telltale

 267

:{Norma 1 to wa 11 [ID
Job Movement Profile on Axis
Parallel to wall D
Site Retaining Wall A Inclinometer No. : Al
Base Level of Inclinometer Tube · m.P.D.
Date of First 0bservation : 0bserver

-90 -80 -70 -60 -50 -40 -30 -20 -10 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

r r 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
/'//'/ 1
. / / +
Upslope Downslope
\ 1 / /

-5.0L · I,, Cumula ti ve

1
1
. I"
I Displacement (mm)

-10. 0·--1 ¡ //
i/
-15.0-L./ /"
¡
_¡¡
{"
-20. O t/

-25.0

Depth (m)

Legénd :
-·---40211 ( 9.12.82)
- - - 40221 (15.12.82)
- - - - 40231 (22.12.82)
- X - 40241 ( 2. 1.83)

Note: (1) For orientation of inclinometer guide axes, see monitoring

key plan
(2) The displacement profile is measured relative to the initial
profile
(3) The file code is formed as follows : digit 1 for
inclinometer number, digit 2, 3&4 for visit no. and digit
5 for axis notation (1 is axis AB, 2 is axis CD).

Figure 10.6 - Example of an Inclinometer Record Sheet

 268

Piezometer Readings

Development at: Critical Delth of critical

W.• below top of
water level standpipe
13 Blank Street
269.55 m P.D. 0.75 m

Piezometer No. P3
Level of top of standpipe (m)
! 270.30
-~~-

Ti p level ! Ground level Depth of tip below top of standpipe(m)

254.8 m P.D. i
270.36 m P.D. 15.50
Depth from top
Date of standpipe to Weather Comments Recorded by
water surface(m)

Cover box clear of water -

26/8/82 5.36 Heavy rain d rain free. CLM
-
Cover box flooded - drain
28/8/82 1
0.95 Heavy rain blocked. Cleared before CLM
i removing cap.

'
¡

!
.

Figure 11.1 - Example of a Slope Maintenance Record Sheet

far Pi ezometer Read.i ngs
 269

Slope Maintenance Inspection

Slope Location
Page 1 of 3
Slope Number Weather
Inspecting Officer Positi on Date
Risk Category Low/Medium/High
Last Inspection Date
Is interval between inspections OK? Yes/No
Previous Risk Category Low/Medium/High
Have past recommendations been carried out? Yes/No
Summary
Major works required Yes/No
MJnor works required Yes/No
lnvestigation needed Yes/No
Slope satisfactory Yes/No

ACCESS
Is there good maintenance access? Yes/No
Is it difficult for the public to gain access? Yes/No
Has the inspecting officer gained access to the
crest, the toe, and ali berms? Yes/No
Comments

INSTRUMENTATION
Have al I instrumentation systems been checked? Yes/No
Have al I instrumentation results been plotted? Yes/No
Are all readings acceptable? Yes/No
Is there a need for new instrumentation? Yes/No

Comments

P.S. This inspection sheet is to be read together with the slope

data sheet/file.

Figure 11.2 - Example of Sheet One of a Maintenance Inspection Record

 270

Slope Maintenance Inspection

Slope Location
Page 2 of 3

CONDITION OF SLOPE
Status of Feature
Works Needed
Satis-
None Good
factory Minor Major

Condition of impermeable surface

Extent of impermeable surface
Condition of weepholes
Capacity of weepholes
Condition of vegetated surface
Capacity of surface drainage
Condition of U-channels & step
channels
Condition of catchpits & sandtraps
Condition of raking drains
Condition of associated culverts
t, nu 11 ahs
Condition of artificial support
Condition of toe fence/toe barrier

Comments

Works Needed

Minor Major

Has there been a recent slope failure? Yes/No

Has there been any recent erosion? Yes/No
Has there been any recent movement? Yes/No
Are there any tension cracks at the crest? Yes/No
Is there adequate protection against
infiltration above the crest? Yes/No
Has there been any recent seepage? Yes/No
lf seepage give details
lf movements give details

Comments

Figure 11.3 - Example of Sheet Two of a Maintenance Inspection Record

 271

Slope Maintenance Inspection

Slope Location
Page 3 of 3
Works Needed
ASSOCIATED RETAINING WALLS
Minar Majar
Have there ever been wall movements? Yes/No
Has there been recent wall settlement? Yes/No
Has there been recent wall cracking? Yes/No
Has there been recent wall titling? Yes/No
Has there been recent wall bulging? Yes/No
Is the capacity of the weepholes adequate? Yes/No
Are the weepholes clear? Yes/No
Are the mortar joints/pointing satisfactory? Yes/No
Is vegetation adversely affecting the wall? Yes/No

Corrnnents

SERVICES & DRAINAGE

Are servlces adversely affecting the slope? Yes/No
Do any services need testing? Yes/No
Have the appropriate authority been informed? Yes/No

GENERAL & COMMENTS

Does the slope need upgrading to meet the present risk category? Yes/No

RECOMMENDATIONS

Signature :

Figure 11.4 - Example of Sheet Three of a Maintenance Inspection Record

 272

[BLANK P AGE]
 273

PLATES
 274

[BLANK PAGE]
 275

LIST OF PLATES

Plate Page
No. No.
1.1 Granite Soil within Zone A 279
1.2 Volcanic Soil within Zone A 279
1.3 Weathered Granite in Zone B Showing Well-defined 280
Relict Jointing
1.4 Weathered Volcanic Rock in Zone B Showing Well- 280
defined Relict Jointing
1.5 Typical Exposure of Weathered Granite of Zone B Showing 281
Relict Jointing and Corestones: Zone A is Absent
1.6 Junction between Zone B and Zone D Volcanics: 281
Zone C is Absent
1.7 Granite Showing Intense Weathering along Joints: 282
Zone C
1.8 Cut Slope through Weathered Volcanic Rock Showing 282
Zone B Overlying Zone D: Zones A and C are Absent
1.9 Granite Showing Slight Staining on Joints: Blasting 283
Fractures Can Be Seen at Centre Right: Zone D
1.10 Volcanic Rock with Staining along Joints: Zone D 283
1.11 Fresh Granite within Zone O 284
1.12 Fresh Volcanic Rock within Zone O 284
1.13 Granitic Fill Showing Layering Parallel to the Slope 285
1.14 Volcanic Colluvium Showing Boulders Contained in a 285
Structureless Soil Matrix
2.1 Oblique Photograph that Illustrates the Use of Aerial 286
Photograph Interpretation in Terrain
2.2 Volcanic Residual Soil (Grade VI), O to 0.24 m 287
Completely Decomposed Volcanic Rock (Grade V), 0.24
to 4.20 m
2.3 Completely Decomposed Volcanic Rock (Grade V), 4.20 287
to 9.21 m
Highly Decomposed Volcanic Rock (Grade IV), 9.21 to
10.05 m
Moderately Decomposed Volcanic Rock (Grade III), 10.05
to 11.04 m
 276

Plate Page
No. No.
2.4 Slightly Decomposed Volcanic Rock (Grade II), 11.04 288
to 17.33 m
2.5 Slightly Decomposed Volcanic Rock (Grade 11), 17.33 288
to 23.39 m
2.6 Slightly Decomposed Volcanic Rock (Grade 11), 23.39 289
to 25. 08 m
2.7 Volcanic Residual Soil (Grade VI) Detail A 289

2.8 Completely Decomposed Volcanic Rock (Grade V) 289

Detail B
2.9 Completely Decomposed Volcanic Rock (Grade V) 290
Detail e
2.10 Completely Decomposed Volcanic Rock (Grade V) with 290
Stained Discontinuities : Detail D
2.11 Moderately Decomposed Volcanic Rock (Grade 111) : 290
Deta i l E
2.12 Completely Decomposed Seam (Grade V) in Slightly 291
Decomposed Volcanic Rock (Grade 11): Detail F
2.13 Slightly Decomposed Volcanic Rock (Grade 11) : 291
Detail G
2.14 Moderately Decomposed Seam (Grade III) in Slightly 291
Decomposed Volcanic Rock (Grade II) : Detail H
2.15 Completely Decomposed Granite Rock (Grade V), 292
O to 1.00 m
Highly Decomposed Granite Rock (Grade IV), 1.00 to
3.59 m
Moderately Decomposed Granite Rock (Grade III),
3.59 to 4.65 m
2.16 Moderately Decomposed Granite Rock (Grade III), 292
4.65 to 5.55 m
Highly Decomposed Granite Rock (Grade IV), 5.55 to
10.71 m
2.17 5lightly Decomposed Granite Rock (Grade II), 10.71 292
to 13.71 m
2.18 Highly Decomposed Granite Rock (Grade IV), 13.71 to 293
16.45 m
Moderately Decomposed Granite Rock (Grade 111), 16.45
to 17. 95 m
 277

Plate Page
No. No.
2.19 Highly Decomposed Granite Rock (Grade IV), 17.95 293
to 20. 17 m
Slightly Decomposed Granite Rock (Grade 11), 20.17
to 21.23 m
Moderately Decompüsed Granite Rock (Grade 111),
21. 23 to 21. 48 m
2.20 Moderately Decomposed Granite Rock (Grade 111), 293
21.48 to 22.00 m
Slightly Decomposed Granite Rock (Grade 11), 22.00
to 24.48 m
2.21 Slightly Decomposed Granite Rock (Grade 11), 24.48 294
to 25.95 m
2.22 Highly Decomposed Granite Rock (Grade IV) : Detail A 294
2.23 Moderately Decomposed Granite Rock (Grade 111) : 294
Deta i 1 B
2.24 Highly Decomposed Granite Rock {grade IV) : Detail C 295
2.25 Slightly Decomposed (Grade 11) Becoming Moderat~ly 295
Decomposed Granite Rock (Grade 111) : Detail D
2.26 Highly Decomposed Seam (Grade IV) in Slightly 295
Decomposed Granite Rock (Grade 11) : Detail E
 278

[BLANK PAGE]
 279

Plate 1. 1 - Gran ite Soi l wi t hin Zone A

Pl ate 1. 2 - Vol can i c Soi l wi t hin Zone A

 280

Pl ate 1. 3 Weathered Gran i t e i n Zone B Showi ng

Wel l-defi ned Relict Joi nti ng

Pl ate 1.4 - Weathered Vol cani c

Rock in Zon e B
Showing We l l -
defined Reli ct
Jointing
 281

Pl at e 1. 5 - Typ i cal Expos ure of Weathered Gran i t e of Zone

B Showing Rel ict Joi nt i ng and Corestones
Zone A i s Absent

Pl ate 1.6 - Junct i on between Zone B and Zone O

Vol ca nics : Zone C is Absent
 N
CXJ
N

Pl ate 1. 7 - Granite Showing Intense Pl ate 1.8 - Cut Slo pe t hro ugh Weat hered
Weatheri ng al ong Volcanic Roc k Showi ng Zone B
Joints : Zone e Overl ying Zone D : Zo nes A
and C are Absent
 N
():)
w

Pl ate 1.9 - Grani te Showing Slig ht Pla t e 1. 10 - Vo l can ic Rock wi th Sta i ni ng

Stain ing on Joi nts : al ong Jo i nts : Zone O
Bl asting Fractures Ca n
Be Seen at Centre Ri ght
Zone O
 284

Pl ate 1. 11 - Fres h Granite wi th i n Zone D

Pl at e 1.1 2 - Fresh Vo l cani c Roc k wi t hi n Zone D

 285

Pla te 1. 13 - Graniti c Fi l l
Showing Layering
Paral l el to the
Sl ope

Pla t e 1. 14 - Vol cani c Col l uvium Showi ng Boul ders

Con tained i n a Struct ureless So il Matri x
 N
co
O'I

Note The t errai n class1fic¡,t ion 1n th1s exampl e uses a four or f i ve f igure code t o rcpresent the observcd t crra i n :
il) The fi rst character represents t he slope grad1ent ( e . g. ' O' 1s a s l o pc d} The fourt h character 1s ari eros i on and instab i l i_!Y.: cl assi f ication; the number
gradi cnt of 30- 40 dcg r ees }. i ndlca li ,·1y the type uf eros, on or 1ns ta b11 1ty. t he l et ter 1ndh:a t i ny t he
sever ity ( e . g. ' 1 ' i s no apprec1abl e ero sion and 3b i s severe gul l y erosi on) .
b) The second character i s the t er ra i r. comao11ent ( e . g . ' 3 ' i s a s i desl opc, ' 6 '
is an inClsed drai nage l ine and 17 1 ,s 1s tur bcd t cr r ain} . e) The fina l cha racte r i s, l he depth of cut __or f i ll (e.g . '9 ' i s a cu t slope of
y rea t er t han 30 metrcs ) . -
e) ~~~v!~ 1~~s~~~r~~;;~ i ~sª~~e,~ir~: i ~º~~~e~º ~~lfu~~~ 1m.~;~~! ~~)~e . g. ' e' is
There dr e numerous ot her codes with i n t his t e rrai n classifi cation sys t em wh i ch are uséd t o descri be l and surfc1ce f eatur ~s .

Pl ate 2. 1 Obli que Photograph t hat Illustrates t he Use of Aeri al

Photograph Interpretation i n Terrai n Evaluat ion
 287

HONG KONG HOUS ING AUTHORI TY

AP LE I CHAU Sf TE 8
CON~lllfh~GENWIHR C!MRd.CffiR.
OR I LL HOLE NO ALC/ ,,2 DEPTH ~ -- ,,~- ·•"
.COAE BOX NO
- ·• .
I 0F 5 D
,.
ATE- lf~~1m
.

Pl ate 2. 2 - Volcani c Resi dual So il (Grade VI) , O t o

0. 24 m
Compl etely Decomposed Vo l can i c Rock
(Grade V) , 0. 24 t o 4. 20 m

HONG KONG HOUSING AUTHORITY

AP LE I CHAU SITE 8 · ·
CUNSULilNG ENGINEEA, CONTRACTOA,
DR I LL HDt E NO ALC/ 12 DEPTH ~20.--:;;o;,,
CORE BOX NO 2- OF > DATE 1~1,~;-

Pl at e 2. 3 - Compl et el y Decomposed Vo l cani c Rock

(Grade V), 4 . 20 t o 9. 21 m
Highl y Decomposed Vol cani c Roc k
(Grade IV ) , 9. 21 to 10. 05 m
Moder at el y Decomposed Vo l cani c Rock
(Grade I I I ) , 10 .05 to 11.04 m
 288

HONG KONG HOUSINGAUTHORITY

· AP LE I CHAU Sl TE 8
CONSl.Ul NGENGlNHH, G!JMRACTOR,
DR I LL HOLE· NOALC/ 12 DEPTH ,1t,~~-,m .
CORE BOX NO
...
3 OF
1 ~
5. DATE
'• .
N ~j·I J79 ·
·- -

Pl at e 2. 4 - Sl ightly Decomposed Vol can i c Roc k

(Grade II ) , 11. 04 to 17 . 33 m

º ·- HONG KONG HOUS ING AUTHORI TY

. AP LE l" ·CHAU SJTE 8
CGNSillJ!NG ENGUIEER, · .. CllNTRACTBH
DR lll HOlf NOALC/ 12 DEPTH ,;~~--ns5.,
CORE BOX NO 4 OF 5 DATE '4 ·3-l N~

Plate 2. 5 - Sl i gh t l y Decomposed Vol can i c Rock

(Grade I I), 17.33 to 23 . 39 m
 289

HONG KONG HOUS INGAUTHORITY

\ AP LE I CHAU SITE B
Cll/iS/llTING me IIIEtR CG~TRACTOH;
DRI LL HOLE NOALC/ 12 DEPTH 2m N - 2~~8N

CORE BOXNO OF 5 5 DATE

Pl at e 2. 6 - Sl i ght l y Decomposed Vol cani c Roc k

(Grade I I ) , 23 . 39 t o 25.08 m

Pl ate 2. 7 - Vol cani c Res i dual So i l (Grade VI) : Det ai l A

Pl ate 2. 8 - Compl et ely Decomposed Vol cani c Rock

(Grade V) : Det ail B
 290

Pl at e 2.9 - Compl ete ly Decomposed Vol canic Rock

(Grade V) : Det ai l C

Pl ate 2. 10 - Compl etely Decomposed Vol canic Rock (Grade V)

with Sta i ned Di scontinuities Det ai l O

Pl ate 2.11 - Moderately Decomposed Vo lcan i c Rock

( Grade I I I) : Deta i l E
 291

Pl ate 2. 12 - Compl et ely Decomposed Seam (Grade V)

i n Sli ghtl y Decomposed Vol cani c Roc k
(Grade I I) : Deta i l F

Pl ate 2. 13 - Sl ig ht ly Decomposed Vo l can i c Rock

(Gra de I I) Detai l G

Pl ate 2. 14 - Mode rate ly Decomposed Seam (Gr ade I I I )

i n Sl i ght l y Decomposed Vol can i c Roc k
( Grade I I) : Deta il H
 292

Pl at e 2. 15 - Complet el y Decomposed Grani t e Rock

(Grade V) , O to 1.00 m
Hi ghly Decomposed Gran i te Rock
(Grade IV) , 1. 00 to 3. 59 m
Moderately Decomposed Grani t e
Roc k (Grade I I I), 3. 59 t o 4. 65 m

'lflNDSLIDE-. STUO'( PHASt TI P.W.D CONTRACT No Ji(; 77 ·

-CONSULTING ENGINEER = _- º - CONTRACTOR- - - "
HOLENQ. PPF 7 ~ SITE: & ARE:A~m P,..vmG F,a os (ORE BOXNf"Z-. ~

Pl at e 2.16 - Moder ately Decomposed Grani t e Rock

(Grade I I I ), 4.65 t o 5. 55 m
Hi ghl y Decomposed Granite Roc k
(Grade IV), 5. 55 to 10 . 71 m

Pl ate 2. 17 - Sl i ghtl y Decomposed Gra nite Rock

(Grade II), 10 . 71 t o 13. 71 m
 293

Pl at e 2. 18 - Hig hl y Decomposed Grani t e Rock (Grade IV) ,

13. 71 t o 16 . 45 m
Moderately Decomposed Grani t e Rock
(G rad e I I I ), 16 . 45 t o 17 . 95 m

Pl ate 2. 19 - Hi gh ly Decomposed Gran i te Rock (Grade IV) ,

17. 95 t o 20 . 17 m
Sl i ghtl y Decomposed Gr ani t e Rock (Grade 11) ,
20. 17 to 21. 23 m
Moderatel y Decomposed Grani t e Rock
(G rade I I I) , 21. 23 to 21. 48 m

Plate 2. 20 - Modera t el y Decomposed Granite Rock

(Grade 11 1) , 21 . 48 to 22. 00 m
Sl ig ht ly Decomposed Gra ni te Rock
(Grade I I) , 22 . 00 to 24 . 48 m
 294

Pl at e 2. 21 - Sl i ghtly Decomposed Gran i t e Rock

(Grade I I ), 24. 48 t o 25. 95 m

Pl at e 2. 22 - Hi ghly Decomposed Gran ite Rock

(Grade IV) : Detai l A

Pl ate 2. 23 - Moderatel y Decompo sed Gr an i t e Rock

( Grade I I I) : Deta i l B
 295

Pl at e 2. 24 - Hi ghl y Decomposed Gra ni te Rock

(Grade IV) : Deta il C

Pl at e 2. 25 - Sl i ght ly Decomposed (G rade I I ) Becomi ng

Moder atel y Decomposed Grani t e Rock
(Grade I I I) : Detai l D

Pl ate 2. 26 - Hi ghly Decomposed Seam (Grade IV) i n Sl i gh tl y

Decomposed Gra nite Rock (G rade II ) : Deta i l E
 296

[BLANK PAGE]
 297

ADDENDUM
 298

[BLANK PAGE]
 299

Readers should note that the following Chapters/Sections of this Manual have been
supplemented or superseded by later publications:

(a) Chapter 1 and Section 2.3.3 are superseded by the Geological Survey Maps and
Memoirs and Geoguide 3 (GCO, 1988), which should be read in conjunction
with GEO Publication No. 1/2007 (GEO, 2007a) and GEO Technical Guidance
Note (TGN) No. 10 (GEO, 2009a).

(b) Chapter 2 (except Section 2.3.3), Sections 3.5 and 10.2 are superseded by
Geoguide 2 (GCO, 1987), which should be read in conjunction with GEO TGN
Nos. 3 (GEO, 2004d), 5 (GEO, 2009b), 6 (GEO, 2004a) and 10 (GEO, 2009a).

(c) Section 4.6 is superseded by GEO Publication No. 1/93 (GEO, 1993a).

(d) Section 5.2.2 is supplemented by GEO TGN No. 6 (GEO, 2004a).

(e) Sections 5.2.2, 5.3.6, 5.5.1, 5.5.2, and 9.5 are supplemented by the Works
Bureau Technical Circular No. 13/99 (Works Bureau, 1999), which should be
read in conjunction with GEO TGN Nos. 7 (GEO, 2004b) and 15 (GEO, 2007b).
Section 5.2.4 is superseded by this Technical Circular, and Tables 5.1 to 5.4 are
superseded by Tables 1 to 4 of the same Technical Circular.

(f) Section 5.3 is supplemented by GEO Report No. 138 (Ng et al, 2003) and GEO
Publication No. 1/2007 (GEO, 2007a).

(g) Section 5.4 is supplemented by Geoguide 7 (GEO, 2008), GEO Publication

No. 1/2009 (GEO, 2009c) and GEO TGN No. 10 (GEO, 2009a).

(h) Sections 5.5 and 9.5 are supplemented by GEO TGN No. 7 (GEO, 2004b).

(i) Section 5.5.1 is supplemented by Geoguide 6 (GEO, 2002).

(j) Section 6.2.1 is supplemented by Appendix A.3 of Geoguide 1 (1993b).

(k) Chapter 7 (except the parts relevant to the design of remedial or preventive
works to existing gravity retaining walls as given in Section 7.3.3) is superseded
by Geoguide 1 (GEO, 1993b), GCO Publication No. 1/90 (GCO, 1990) and
GEO Circular No. 33 (GEO, 2004c).

(l) The last paragraph of Section 8.3.4 is superseded by GEO TGN No. 27
(GEO, 2006), and Figures 8.6 and 8.8 of this Manual have been updated.

(m) Sections 8.4, 9.6 and 11.4.2 are supplemented by GEO Publication No. 1/2000
(GEO, 2000) and GEO TGN No. 20 (GEO, 2007c).

(n) Chapter 11 is superseded by Geoguide 5 (GEO, 2003).

(o) The addresses of organisations referred to in Section 12.5 have been updated.
 300

(p) References to BS 1377:1975 concerning Phase 1 tests described in Works

Branch Technical Circular 6/94 are replaced by Geospec 3 (GEO, 2001).

(q) “The Hong Kong Bibliography” referred to in the Manual is the Bibliography
on Geology and Geotechnical Engineering of Hong Kong (Brand, 1984), the
updated version of which can be found at the Hong Kong Slope Safety website
on the Internet:
http://hkss.cedd.gov.hk/hkss/eng/education/bb_geology_gehk/lib_query.htm.

The Works Bureau Technical Circular referred to in (e) above, together with the latest
information on the list of GEO publications including the complete list of the series of Hong
Kong Geological Survey Maps and Memoirs, can be found at the following websites:
http://www.devb.gov.hk and http://www.cedd.gov.hk/eng/publications/geo/index.htm on the
Internet respectively.

Copies of the GEO Circular No. 33 referred to in (k) above can be obtained from the
Technical Secretary of the Geotechnical Engineering Office, Civil Engineering and
Development Department, Civil Engineering and Development Building, 101 Princess
Margaret Road, Homantin, Kowloon, Hong Kong, (Tel: (852) 2762 5087, Fax:
(852) 2715 0501, E-mail: [email protected]).

REFERENCES

(a) Geotechnical Control Office (1987). Guide to Site Investigation (Geoguide 2)

(Reprinted, 2000). Geotechnical Control Office, Hong Kong, 359 p.

(b) Geotechnical Control Office (1988). Guide to Rock and Soil Descriptions
(Geoguide 3), (Reprinted, 2000). Geotechnical Control Office, Hong Kong,
186 p.

(c) Geotechnical Control Office (1990). Review of Design Methods for

Excavations (GCO Publication No. 1/90) (Reprinted, 2003). Geotechnical
Control Office, Hong Kong, 187 p.

(d) Geotechnical Engineering Office (1993a). Review of Granular and Geotextile

Filters (GEO Publication No. 1/93). Geotechnical Engineering Office, Hong
Kong, 141 p.

(e) Geotechnical Engineering Office (1993b). Guide to Retaining Wall Design

(Geoguide 1), (Second Edition) (Reprinted, 2007). Geotechnical Engineering
Office, Hong Kong, 258 p.

(f) Geotechnical Engineering Office (2000). Technical Guidelines on Landscape

Treatment and Bio-engineering for Man-made Slopes and Retaining Walls (GEO
Publication No. 1/2000). Geotechnical Engineering Office, Hong Kong, 146 p.

(g) Geotechnical Engineering Office (2001). Model Specification for Soil Testing
(Geospec 3). Geotechnical Engineering Office, Hong Kong, 340 p.
 301

(h) Geotechnical Engineering Office (2002). Guide to Reinforced Fill Structure

and Slope Design (Geoguide 6). Geotechnical Engineering Office, Hong Kong,
236 p.

(i) Geotechnical Engineering Office (2003). Guide to Slope Maintenance

(Geoguide 5), (Third Edition). Geotechnical Engineering Office, Hong Kong,
132 p.

(j) Geotechnical Engineering Office (2004a). Application of Back Analysis

Approach to the Design of Slope Preventive or Remedial Works (GEO TGN
No. 6). Geotechnical Engineering Office, Hong Kong, 2 p.

(k) Geotechnical Engineering Office (2004b). Fill Slope Recompaction –

Investigation, Design and Construction Considerations (GEO TGN No. 7).
Geotechnical Engineering Office, Hong Kong, 6 p.

(l) Geotechnical Engineering Office (2004c). Guidelines for Assessment of Old

Masonry Retaining Walls in Geotechnical Studies and for Action to be Taken on
Private Walls (GEO Circular No. 33). Geotechnical Engineering Office, Hong
Kong, 16 p.

(m) Geotechnical Engineering Office (2004d). Use of Downhole Geophysical

Methods in Identification of Weak Layers in the Ground (GEO TGN No. 3).
Geotechnical Engineering Office, Hong Kong, 6 p.

(n) Geotechnical Engineering Office (2006). Hydraulic Design of Stepped

Channels on Slopes (GEO TGN No. 27). Geotechnical Engineering Office,
Hong Kong, 16 p.

(o) Geotechnical Engineering Office (2007a). Engineering Geological Practice in

Hong Kong (GEO Publication No. 1/2007). Geotechnical Engineering Office,
Hong Kong, 278 p.

(p) Geotechnical Engineering Office (2007b). Guidelines for Classification of

Consequence-to-Life Category for Slope Features (GEO TGN No. 15).
Geotechnical Engineering Office, Hong Kong, 14 p.

(q) Geotechnical Engineering Office (2007c). Updating of GEO Publication No.

1/2000 - Technical Guidelines on Landscape Treatment and Bio-engineering for
Man-made Slopes and Retaining Walls (GEO TGN No. 20). Geotechnical
Engineering Office, Hong Kong, 8 p.

(r) Geotechnical Engineering Office (2008). Guide to Soil Nail Design and
Construction (Geoguide 7). Geotechnical Engineering Office, Hong Kong,
97 p.

(s) Geotechnical Engineering Office (2009a). Enhancement of Rock Slope

Engineering Practice Based on Findings of Landslide Studies (GEO TGN
No. 10). Geotechnical Engineering Office, Hong Kong, 5 p.
 302

(t) Geotechnical Engineering Office (2009b). Geoguide 2 - Guide to Site

Investigation Updated Appendix B: Sources of Information (GEO TGN No. 5).
Geotechnical Engineering Office, Hong Kong, 24 p.

(u) Geotechnical Engineering Office (2009c). Prescriptive Measures for

Man-made Slopes and Retaining Walls (GEO Publication No. 1/2009).
Geotechnical Engineering Office, Hong Kong, 76 p.

(v) Ng, K.C., Parry, S., King, J.P., Franks, C.A.M. & Shaw, R. (2003). Guidelines
for Natural Terrain Hazard Studies (GEO Report No. 138). Geotechnical
Engineering Office, Hong Kong, 138 p.

(w) Works Bureau (1999). Geotechnical Manual for Slopes – Guidance on

Interpretation and Updating (Works Bureau Technical Circular No. 13/99).
Works Bureau, Government of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region,
12 p.