Pre-University Remedial Programme History module for the 2014

E.C ESSLCE Examinees

Unit one
1. Introduction (6hours)
1.1. Definition and uses of History
I. Prehistory
By “prehistory", historians mean the inquiry of knowledge of the distant past in an area
where no written records exist, or where the writing of a culture was not understood.
Generally, prehistory refers to:
 the period before the beginning of the art of writing.
 the study of distant past.
 the study of events before human society developed the art of writing and recording.
 Archaeology is:-
 the study of ancient and historic sites and artifacts. It is the study of human activity
through the recovery and analysis of material culture.
 the science in which archaeologists dig out material remains or objects and fossils of the
past.
 a major source in the study of prehistory because study of fossil remains of the past help
us to reconstruct what happened before writing and recording started.
 Archaeologists are scholars who dig out material remains of the past.
 Fossils: - are the remains of dead plants, human beings and animals. The study of fossils
and other material remains of the past help us to reconstruct what happened before
writing and recording started.
II. History
Different scholars (historians) define history in different ways because of differences in the level
of knowledge, experience, time and ideology. History refers to dealing with the past beginning
from the time when writing and recording started.
Definition of history by different scholars:
A. Homer:
According to Homer, the word history is originated from the Greek word “Istoria” which
means to witness, learn and know.
B. Herodotus:
For Herodotus, the word history is originated from the word “Istoria” which mean
inquiry and investigation.
C. Karl Marx and Fredrick Engels:
He defined history as the struggle between the exploiting and the exploited class,
between the rich and the poor people, and between the governed and the governor.
D. Charles Darwin:
He defined history as the struggle between peoples or states for supremacy and even
for survival.
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 Pre-University Remedial Programme History module for the 2014
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According to Professor Marwick, knowledge of the past is essential to the society and without
knowledge of the past (knowledge of history), we would be without identity and it is impossible
to understand the present society.
Literary or narrow definition of history:
A branch of social science that deals with the totality of all human deeds, thoughts
and sayings in the past which implies what human beings did in the past and it is as
old as human being itself. History is a systematic and organized study of the past
which was started by the Greeks historian named Herodotus.
Broad definitions of History
 History is derived from a Greek word called “istoria” meaning "inquiry, and knowledge
acquired by investigation".
 History is a branch of social science that deals with human past or past events or what
human beings did in the past.
 History can also mean the period of time after writing was invented.
 History studies changes in the development of societies. It also studies the political,
economic, social and cultural life of past societies.
 Scholars who write about history are called historians. Past events include interactions,
trade, war, life style, activities, beliefs, developments and decline.
III. Uses of History
Why we study History?
We study history because history helps us to:
 know about the past,
 understand the present and
 foresee the future developments. .
 be better thinkers and informed citizen,
 understand people and society,
 develop tolerance and open-mindedness,
 understand change and how the society we live in is came to being,
 pursuit other disciplines like literature, art, religion, anthropology, sociology and
archeology,
 promote self-understanding,
 assess good and bad values done by our ancestors,
 correct mistakes of the past done by our ancestors,
 teaches somebody to love his/her identity, history
 broaden our intellectuality,
 teach and learn causes and effects of economic, political and social problems,
 understand the existence of different customs, laws and institutions,
 teach and learn about the transformation of habits and innovations (change and
continuity),
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 have broad understanding about national and international issues, democratic principles
and nationalism,
 develop the necessary skill for collecting data, analyzing data or information to reach at
real conclusions,
 get a great mental training and
 foster or promote national feeling.
We study history because it affects our present and future life. It is difficult to understand
problems that the societies face today without tracing their origin in the past（without the
knowledge of history).History is not a fiction or a story. Rather, it is a true story. History is
fact, truth, and reality.
Key Elements in the Study of History:
The three key elements in the study of history are:
I. Sources
II. Presentation of facts, and
III. Objectivity
I. Sources of History
 History is supported by evidences because history is the obtained from evidences.
 History can only be written on the basis of information collected from sources.
 Evidences are obtained from many sources.
 Sources are the basis of historical statements and judgments.
 Sources form the reliable bridge that connects the historian to the past.
Basically, sources are divided in to two. These are Primary and Secondary sources.
A. Primary sources are:
 uninterpreted original or new materials.
 original materials that give usfirsthand information.
 original materials or written documents that have direct relations and closer to the
events they describe both in place and time.
 accounts of direct witness or observation of an event.
 Physical remains.
 More reliable than secondary sources.
Examples of primary sources:

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 Artifacts,  Tools
 Fossils remains (remains of plants,  Ornaments
animals and humans)  Contractual agreements
 Inscriptions (a piece of curved  Oral traditions told by eyewitness
writing on stones),  Marriage certificates
 Coins  Receipts
 Chronicles (original written  Archives
materials written by chroniclers by  congressional hearings
order of kings).  Photographs
 Remains of buildings  Manuscripts
 Letters  Art or music
 Birth certificates  Memoirs,
 Treaties  Court records
 voting records  Monographs (a detailed documented
 Diaries treaties)
 Newspapers during the time of  Autobiography (life history)
event  Monuments (tombstones)
 Speeches  Archaeological excavation.
B. Secondary sources:
Secondary sources are sometimes regarded as historical reconstructions because what the
historian does is reconstructing the past on the basis of the available sources preferably or by
using primary ones.
 They are second hand information.
 They are less reliable than primary sources.
 They are products or accounts of historian based on primary sources.
 They do not have direct relations to the events they describe both in space and time.
 They are records generated by an event but written by non-participants in the event based
on/derived from primary sources.
 They are interpreted, or analyzed.
Examples of secondary sources:
Books, poems, unpublished papers, Dictionaries, Biographies, plays, Novels, history text,
Journals articles, Encyclopedia, Chronologies, Oral traditions (when told by quotation)
 Historycan only bewritten on the basis of information collected from the above two types
of general sources. Historians are expected to carefully use them in writing the history of
a given society such as that of the Ethiopian region.
 Oral traditions are also other sources to study the history of non-literate societies.

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General Sources of Ethiopian History
 The most important primary sources of Ethiopian history are: -fossils, ruins of
buildings, inscriptions, chronicles and documents such as letters and codes of laws.
The old inscriptions and documents about Ethiopia were written in Sabean, Geez,
Amharic, Arabic, Greek and other European languages.
 The major part of secondary sources for the study of Ethiopian history arehistory
books, novels, plays and oral traditions.
 Oral traditions:-
 are information transmitted by word of mouth from generation to generation.
 are one of the main sources for the study of Ethiopian history.
 can be both primaryand secondarysources of history. That means,eye witness
information is primary source while re-told eye witness information is secondary.
 Fragmentation /incompleteness and imperfectness are Problems of sources of history.
This may occur because of shortage of time or careless of the writer, bias and distortion
due to writer’s partiality. Therefore, sources should be critically evaluated to:
 Check the authenticity of sources,
 Establish and deep understanding of the meaning and theme of evidences, and
 Avoid misrepresentation and wrong interpretation.
II. Presentation of facts
Once sources are evaluated and understood, facts should be presented on facts. Care should be
taken during presentation because the manner of presentation highly affects the quality of
historical writing.

III. Objectivity
Objectivity depends distinguishing between the real or significant facts than getting facts rightly.
Objectivity does not mean only identifying real facts but it also includes presenting what all the
facts say without any bias. Objectivity is the utmost or maximum duty or responsibility of
historians to present the reality as the really were, and the way the really occurred.
1.2. Methods of Historical Study
The Study of Ethiopian History
The study of Ethiopian history (Ethiopian studies) was founded outside Ethiopia in Europe in the
17th century by a German historian named Job Ludolf who wrote the first modern history of
Ethiopia, which was published in 1684.

Ethiopian writers, who wrote Ethiopian history, appeared towards the end of 19th century. In this
regard, the establishment of the Institute of Ethiopian Studies (IES) in the early 1960s at Hiale
Sellassie I University College changed the pattern of writing Ethiopian studies or history. But,
this account had focused only on the northern parts Ethiopia because the northern parts of

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Ethiopia had the following advantages over the southern Ethiopia. The advantages of the
northern Ethiopia include:
a. Geographical closeness of northern to outside world since ancient time;
The closeness of the northern Ethiopia to outside world helped it to attract:
 Romans,
 Arabians, writers who had left important information.
 Greeks for the study of history.
b. The northern has developed written language long before southern Ethiopia that saved to
keep records;
c. There were chronicles in northern Ethiopian left writers of Christian kings;
d. The strongest relationship or contact that the Ethiopian Christian kingdom established
with the Egyptian Coptic Church enabled the northern Ethiopia to get archival sources
from Egypt; and
e. The well-studied archaeology of northern Ethiopia.

Compared to the northern part of Ethiopia, in the southern part of the country:
 Available physical remains are not yet studied;
 Few European ventured to the region. But the information left by such ventures are
barely or not enough to construct the history of the state and people of southern
Ethiopia;
 Had no written language to keep records or had no written sources of history;
 Scholars have been reluctant to collect and use oral traditions as reliable historical
sources until 1960s.
Generally, the following are the problems of the study of Ethiopian History that affect
Ethiopian history in many ways:
 Imbalance of sources in north and south parts of the country;
 Scholars lack interest to study the history of the south until 1960s;
 Lack of:
 comprehensive study because it focused only on political history and
history of kings; and absence of economic, cultural, people, religious etc
history
 objectivity due to chroniclers bias and emphasizing on ruling dynasties
 sources; and
 sufficient social, political and cultural knowledge.
The Writing of History
 The world’s oldest written history comes from China. Archeologists have discovered
records of Chinese history written before 1000 BC.
 Western historical writingbegan in ancient Greece.

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 The first Greek historian, Herodotus (484-425 BC) was known as the "Father of
History''. His most famous successor, Thucydides (th u sid'd e z') wrote
critically and accurately.
 Most Historians use certain basic methods in writing history.
 First, they select an issue or a topic from the past period.
 Next, they read different source materials.
 Then they interpret the information obtained from these sources.
 Finally, they write the history in a simple, readable, attractive and objectively.
Dating in History
 Events occur in time. But their duration in time could be short or long.
 We express the duration of events in time by using units called decade, century,and
millennium.
 A period of ten years is called a decade,
 A period of hundred years is century, and
 A period of one thousand yearsmillennium.
 In writing history, past events are organized according to their sequence in time. The
sequence of events in time is called chronology.
 Calendars help us to put events in a time chronology. There are different kinds of
calendars. The Gregorian and Islamic calendars are the two widely used calendars all
over the world.
 According to the Gregorian calendar, time is counted forward and backwards from the
time of the birth of Jesus Christ. In this case, the timebefore the birth of Christ is
referred to as BC (Before Christ), whereas the time after the birth of Christ is
expressed in A.D. (a Latin term, "Anno Domini’’), meaning "in the year of the Lord.
 The Islamic Calendar follows the event called the Hejira to count time forwards and
backwards.
 The Hejira was the flight of the prophet Mohammed from Mecca to Medina in 622 AD.
Hence, B.H, stands to the years before the Hejira and
A.H, refers to the years after the Hejira.
 Apart from the above two ways, we can also refer to the time in the past in terms of B.P
(Before present). B.P is mostly used to refer to very distant times in the past.
Note:
0-99 AD =1st c 400-499 AD =5th c 0-999 AD=1st millennium
100-199 AD =2nd c 500-599 AD =6th c 1000-1999 AD=2nd millennium
200-299 AD=3rd c 600-699 AD=7th c 2000-2999 AD=3rd millennium etc
300-399 AD=4th c 700-799 AD=8th c etc
Example
 The years from 600 AD to 699 is in the 7th century. Therefore, according to the Gregorian
calendar, Hejira is in the 7th century A.D.

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 1805 is in the 19th century and
 2020 is in the 21st century.
Periodization in History
History is studied on the basis of Periodization. We study Periodization because time is an
important factor in the study of history. The different purposes of Periodization in history are:
 Periodization help us to present events in time framework that enable us
understand past events properly;
 Simplifies the work historians to limit themselves to the study of certain period of
time; and
 Help historians to present the result of their studies or past events in sequences of
time.
There are different approaches or criteria of Periodization. The starting point for Periodization
is proposed to be 2 million years B.P (the time when early human began to walk upright
position, produce and use instruments of labour. The3 criteria are:
1. Based on the development of human behavior. Based on this criterion, human behavior
passed 3 stages namely:
a. Savagery lasted from 2, 000,000-8000 B.P;
b. Barbarous covered from 8000 -500 B.P; and
c. Civilization (5000 to present).
2. Based on objects out of which early human beings made instruments of labour. In this
regard, the 3 periods are:
a. Stone Age – 2,000,000-5000 B.P;
b. Bronze Age- 8000- 5000 B.P; and
c. Irion Age - 5000 B.P to present.
3. Based on human level of economic development. From this criterion point of view the 3
periods are:
a. The period of hunting and gathering (to 8000 B.P);
b. The period of farming and animal husbandry (8000 B.P to 1750 A.D); and
c. Age of Industry (from 1750 A.D to present).
4. Apart from the above criteria and approaches of Periodization, history of humanity is
generally divided in to two major periods. These are:
a. Pre-history (the period before the invention of the art of writing); and
b. History (the period after human beings learned the art of writing).
The beginning of the art of writing which appeared about 6000 B.P marked the boundary
between pre-history and history. Thus, the period before 6000 B.P is called pre-history, and the
period after 6000 B.P. is known as history.
Stone Age:
The pre-historic period coincided with a period known as Stone Age.

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Stone Age was the period when human beings made tools from stone. Based on the progress in
the technique of making stone tools, Periodization is divided in to two major sub-divisions of
Stone Age. They are:
1. Old Stone Agecovered the period from 2,000,000 B.P - 8000 B.P ( Before Present), and
2. New Stone Agecovered from 8000 B.C – 5000 B.P.
The period of history is also divided in to 3 which are generally named
 Ancient,
 Medievaland
 Modern History.
I. Periodization in Europe
In Europe, the period of history is divided in to 3 minor periods. These are:
1. Ancient Europe ( covered from 1250 BC that marked the rise of ancient civilization in
Greece to 5th century AD the time when ancient Roman Empire came to an end);
2. Medieval Europe (5th century AD to 16th century AD); and
3. Modern European history (16th century AD to present). However, this fits with European
history.
II. Periodization in Africa
Periodization in Africa has developed unique feature because of the colonization of Africa by
Africa. The sub-divisions are:
1. Pre-colonial Africa-the period before Africa was colonized by Europe;
2. Colonial Africa - the period during when Africa was under European colonization; and
3. Post-colonial Africa-the period following declaration of Africans independence from
colonial rule.
III. Periodization in Ethiopia
1. Ancient Ethiopian history (from 1000 BC to 1270 AD);
2. Medieval Ethiopian history (from 1270 AD to 1855 AD); and
3. Modern Ethiopian history (from 1855 AD to present).
Note:
 There is no fixed and uniform time gap for the sub-division of periods throughout the
world.
 Periodization in Europe and Ethiopia are similar in naming the Periodization only
because the beginning and end of each Periodization is not the same due to the fact that
the historical developments and civilization that Europe and Ethiopia experienced were
different.
1.3. Features, interdependences and achievements of
major civilization
Ancient African Civilizations
A. Ancient Egyptian civilization
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 Was the earliest (ancient) world’s great civilization

 began at about 3000 BC.
 flourished in the Nile Valley of northeast Africa.
 Egypt was called the “gift of the Nile” by a Greek historian named Herodotus.
 The majority of ancient Egyptians were poor farmers. They lived in small mud huts.
 Their main crops were wheat, barely, onion, flax and vegetables produced in the Nile
Valley. They were also keepers of cattle, goats and other domestic animals.
 The rulers of Ancient Egypt were known as Pharaohs.
 Their servants, scribes and tax collectors used to supervise peasant labour and
production.
 Peasants undertook irrigational activities. They also engaged in the construction
of palaces huge temples and tombs. Thousands of peasants were involved in the
construction of large tombs, for the Pharaohs. These tombs are known as
pyramids.
 Its political unification was made possible by Nile River
 The oldest state in the world, which kept its:
 Name
 Identity and
 Territorial area
 United its upper and lower parts by king Menes (c. 3200 BC)
 Ruled by 31 indigenous dynasties
Egyptian history was divided in to three kingdoms namely:
1. The Old Kingdom (c.2686-2181 BC)
2. The Middle Kingdom (c.2040-1730 BC)
3. The New Kingdom (c.1550-1080 BC)
After the New Kingdom, Egypt:
 Was Conquered by Persia in 343 BC
 Was conquered by Alexander(who conquered Egypt from Persia) in 332BC
 Put under Macedonia-Greek administration rule until 30 BC
 Became part of Roman Empire in 30 BC
Egyptian Kings were:
 All powerful
 Regarded as incarnate (alive) god and after his death
 Called Pharaoh means “great house,” a place where a king lived, and it became royal or
political titles of kings.
Administration system of Ancient Egypt
 Forced people to give corvee labor (unpaid or free labor)
 Memphis ---------political centre of the Old Kingdom

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 Thebes --------- political capital of the Middle and the New Kingdom
 Nomes-----------local provinces of ancient Egypt
 Nomarch------ local officials, or administers of nomes(appointed officials by king)
 Viziers ------- higher officials or administrators, who had the responsibilities to:
 help the king to govern
 act as mayors or city administrators
 collect tax and
 judges
 Helped Egypt to become the world’s strongest or highest power in 1400 BC
Egyptian Military strength
 The strongest during king Thutmose III
 He annexed Palestine, Syria, Kush and Nubian and made parts of Egyptian Empire
 He made Egypt the strongest and wealthiest in the Middle East
 King Rameses II and Queen Hatshepsut were also militarily strong Egyptian rulers.
Egyptian Religion
 Initially worshiped in many deities or polytheists (gods such as Amon Re (chief god in
Egypt)
 Believed in life after death that was why they built pyramids or royal tombs.The Great
Pyramids and Sphinx are examples of Egyptian architecture. Their art and architecture
reflected their religions.
Contributions of Egyptian to Africa Civilization in particular and the world in general
 developed techniques of irrigation to develop agriculture
 constructed the oldest and largest pyramids in the world ( Giza, 140 meters high,
Karnak, and Abu Simbel)
 developed the writing system called hieroglyphics. It was a pictorial form of writing and
one of the oldest of its kind.Hieroglyphics were at first carved on the walls and pillars of
palaces and temples. Gradually, however, Egyptians introduced papyrus. Papyrus was a
paper like substance. The early Egyptian writings were about religion, such as the "Book
of the Dead.''.
 developed calendar
 achieved remarkable progresses in:
Government
Religion (a monotheist outlook, centered around Atom (a sun god), a
universal and holy god) that replaced polytheist outlook.
Engineering
Architecture, building of canals and roads
Science and mathematics

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Medicine called mummification to preservedead body from decaying
because of belief in life after death. Mummification later developed into
skilled art.
 Ancient Egyptians had cultural and commercial relations with the Ethiopian region.
B. Kush/Meroe Civilizations
Kush:-
was a kingdom emerged along the Nile River in what is now northeastern Sudan.
Its foundation date is unknown, but existed as early as 2000 BC and lasted until 350 AD.
exported slaves, cattle, gold and ivory.
Egypt conquered Kush in the 1500's BC and the Kushities adopted elements of Egyptian
art, language and religion.
 The Kushites conquered Egypt in750 BC. They ruled it until about 670 BC. After
conquered Egypt and combined it with Kush, Kushites made their capital Napata.
 The Assyria invaded Egypt and Kushfrom Asia. They destroyed Napata, the capital of
Kush and Thebes (Egyptian capital). The Kushities moved their capital southward to
survive. The southward Kush’s movement was resulted in the foundation of the new
capital called Meroe.This kingdom flourished again. The glorious period of Kush came
to being from its administrative capital, Meroe (Meroitic civilization)
They were known in found of iron. Its iron making technology helped it to build
powerful military.
 Powerful military helped them to control trade of the horn of Africa and to conquer large
territories.
 Largely depended on trade that helped for its prosperity
 Reached the highest level of development from the mid-3rd century BC to 1st century AD.
Major Contributions of Kushites/ Meroe
 Free from Egyptian influence, developed their own:
 language,
 writing system
 art and architecture
 iron industry (iron making technology, iron tools and weapons as well as
making tools from hard wood)
 they worshiped their own gods
Causes of its Decline and its demise:
 Invaded by Aksumiteking Ezana in the middle of 4th century AD (350 A.D), who burned
Meroe and destroyed Meroitic (Kush) power.
C. Carthage:-
 Was one of the greatest cities of ancient times
 stood on a peninsula in North Africa, near the present city of Tunis.
 was founded by Phoenician seamen as a trade and shipping outpost at about 814 BC.

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 grew quickly because of its location and excellent harbors. The city was well protected
by a wall stretched across the peninsula.
 was probably the first city state to grow into large empire. Much of western North
Africa, southern Spain, Sardinia, Corsica and the western half of Sicily came under
Carthage rule.
 The people of Carthage were more interested in trade than in conquest. When the
Romans wanted to take Sicily, Carthage fought and lost three wars called the Punic wars
with Rome. It was destroyed during the wars from 149-146 BC and its territory became
part of the Roman Empire.
D. Zimbabwe
 People have lived in the region for thousands of years.
 The Shona people began their rule about 1000 AD. They built a city called Zimbabwe,
or Great Zimbabwe.
 The word Zimbabwe is a shona word which means "house of stone''. The ruins of the
city lie near Masuingo.
 During the 1400's a branch of the Shona, called the Karanga, established the
Mwenemutapa Empire. This empire included most of what is now Zimbabwe.
 The Karanga traded ivory, gold and copper for porcelain from China and cloth and
beads from India and Indonesia.
 The Rozwi, a southern Karanga group, rebelled in the late 1400's and founded the
Changamire Empire. This empire became stronger than Mwenemutapa Empire, and the
Rozwi took over the city of Zimbabwe.
 The Rozwi built the city's largest structures. The Changamire Empire was in turn
defeated by the Nguni people and the city was abandoned since 1450 AD
II. Ancient Asian Civilization
A. Mesopotamian Civilization
 included the area what is now eastern Syria, southeastern Turkey and most part of
Iraq. The heart of the region was the land between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers.
 the name Mesopotamia comes from a Greek word meanings ''land between rivers.''
 was a river valley civilization.
 Emerged in the modern Iraq
 Villages had been established in southern Mesopotamia by about 5000 BC.
 Sometimes before 3500 BC, new settlers arrived in this region. The area they settled
became known as Sumer. There is no evidence for that the Sumerians moved there from
anywhere else; they may have been indigenous.
 The civilization was founded at an area called Sumeria by Sumerian people.
 Lugals were absolute kings or rulers of Sumeria (Mesopotamia), rule as god’s
representatives, but not as gods.

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 Inhabitants of Sumerian were classified as farmers, priests, officials, soldiers,
craftsmen and traders
 Due to shortage of stones and good timber they did not build monuments
Achievements of Mesopotamia/Sumerian civilization
 The Sumerians:-
 began to build the first cities in the world.
 invented the world's first pictographic system of writing called
Cuneiformwhich had no alphabet
 developed mathematics, astronomy, medicine and metal works.
 Used plough for the first time
 invented boats moved by wind for the first time
 Became experts of metals
 Got 60 minutes in an hour
 Got 360 degrees in a circle (Measurement)
 Invented calendar
 Known in:
 law, science and art
 Study of heavenly bodies. Recognizing the difference b/n planets and
fixed stars (skills in astronomy)
B. The Persian Empire: Ancient Persia:
 Persia was a land that included parts of what are now Iran and Afghanistan.
 The Persians called the region the ''Land of the Aryans''from which the name Iran
comes.
 The Persians:-
 called their language Aryan.
 were nomads who came to the area about 900 BC.
 Founded by king Cyrus the Great (557-530), who was conqueror.
 created an empire that lasted for over 200 years.
 made important contributions in government, law, and religion.
 developed an efficient ''pony express'' relay system of postal service.
 became the center of a vast empire which extended from North Africa and southeastern
Europe in the west to India in the east and from the gulf of Oman in the south to the
Caucasus Mountains in the north in the 500s BC.
 The people also practiced Caravan trade. Darics, Persians gold currency named after
Emperor Darics I, who issued it in the 5th century BC.
 Developed a cuneiform system of writings.
 Their religion was known as Zoroastrianism. This religion was monotheist. It was
founded by a prophetin 6th c BC that was called Zoroaster (or Zarathustra).

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 Zoraster preached as there two opposing principles called good and evil.
Accordingly, Ahura Mazda represented good and Ahrimam represented evil.
 The Persian Emperor called ''the Great King, the King of Kings’’ was an absolute ruler,
ruling as the representative of the Persian god Ahura Mazda.
 The ruling officials of the empire and the cavalry core of the army came from the Persian
nobility, while the commoners provided the infantry core of the army.
 The empire was divided into provinces called satrapies, each governed by an official
called a satrap.
 Early Persians were farmers who raised grain and livestock. The Persian peasants
developed irrigation to grow wheat, barley, oats and vegetables.
 Cause of decline: Alexander the Great conquered the Persian Empire in 331
BC, and the region became part of Alexander's empire.
C. Indian Civilization
 Its civilization began in the Indus valley in what is now Pakistan and western India at
about 2500 BC. Started by Dravidian people (indigenous people). Reached apex level of
development in 1500BC.
 Ruins of the two major ancient cities of Indus valley (Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro) tell
much about this civilization.
 The people:-
 lived in brick homes several stories high.
 had systems of counting, measuring, weighing and writing. They dug ditches and
canals around the cities to irrigate their farms.
 traded with one another and also with other civilizations like Mesopotamia.
 Indus artisans used copper and bronze to make tools, mirrors, pots, and pans and also
crafted silver and gold ornaments.
 A religion initially called Hindu/Hinduism was developed from the ancient Indo-Aryan
people beliefs which believed that salvation can be achieved by giving up pleasure of
material world.Later, another religion known as Buddhism emerged from Hinduism as a
reform movement.
 Buddhism was founded by Siddhartha Gautama (c. 563-438BC). Buddhism was the
middle way to salvation by:
1. Avoiding extreme of asceticism on one side and
2. Materialism on the other side
 This religion spread outside India to South East Asia, China and Japan.
 There are different explanations for the decline as well assudden and complete
disappearance of the Indus valley civilization. They were:-
1/ An invasion by the Aryans from the north destroyed the Indus valley cities.
2/Environmental degradation caused by deforestation.
3/ Epidemic disease (malaria).

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4/ The drying up of the Hakra River and
5/ Changes in the course of the Indus River and change in climatethat disrupted
agricultural and economic system of the area.
 After the decline, the northern parts of India was conquered by Indo-Aryan people
but southern remained largely Dravidian people.
Major contributions of Ancient India
 Called world store of knowledge.
 Developed mathematics and science.
 Made progress in surgery.
 Introduced the use of herbs to cure disease.
 Developed the field of chemistry to tan leather dye cloth to produce soap, cement and
glass.
 Introduced the called Arabic numerals (1, 2, 3--) for the first time which later taken over
by Arabs and more developed them.
 Introduced the concept of Zero and decimal system for the first time.
 As religious ideas were carried east ward from India into China and other parts of
Asia, India’s ancient art and architecture spread, too India, in truth, is one of the
mothers of civilization.
D.Ancient Chinese civilization
 Ancient Chinese civilization reached the highest stage about 3000 B.C in the valley of
Hwang Ho.
 Its earliest centre of civilization was its northern part.
 The earliest Chinese states were the Shang and the Chon.
The Shang kingdom
 was centered in the Hwang Ho valley.
 It became a highly developed society during the 1700's B.C.
Its achievements included the creation of bronze vessels, the development of war chariots
and the establishment of a system of writing. Chinese earliest form of script was called
Logographic, pictographs which had no alphabet but had 50,000 characters.
Shang Dynasty (c. 1700-1122BC) was Chinese first dynasty. About 1122 BC the
Chone dynasty overthrew the Shang and established their own rule that lasted until 256
BC.
The Zhon or Chou people of China:
 They were people of western China.
 They overthrew the Shang dynasty in 1122 BC.
 Established their dynasty and ruled China until 256 BC.
 The state of the dynasty was called “warring state period” from 403-221 BC.
Chinese philosophy

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 The greatest of the Chinese philosophers was Confucius (551-479 BC). His real name
was Kong Qiu. Confucius was derived from Latin, a title called Kongfuzi which means
Great Master Kong.
 Confucius ideas or teachings are called Confucianism, which developed moral character
and responsibility.
 Confucianism teaches the importance of a well-ordered society in which parents
rule their children; men rule women and the educated rule the common people.
 Confucius had left no books but his conversations, sayings were recorded by his disciple
in a book called Analects.
 The idea of Confucius later influenced China after his death from 100BC to 1911
Chinese revolution.
 Confucian further developed by Menicus (Meng-tzu), 372-289 BC, most important
Confucian philosopher.
 Confucianism was basically secular philosophy not a religion.
 It accepted the existence heaven based on human reason.
 It was the principle of relation of authority on one side and obedience and subordination
on the other side. But, put greater emphasis on personal ethics ( Do not do to others
what do not want done to you)
Mencius (another Chinese philosopher):
 Belied that people were born good
 Stressed the need to pressure “the natural compassion of heart” that makes people
human
 Emphasized the past as an ideal age and model for examining the present problems
The Qin (Chin) Sate of China:
 The king named Shih Huang-ti (the 1st ruler of Qin state)defeated all of his rivals and
established the first Chinese Empire
 The king’s philosophy was called Legalism (the rival political philosophy to
Confucianism)
 Legalism believed and emphasized on the importance of:
 Authority
 Efficient administration
 Strict laws
Contributions of Chinese civilization:
 The first to start using coal, produce porcelain and printing
 Invented wheel barrow, lacquer to give a hard glassy finish to wood and leather
 Invented silk and gun powder
 The Great Wall of China was constructed by the ancient Chinese to keep out
invaders from central Asia. It extends about 7,400 kilometers across northern China.
E. The Old Babylonian Civilization

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Babylon (means gate of god):
 Great city of ancient world
 Capital of kingdom of Babylon and two of its emperors
 Stood near the present day al-Hillah (Iraq)
 Trading and religious center
 Sumuabum was its first ruler, who founded Babylon dynasty in 1894 BC
 Hammurabi was best known king (1792-1750 BC), who developed:
 Wise and fair code of law
 Economic law that supported private property
 However, Hammurabi’s criminal law was:
 Harsh
 Discriminate social and gender
 Severe and physical in punishing common people
Cause of Decline was its conquest by Assyria
F. The Assyrian Civilization
 Semitic speaking in Northern Iraq
 Built the largest Empire in the middle East since 9th century BC
 Have been called Romans of Asia because they were conquers like Romans
 Ashur ( named after its chief god)––its first capital later changed to Nineveh
 Kings ruled as absolute and god’s (Ashur) representatives
 Army:
 Well organized and efficient
 Used iron weapons than bronze
 Composed of cavalry, chariots and infantry
 Administration:
 Divided into provinces
 Administered by governments responsible to central governments
 Society consisted:
 Nobles
 Hired persons
 Free land owners
 Private traders
 Few slaves
 Economy: largely based on taxation and trade.
 Causes of decline were:
 Attacked by Medians and Babylonians in 612 BC
 Internal struggle for power succession
The New Babylonian Empire

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 Founded in 626 BC by its leader named Nebopolassar who won Assyria and restored by
Median support
 Achieved the greatest glory during Nebopolassar and his son and successor
Nebuchadnezzar II
 Nebuchadnezzar II rebuilt city on a grand scale and huge inner walls to protect the city
with 8 gates among which Ishtar was the largest
 He built the temple called Marduk around the gate
 The area of Marduk was also included the Monument of Ziggurat. This was later came
to known as Tower of Babel
Cause of decline:
 The weakest king after Nebuchadnezzar II (internal factor)
 Persian invasion (external factor)
III. American Civilization
A. The Mayas
 were native American people who developed a magnificent civilization in western hemisphere
before the coming of the Europeans.
 This civilization was at its peak from about 250 to 900 AD.
 produced remarkable architecture, painting, pottery, and sculpture.
 made great advancement in astronomy and mathematics and developed an accurate yearly
calendar.
 developed an advanced form of writing.
 worshiped many gods and goddesses.
 built tall pyramids of limestone with small temples on top.
 Today, descendants of the Maya live in Mexico and Central America.
 The Spanish had conquered the Southern part of the area in the 16th century.
 Spanish domination of the entire Maya region was completed in the late 17th century.
B. The Incas
 were a south American native people.
 ruled one of the largest and richest empires in the Americas.
 empire began to expand about 1438. It included parts of the present-day Colombia, Ecuador,
Peru, Bolivia, Chile and Argentina.
 Its capital was Cusco, in southern Peru.
 were skilled in engineering and in crafts.
 built a network of roads. Inca craft workers made fine articles from gold, silver and other
materials. The Inca also wove fine cotton and woolen cloth.
 The Inca empire was conquered by Spanish forces after 1532.
C. The Aztecs
 were another native American people who ruled a powerful empire in Mexico during the
fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries.

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 The center of its civilization was the valley of Mexico.
 Its empire included many cities and towns. The largest city was the capital, Tenochtitlan,
which stood on the site of present day Mexico-city.
 Agriculture formed the basis of the Aztec economy. Corn was the most important crop.
 worshiped hundreds of gods and goddesses.
 used a form of writing called pictographic writings.
 Their empire was destroyed by the Spaniards in 1521.
Ancient Europeans Civilization
A. Ancient Greece or Greek
Ancient Greecewas the birth place of western civilization about 2500 years ago. Thecivilization was
developed in small city-sates.The Greek city-states were called Polis. The city-states established a form
of government called Oligarchy, which was ruled by a few powerful people.
 A city-state consisted of a city or town and the surrounding villages and farmland
 The city-states never became united into a nation. However, they all had a common language,
religion and culture.
 The Greeks called themselvesHellens and their landHellas.

The best known ancient Greek city-states were:
1. Athens and
2. Sparta
1. Athens
 The biggest city-state in size and population
 Had good olive oil and wine
 Had no good land for grain cultivation
 Possessed very strong naval power
 Exercised the most successful democracy of ancient Greece
 Athenian democracy was the most complete democracy of ancient Greece that participate all
male citizens.
 They exercised “pure democracy” or direct democracy by which people directly involved in
voting on government decisions such as approving or rejecting laws without representatives.
2. Sparta
Sparta was one of the ancient Greek City-States. The ruling class was Dorian (minority). The form of
government was oligarchic. Citizenship was limited to Dorian’s alone. Subject people and helots
(slaves) had no all political rights. The state was undemocratic, but it was the most powerful and had the
strongest military force than all City-States
Major contributions of Ancient Greek Civilization:
Ancient Greek achieved a lot in government, science, philosophy and the arts that still influence our
lives. "Democracy'', ''Psychology'' "Olympic'' and "Marathon'' all have Greek origin.

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I. Democracy
During the sixth century B.C, the city-states began to practice democracy. The more advanced Greek
city-states established the world’s first democratic governments. By the democracy of the ancient Greek
city-states, with the exception of women and slaves, all citizens were granted the right to:
 Vote on government policies,
 Hold political office, and
 Serve on a jury.
II. Philosophy
 They originated western philosophy. Philosophy originated in ancient Greece during the 5th
century BC.
 The well-known philosophers were:
 Socrates (470-399 BC)
 Plato (427-347 BC)
 Aristotle (384-322 BC)
 Ancient Greeks pioneered in:
 Medicine
 Physics
 Biology and
 Mathematics
 Geometry
III. Development of art contributed by Greek’s:
 Architects
 pottery
 Sculptors and
 Painters
IV. Drama
They developed drama. The ancient Greek dramatists were:
 Aeschylus
 Sophocles and
 Euripides
V. History
 Herodotus (484-425 BC) called ( “Father of history”) and
 Thucydides (460-400BC)
Both historians established proper historiography (the art of writing history)
VI. Modern medicine
Modern medicines were discovered by the Greek doctors. The best example of Greek doctors was
Hippocrates (460-375 BC). He introduced “Hippocrates Oath) that doctors take today on their
graduations.
VII. Religion:

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 Ancient Greeks were polytheists who worship many gods.

 The ancient Greek had no single Holy Book.
 Each Greek city (polis) had its own local gold and goddesses, which included:
 Zeus (father of the god of the sky);
 Appllo (god of the sun);
 Demetri ( god of the earth );
 Poseidon (god of the sea);
 Ares (god of war);
 Aphrodite (god of love ); and
 Athena (god of wisdom).
Causes for the Decline of Athensin particular and Ancient Greek city States in General:
I. Peloponnesian War
The basic cause for the Athenian decline was the Peloponnesian War fought from 431-400 BC between
Athens and Sparta in which Athens was defeated by Sparta.
II. Invasion of Philip II, king of Macedonia ( a country north of Greece)
The war between Athens and Sparta weakened the power of Greece and paved the way for Macedonia to
invade the Greek city-states in 353 BC. Thus, the Macedonian conquest of Geek city-states brought an
end to the independence of Greek city-states in 338 BC.
Alexander the Great (336-323 BC)
 He was son and successor of King Philip II of Macedonia
 Led the Greek and Macedonian army and conquered the Persian Empire.
 His conquest introduced Greek ideas and language to Egypt and Near East
 Died in 323 BC
 Following his death, his empire was divided among his generals
 By the division of the empire, Greek city-states were remained under Macedonian control
 His death was followed by the period of Greek’s history known as Hellenistic Age
 Hellenistic Ageended when Geek was controlled by Romans in 146 BC.
B. Ancient Roman Civilization
 Historians know little about the early days of ancient Rome. According to the Roman legend:
 Twin brothers named Romulus and Remus first settled on Palatine Hill(Roman Hill) about
753 BC.
 Latin people were the first known settlers of ancient Rome in 100 BC who also settled in
Latium (the town surrounding Rome). The city and empire of Rome was originated at this
same place. The first Romans were farmers and shepherds.
 Etruscans were peoples north of Latium who controlled Rome and towns in Latium in 600 BC.
Etruscans built the most advanced civilization in Italy. A series of kings ruled ancient Rome at the
beginning. Etruscan’s monarchy was overthrown from power in 509 BC by the people who
established the Roman Republicin the same year.
Roman Republic
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The Roman Republic was led by:
 The Roman Republic lasted nearly 500 years, until 27 BC.
 Kept earlier system of senate and Citizen Assembly
 Two elected officials called Consuls headed the government of the republic. A consul
served for only a year.
 The Senate was the most powerful government body of the Roman Republic and senators
served for life.Senate was the most powerful government body and responsible to:
 Conduct foreign policy
 Pass decree (official order)
 Handle government finance
 In the history of Roman Republic, peoples were divided in to:
I. Patricians
II. Equites
III. Plebeians
IV. Slaves
I. Patricians
 Member of rich and royal families
 Had all political rights
 All senators were elected from them
II. Equites
 Non-nobles but the richest
 Had land
 They were also sometimes business men
III. Plebeians
 Plebeians were ordinary citizens composed of:
 Small farmers
 Crafts men
 Shopkeepers and
 Labourers
IV. Slaves
 Lived in the Roman province called “Africa” or (the former Carthage)
 Slaves were used by land lords on Latifundia
 Latifundia was lands belonged to landlords as their properties
 In ancient Roman Republic, slaves were used as domestic animals
 Skilled slaves were used as:
 Managers
 Clerks
 Accountants
 Teachers
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 But, they had no right at all

Manumission:
 It was the only hope of slaves through which they released from slavery based on the
interest of their masters.
 It was the right given to skilled salves to encourage work.
Rome:
 Offered protection and certain privileges of Roman citizenship to conquered cities
 Acquired army or soldiers from the conquered cities in return for the citizenship that the
cities gained from Rome
 In 270 BC, controlled most of Italy through dependent “allies”, which were subject
states. The dependent states were given Roman citizenship.
 Successful in wars because it was the most militarist states of ancient world
 A state organized for war
 Made mighty empire in 2nd and 1st centuries BC through overseas expansion
Punic Wars:
 Fought between Rome and Carthage (Carthage, a sea power and trading center on
coast north Africa, the present day Tunisia)
 The wars took place from 204-146BC
 Roman and Carthage fought over the territory under Carthage’s Empire called Sicily in
Italy near Mediterranean Sea.
 They fought for the mastery of Mediterranean Sea (trade or economic purpose)
Consequences or results of the Punic Wars:
 Carthage was defeated and destroyed by Rome
 Mediterranean coast of Spain and Africa came under Roman control
 Following their victory in the Punic Wars, Romans turned to the east and conquered
Hellenistic monarchies including Egypt:
During its last 100 years, Roman Republic:
 Faced growing popular discontent or peoples’ opposition at home
 Encountered or faced conflicts among leaders that caused upheavals (disturbances)
Julius Caesar:
 A successful general who came to power in Rome in 100BC and ruled until 44 BC
 Had became sole ruler of Roman world
 Assassinated by group of senators who feared that Caesar would make himself king
Octavian (Caesar’s adopted son and heir)and Mark Antony (Caesar’s friend):
 Avenged (took revenge) against Caesars murder
 They divided Roman powers among themselves
 Later they fought each other for control of the entire Rome
Antony:

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 In the war with Caesar, Antony sought the support of Egyptian queen named Cleopatra
who ruled Egypt from 47-30 BC
 He fell in love with the queen
 Defeated by Octavian in 31BC
Octavian:
 Defeated the forces of Antony andCleopatra and made Egypt a Roman province in 27BC
 Became the first Roman emperor in 27 BC and took the title Augustus and became
Augustus Caesars
 Avoided the title of emperor
 He preferred to be called Princeps, meaning first citizen
The reign or period of Augustus Caesars (formerly Octavian)
 Marked the real beginning of the long period of satiability in Rome called Pax Roman
(Roman peace)lasted for 200 years
 Established strong defense along the frontiers of Roman Empire
 Trade flourished
 Art and literature reached highest development
 Augustus Caesars died in 14AD
Contributions of Roman in civilizations
Ancient Rome had great influence on the development of western civilization.
 Developed modern Latin alphabet adopted from Etruscans and Greeks. Greeks had
taken their alphabet from Phoenicians who were the first to use alphabet of writing. The
language of the ancient Romans, Latin, became the basis of French, Italian, Spanish and
other languages.
 Roman law had become the foundation for the legal systems of most countries in Western
Europe and Latin America. Roman roads, bridges and aqueducts served as models for
engineers.
 Ancient Romans became model in engineering. They had built aqueducts, public baths
and amphitheaters (outdoor arenas). The most famous amphitheater in the city of Rome
was the Coliseum.
 Roman sculptors and painters borrowed from Greek art and native Italian tradition.
 Latin literature of ancient Rome was greatly influenced by Greek poetry, prose and drama.
C. However, Romans did not have high cultural and intellectual achievements of Greeks. To
Romans, Greeks were empty word-mongers
 The Roman Empire was established after the republic was destroyed by 20 years of civil war.
The empire lasted until Rome fell in 476 AD.
 The split of Roman Empire:
 Divided in to Western and Eastern Roman Empires after Theodosius I death in 395 AD
a. Western Roman Empire

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 Grew steadily (gradually) weaker

 Failed due to invasions of Germanic people such as Vandals and Visigoths that invaded
territories of Western Rome that included:
 Spain
 Gaul (present day France)
 Northern Africa (Carthage)
 Visigoths looted Rome in 410 AD
 In 476 BC the German chieftain named Odoacer forced the last Western Roman emperor
named Romulus Augustujus to resign from the throne
 Western Rome failed in 476 AD
 Odoacer(German chieftains) divided Western Roman Empire in to several kingdoms
b. The Eastern Roman Empire
 Survived after the fall of Western Roman Empire until 1453 AD
 It survived as Byzantine Empire from its center called Constantinople
 Byzantine Empire failed when Constantinople was captured by Turks in 1453 AD.
3.2. Christianity
Background
 Jews were subject people of Roman Empire
 Judaism was the first monotheist religion of Jews kingdom of Israel or Judea
 Judea later called Palestine
Origin of Christianity:
 A monotheist religion began in 1st century AD in Palestine
 Centered on the belief of Jesus Christ who had lived and taught in Palestine until his
crucifixion by the Roman governor named Pontius Pilatein 30AD.
 Jews in Palestine and Syria were the first Christians
 Soon,gentiles (non-Jews) converted to Christianity
 Finally, the Jews Christians were either assimilated to gentile or went back to Judaism and
ceased to be Christian
Early Christians and expansion of Christianity
 The Christian church kept the Jews scripture called the Old Testamentor Hebrew Bible
 The New Testament (collection of writings) was added to the New Testament
 Then, the Christian Bible includes both the Old and New Testament.
 From the beginning, there was a difference between leaders of church known as the clergy
and ordinary Christianscalled laity
 Clergy:
 Were responsible for teaching doctrine of the church
 Administered the property of the church
 Had spiritual authority over the laity
nd
 By the 2 century AD, the clergy divided in to 3 ranks:

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 Bishops at the top (highest rank)
 Priests below bishops (the 2nd highest rank)
 Deacons below priests (the lowest rank)
 Bishops:
 Head of each local Christian community
 Had authority over clergy and laity
 Archbishops:
 Had spiritual authority over bishops, clergy and laity of a large area
 Patriarch:
 Had spiritual authority over archbishops, bishops, clergy and laity of very large
regions
 Pope:
 Emerged later with spiritual authority over all from 13th century AD onwards
Generally, the authorities(titles) of Christian church leaders from highest to lowest include:
Pope, Patriarch, Archbishop, Bishop, Clergy, laity (is not a rank)
 Monksand nuns :
 Who lived together in separate communities called monasteries
 Abbot:
 Leader of monks who lived together
 Hermits:
 Monks who lived alone
 Heresies:
 Were doctrines which were condemned and rejected by the church
 Heretics:
 Followers of heresies doctrine
Council of Nicaea (325 AD)
 Established the doctrine of Holy Trinity that says one God exists in 3 persons
 The 3 persons are God the father, God the son(Jesus Christ), and Holy Spirit, all are equal.
 The council condemned Arianism.
 Arianism was a belief that Jesus was not a complete divine.
The conflict between the Christians and the Roman Emperors or governments
 Roman government became suspicious of Christianity because Christians would not make
sacrifices in honor of the emperor
 Sacrifices for the emperor was considered by the Christians as denying sacrifices to God
 The emperors considered the Christians refusal to sacrifice as political disloyalty. This was
resulted in the persecution of Christians by the Roman emperors. The persecution strengthened
the young Christian religion.
 For about 300 years Christians were persecuted by the Roman government. The persecution was most
severe during the Roman Emperors: Nero (54 - 68AD) and Diocletian (245 - 313 AD).

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 The grounds for hostility to the Christians were not always the same, and often opposition and persecution
were localized. The Christians were:-
 denied Roman citizenship,
 confiscated their properties,
 suffered from torture and death.
 In 4th century A.D, Emperor Constantine the Great (r. 324-337 A.D) ordered religious toleration in
what was called the Edict of Milan. Thus, the Christians gained freedom from persecution. Later Emperor
Constantine was converted and became Christian. Thus, Christianity got a privileged place in Society.
 In 392 A.D, Emperor Theodosius (r. 379-395 AD) proclaimed Christianity to be the official state
religion. The religion thus gained wide spread acceptance through the Empire.

 During the middle age, after the fall of Western Roman Empire, Christianity replaced the Roman
Empire as the only unifying force in Western Roman Empire and the pope exercised both political
and spiritual authorities.
 During the early Christian era, Rome and Constantinople competed for religious power.
1/ The Pope, or Bishop of Constantinople asserted authority over Church affairs in the East.
2/ They also had conflicting views on Church language and rituals.
 Because of these disagreements,
 In 1054 AD, the Church split in to two distinct parts namely the Roman Catholic Church at
Rome and Greek Orthodox Church at Constantinople.
 The Greek Orthodox Church later split into a number of Easter Orthodox churches. The
Roman Catholic Church and Eastern Orthodox Churches retain separate identities to this day.
 In 1517, a movement called the Reformation began when Martin Luther, a German monk, criticized
certain church practice including the authority of the Pope. The Reformation divided Western Christianity
into the Roman Catholic Church and Protestantism.

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Unit two
2. State formation and population movements in the Horn of
Africa till the 17th c (9hours)
Theory of the Emergence of States
 Human societies did exist in some form of organization before the emergence of state.
 The state was different from all earlier human organizations in that it had definite territorial area, large
group of people, sovereignty, and a government that can use force to make people obey.
 There are different theories about the emergence of states. One of these theories is related to religion.
Human beings introduced the concept of religion when they were living in caves.
 As religion developed, priests appeared in early societies. priests:-
 began to play central roles in spiritual and administrative spheres of life.
 were performing fertility prayers and healing sick people.
 supervised the construction of irrigation canals, predicted the rise and fall of water levels and devised
calendars.
 collected tributes from farmers in the name of temples where gods and goddesses were kept.
 As early society was divided economically into higher and lower classes, priests occupied key position in
the emerging state.
 Early states were known as theocratic states. They were basically ruled by priests.
 Soon afterwards, however, village chiefs gradually replaced priests with the emergence ofmarkets.
Emergence of States in the Ethiopian Region and the Horn of Africa
 The beginning of agriculture was one of the factors for the emergence of complex communities. The
division of these communities into economic classes led to the formation of early states throughout the
Ethiopian region.
 The growth of internal and external trade speeded up the formation and development of these states.
 Each state in this region had direct relationship with its immediate neighbors. They were involved in
external trade. As internal trade routes led their ways across different areas, keeping the security of
merchants and collecting taxes became the duties of traditional warriors and war leaders.
 These warriors were the future rulers of the traditional societies. They had the power to control
important resources in their respective areas.
 External trade also linked some of these states with other civilized parts of the world like Egypt and
Arabia.
2.1. North: - Punt, Da’amat, Aksum and Zagwe
A/ Punt:-
 was one of the ancient states of the Horn of Africa which existed in the third millennium B.C.
 historical evidence about the existence of this state was found in the Egyptian sources.
According to this evidence, the territory south of Egypt was known to the ancient Egyptians as the
land of punt.
 the exact location of punt and its territorial limit is not known. Many scholars suggest that the present-
day Ethiopia, Somalia and Eritrea were part of the punt state.
 Ancient Egyptians maintained trade relations with the land of punt. The trade was conducted by land and
sea routes.
B/ Damat:-

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 existed just before the rise of Aksum.
 Its center was little to the south of the town of Aksum.
 Information about this state comes from local archeological sources.
 Some of its rulers used the South Arabian political and religious title called Mukarib.
 had established external relations with South Arabia. This can be understood from local inscriptions left
by one of its rulers around fifth century B.C.
 used the port of Adulis on the Red Sea coast.

C/ The Aksumite State

 was not the first state in Ethiopia. There were pre-Aksumite states like Punt and Damat and several other
ancient sites in northern part of Ethiopia.
 Scholars assume that well organized communities had occupied sites like Yeha, Coloe, Matara, Hawelti
and Melazo.
 The exact time when Aksum emerged as a center of state is not certain because of the lack of sources. But
based on some evidences, scholars assume the origin of this state in the middle of the second century BC.
This assumption was mainly based on the document known as the Periplus of Erithrean Sea,
 This document:-
 Was written around 50 AD.
 Is a manual or handbook used by merchants who frequently come to the Red Sea, the Gulf
of Aden and Indian Ocean.
 Its author is not known.
 gives a detailed account of the Aksumite state and the ports on the Red Sea and the Gulf of
Aden coasts.
 According to this document Adulis was the port of the city of Aksum and the king of
Aksum was called Zoscales, who could communicate with Greek.
 At the beginning, it seems that the Aksumite state was dominated by landowners, who derived much of
their income from agriculture. But later on the Aksumite economy became highly dependent on the
income from the Red Sea trade, which it monopolized.
 On the Red Sea coast there was an ancient port of Adulis, through which several foreign merchants came
to Aksum.
 This port rendered shipping services, for which the merchants have to pay. From this port, very
important trade route also stretched into the interior of Aksum.
 The Aksumite state controlled both the internal and external trade and became very much prosperous.
Particularly, when Aksum took over the control of the port of Adulis, its prosperity became complete.
 The local and international trade contributed very much to the development of important towns
including Aksum itself.
 Aksumite kings further promoted the trade by issuing coins of gold, silver and bronze, which bear
their images. It seems that they were using these coins for an international trade.
 This trade brought an immense wealth and prosperity to Aksum. With this income, the Aksumite
kings built magnificent stalea, palaces and Churches, which are the signs of the advanced
technology of Aksumite civilization.
 In order to protect these lucrative trade and trade routes from rivals, the Aksumite rulers built a strong
military force using the income from the Red Sea trade. Moreover, they began to expand their territories in
different directions by the use of this army.
 In its heydays Aksum's territorial extent came to include the whole region between the Red Sea coast in the
east, the highland region overlooking the Blue Nile (Abbay) river in the west, the northern tip of Eritrea in
the north, and northern Shawa in the south. Even some sources indicate that the Aksumite influences
extended beyond these areas.
 A book entitled The Christian Topography,

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 Was written by a Greek traveller called Cosmas Indicopleustes,
 stated that the Aksumite merchants visited lands to the south of Abbay to buy gold for the
ruling class. There were also intense rivalry and clashes between Aksum and the Kingdom of
Meroe in the Sudan.
 Some historical evidences indicate that
 Aksum had controlled territories in parts of South Arabia (SouthYemen) probably in a desire for
controlling the Red Sea trade on both sides. This was between the third and sixth centuries of the
Christian era, when Aksumite rulers had strong military power.
 Aksum established closer diplomatic and commercial relations with the Eastern Roman Empire
and other states in the Middle East, Near East and other countries on the Indian Ocean coast. So,
Aksum was already exposed to the Greco-Roman world even during its pre-Christian days.
 In the middle of the 4th century, during the reign of king Ezana
 Christianity was introduced to Aksum. This further reinforced the exposure of Aksum to outside
world. This event was a far-reaching development in the history of Aksum.
 The introduction of Christianity to Aksum was not a well-planned missionary activity. Rather it
was an incident, effected because of the diplomatic and commercial relations between the two
countries.
 The Aksumite king, Ezana, (r.320 - 350 AD) was the first to accept Christianity. Fremnatos
(later Bishop Abba Salama) converted Ezana and his close friends around 330 AD. Since then
Christianity became the state religion in Aksum. As a result, Christianity secured the royal
support, which later on helped its rapid expansion.
 However, Christianity was first confined to the court of Ezana in Aksum. After over a century
following the coming of some monks known as the NineSaints towards the end of the fifth
century AD the religion began to spread among the broad masses. These monks were very active
in religious involvement. They,
o preached the religion among the ordinary society of the interior of Aksum.
o built Churches and monasteries.
o translated the Bible and other religious books into Geez. From this time onwards Geez
began to serve as the language of Church in Ethiopia.
 One very important development which followed the introduction of Christianity to Ethiopia was the long
lasting relationship between Ethiopia and Egypt.
 Right from the beginning, the Ethiopian Church became dependent on the Alexandrian Church of
Egypt for its bishop.
 Fremnatos was baptized as a bishop by the Patriarch of Egypt and sent for Ethiopia. This
tradition of consecrating the bishops and sending them for Ethiopia continued until 1959. Until
that year the bishops, heads of the Church, were always Egyptians.
The Decline and Fall of Aksum
 The Aksumite state and civilization began to decline
 When its Red Sea trade faced serious competition from South Arabians. Rebellion against
king Caleb, (r.500 - 535 AD) broke out. Caleb had once controlled South Arabia in 525 AD.
But the South Arabians finally expelled Aksumite governors and soldiers from their region
between 580 and 590 AD. Thus Aksum lost its control of the other side of the Red Sea trade.
 Due to the rise of Islam in the seventh century AD and other subsequent creation of a vast
Muslim empire led to intense rivalry between Aksum and the Muslim Arabs over the Red Sea
trade. The port of Adulis was destroyed by the Arabs in the early eighthcentury AD. The loss
of revenues from the port and the Red Sea trade, resulted in the military weakness of Aksum.
Without strong military power Aksum could not check external invasions and internal
rebellions from the Beja and other peoples like the Agaw and Qimant.

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 These external and internal pressures led to the gradual shift of the political center of the Aksumite state
to the south. Finally, the Aksumite power declined and its kings totally lost their power to a new dynasty
known as the Zagwe in the mid twelfth century AD (1150 AD).
Legacies of Aksumite Civilization
 Unlike many other centers of civilizations like Yeha, Mattara and Adulis, Aksum continued to exist as the
biggest centre of a highly developed civilization for several centuries. This can be attested from the ruins
of Aksumite temples, ornaments, pottery, obelisks, iron tools, bricks, coins and tombs.
 Ship building technology was also well known in the port town of Adulis.
 The construction of obelisks and temples and the use of writing in Greek, Sabean and Geez languages
indicated the development of craft and literature. Those ruins have become among the known centers of
tourism in Ethiopia today.

The Zagwe Dynasty and Its Achievements

The Emergence Zagwe Dynasty
The decline of Aksumite kingdom, was followed by the period of ‘‘Dark Age’’ in Ethiopia, which lasted from the
mid 8th century to the mid 12th century. It is said to have been ‘‘Dark Age’’ because of the absences of evidences or
sources, which tell us what had taken place in Ethiopia during the period.

However, as far as the dynasty that replaced Aksumite was concerned, a new ruling family called Zagwe Dynasty
replaced Aksumite kingdom. The history of Zagwe Dynasty is not well known because no good sources have
survived. To this end, there are few legends about the rise of Zagwe to power; about the activities of some of its
kings, and about its dawn fall. Some events are mentioned in the history of the Patriarchies of Alexandria and in
the books of Muslim scholars of the time.

The Zagwe kings were originally from the Agaw people. Their first capital was Adefa, which was located near a
small town called Roha. This is the reason why the first capital of Zagwe Dynasty is simultaneously called Adefa
or Roha. Adefa and Roha were the small towns in the district of Bugina, in Lasta region. Roha was situated in
the mountainous area of Lasta near Adefa. Today, the place is known as Lalibela, which later made the political
centre of Zagwe Dynasty. This capital was far from the coast and it was safe from Beja and Muslim invasion.

The exact date of the beginning of Zagwe Dynasty is not clearly known. The available sources show that the
dynasty came to power around the middle of 12th century. The Agaw chief named Marra Takla-Haumanot was the
founder of Zagwe Dynasty. Marra Takla-Haymanot was a general of the last king of Aksum, and married the
daughter of the last Aksumite king, named Dil Na’od.

The territories of Zagwe Dynasty included all the territories previously controlled by Aksumite Dynasty. In the
west, it stretched up to Lake Tana. In the north, the whole region of Tigray and Southern Eritrea were made parts

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of Zagwe kingdom. The eastern limit of the kingdom was not clearly known. In the south, the whole of the present
day Wollo and Northern Showa were under the kingdom. The whole territories were controlled by the kings from
the centre of the kingdom.

Like Aksumite kings, Zagwe kings were Christians and they spoke Ge’ez language. But due to lack of sources, and
as the result of the view of Ethiopian Orthodox Church, Zagwe Dynasty was considered as illegitimate and usurper
to throne.

External Relations

Although the period of Zagwe kingdom was coincided with the period of Crusades wars, Zagwe kings wisely
remained neutral that helped them to enjoy peace and harmony in their relations with Muslims and Christian states
of the time. The Muslim Sultans for their part did not want the conflict with Zagwe kingdom to expand south
wards and they maintained friendly relations with Zagwe kings. For this reason, the Zagwe kings were allowed by
the Muslim authorities to get land in Jerusalem.

The long period of peace that the Christian kingdom enjoyed during Zagwe Dynasty was the fundamental cause for
the neglecting of building strong army by Zagwe kings that in turn weakened their defensive force against their
rivals.

Economy
The major economic activity of Zagwe kingdom was agriculture supported by trade. During Zagwe kingdom, trade
was active, particularly between Egypt and Ethiopia. The burring of Adulis by Arabs forced Zagwe kings to shift
their port from north to south east ward mainly to Zeila and Berbera.
During the same period, the trade routes were safe and the caravans travelled without interference. Architecture
The most outstanding contribution of Zagwe Kings was their activities in the church. Christianity spread far to
south and west during Zagwe period. The kings also built churches in Lasta, Tigre, Wollo and Begemdir or
Gondar.

King Lalibela was the most famous among Zagwe rulers. He was the son of king Zan-siyyum. According to Zagwe
tradition, Lalibela in Agaw language means a swarm of bees. He was named Lalibela by his mother because during
his childhood, he was surrounded by bees. Thus, his mother thought that it was a sign of his future greatness. He
was popular, and feared by his elder brother that the people might crown Lalibela to be Zagwe’s king.

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The Monolithic Churches of Lalibela

The rock-hewn churches of Lalibela are very remarkable. They are called ‘‘monolithic” because they were curved
out from a single huge rock at the side of a mountain. They are not natural caves. The sculptors curved out the
whole block by digging deep trenches around it. The rock-hewn churches are 11 in number, and namely
1. Bete-Denagil,
2. Bete-Maryam,
3. Bete- Medhani-Alem,
4. Bete-Masqal,
5. Bete-Golgota,
6. Bete-Qedus-Mikael,
7. Bete-Gabriel,
8. Bete- Abba-Libanos,
9. Bete-Marqoriwos,
10. Bete-Amanuel, and
11. Bete- Girogis.

Of all eleven emperors, who ruled Zagwe Dynasty, the best known kings were Qedus Harbe, Tentawadim,
Yimrahana-Kirstos, Lalibela and Na’akuto-La’ab. However, Yimrahana-Kirstos, Laibela and Na’akuto-La’ab were
renowned as notable builders of churches, and king Lalibela was the best known of all. He ruled Zagwe from
1167- 1207 A.D.

The downfall of Zagwe Dynasty

Compared with the period of Aksumite kingdom, the period of Zagwe Dynasty was short-lived (1150 A.D to 1270
A.D). From 1270 A.D onwards, Zagwe kingdom was replaced by another ruling dynasty. There were internal and
external factors accounted for the downfall of Zagwe Dynasty.
Internal Factor
The absence of smooth political power succession to throne was the internal problem. At the same time, this was
the fundamental factor for the fall of the dynasty. In Zagwe kingdom, the death of the reigning king was always
followed by critical power struggle among the rivals who aspired to succeed the throne. The course of struggle was
always decided by force of arms.

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The continuous power struggle weakened military and economic potential of the kingdom. The struggle between
Harbe and Lalibela was typical example. The death of king Lalibela was also followed by a serious power struggle
between the son of Lalibela, Yitbark and Lalibela’s nephew, Na’akuto-La’ab. Both Na’akuto-La’ab and Yitbarek
fought each other to succeed Lalibela’s throne.
External Factor
The internal problem that Zagwe kings faced exposed them to external forces. These external forces were the anti-
Zagwe movements in Tigray and Amhara lands. Zagwe kings were opposed by rulers of Amhara and Tigray
regions because they believed that Agaw rulers were failed to trace their origin from king Solomon of Jerusalem.
According to Amhara and Tigray rulers, Agaw Dynasty interrupted the Solomonic Dynasty, and they were
illegitimate and usurper. Therefore, it was the Amhara region, located to south of Lasta, took the initiative to
depose the last Zagwe king, Yitbarek around 1270 A.D.

There were also church opponents to the Zagwe rule. They were Abba Iyasus Moa, the abbot of the monastery of
Dabra Hayq and Abba Takla Haymanot, abbot of Dabra Libanos, who proved decisive oppositions behind the
downfall of Zagwe kingdom.

Section Summary:
 The centre of Zagwe state was in the district of Bugna, at the place called Adefa, near the
present day of Lalibela. Before it was named Lalibela, Adefa was called Roha.
 The founder of Zagwe Dynasty was Marra Tekle-Haymanot around 1150 A.D.
 Zagwe Dynasty reached its climax stage of development during King Lalibela.
 The major economic activity of Zagwe was agriculture supported by trade.
 Zeila and Berbera were the major ports of Zagwe Dynasty.
 The major achievement of Zagwe Dynasty was the building of rock-hewn churches among
which Lalibela Rock-Hewn Church is largest of all.
 The problem of internal power succession and the opposition from Amhara and Tigre
people had contributed for the decline of Zagwe kingdom.

"Restoration" of the Solomonic Dynasty and the Christian Highland Kingdom

As stated earlier, the major rivals of the Zagwe dynasty came from the Amhara region. In those days the
Amhara region constituted the present day southern Wello and northern Shewa. During the period, the region was

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the tributary of the Zagwe dynasty. Just like the Zagwe kings before them, the Amhara ruling class also took away
political power from their predecessors around 1270.
The founder of the new dynasty was a local ruler in Amhara called Yekuno-Amlak. This dynasty, which
came to power in 1270, called itself 'Solomonic'. Yekuno-Amlak and his followers took this dynastic name to
justify their legitimacy by claiming that the Zagwe rulers were illegitimate. To justify this they resorted to the
legend of Queen Sheba and King Solomon.

The legend of Queen of Sheba and King Solomon maintains that Queen
Sheba or Negeste Saba, the supposed queen of Ethiopia at one time, visited King
Solomon of Israel. When she returned back to her country, the queen gave birth to a
son called Menelik I. According to the legend, Menelik I is the son of Queen Sheba
and King Solomon. The legend also states that Menelik I and his descendants ruled as
kings of Ethiopia for long period of time and that the rulers of Ethiopia had to be
direct descendants of this line.

The Agaw were considered illegitmate rulers of Ethiopia since they do not trace their descent to the family of
Menelik I. When Yekuno Amlak took over the political power in 1270, he tried to justify himself as legitimate
ruler of Ethiopia by establishing a genealogy which linked him to the family of Menelik I through Dil Naod, the
last king of the Aksumite state. So, he said "I restored the lost power", and hence the “restoration” of the
'Solomonic' dynasty.
But when we closely investigate this legend, we do not have any historical justification for it. Thus, we
categorize it in the realm of legend. Yekuno-Amlak took this dynastic name in order to legitimize his rule and to
check in advance any sort of political uprising against his rule. But even as a legend, it was very important since it
was generally accepted at the time and the whole legitimacy of state power was essentially based on it. From about
1270 until fall of the despotic Haile Selassie I rule in 1974, all the Ethiopian kings who assumed power over the
central state, claimed descent from this family. This means that the 'Solomonic' dynasty can be said to have lasted
for over 700 years.
However, the success of Yekuno Amlak was not simply based on his legendary claims. His success had
economic and military reasons. In the trade between the Zagwe kingdom and the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden coasts,
the Christian communities in the Amhara region played the role of middlemen. As one of the local rulers in
Amhara, Yekuno-Amlak must have monopolized the profit of the trade. It is known that Yekuno-Amlak
maintained friendly relations with the Christian rulers and traders of the Zagwe dynasty as well as the Muslim
traders of Shewa. This meant that he had a strong economic and political position in the region. Using the revenue
from the trade, Yekuno-Amlak built an effective army by which he challenged the Agaw rule and defeated the last
king of the Zagwe dynasty called Yetbarek. In his struggle to take power, Yekuno-Amlak was able to mobilize the
people of the Amhara region against the Agaws. Therefore, the success of Yekuno-Amlak was not due to his
legitimacy. Rather, he was strong militarily, economically and politically.
At the beginning the new dynasty established its centre around Tegulet, a district in northern Shewa. But
later on the royal court has shifted from region to region on the eastern foothills of the Shewan plateau. The issue

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of securing the newly won power captured the immediate attention of the dynasty. This was because sometimes
after the death of Yekuno-Amlak in 1285, the dynasty began to face internal political instability. One of the
reasons for this instability was lack of formal rules of succession to the throne. As a result, the sons and
descendants of Yekuno-Amlak began to fight each other over this issue. Particularly, between 1294-99 the problem
of succession was so intense that five successive kings came to power.
All male descendants of Yekuno-Amlak were detained at a royal prison at Amba Gishen after he came to
the throne. The passes and foothills of the mountain were guarded by loyal warriors. This measure solved the
problem of succession and facilitated the consolidation of the power of the Christian kingdom of the medieval
period.

Another issue of immediate attention was the regulation of the kingdom's relations with the neighbouring
states and peoples. When Yekuno Amlak (r1270-85) came to power, the territory of the Christian Kingdom was
almost limited to the former possessions of the Zagwe rulers. This territory was surrounded by different states and
peoples. Various Muslim sultanates existed in the eastern, southern and southeastern frontiers of the kingdom. The
Falasha lived along the northwestern frontier. South of the Falasha existed a predominantly Agaw speaking
kingdom of Gojam. The southern and southwestern frontiers were occupied by different states and peoples. During
the reign of Yekuno-Amalk, the kingdom had peaceful relations with all its neighbors. At the time there has been
power balance among the states of the Ethiopian region and the Horn. But the rise of Amde Seyon (r. 1314-44),
grandson of Yekuno-Amlak, began to disturb the balance of power in favour of the Christian Kingdom. As a result,
the Christian Kingdom began its territorial expansion against the neighboring states and peoples. Amde Seyon was
the most expansionist king of the medieval period. Consequently, conflict and war affected the Ethiopian region
and the Horn of Africa up to the end of our period in 1529.
In the early period of the ‘Solomonic’ dynasty, the economy of the kingdom mainly depended on
agriculture, which was dominated by mixed farming. Most of the members of the communities were prosperous
with large families. Such families also kept slaves who were used for domestic purposes. As a political and
economic system, feudalism also began to take shape beginning from the fourteenth century. This is known from
the records of the period, which show land grants made by kings to officials in return for special services.
Trade took a very important place in the economy after the conquest of the Muslim sultanates in the
southern parts of the region. During this period, Zeila had completely overtaken Dahlak as a gateway of internal
and external trade. Most of the trade items came from the western and southwestern parts of the Ethiopian region.
Among the trade items were slaves, ivory and gold. Cereals and fruits of the highland were also higly demanded in
the lowlands on both sides of the Red Sea. The trade of the region was still controlled by Muslim merchants.
Revenues collected from export and import trade became a source of income for the Christian kings. The Christian
kings also took part in the trade. They organized and financed caravan traders who were led by the agents of the
kings.
In general, trade played a very important role during the medieval period. Through trade various states and
peoples of the region were brought together and they developed a sense of economic interdependence. Trade also
promoted their interaction in different aspects of social life. This could be explained both in terms of wars as well
as peaceful relations. The desire to monopolize the long distance trade routes of the region led to frequent clashes
between the rival states of the region. On the other hand, the trade routes which criss-crossed the Ethiopian region

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and the Horn of Africa resulted in the exchange of various social and cultural values among the diverse peoples of
the area.
Another development of the period was the further expansion of the Orthodox Church. At the time of the
rise of Yekuno-Amlak, the Church had already been strongly established in Tigray, Wag, Lasta, Angot and
Amhara. Subsequently, the Church further expanded into Shewa, Gojjam and in the regions around Lake Tana.
A very important feature of the medieval Christian highland kingdom, that followed the large scale
territorial expansion, was the consolidation of the feudal mode of production. This was mainly the creation of a
feudal administration. In order to effectively administer the vast empire which came into existence, the kings
maintained both hereditary chiefs and appointed officials. In some regions, the earlier ruling classes were allowed
to remain in power, with close supervision of the central government. In the other regions, new officials were
appointed by the kings from the centre and sent to the newly conquered areas with large number of soldiers. These
officials, administrative as well as military, were given the right to collect tribute from the local people over whom
they were appointed. This system was called the Gult system. Gult was a right to right to levy tribute on the owners
of rest and produce of rest land. Rest was hereditary right to land use by members of families and clans whose
ancestors retained the land for the long period of time. This system remained to be the predominant feature of
Ethiopian feudalism upto the twentieth century.
This man enjoyed a number of economic and political privileges over the peasants under him. For
example, he was responsible for the collection of tributes in kind from the peasants under him. These may include
items like grains, cattle, honey, butter, salt, house hold equipments, etc. Most of these tributes are kept by the bala-
gult himself and part of them could be transmitted upwards to the central state. He can also use the corvee or free
labour of the people under him . Moreover, the bala-gult is responsible for the maintenance of law and order in his
region. He acted as a chief judge and gave an administrative justice to his people. He could also raise a regional
army from his region and command them during the time of regional or national crisis.
Generally, the gult system had served two very important purposes in the medieval Christian kingdom.
Firstly, it helped the kingdom to maintain large territorial army during the period. Because almost every bala-gult
was responsible to recruit soldiers from his region and command them. Secondly, it greatly simplified the task of
administering the vast Christian kingdom of the period. The empire was divided into different minute pieces in
which each bala-gult maintained the peace and security of his region.
Another main feature of the medieval period was the mobile nature of the royal court. Throughout the
period there was no permanent capital city like Aksum or Lalibela. Instead, the kings lived in roving or moving
capitals. They roamed around in the various parts of their domains followed by their court officials and soldiers.
During this time the monarches and their dignitaries lived in tents, while the other camp followers lived in
temporary huts. There were no permanent structures like palaces and castle.
Focus
The constant move of the royal court from region to region owes partly to
the lack of provision or supply for the large number of camp followers and partly
to the shortage of firewoods. But they moved also for political reason, i.e. to
control rebellions in different regions of the empire. Therefore, the relative peace
and stability of the period also owes to this checking mechanism by the medieval
kings.

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For most of the medieval period, the court was moving on the eastern foothills of the Shewan plateau. In
fact, some kings after the middle of the fifteenth century, tried to stay at one region for many years. For instance,
Emperor Zara-Yacob (r. 1434-68) found the town of Debre Berhan in 1454 and subsequently stayed in it for
fourteen years.

2.2. South and Southwest:- Bizamo, Damot, Enarya and Gafat

Omotic States in the Ethiopian Region and Horn of Africa up to 1529

So far, we have discussed the history of states whose communities were dominantly Muslim and Christian.
We have also mentioned the Falasha people who followed the religion of Judaism. There were also states whose
communities mainly followed traditional religion.
This section will present a brief history of the states of this group.

The Kingdom of Damot

Damot was one of the oldest and strongest states in the Ethiopian region. For most of its history Damot
roughly occupied the western and southwestern part of the Ethiopian region. The eastern part of the state probably
included what is now the territory of the Regional State of Beni Shangul- Gumuz. The northern frontier of the
kingdom stretched to the present day northern Shewa, and Damot also included the central and southern parts of
Shewa. A vast territory south of the Abbay gorge was also part of the territory of Damot.
We do not know when the kingdom of Damot came into existence. However, the history of the kingdom
goes back to the Aksumite period. At that time Damot was known for its gold which reached the market of Aksum
and the ports of the Red Sea coast. During the southward political orientation of the Christian kingdom of Aksum
in the ninth and tenth centuries, it seems that the kingdom of Damot had put up a strong challenge against the
further expansion of the Christian state.
The dominance of Damot in the Ethiopian region continued during the Zagwe period. During the period,
Muslim and Christian trading communities depended on the kingdom of Damot for the sources of trade items.
From Damot trade items such as gold, ginger and slaves were exported to countries as far as Arabia, Persia, India,
Egypt and Greece. The communities served as middlemen between the coast and the kingdom. Therefore, trade
influenced the pattern of their relation with the kingdom of Damot. In this respect, common interest promoted the
maintenance of peaceful relations for most of the time. But there were occasions when Damot interfered in the
commercial affairs of the communities. On such occasions the communities put pressure on the Zagwe kings to
interfere on their behalf. Under such a pressure, one Zagwe king led a military expedition against Damot towards
the end of the twelfth century. Unfortunately, the expedition ended in complete defeat of the Zagwe king. This
shows that Damot was a viable state even by that time.
Among the kings of Damot, Motalami is constantly mentioned in the records of the period. Damot seems
to have attained the peak of its power during the reign of this king. One indication to this is a fierce struggle
between Motalami and Yekuno-Amlak. The struggle was over the control of Shewa. In the struggle Motalami was
finally defeated. After this defeat Motalami was converted to Christianity which marked the beginning of a
growing Christian influence in Damot. But Damot continued its resistance from lands to the south of the Gibe river

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until 1316, when Amde Seyon finally annexed the kingdom. Subsequently, Damot became the tributary of the
Christiam kingdom and continued to exist up to the time of the expansion of the Mecha Oromo in the area towards
the end of the sixteenth century. On the arrival of the Mecha, part of the population of Damot fled across the
Abbay river to southern Gojiam. The district they settled at the time is still called Damot.

The Kingdom of Kafa

The medieval kingdom of Kafa was located south of the Gojeb river. We do not know exactly when the kingdom
came into existence. However, there is evidence which indicates the rise of the kingdom in the fourteenth
century.The people of Kafa call themselves Kaficho. They trace their origin to a people called Minjo. This original
people of Kafa is considered as a royal clan from which the kings of Kafa were descended. The crown of Kafa
was hereditary in the Busase
family of the Minjo clan. The kings used a title called tato. They also took a different name at their accession to
the throne.
The administration of the kingdom was divided into provinces which were ruled by provincial governors.
The central government was headed by the king who had absolute power in the kingdom. He was assisted by a
council of seven called Mikrecho, which had a very strong power in the state system.
The kingdom of Kafa was known for its defense system. The northern frontier of the kingdom was
defended by the Gojeb river. All along the territory watch towers were erected at high points to watch the enemy
approach. The kingdom had also a very old tradition of digging trenches along its frontiers for defensive purposes.
In war time, the warriors formed the nucleus of an army which was joined by all able bodied men of the kingdom.
The kingdom of Kafa was a very rich area. Its economy depended on trade and agriculture. Land was the
property of the king. The people paid tax in cattle which was collected by provincial governors and sent to the
king’s treasury. Trade also formed another source of income for the kings of Kafa. The major items of trade from
Kafa were slaves, ivory, cattle, musk and later on coffee. Merchants who traded in these items paid taxes and
customs dues at the gates of the kingdom. With such a strong internal political organ, defence and economy Kafa
survived as an independent state until it was incorporated by Menelik in the late 1890s.

The Kingdom of Enarya

The medieval kingdom of Enarya was located immediately to the north of the Gojeb river and west of the
upper course of the Gibe river. We do not know when this state came into existence. But Enarya is mentioned for
the first time in the documents of the Christian kings towards the end of the Aksumite period. Christian influence
had reached Enarya as early as the middle of the thirteenth century. Subsequently, the Christian influence grew
strong and finally, Enarya became the tributary of the Christian kingdom during the reign of Amde Seyon.
Enarya was the main source of trade items for the trade of the region. Above all, pure gold from Enarya
was exported to the countries as far as Egypt, Greece and Rome. Enarya continued to serve as an important source
of trade items, particularly for gold, up to the sixteenth century.
The later history of Enarya was closely related to the history of the Oromo people. Enarya was one of the
kingdoms which strongly resisted the expansion of the Mecha Oromo in the area beginning from the end of the
sixteenth century.Enarya resisted the Mecha Oromo for more than a century. Finally, it was defeated by one of the
clans of the Mecha called Limmu. Subsequently, the conquerors took the name Limmu-Enarya, signifying a
complete assimilation of the people of Enarya to the Mecha Oromo.

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The Kingdom of Bizamo

The kingdom of Bizamo existed on the southern bend of the Abbay river just opposite to the present
district of Wambarma in southern Gojjam. We do not know when the state of Bizamo came into existence. But it
existed until the end of the sixteenth century under the control of the Christian kingdom.
The medieval population of Bizamo consited of the speakers of the Omotic language family. Among them
the present day Shinasha ethnic group was one of the settlers of the kingdom. The population of Bizamo was
constantly harassed by the Christian kings who led occasional slave raids into the kingdom. This reduced the
population of Bizamo. On the arrival of the Mecha Oromo towards the end of the sixteenth century, part of the
remaining population fled across the Abbay into Gojjam. Part of the population which remained behind retreated
further west to the lowlands, while the remaining part was assimilated by the Mecha Oromo.

The Kingdom of Welayita

The medieval kingdom of Welayita was located south of the sultanate of Hadya. It may have derived its
origins from the ancient kingdom of Damot. The kingdom is mentioned for the first time during the period of the
Zagwe dynasty. During the reign of Amde Seyon, Welayita became the tributary of the Christian kingdom. It paid
tribute in horses to King Yeshaq (r.1413-1430). In the sixteenth century Welayita was invaded by the army of
Imam Ahmed Ibrahim. But the kingdom did not fall under Muslim control.
The kings of Welayita used the title of Kawo. Welayita was a very fertile area rich in different products
like ensat, maize, wheat, barley, coffee, tobacco and cotton. It maintained a wide network of contacts with the
other states in the neighboring regions.
The kingdom of Welayita was successively ruled by three dynasties. The first dynasty came to power
towards the end of the Zagwe period. The founder of the dynasty was Motalami, who is said to have originally
been the king of Damot. It is not known when the second dynasty rose to power, but it came from Kucha and ruled
Welayita. This dynasty came to an end around 1550. About the same time the third dynasty came to power and
expanded its influence among the neighboring peoples living in the Omo river valley: like Gamo, Kucha, Boroda
and Dawro. The dynasty continued to rule Welayita right upto the end of the nineteenth century, when the kingdom
was made part of the territory of Ethiopia.

The Kingdom of Yama

The kingdom of Yama existed between the Gibe river and the upper course of the Omo river. The kingdom
is mentioned in the Christian kings literature for the first time during the reign of King Yeshaq to whom it paid
tribute in horses.
The first kings of Yama belonged to a dynasty called Halmam Gama. Later on, this dynasty was
overthrown by a clan called Mwa. The Yama kings had absolute power. They wore golden bracelets which were an
emblem of kingship.
The economy of Yama mainly depended on agriculture. Barley and sorghum were the main cereal crops
produced in the kingdom. From ancient times enset was widely known in the region as a whole. It formed the
staple food of the Yama people.
Trade played a secondary role in the economy of the kingdom. Nevertheless, the kingdom was one of the
sources of slaves for the Ethiopian region. Slaves from Yama were exchanged for cloth, the main foreign trade
item, which was brought through long-distance trade.

States existed in central Ethiopian highlands

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 These states seem to have existed for a long period of time. Some of these states are the following.
A/ Kambata:
 We have little historical information on Kambata.
B/ The Gurage chiefdoms:
 were concentrated in the area west of Lake Zeway and the highlands of Dawaro.
 Its local chiefs used the titles of Azmach, Abegaz and Nigus.
C/ The Agaw kingdom of Gojjam:
 was mentioned in the Christian historical documents.
 was predominantly Agaw speaking and located to the south of Lake Tana.
 It exercised strong control over the Lake and its islands.
 Many Christian kings made successive attempts to bring it under their control. Finally, Amde Seyon
incorporated Gojjam in to the Christian state in the early fourteenthcentury. However, the title of “King of
Gojjam" was maintained by local rulers under the Christian state.
 Since its conquest, Christianity was introduced to Gojjam, its people were Christianized and Churches and
monasteries were built in the kingdom.
 The economy of peoples and states of southern and central Ethiopia was based on profits from trade and
agriculture.
o The main items of trade from these areas were slaves, civet, ivory and other natural products.
Slaves formed the most important trade item in this period. Slaves from this region were highly
demanded in Arabia, Persia, and India.
o The Muslim states, being located between the sources of slaves and the port of Zeila, were the
main conductors of slave trade.
o Slaves as captives of war were obtained not only from south and central regions but also from the
highland Christian territories.

Societies without highly organized states

 Most of them had inhabited the frontier areas of present day Ethiopia and its neighbors. Some of
them were living in the vast lowlands from the northern tip of the Red Sea coast up to and including
southeastern Ethiopian region and the Horn.
 They were mainly leading pastoral way of economic life. Most of them spoke the Cushitic language
family. Pastoral way of life has also been an important economic activity of the Oromo peoples living in
south centralpart of Ethiopia and the other communities of the Ethio-Kenyan frontier in the south. They
had no well-organized state structure.
 Moreover, in the west, less organized communities inhabited the narrow lowland strip, along the Ethio-
Sudanese border. These peoples are mainly speakers of the Nilo- Saharan language family. They have
been living as hunters and gatherers, dependent on fruits and plants with some elements of pastoral
activities. Shifting cultivation was also practiced in some areas by different communities.
 The less organized societies mentioned possess their own local administrative system. They were led by
their own chiefs and local elderly councils based on their villages and clan territories. They were the
main agents of frontier trade and cultural relations between the Ethiopian interior and its
neighbors.

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2.3. Muslim Sultanates: - Shoa, Hadya, Fatagar, Bali, Ifat and

Muslim States in the Ethiopian Region and the Horn of Africa up to 1529

Trade and Islam were the main factors for the emergence of the Muslim sultanates in the Ethiopian region
and the Horn of Africa. In order to see the establishment of the Muslim states in the region, let’s first discuss the
introduction of Islam to Ethiopia and the Horn.

Focus
Islam was introduced to the region through two points: the Red Sea and the
Gulf of Aden coasts.

However, The friendly relations between Aksum and the Muslim Arabs was later changed to rivalries over
the Red Sea trade between the two. As we have already stated, these rivalries resulted in the destruction of the port
of Adulis and the occupation of the Dahlak Islands by the Muslim Arabs in the early eighth century. It was
beginning from this time onwards that Islam began to be introduced to the region.
Generally, Islam penetrated the region through two main gates. One of the gates was the Dahlak Islands in
the Red Sea. With the Muslim Arab occupation of the Islands in 702, Dahlak and the Red Sea coastal regions
began to have their first Muslim expriences. The Muslim Arab merchants played the role of converting the people
of the area to Islam. However, as a result of the existence of strong Christian community in the highland regions of
northern Ethiopia, Islam could not make successful penetration into the interior of the region in that direction.
Rather, it was mainly limited to the Red Sea coastal territories of the immediate low land region.
The second, and perhaps the most important gate for the spread of Islam into the interior of the region was
the port of Zeila on the Gulf of Aden coast. Several trade routes from the interior of the region run to the direction
of this port. Here also, the Muslim Arab merchants were the agents of the expansion of Islam. Along the Zaila
trade route into the interior, these merchants established important market centres, where they could stay for
sometimes to exchange the items they brought from South Arabia with the locally available items. In the
meantime, they underwent a considerable interaction with the local pastoral communities and gradually preached
Islam and were able to convert the people to their religion. Apparently, it was in this process that Islam was
peacefully introduced to Harar, Eastern Shewa, Wollo, Bale, Arsi and the other regions of the interior of Ethiopia.
The introduction of Islam in the region, together with the trade, led to the establishment of a series of
Muslim sultanates or states along the Zeila trade route into the interior. These sultanates shared many features in
common, such as:
 Their population was made up of Muslim communities.
 Their rulers exercised both religious and political powers.
 Islam and trade were the main factors for their emergence.
 Most of the sultanates were located in the southeastern lowlands of the Ethiopian region.

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 Although some of the communities practiced mixed farming, the economy of the sultanates mainly
depended on trade.

Beyond these common features, however, each sultanate developed in its own peculiar way. Unfortunately,
we do not have sufficient information on the history of some of the sultanates. Yet, all that have been left by Arab
and Christian sources is altogether to illustrate the internal history of the medieval Muslim states of the Ethiopian
region as follows.

The Sultanate of Shewa

The sultanate of Shewa roughly occupied the northeastern half of the present province by that name. It was
the oldest Muslim state in the Ethiopian region. The first ruler of the sultanate came to power around 897 A.D. The
ruling dynasty of this Sultanate was called Makhzumite. The Makhzumite claimed to have descended from the
Makhzumi clan of South Arabia. The rulers used the Muslim title called sultan. Because of this, Shewa as well as
the other Muslim states ruled by sultans are named sultanates.
For most of its history, the sultanate of Shewa did not have good relation with its neighbours. One of its
neighbours was the kingdom of Damot which existed to the northwest of Shewa. For sometime Damot extended its
hegemony over Shewa. Nevertheless, the worst enemy of Shewa was the sultanate of Ifat in the eastern frontier of
Shewa. The rulers of Ifat led constant campaigns against Shewa. They wanted to extend their hegemony over the
sultanate. Finally, one of the sultans of Ifat deposed and murdered the sultan of Shewa in the mid 1280s, thereby
putting an end to the oldest Muslim sultanate of the Ethiopian region.

The Sultanate of Dahlak

Dahlak is a common name for a group of islands in the Red Sea. The islands are located not far from the
port of Massawa. Since ancient times, the islands were a port of call for sailing ships from north to south in the Red
Sea. The Arabs established their settlement on the Dahalk Islands after they had attacked and destroyed Adulis in
702. By then Islam had already firmly established in the islands . By the tenth century the prosperous sultanate of
Dahlak had emerged.
The economy of the sultanate was based on trade and piracy, the later being an exception to the common
economic features of the Muslim sultanates. Before Zeila emerged as a main center of trade, Dahlak was the major
out-let for the trade of the region.
For most of its existence, the sultanate of Dahlak had attracted the interest of three powerful states, i.e., the
Mamluks of Egypt, Yemen and the Ethiopian Christian Kingdom. Each tried to extend its hegemony over the
sultanate. However, the rulers of the Dahlak Islands usually overcame the threat through diplomacy and alliances.
As a result, they maintained their independence until the conquest of Ottoman Turkey ended that independence in
the mid sixteenth century.

The Sultanate of Ifat

The sultanate of Ifat seems to have emerged in the mid thirteenth century. in the lowlands east of the
Shewan plateau. It was founded by a local Muslim ruling family called Walasma. Umar walasma, the
contemporary of Yekuno- Amlak, was the first historically known ruler of the sultanate, Ifat attained military and

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political prominence during his reign. During the region of Umar Walsma Ifat subdued and incorporated the
Muslim sultanate of Shewa.
Through the territory of Ifat passed a series of trade routes which connected Zeila with the interior of the
Ethiopian region. This strategic position enabled Ifat to monopolize the trade of the region. Along with this, the
local community was also converted to Islam in great number. This enabled Ifat to become the lea ding and the
most powerful Muslim sultanate of the Ethiopian region. In the first half of the fourteenth century Ifat extended its
hegemony over the sultanates along its frontiers. This hegemony came to an end after Amde Seyon took power in
the Christian kingdom. During his reign Ifat was ruled by one of its strongest sultan called Sabredin. This sultan
fought many battles to retain the power of Ifat in the lowlands. But he was finally defeated, after which Ifat became
a tributary state to the Christian Kingdom.

The Sultanate of Hadya

Hadya was one of the medieval Muslim sultanates of the Ethiopian region. We do not know when the
sultanate came to power. However, the sultanate is mentioned for the first time during the reign of Amde Seyon. At
the time the sultanate was one of the tributaries of the Christian Kingdom.
Among the Muslim sultanates, Hadya occupied the most westerly territory of the Ethiopian region. The
western frontiers of Hadya touched the Gibe River. In the south the territory of the sultanate seems to have
stretched up to Lake Awasa, while in the north it extended a little to the north of Lake Zway.
One problem in the history of the medieval Muslim sultanates is lack of information on the ethnic identity
of their population. In the case of Hadya, it is known that the ancestors of the present Hadya ethnic group were
among the original settlers of the sultanate. It is also suggested that the ancestors of the present ethnic groups like
Burji, Kambata, Timbaro, and part of the Alaba people constituted the medieval population of Hadya.
The economy of Hadya mainly depended on mixed farming, while some part of the population led a purely
pastoral life. Trade also contributed to the economy of the state. Hadya was the main source of slaves for the
region.
The sultanate of Hadya possessed rich natural resources and mainly it was known for its wealth in human
resource. Because of this the Christian kings gave much attention to Hadya and defeated it in the early 1330s
reducing it to a tributary status. Nevertheless, Hadya had always caused problem to the Christian kings. The rulers
had the title of garad. The garads rebelled now and then against the Christians kings. As a result, the Christian
kings occasionally led punitive expeditions to retain the tributary status of Hadya. They even went to the extent of
securing the loyalty of the rulers of Hadya by means of political marriage. The daughter of a well-known Hadya
garad was married to Emperor Zar’a Ya’eqob and became Queen Illeni, a famous women in the politics of the
Christian Kingdom. Baide Mariyam and Libne Dengel were also officially married to Hadya princesses. This
policy was followed by the other members of the Christian ruling class. Yet, this dynastic marriage did not
moderate the militancy of Hadya. The last rebellion of Hadya was during the reign of Sarsa Dengel (r.1563-
1597) who totally abandoned the sultanate because of the increasing pressure from the expanding Mecha Oromo.

The Sultanate of Bali

Bali was another Muslim sultanate of the Ethiopian region. Its rulers also used the title ofgarad. We do
not know when Bali emerged as a state. The sultanate is mentioned in the chronicles of the Christian kings

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beginning from the fourteenth century, when the sultanate came under the control of Amde Seyon. Since then the
garad of Bali paid tribute to the Christian Kingdom up to the sixteenth century.
Bali occupied the most southerly territory of the Ethiopian region. Except on the southern frontier, Bali
was surrounded by various Muslim sultanates. North of Bali existed the sultanates of Dawaro and Sharka. In the
west existed Hadya, while the eastern frontier was occupied by the sultanate of Adal. The southern limit of the
territory of Bali is not clearly known.
The medieval population of Bali seems to have consisted of different ethnic groups. The ancestors of the
present Sidama ethnic group were one of the settlers of the sultanate. Some groups of the Oromo people also
occupied the highlands of Bali.

The Sultanate of Sharka

The present territory of the Arsi Oromo made part of the territory of the medieval sultanate of Sharka. We
do not know when the sultanate emerged as a state. But beginning from the fourteenth century onwards it existed
as tributary to the Christian Kingdom up to the first quarter of the sixteenth century, when it was controlled by the
army of Imam Ahmad Ibrahim. One of the medieval settlers of Sharka were the ancestors of the present day Alaba
people. Some groups of the Oromo people were also part of the medieval population of Sharka.

The Sultanate of Dawaro

Dawaro was situated South of Shoa, bordering on Ifat on the right bank of the Awash, stretching
Southwards as far as the river Webi which marked the border with the neighbouring state of Bali. Dawaro
therefore, corresponded roughly to present Arsi region. The ancestors of the present Sidama ethnic group are
known to have settled in the territory of Dawaro. The present-day Dawro people also trace their origin to Dawaro.
According to their tradition, they were forced to move to their present territory around the Omo River because of
the wars of Imam Ahmad Ibrahim.

The Sultanate of Dera

Dera was a very small sultanate located east of the Awash river between the sultanates of Dawaro and
Bali. At the beginning of the fourteenth century the Sultanate of Bali extended its power over Dera. But the
hegemony of Bali came to an end when the power of the Christian Kingdom grew strong in the area during the
reign of Amde Seyon. The Christian kings used Dera as a place of exile for unruly monks, who were forced to
reside amid a hostile Muslim population.

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The Sultanate of Fatagar
The sultanate of Fatagar emerged around the middle of the thirteenth century. The sultanate was located
between Lake Zway in the south and the present town of Bishoftu (Debre Zeit) in the north. The territory of
Fatagar included more or less the present districts of Minjar, Shenkora and Ada'a in Shewa.
Fatagar also became the tributary of the Christian Kingdom during the reign of Amde Seyon. It was later
reduced to a province directly ruled by the Christian Kingdom. Since then, the province became the center of the
kingdom for almost a century.

The Sultanate of Arbabini

Arbabini was a sultanate about which we know very little. The information we have is only about its
location which comes from an Arab historian called al-Umari. According to al-Umari the sultanate of Arbabini
existed south of the Awash river between the sultanates of Hadya and Dawaro.

The Sultanate of Adal

The sultanate of Adal emerged towards the end of the fourteenth century. Ifat and Adal shared a common
history. At one time or another both were ruled by the same dynasty called Walasma. Once Ifat was conquered and
became tributary of the Christian kingdom, its ruling class began to be divided into two groups. The first group, the
merchant class, decided to recognize the authority of the Christian kingdom over Ifat. The second group, the
militant wing, however, opposed this Christian domination and determined to regain the lost independence of Ifat.
Since Ifat was closer to the Christian court it could no longer serve as a centre of Muslim resistance. Therefore, this
militant group decided to establish a new base by retreating further to the south eastern lowlands of Harar, where
they founded the sultanate of Adal around 1380. The first centre of Adal was at Deker, southeast of Harar, which
later shifted to Harar.
It did not take long for the Walasma family to consolidate its power in the new centre, after which its
sultans began another phase of military offensive against the frontiers of the Christian kingdom. Among the
successors of Umar Walasma, Haqadin II and Saadadin rebelled against Amde Seyon’s son and successor, Sayfa
Arad (r. 1344-71) and they continued their resistance from their new centre in Adal. The offensive grew strong
particularly during the times of Ahmad Badlay, one of the strongest sultans of Adal. He led a series of military
campaigns against his contemporary Christian king, Zar’a Ya’eqob (r.1434-1468). After his initial success,
however, Badlay finally suffered a complete defeat in 1445. This battle was followed by the growing internal
weakness of both Adal and the Christian kingdom. The Christian kingdom did not recover from the weakness. But
Adal recovered in the first decades of the sixteenth century and even replaced the Christian kingdom as a dominant
power in the Ethiopian region and the Horn of Africa.

2.4. Inter-States relations: - Causes of the conflict

Relation between the Muslim states and the Christian highland kingdom up to 1543

From 1270-1529 the Christian kingdom was in constant war, particularly with the Muslim sultanates. The
conflict arose over the control of the trade routes along which the long distance trade of the region was conducted.
This trade was totally monopolized by Muslim traders who sometimes acted as agents of the Christian kings. But it
was difficult for the Christian kings to depend on them, because the traders were not under the sovereign power of

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the kings. On the other hand, the trade routes passed through the territories of the Muslim sultanates, to whom the
merchants paid tributes. Therefore, the Christian kings could not ensure safe passage for their traders and other
subjects to the coast. This created constant threat to the economic interest of the kingdom. The only way to
safeguard this economic interest was by the extension of the power of the Christian kingdom to these territories
along which the trade routes passed. In fact, this was the root cause for the conflict and consequent war between
the Christian kingdom and the Muslim sultanates in the Horn of Africa.

The War of Expansion

The wars of expansion of the Christian kingdom were initiated by Amde Seyon. He was the most
expansionist is highland Christian king of the medieval period. The first military campaign of Amde Seyon was
directed against Damot, Falasha and Gojjam. These territories were annexed to Christian kingdom in 1316 and
1317. With the conquest of these territories, Amde Seyon mastered an important source of manpower and trade
items, which further strengthened his power.
The initial campaigns of Amde Seyon prepared the ground for the major war against the Musluim
sultanates. Among the sultanates, as stated earlier, Ifat was the most powerful state. At the time, Ifat had extended
its hegemony over the sultanates between the highland and the coast, the territory along which the trade routes
passed. From this strategic position, Ifat threatened the economic interest of the Christian kingdom and other
travelers from the Christian kingdom. Amde Seyon decided to put an end to this threat. He prepared for war
cautiously and stayed until he could find a pretext to pick up a conflict with Ifat. The sultan of Ifat called Haqqedin
provided that pretext by arresting a commercial agent of Amde Seyon towards the end of 1325. At the time, Ifat
was not prepared for war and Amde Seyon’s attack took Ifat by surprise. The Christian army gained an easy
victory, after which many villages, including the town of Ifat, were plundered and burnt.
The success of the Christian army alarmed the Muslim communities in Ifat. To avoid the danger, they
rallied around Haqqedin’s successor called Deradir who opened a massive offensive on the territory of the
Christian kingdom. In one of the battles that followed, Deradir defeated the Christian army. But the Christian army
soon recovered from its defeat and even reversed the situation by scoring a major victory. In the battle, Deradir
himself was captured and killed.
Earlier, Amde Seyon had conquered the sultanate of Hadya around 1317. The livelihood of the Muslim
merchants in Hadya totally depended on the slave trade. Other merchants who conducted the trade between Hadya
and the coast were also affected by the conquest of Hadya. After the conquest, Hadya paid annual tribute to the
Christian kingdom. But effective Christian rule was not established. The Muslim merchants used this loose
situation to undermine the Christian power in Hadya. They incited the Hadya garad called Amano to rebel. Thus,
Amano suspended the annual tribute which indicated his revolt. Amde Seyon reacted immediately and led a strong
army to Hadya. He destroyed the country and took many prisoners including Amano. Subsequently, Hadya was
reduced to tributary status and became the main source of manpower for the Christian army.
The reconquest of Hadya seriously damaged the economic interest of the Muslim merchants who traded in
slaves. The new development also affected the Muslim sultanates between Hadya and the coast. They reacted by
forming a united Muslim front against Amde Seyon. The leader of the front was the sultan of Ifat called Sabreddin
who launched his attack in 1332. In the final battle the Muslims were completely defeated and Sabreddin escaped
to the neighbouring sultanate of Dawaro. Amde Seyon continued his campaign to Dawaro where he succeeded in
capturing Sabreddin, who was imprisoned subsequently.

After the 1332 defeat, Ifat was no longer the leading Muslim state in the
region and it was reduced to tributary status. This was followed by the successive
Christian appointments over Ifat and a large Christian garrison was stationed in

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Ifat.

After his victory over Ifat, Amde Seyon continued his campaigns against the other Muslim sultanates
along the Zeila trade route and reduced them to tributary status. Finally, Amde Seyon died in 1344, extending the
Christian control over a large area including the Muslim sultanates of the southeast.

However, this Christian superiority over Ifat did not last long. Sometime after the conquest, the peoples of
Ifat began to be divided into two groups. As stated earlier, one branch of the Walasma family began to fight against
the Christian domination in order to regain the lost independence of Ifat. But this group could not withstand
Christian military superiority in Ifat. Consequently, they left Ifat and moved further east to the lowlands, to
establish a new sultanate called Adal around 1380.
The struggle against the Christian rule started during the reign of Sultan Haqqeddin II (AD 1363/4-1373/4,
who extended his power over many of the sultanates from the new centre of Adal in Harar. During the first years of
the reign of King Dawit (r. 1382-1413) Haqqeddin opened a massive offensive against the Christian kingdom. In
the first engagements Haqqeddin scored a series of victories over the Christian army. However, the Christian army
finally defeated the army of Adal in 1387. Haqqeddin himself was killed in the battle. The struggle continued
during the time of the next sultan called Sa’adaddin, who waged a guerrilla type resistance. This continued until
the early fifteenth century, when the army of Adal faced another defeat. Sa’adaddin succeeded to escape from the
battle field. But he was pursued and killed in Zeila in 1403.
For the next thirty years, the Christian kingdom did not face any challenge from Adal. The power of Adal
was weakened and the sultans were exiled to Arabia. They returned from exile and the sultanate again revived
under Ahmed Badlay, one of the most powerful sultans of Adal. He resumed guerrilla warfare against the Christian
kingdom. King Yishaq (r.1413-30), marched to Adal to finish off this Muslim resistance. But he lost his life in
1430. Unfortunately, Ahmed Badlay faced an equally powerful Christian king. But he Zar'a Yae'qob (1434-68).
Sultan Badlay organized a united Muslim front against Zar'a Yae'qob. He also won the support of Mahigo, the
garad of Hadya. Although Zar'a Yae'qob faced serious military set-backs during the first engagements, he finally
defeated the army of Adal in 1445. Sultan Badlay and his collaborator Mahigo were killed in the battle. This
marked the peak of the dominance of the Christian kingdom in the Ethiopian region and the Horn of Africa.
The dominance of the Christian power began to decline during the last quarter of the fifteenth century. The
reign of Zar'a Yae'qob marked the peak of the power of the Christian kingdom. Zar’a Yae’qob suppressed internal
revolts and repulsed the growing military offensives from Adal and Hadya. His successor, Ba'ida Mariyam (1468-
1478) was not powerful enough to push back the mounting pressure. It was during the reign of Ba’ida Mariyam
that the Christian army faced its first serious defeat. This defeat marked the end of the dominance of the Christian
kingdom in the Ethiopian region and the Horn of Africa. Eventually, this led to the establishment of Muslim
hegemony in Ethiopia and the Horn of Africa in 1529, when Ahmad 1bn-1brahim defeated the Christian army at
the battle of Shimbra Qure.

2.5. International dimensions of the conflict

 Conflict in the Ethiopian region began to take an internationaldimension when the two foreign powers
namely, Portugal and Ottoman Turkey intervened for their own advantages.

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 Ottoman Turkey:
 blocked the long-distance trade route from Europe to the Far East that Europeans used it since the
12th c.
 was already in control of Arabia and Egypt.
 occupied areas in parts of the Red Sea coast and along the eastern coast of the Indian Ocean.
 was an established power in the Red Sea, the Gulf of Aden and the Indian Ocean regions.
 After Vasco da Gama discovered a direct sea route to India for Europe in 1498 the Portuguese:
 began to establish trading stations along the eastern coasts of Africa.
 were also interested in getting new trading stations on the Gulf of Aden and the Red Sea coasts.
Therefore, the Portuguese and the Ottoman Turks:
o became strong rivals. Each wanted to dominate the above regions.
o to achieve their aim, they wanted the friendship of the two rival states of the Horn of
Africa.
Accordingly:
 The Ottoman Turks:
 had established relations with the Muslim populations and states in the Red Sea and the Gulf of
Aden coasts.
 established friendly relations with the Sultanate of Adal and the Ottoman governors of Yemen.
 intended to use their Muslim friends to expel the Portuguese from the area and put the
region under their control.
 The Portuguese on their part were able to get a friend in the Ethiopian region.
 With the growth of the Muslim threat in the late fifteenthand early sixteenth century, the
Christian rulers began to seek military help from European Christians. Accordingly, Queen
mother Ellini, wife of Emperor Zara Yacob, sent a letter to Portugal in 1512. In response, the
Portuguese government sent an official delegation to the Christian kingdom in 1520.
 The aim of Portugal in this relation was to use the power of the Christian kingdom in order to
chase the Turks out of the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden.
 These friendships led the two foreign powers, Portugal and Ottoman Turkey- to take part in the war
between Adal and the Christian kingdom in the first- half of the sixteenthcentury.

2.6. Population movements

 In 16th c, history of horn of Africa was dominated by war and population movements.
1. The population movement of Afar and the Somali
 Their movements:
 began earlier than that of the Oromo
 started from the middle of the 15th c and continued through the first half of the sixteenth
century.
 the pastoral Afars and Somalis in the southeastern of Ethiopia and the horn continued to
move out towards to the Harar plateau.
 were caused by drought, famine and land pressure. These led conflict among Argobba,
Harari, Afars and Somalis in South East. Later, Imam Ahmed of Adal was able to unite
them for common objectives (to occupy new territories farther away from Adal).
 So, Imam Ahmed:
 recruited fresh soldiers from peoples of Afar, Argobba, Harari and Somali as well as re-
directed their energies in expansionist campaigns against Christian kingdom
 able to win the wars of the first half of the sixteenthcentury
 The effect of the Afar and the Somali population movements:

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 It strengthened the sultanate of Adal.
 It became the major cause for the war between Adal and Christian kingdom.
2. The Oromo Population Movements and Expansion
 Started in 1522 and ended in 1618
 Was a large scale expansion of the period
Original Home Land of the Oromo
 There are different explanations regarding the original land of Oromo.
Some believed their original land is southeast part of Ethiopia highlands.
According to the Oromo oral tradition, the Original homeland before 16th century was south-
central part of Ethiopia highlands.
Evidences are today locate the origins of the Oromo to the east of the Rift Valley lakes,
around the upper course of the Genale river.
The political and religious center of the Oromo settlement area was Madda Walabu, located on the
Bale- Sidamo borderlands.
 The Oromo fought twelve Butta wars (from 1523- 1618)
Causes for the Oromo Population Movement and Expansion
 Even though, there were different suggestions, generally it is believed that the Oromo population movement
and expansion was caused by human, natural and demographic factors. i.e:
 wars and disturbances of 2nd half of 15th and early years of 16th century in the Horn must have put
pressures on the Oromo
 changes in the natural environment of the Oromo homeland, such as climatic changes
 population increase among the Oromo people
 the growth in the number of their cattle
 Evidences show that the expansion was not intended to control the trade routes in the region or to
impose tribute through conquest. The search of grazing land for their cattle and breathing space for
themselves could be a factor for the movement.
Oromo institutions and social organization
 Before and during their movement, the Oromo had their own political, social and religious institution.
 For Political, economic and social purposes, the Oromo were organized in to Gada system.
 EtymologyofGadaahasbeenderivedfromGameanslawandDaameantGod.Thereis
alsoaclaimthatithasbeenderivedfromOromowordGaaddisa whichmeansshade
 Gada system is:
 a system in which gada classes succeed each other every eight years in providing military, political,
social and ritual leaderships for the Oromo nation.
 theconstitutionoftheOromothroughwhichtheyadministered,defendedtheir
territory,maintained,anddevelopedtheireconomy.
 a system in which the male members of the society would join gada classes and pass through a
number of age-grades.
The Gada age-grades
 Are the grades that male Oromos passed through from birth to death.
 Each age- grade lasted for a period of eight years.
 People moved from one age-grade to the next as they advanced in age.
 Generally, the full cycle of the gada system had ten age-grades and each grade had a life span of
eight years. Therefore, the full cycle of the gada system had a life span of eighty years.
 The first five age-grades with a total period of 40 years (that represents one generation),
mainly served as schools for the young Oromo people and they are active age-grade. They took
different training at each grade.

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
The sixth age-grade (41-48 yrs) is called Luba/Gada. This was the stage when the male Oromos can
take the political, social, military and ritual leadership.
 Gada grades
S.n Gada age-grades/age-sets Age
1 Dabbale Birth-8 years of age
2 Gamme/ Rubo 9-16
3 Folle 17-24
4 Qondala 25-32
Raba-Dori 33-40
6 Luba/Gada 41-48
7 Yuba I 49-56
8 Yuba II 57-64
9 Yuba III 65-72
10 Yuba IV 73-80
11 Jaarsa Gadamojji/raaqa/Ginya-qulqullu Above 80 had no significant role
NB. The name of the grades may vary from place to place in Oromia region

Gadaa class (gogeessa or Parties/ groups)

 They are five in number. According to the Borena confederacy, these parties are Birmaji, Horata,
Michille, Duulo and Robale (father’s gogeessa) and Aldaada, Horata, Biifolee, Sabbaqa and Kiilole
(for the son’s gogeessa). These names differ from place to place.
 It was the time when they obtain different trainings, which qualify them for war as well as community
leadership.
 Succeed each other every 8 years.
 The parties transfer power peacefully to each other’s within eight years and a party ruled once in the
Gada cycle.
The Gada officials
 Gada assembly, known as the Chaffe, was the main decision making body in Gada system. The Gada
system was quite egalitarian and the head of the Chaffe was elected democratically from among the Gada
age-grade. UnderegalitarianGada,allcitizens/lammiihaveequalprivilegesandresponsibilities,which
iscalled“Qixxee‟orEquality. Femaleshadfairsocio-
economicrightsthroughSiiqqeeinstitutioneventhoughcouldnotgetpoliticalauthority.
 Some of the Gada officials are the following:
 Abbaa Bokku/Abbaa Gadaa:
 keeperofwoodenormetalscepter,signofStateauthority.
 chief executive (Head of Government/ Administration),
 is the highest authority.
 served only for 8 years as spokesman of the gada assembly
 Abbaa Mudaa- father of anointment (ritual and cultural leader).
 Abbaa Dula/Moti - commander of army.
 Abbaa caffee/Abbaa Dubbii Parliament chairperson/ speaker who presents presidium decision to
assembly.
 Abbaa Maatii- Vice Executive & in Charge of Social Affair.
 Abbaa Seera:
 in charge of the traditional Oromo laws.
 memorizer of the laws and the results of the Assembly's deliberations.
 Abbaa Alanga - Judge who executes the decision.
 Abbaa Sa'a/ Dinagdee - In charge of the economy.

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 These officials:
 work closely together for one gada period (8 years).
 when their term of office ends, they will hand over the power to next gada class, which will elect
new officials for the next eight years.
 Generally, in the Gada system political power was held by a group of elders, and there was peaceful
transfer of political power from one Gada class to the other every eight years. Those who left the office
would serve as advisors to the new gada class.
 Democratic values of Gada System are:
 Periodical election (every eight years).
 having term of rule (eight years for one term).
 the ruler have limited power with accountability.
 peacefully transfer of power (even by celebration)
 equality of all Oromos (including adoptees)
 pluralism (existence of multi-party system)
 Economy of Oromo
 before started their movement, they used to
exercisemixedfarminginthehighlandsandpastoraleconomyinthelowlands.
 However, after their movement most of them engaged in sedentary agriculture.
 Religion of Oromo
 Oromo believed in one Sky God known as Waqa, which approximates to the English word God.
 The Qaallu :
 served as high priests or links between the Oromo people and the Waqa.
 were highly respected and they could even involve in non-religious affairs of the society.
Direction and stage of the Oromo Population Movement
 Long before their expansion, the Oromo people were divided in to two major groups
(confederacies);
1. Borana confederacy (consisted of: Mecha, Tulama, Southern Borana and Guji clans).
2. Barentu confederacy (composed of: Karayu, Marawa, Ittu, Humbana, Akachu, Wollo and
Arsi clans)
 The movement and expansion largely took place from around 1522 to 1618.
 The movement was set on two major directions in the Ethiopian region. i.e
1/ The Barentu moved out in a North-easterly direction.
2/ The Borana followed a north-westerly direction. They also moved out in the directions of Kenya
and Somalia outside the Ethiopian region
 The movement took two stages;
 The first stage was the period of small and slow movement in the first half of the sixteenth
century.
 The second stage started around mid-sixteenthcentury and lasted up to 1618. This was a large-
scale movement carried out by means of force.
Consequences of the Oromo Movement for the Ethiopian Region and the Horn of Africa
As a result of the movement and expansion the Oromo:
 were able to settle in new areas both within the Ethiopian region and elsewhere outside it. Most of these
areas are still inhabited by the Oromo. The Oromo occupied and settled on lands as far north as
southern Tigrai, southeastern Gondar and parts of Gojjam. They gave Oromo names to most of the
new places they occupied.
 settled in Somalia, and in Kenya (outside Ethiopia). They were, however, pushed out from Somalia,
later on. In Kenya, the Borana Oromo permanently settled in the northern parts of that country.

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Factors that contributed for the success of the Oromo population movement
 Different factors were accountable for the success of Oromo population movement. They are:
1. The Gadaa system provided training and military organization for the Oromos.
2. Almost all of the members of the society participate in the war. Due to this reason, Oromo able to
undergo a large scale expansion so difficult to stop.
3. The Oromo made wide and good use of the horse at the time of expansion.
4. The Oromo institution, the process of adoption also facilitated the process of the expansion.
These are:
a.Guddifacha -(a form of parent adopting a child).
b. Medhacha (Mogassa)-is adoption into a clan of a tribe.
 The adopted individual or group could be either Oromo or non-Oromo.
 The adopted community or individual shares everything equally with the Oromos and becomes an
Oromo.
 The Medhicha culture allowed other peoples to mix up with the Oromos and live together in peace.
5. The Oromo population movement took place when the two major states in the Horn (the Christian
kingdom and the Sultanate of Adal) were exhausted and weakened as the result of
the wars of the first half of the sixteenthcentury.
Consequences
 The 16th century Oromo population movement and expansion:
1. Resulted in ethnic and cultural inter–mixing (between the Oromo and other peoples of the region)
2. Caused the destruction of the old states of the kingdoms of Damot, in parts of present-day
northwestern Shoa and Wollega and Bizamo and Enarya in the southwestern Ethiopian region.
3. The peoples of Damot and Gafat were either assimilated with the Oromo or forced to move out
from the south to the north and intermingle with the Christian community of the area.
4. Greatly disturbed the Christian kingdom. The territorial and financial strengths of the kingdom were
highly weakened. It was forced to shift its political center from Shoa in the south to the Lake Tana
area in the north, and finally to Gondar.
5. The Sultanate of Adal was reduced to the walled town of Harar. This was mainly because:
 after the death of Iman Ahmed, the Muslims of Adal were reorganized under Emir Nur
Mujahid. The Emir launched an offensive war against the Christian kingdom. In 1559 Nur
Mujahid defeated and killed Gelawdewos in the Awah valley. But he could not pursue his
victory over the Christian forces because the Oromo forces had already reached the Harar
area at the time. So, Emir Nur Mujahid decided to return back to Adal to defend it from
falling to the Oromo. But since most of Harar was occupied by the Oromo, he just built a
wall around the town of Harar, which is known as the Jegol Gimb. This, in turn, led to the
end of an age-old conflict between Adal and the Christian kingdom permanently.
6. Following their movement and expansion:
 the Oromo became largely sedentary agriculturists.
 in time, the great majority of them also adopted Christianity and Islam. Still later on, they
were able to form kingdoms of their own, in the Ethiopian region.

Unit Three
3. The modern world since 1500 (9 hours)
3.1. Renaissance
 was an intellectual movement began in 14th century and ended in 17th century.

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 It means rebirth of learning and culture (Greco-Romans‟ civilization, arts, music, writing, philosophy,
etc.).
 started in Italy and later spread to England, France, Spain and Holland etc.
The renaissance was characterized by:
 theStudy of ancient Rome and Greek (Languages, literature, art and use of reason).
 support of freedom of thought and questioning mind, study of human beings (humanism).
 use of vernaculars / nation languages such as Italian or English rather than Latin in writing,
 the invention and use of printing which begins since 1454.
 their great work in literature, painting, sculpture, architecture and science.
Outstanding Men of Renaissance and their contribution
S/N Field Name Nationality Achievement / work

1 Literature Dante Alighieri 1255- Italian Wrote “Divine comedy”

1321

2 “ Thomas More English Utopia (an imaginary place /state in which everything is
perfect)

3 “ Miguel de Cervantes Spanish World's greatest literary masterpieces, Don Quixote, in the
early 1600s

4 “ Martin Luther Germany Translate Holy bible in to German language

5 “ William Shakespeare Englishmen Wrote different great plays such as: Rome and Juliet,
Hamlet and Julius Caesar,

6 Art Leonardo da Vinci Italian Painted the Last supper and Mona Lisa

7 " Michelangelo Italian Painted: Creation of Adam, status of David, Moses, virgin
and the dead of Christ.
8 “ Donatello Italian Made the “equestrian monument of Cattamelata” and “Mary
sculpture Magdalen
9 Science Nicholas Copernicus Polish Declared that the earth revolved around the sun.
(1473-1543)
10 “ Vesalius Belgian Studied the human anatomy

11 “ Johannes Gutenberg German Developed printing press in 1454

blacksmith

3.2. Exploration and discovery

 During medieval period, European knowledge was limited to Europe, North Africa and west Asia. But
in the fifteenth century they discovered new regions in Africa, the Far East and the Americas.
 Factor that encouraged exploration and discovery were
1. European interest in Long Distance Trade (taste of luxury good enforced them get new trade routes),
2. European interest in geographic knowledge,
3. Inventions of different instruments like compass, better ships and maps
4. Contribution of different individuals and leaders e.g. Prince Henry the Navigator (1394-1460) of
Portugal and Queen Isabella (1451-1504) of Spain.
 In the 15th and 16th centuries, Spain and Portugal were the leaders in exploration and discovery.
Bartolommeo Dias

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He was the Portuguese explorer (c. 1450-1500). In 1488, he became the first European mariner to round the
southern tip of Africa and named it Cape of Good Hope. He showed the Opening of the way for a sea route from
Europe to Asia.
Vasco da Gamma
The Portuguese explorer, Vasco da Gamma (1460-1524) sailed from Lisbon in 1497 on a mission to reach India
and open a sea route from Europe to the East. After sailing down the western coast of Africa and rounding the
Cape of Good Hope, his expedition made numerous stops in east Africa before reaching the trading post of
Calicut, India, in May 1498. Finally, in 1498 he discovered new sea route to India and the Far East.
Ferdinand Magellan
In September 1519, Portuguese explorer, Ferdinand Magellan set out for sail with a fleet of five Spanish ships in
attempt to find the Spice Islands by heading west. Although Magellan died during the journey at Philippines, he is
credited with the first circumnavigation of the Earth. Only one ship with 18 men arrived Spain in 1522 after 3yrs
and 12days.
Christopher Columbus
Christopher Columbus, discovered America in 1492. He was in the service of Spain. Columbus died without
knowing that he had found new lands. An Italian mapmaker, Amerigo Vespucci who later understand that the
lands Columbus had discovered were completely a separate continent. The lands found came to be known as
America from the name of Amerigo Vespucci. The newly "discovered'' areas also began to be known as the "New
World''. The newly discovered lands later became colonies of European powers.

 Spain and Portugal were the leaders in the building of colonial empires in the fifteenth and sixteenth
centuries.
 Spain took Mexico, Peru and the new world.
 Portugal took Brazil and other territories in Asia.
 Spain and Portugal destroyed the old American-Indian empires in America in the sixteenth century.
 Holland, Britain and France caught up with Spain and Portugal in the seventeenth century.
 In 1623 Hollandestablished a small trading colony atNew Amsterdam, on Mohnton Island, in north-east
America. However, Britain took over the colony from Holland in 1664 and renamed it New York.
 Britain established a small fur-trading colony in the Hudson Bay in North America in the seventeenth
century.
 In 1607, Britain formed the colony of Jamestown in Virginia, on the east coast of America. In the end, it
established a total of 13 colonies in the present-day USA.
 France established colonies along St. Lawrence River, the Gulf of Mexico and the Mississippi valley
after 1608.
 Britain and France fought the Seven Years War (1756 - 1763) due to colonial rivalries in North America.
At the end, British got upper hand on North America.
 In 1637, Russia occupied Alaska but sold to USA for $7,200, 000 in 1867. The USA later found gold and
more recently oil in Alaska.
 Britain and France became dominant empire builders in the eighteenth century
3.3. The Reformation
II. Reformation
It was a religious movement started in Germany in 1517 against Catholic Church.
It was caused by:
a. The resentments of church rules about the church supremacy over evil authority
b. Nationalist minded figures, except in Italy considered the pope as foreign ruler
c. Opposition against church taxes and church’s tax exemption
d. Renaissance leaders doubted church authority and prepared the way for religious revolution.
e. Criticism against some church practices seemed as a unworthy of church leaders such as:

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 Worldliness and
 Nepotism

Early Attempts of the Reformation (14th and 15th centuries)

It was the unsuccessful attempt by the English priest called John Wycliffe, who:
 Condemned wealth and worldliness of Catholic church:
 Denied pope’s religious supremacy
 Argued that Bible is the highest religious authority
 Translated Bible in to English

John Wycliffe’s ideas were supported by a Bohemian man called John Huss and their followers rebelled against Roman
Catholic Church but highly persecuted and suppressed by the army of Holy Roman Empire.

The Actual Reformation:

It was started by Martin Luther (Germany), who:

 Educated and entered a catholic monastic order
 Appointed as professor of theology at Wittenberg University
 Condemned the sale of indulgence card in return of money for church pardon without true repentance
 Denied pope’s supremacy
 Proclaimed the Bible is the final authority
 Translated Bible into German and urged individuals to read and understand
 Developed the doctrine of justification by faith and faith alone ensures salvation
 Nailed Ninety-Five Thesis which contains his religious beliefs on the doors of churches
 Criticized catholic church practices

The consequences of Luther’s reforms:

 Luther was excommunicated from church and punished by Charles V of Holly Roman Empire
 Luther’s reforms initiated powerful northern German rulers to seize church properties and weaken Holly
Roman kings
 The German rulers saved Luther from punishment in northern German
 The northern Germans accepted Luther’s ideas as a new religion called Lutheranism

Religious Reformers:

1. Ulrich Zwingli (Swiss Priest)

 Taught that the bible, not the pope, is the supreme authority
 Converted the people to Protestantism

2. John Calvin(French religious reformer)

 Fled from Catholic France to safety in Geneva(Switzerland)
 A leader and spokesman of protestant
 Taught the doctrine of predestination (destiny)

Soon, Calvinism spread to:

 Swiss and became the Swiss reformist church
 Dutch reformed in Holland

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 A Scottish (Scotland) reformer and follower of Calvin named John Knox had established the Church
called Presbyterianism church as official state religion in Scotland.
 France and became the faith of small influential group(follower) called Huguenots
Lessons that Luther’s teaches us:
 Firstly: citizens have the responsibility to struggle against all forms of social evils and undemocratic
states,
 Secondly: the possibility to attain our objectives of struggle through non-violent or peaceful means.
Henry VIII and the Church of England:
In England:
 Reformation was started by an act of state
 Its success was due to anticlericalism among the people
 The immediate cause for the England’s break with the Catholic Church was refusal of Pope Clement VII
to annul (cancel) or divorce of King Henry VIII’s marriage to his first wife named Catherine of
Aragon(Spanish),
 Catherine had not borne Henry a son and the King Henry wanted to marry an English Anne Boleyn that
would produce a male heir to the throne,
 The pope refused to grant him divorce from his Spanish wife
 King Henry also desired the extensive Catholic Church properties in England
In 1534, King Henry VIII:
 Introduced the parliament to pass the Act of supremacy that instituted an independent Anglican
Church with the monarch, the head of the Church in England,
 Remained basically a Catholic.
 Protestant made advance under Henry’s son named Edward VI
 Queen Mary I succeeded Edward I in 1553 and restored Catholic as a state religion in England
 She suppressed the protestants

Queen Elizabeth I of England (r.1558 to 1603):

Established a moderate form Protestantism known as Anglicanism

 English people who followed John Calvin were called Puritans.
 Puritans opposed Anglicanism because it was Episcopal (governed by bishops)
 Puritans preferred the Presbyterian form of Church government.
 England forced Ireland to adopt Protestantism, but the Irish remained loyal to Catholics.
 Protestants colonized Northern Ireland, also known as Ulster (a Catholic in religion) and this caused
conflicts between Catholic and Protestants).

The Roman Catholic Church and Counter Reformation:

Counter Reformation:
Also known as Catholic Reformation
Refers to Roman Catholic history in the 16th century
Consisted two related element:
1. A defensive reaction against the Reformation, and
2. A Catholic Reform

The Council of Trent (met between 1545 and 1563):

Met in Trent, Italy
Called by Roman Catholic Church
Its objective was partly against Protestantism
Define Catholic doctrine on questions disputed by protestant theologians

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The questions of protestant theologians included:
 Original sin
 Grace
 Free will
 The seven sacrament
 The mass and the relation between scripture (Bible) and tradition
Arranged for the pope to issue a catechism (teaching religion through question and answer) and books
on liturgy (acts of worship) so there would be grater uniformity in church teachings.
Tried to stamp out abuses by the clergy
Ordered bishops to :
 live in their dioceses (respective churches)
 visit their parishes (followers)
 set up seminaries to train priests
Following the Trent Council, Catholic Church:
 Published lists of books Catholics were forbidden to read because the books considered harmful to death or
morals
 Recognized the inquisition (investigation) in Italy to help the courts to fight Protestantism more
effectively

During the Counter Reformation:

 Religious orders experienced reform and growth
 The Jesuits and the Dominicans led to the revival of philosophy and theology
 Prayer and religious donations intensified
 Missionaries brought new peoples to Catholicism
Historical significances of the Reformation:
Divided in to Catholic in South and Protestant in North
Brought about religious tolerance
Increased growth of nationalism
Initiated Lutherans to supports strong central government
Initiated Calvinists to support democracy and the rights of citizens by opposing tyranny of
monarchs
Protestants encouraged industriousness that helped the developments of trade and commerce
Protestants stressed on the holiness of persons daily life
Education was promoted with literacy by Protestant leaders based on Greco-Roman literature and
developed high respect for education and teachers
Luther and other protestants opposed the celibate(un married) of monks and nun

3.4. The English bourgeois revolution

The English Revolution
Background
The last queen of Tudor Dynasty of England named Queen Elizabeth I (r. 1558 -1603) died in 1603 unmarried.
She was succeeded by her nearest relative named James VI (king of Scotland). He became James I of England
and Ireland. He also became the first king of England of Scottish Stuart Dynasty. Right from 1603, England
and Scottish had the same ruler but remained different countries.

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England and Scotland were remained separate in many aspects:
 They were both Protestants. However, Scottish church was Presbyterian and strictly Calvinist than
official church of England (Anglican Church)
 They did not politically united until 1707
 In 1707, they united under the leadership of Cromwell

Tudor Dynasty (1485 – 1603)

 Made England’s monarchy strong but not absolute in power
 The reason why the monarchy lacked absolute power were:
I. Had no royal navy, regular and professional army
II. The existence of representative assembly called the parliament. But, the parliament was
only met when the king called it.

The parliament meetings were at Westminster, outside London. The parliament had two houses (assemblies).
They were the House of Lords and the House of Commons.
 The House of Lords were not elected and
 consisted:
 The king or the monarchy
 Heads of noble families
 Archbishops of official Church of England
 House of Commons were elected and
 consisted:
 Gentry
 A few bourgeoisie merchants
 Lawyers

 The serious conflict between the monarchy and the co-operative ruling family broke out during King
Charles I (1625 -1649). The serious disagreement was over the issue of:
 Foreign policy
 Money and
 religion

 During the reign of Charles I, England involved in unsuccessful wars against Spain and France. It was
unsuccessful because Charles I faced financial crisis.
 To overcome the financial crisis, the king called the parliament in1629. But the parliament refused
to vote the approval of sufficient taxation to support the war in Spain and France.
 When the parliament refused to vote to approve additional tax, the king collected money without
the approval of the parliament and the measure of the king was considered as illegal.
 There was also religious problem in England because Charles I’s wife Henrietta Maria was a French
Catholic queen and the people of England suspected that the king and the queen would converted the
England protestant church to Catholicism. However, they did not convert protestant to Catholicism.

 From 1629 to 1649 Charles I ruled without the parliament because when the parliament refused to approve
additional tax that the king demanded, the parliament was dissolved by the king.

The Beginning of the Civil War

The revolutionary crisis was started in Scotland in 1637 when Charles I imposed the Church of England Prayer
Book on Scotland for religious service without consulting the Scottish. This became the immediate cause of

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the beginning the civil war. The Scottish opposition was for national reason because their church was protestant
whereas the new Prayer Book imposed by Charles I did looked Catholic.

 To suppress the Scottish rebellion, Charles I called the parliament to approve additional money or tax and
the parliament met from April to May 1640. But, the parliament did not approve the additional tax.
Therefore, the king quickly dissolved the parliament. Thus, it came short-lived and called the short
parliament. Then, the king wanted to defeat the Scottish rebellion without money but failed.
 After the king failed to defeat the Scottish rebellion without money, he called the parliament that continued
from 1640 to 1653. This parliament came to known as the long parliamentbecause of the longer time it
took to meet

 At the beginning, the civil war was between the parliament on one side and the king and his royalists and
royal supporters on the other side.
 The parliament composed of the House of Lords and House of Commons united against the king and
forced him to accept laws that seriously limited his power.
Then, the parliament itself was divided in to two and became the opponent and supporter of the king. These were:-
1. Only small majority (a little greater than half) of House of Commons and a few of House of
Lords (opponent of the king).
 This group wanted to:-
 take away all powers of the king and intended to make him a puppet parliamentary
leader.
 take control over the army because they feared that if the king retained some of his
powers and control over the army, he could use the army and his power against
them as revenge.

2. A little less than half of House of Commons and most of House of Lords (supporter of the king)
 This group:-
 believed that the parliament was going far in opposing the king and they feared that
the political crisis was breaking down all authorities in the country.
 According to the same group of the parliament, the religious and political
radicalism among the lower class was growing danger.
 The conservatives also opposed the wish of the strict Calvinists in parliament to
abolish archbishops and bishops in the Church of England and change the English
Prayer Book.
 Due to the above reasons, this group of the parliament turned to support the king.
 On the eve of the civil war, the parliament who opposed the king and the king independently raised their
fighting force or the army of their own and fighting began in the summer of 1640.
The First Civil War (1642 1646)
In the course of the civil war, the parliament was supported by:
 Inhabitants of London which was the richest city (part of the country) and helped the parliament in raising
money to support the war
 The navy
 The middle class
 Small land owners
 Puritans (supporter of Presbyterian Church)
 Scottish army or military
 Gentry

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 merchants and active supporter of the parliament
 Manufacturers
During the same civil war, the king was supported by royalist (some of the royal families such as:
 the noblemen,
 the Catholics and
 Irish
 The parliament won the war by raising a new centralized force called the New Model Army (nicknamed
“Ironsides”) commanded by Oliver Cromwell and Thomas Fairfax.
 Cromwell:-
was responsible for a couple of mounted troops.
won the battle of Marston Mooron July 2, 1644.
won the battle of Naseby on June 14, 1645, which played a major role for the victory of parliament.
 The first civil war ended on May 5, 1646 when Charles I surrendered to Scots. The victory of the
parliament was due to the active community participation on the side of the parliament.
The consequences of the first civil war
 The parliament won the battle
 Marked Cromwell military and political career because he became the principal army leader when
Fairfax withdrew from political life
 Charles I fled to Scotland or exiled there.
After the first civil war:
 Everybody expected and wanted Charles I to continue as a king
 The army and the parliament negotiated with the king to distribute political power and about the religion
but did not succeed.
The Puteny Debate
 The puteny debate was the political discussion that held among representatives of the lower ranked
England army with the army leadership but ended without conclusion.
 The Second Civil War 1648-1649
At the end of the first civil war, the New Model army had no willing to be:
 Disband, dismissed and demobilized or
 Sent to suppress the rebellion in Ireland. Rather, the army was divided in to two:
1. The socially and politically conservative group led by Cromwell
2. Radicals

 The immediate cause of the second civil war was an invasion of England by a Scottish army. One
political group of Scots had reached an agreement with Charles I and sent an army to support him. The
Second Civil War was also a Royalist insurrection in England. The New Model Army quickly defeated the
Scots and the English Royalists.
 The majority of the army was now determined to put an end to Charles I and the monarchy. Cromwell
finally agreed to this. In December 1648 the army, excluded from parliament all members of the House of
Commons who did not agree with the army's programme. The members of the House of Commons who
remained were called the “Rump”, meaning remnant or left-overs.
 According to the Scots, if they let him the king to return to the throne, he would make Presbyterianism the
official religion of both (kingdoms of England and Scotland). When war flamed up again in 1648,
Cromwell crushed the Scottish-Royalist army (supporter of the king) at the battle of Preston. When the
parliamentarians finally won the war, Charles I was beheaded after his trial on January 30, 1649. After
the king’s execution, parliament executed many prominent members of the royal party.

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 The king was supported by Scottish-Royalist army

 The parliament supporters were the majority of the army

Consequences of the second civil war

 All members of the House of commons who did not agree with the army’s programme to end the kings
power were excluded from the parliament by the army
 Some members of the House of Commons who accepted the programme of the army remained in the
parliament & became called the Rump. Rump means remnant or left-over
 The parliament abolished the monarchy in 1649
 Rump and the army publicly beheaded Charles I in January 1649
 The House of Lords was abolished by the parliament
 England declared a republic called the Common Wealth, which was not a democratic state
 From, 1648 to 1653 Rump of the ” Long Parliament” ruled England with the help of the army.
 The main effect of this revolution was that the England monarchy came to have much less power than
previously while parliament came to be more powerful.

 However, the army and its leaders were dissatisfied with the Rump. Therefore, in April 1653, Cromwell
took solders into the House of Commons and dismissed the Rump from power, and this ended the Long
Parliament.
 Cromwell ruled England (1653 – 1658) and died in 1658.

 After the death of Cromwell in 1658, the England ruling class who divided during the civil war among the
supporter of the king as royalist and the supporter of the parliament now reunited and demanded the
restoration of the monarchy. The restoration of the monarch was preferred (acceptable) to more
people than any other political solutions.
 When General Mock, the commander of the strong section of the army supported the restoration of the
monarch, Charles I’s eldest son named Charles II entered London and ruled from 1660- 1685. This event
came to known as the Restoration.
 The restoration brought back the:-
 Monarch
 House of Lords
 state Church of England (with its archbishop and bishops), who had been abolished by the Long
Parliament in 1646 and
 Traditional constitution
However, Charles IIdid not come back as absolute monarch because he ruled with the:
 Parliament
 Nobility and
 Gentry
 Charles II had no legitimate son and he was succeeded by his brother named James II who ruled England
from 1685 -1688.
 James II was a Catholic but the people of England accepted his as a monarch because they hoped that he
would not interfere with their protestant church. Later, he was overthrown from power by the people.
Because, the people suspected him that:
 He undermined the protestant church of England and tried to make it Catholic.
 He established absolute monarch
The Leveller movement

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 The Leveller movement was a radical largely secular political movement of the mid-17th century in
England who came to prominence during the civil war. In 1649, they issued the centralized Manifesto.
 This Manifesto was committed to:
 Abolish corruption of the parliament and judicial process
 Tolerate religious differences
 Transform law in to common tongue
 Redistribute parliamentary seats through election
 Bring democratic reform
The Levellers were supported by:
 Small master crafts men (particular supporters)
 Wage workers in towns mainly in London
 Ordinary soldiers
 Junior officers of the New Model Army
At the end of the second civil war, Levelers both in and outside the New Model Army were smashed by
Cromwell, who imprisoned their leaders such as:
 John Lilburne
 William Walwyn
 Thomas Prince
 Richard Overton
Then after, Cromwell:-
 Attacked mutinies in the army
 Destroyed the Levellers support base in the New Model Army
 Defeated the secular democraticmovements of the Levellers
Glorious Revolution
 The event that most commonly called the “England Revolution” is the one that happened in 1688 and it is
better known as the Glorious Revolution. The revolution was called Glorious because it preserved or
realized the continuation of monarchial power succession without bloodshed.
 The Glorious Revolution came to being when a small group of ruling class made a secret conspiracy that
secretly invited William of Orange, who was the protestant leader of Dutch Republic and Mary’s
husband (Mary was a protestant daughter of James II). He arrived in England in 1688 with the Dutch
army and James II fled to France.
 William:-
 became William III of England (1688-1702). The conspirators preferred William because he
was militarily strong and Marywas preferred to continue the rightful succession to her
father’s throne.
 accepted being king of England because he wanted to unite Dutch and England against French
and its ruler Louis XIV.
The Bill of Rights
 The Bill of Rights was a famous document that the England parliament presented to King William III
and Queen Mary in 1689. By presenting Bill of Rights, the England parliament showed its supremacy.
 It stands with Magna Carta and the Petition of Rights as the legal guarantees of English liberty, which
was in use since 1215.
 Bill of Rights included (assured) basic civil or human rights such as the “true, ancient, and indubitable
rights and liberties of the people” of the EnglishKingdom
 The Bill of Rights also:
 Settled and solved the problem to succession to throne
 Restricted the power of the king by making the following practices of the king illegal. These
were:-

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 Keeping standing army for him self
 Levy tax without the approval of the parliament and
 To be Catholic in religion
General Significances of England Revolution
The English revolution had brought a number of far-reaching consequences
 It became vital lesson for later Revolutions of French and American
 Constitutionally limited the power of the monarchy
 Declaration of the Bill of rights
 Development of democracy

3.5. The French bourgeois revolution

The French Revolution

 The period from mid-17th century to 1789 in France was called the Old Regime. Louis XIV was king of
the Old Regime and he was an absolute monarchy with no constitution.
 Fundamental Causes of the French Revolution were:-
A. Political causes:- the king, (Louis XIV) wa:
 an absolute monarchy,
 ruling by divine right,
 exercised unlimited power
 selected his ministers on the basis of noble birth or favoritism not based on ability
 existence of corruption
 maladministration
B. Social causes
The French people (society) of the Old Regime were divided in to three Estates (social groups).
The first Estate consisted:
 the Catholic clergy
The second Estate:
 the nobility, and
The third Estate included:
 large bourgeoisie
 petty bourgeoisie
 merchants,
 manufactures
 wage workers (professionals), and
 Peasants.
The 1stand the 2ndEstates:
 Constituted only 3 percent of the population
 But, they were the privileged classes.
 Their right position was more favorable
 The clergy and the nobility paid less tax than the 3rd estate
However, the third Estates:
 Constituted 97 percent of the population

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 This group was the unprivileged class
 The peasants were the most oppressed of all because they paid more tax than any group
 The peasants paid feudal dues to the lord and the Catholic Church
 The tax that peasants paid to church was called tithe

C. Economic cause:
 Criticism grew against the increasing French absolute monarch that the people called despotism.
 Bourgeoisie no longer accepted their inferior economic position compared to the 1st and 2nd estates
and dissatisfied with the economic privileges which the first and 2nd estates enjoyed.
 The peasants became active and more discontented with the unjust taxation and feudal dues.

Immediate cause of the revolution

 French’s participation in the American war of independence (1778-1783). The American war of
independence led to the revolution in two ways.
First:
 French’s military officers who had served in the American war of independence returned to France
with full of ideas about liberty.
 The French people wondered why the French should help to liberate Americans while they still
suffering from despotic and absolute French monarchy.
Second:
 The French participation in the American war of independence was very expensive and resulted in
financial crisis for the government of France.
 There was no more in the Treasury (government reserve).
 The government could borrow no more money and the authority of the government was
breaking down
 The government was forced to announce a meeting of Estate-General

Estate-General:
Estate General was the national representative assembly of France.
 It consisted of representatives elected by three estates.
 However, the State-General had not met from 1614 to 1788.
 In 1788, the government announced the election would be held for the state general at Versailles (the royal
residence near Paris) in 1789.
 In the meanwhile, the political crisis was made worse by economic crisis.
 Situation in France also became worse due to bad harvest caused by bad weather in 1788
 There was food scarcity, highest unemployment
 King Louis XIV was weak and incompetent
 His wife Maria Antoinette was very unpopular and criticized for her extravagant spending
 She was disliked because she was a foreigner, Austrian princess

Due to the above worsened conditions, the French people in Paris and the peasants discontented and provided
fighting force for the bourgeoisie.

In May 1789, the Estate-General met by which the 3rd estate were numerous. On June 17, 1789, the 3rd estate
passed the following resolutions:
 They declared that since they represented 96 percent of the French people, they alone were
competent to make a constitution.

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 They declared themselves alone to be representative of National Assembly of the French Nation.
 The representative of the 3rd estate took the name National Assembly that replaced the Estate-
General
 The member of the National Assembly took an oath that they would not end the meetings of the
National Assembly, whatever the king ordered until they had given France a proper constitution.
 The event of the oath is called the Tennis Court Oath because the oath was made in large,
indoor tennis court on June 20, 1789.

The response of the king to the Tennis Court Oath:

 He planned counter-revolution
 Ordered his army regiments to march Paris and Versailles to crash the revolution

The Course of the French Revolution

 National Assembly was saved from the counter-revolution made by the king
 Mass insurrection and involvement of ordinary people such as
 People of Paris,
 wage workers, and
 small craftsmen saved the National Assembly from defeat
 On 14 July 1789, the French people captured the royal prison called the Bastille
 The people stormed or captured the Bastille because it was considered by the people as a symbol
of tyranny and oppression
 The storming of the Bastille made angry crowd of people of Paris together
 The soldiers in Paris sympathized with the people
 The fall of Bastille marked the end of absolute monarchy in France even though it was not
totally ended
 July 14 is celebrated by the people of France as an anniversary of liberty due to the fall of
Bastille.
 The fall of Bastille also helped the National Assembly to take power in France

The summer of 1789 France saw mass peasants uprising. To respond to the peasants mass uprising, the National
Assembly passed decrees on August 14, 1789 to satisfy the peasants. By the decree, the National Assembly:
 Abolished feudal dues and church tax (tithe)
 Proclaimed the abolition of all forms of privilege rights of the 1st and 2nd estate including tax
exemption
 Abolished guild (association) restriction of trade
 Wrote a constitution and reforms
On August 26, 1789, the National Assembly stated the rights of men and citizens that included:
 Men are born free and have equal rights to:
 Liberty
 Property
 Security
 Resistance to oppression
 All citizens are entitled to have a voice in making national laws
 All persons are guaranteed equality:
 Before law
 Of freedom from unlawful arrest
 Freedom of speech, press and religion

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The National Assembly itself was dominated by the bourgeoisie and more of reflected bourgeoisie interests but the
revolution of the bourgeoisie against the monarchy benefited the people as a whole.

The declaration of the summer of 1789 constitution said that:

 All political authority comes from the people
 Laws and taxation must be approved by elected representative assembly of the French nation
 All members of the nation are equal in rights and duties
 The division of French society in to estates should be rejected
 French men were equal citizens of one nation
 Citizens should have the freedom of speech and religion

The French revolution was a bourgeoisie revolution in character but it succeeded due to the active involvement of:
 Politically oppressed and
 Economically exploited majority French people

The corrective measures taken by the National Assembly:

 Ended government of provinces ruled by royal officials and replaced it by elected councils at all
provincial administrative levels
 To cope with financial crisis, nationalized all land belonging to Catholic Church
 Sold the land to bourgeoisie, some nobles and rich peasants

Poor peasants and landless people in the countryside got nothing from the above measures of the National
Assembly.
The quarrel between the revolutionaries and the Catholic Church
 It was caused by the 1789 National Assembly measure that voted to put Catholic Church in
France under the state control that was rejected by the church’s pope of Rome and Catholic
clergy
 This marked the beginning of support to the counter-revolution against National Assembly
 Peasants where Catholic influence strong supported the counter-revolution
 The king fled from Paris with his family to join the counter-revolution but captured by
ordinary people and brought back to Paris
 But, the National Assembly was not willing to abolish the monarchy

The bourgeoisie used the security force called National Guard to suppress mass demonstration in Paris that
demanded a republic.

In September 1791, the new constitution was completed and:

 Made France a constitutional monarchy
 But, it contradicted the principle of the Declaration of the Rights of man and citizens declared
in August 1789

The new constitution of the National Assembly:

 Gave full political rights of voting to “Active Citizens” who had enough property
 It made the other citizens “passive Citizens” who did not have full political rights and
enough property
 Did not abolish slavery

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 Did not give political right to the poor because the bourgeoisie feared that giving political
rights to the poor would endanger the guaranteeing of private property

The October 1791 election

 Made to elect new Legislative Assembly
The 1791 French new constitution short lived because France soon entered in to a more revolutionary war. The
monarchy or Europe disliked the French’s revolutionary war and wanted to suppress it because the war was a
threat or danger for themselves. A legislative Assembly believed that the revolution would spread to Europe.

As a result war began between:

 France on one side, and Austria and Prussia on the other side
 As the scope of the war spread, France was almost against most of Europe
 Austro-Prussia war invaded eastern France in 1793
 French people believed that French royal family was secretly behind the enemy or supporting
the enemy

On 10 August 1792:
 Revolution in Paris overthrew the monarchy
 People rejected the 1791 constitution
 The legislative assembly dissolved itself and gave birth to the Assembly called Convention,
which given responsibility to write a new constitution.
The Convention met in September 1792 and:
 Immediately declared France a republic
 Executed Louis XIV publicly by the guillotine in January 1793 and his wife Marie in
October 1793

France army won Austrian force at the battle of Valmy in September 1792.

Political parties were emerged in France following the overthrown of the monarchy. They were rival political
parties namely:
 Jacobins
 Girondists
Jacobins:
 Represented petty and bourgeoisie
 Minority in the convention but took political power led by Robespierre
 Had willing to be more radical extreme to save French and the revolution
 Supported by the people of Paris because the people believed that radical and determined
party could save the country
 Became a revolutionary dictatorship
 Forced the convention to purge the Girondists
 Ruled France through 12-man Committee of Public Safety
 Introduced a new democratic constitution but did not put in to effect
 To stabilize conditions, introduced:
 Food rationing
 Price control
 The wage called Law of Maximum
Girondins:

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 Represented by big bourgeoisie
 Not radical compared to Jacobins (its main difference with Jacobins)

The Reign of Terror in France

The reign of terror was announced by Jacobins to crush counter- revolutionary against Jacobins power. It was
instituted by committee of public safety to protect revolution against domestic enemies. The 1795 French
constitution rejected political rights than the 1791.

The Regime of Directory

 The Regime of Directory was established by the 1795 constitution

 It unable to give France stable and conservative bourgeoisie republic
 Corrupted
 Weak
 Unpopular
 Without much support even from the bourgeoisie
 But, supported by the army
 Overthrown by the November 1799 military coup led by General Napoleon Bonaparte

Significance of the French Revolution

[
The French Revolution brought about profound change in the society and government of France. It introduced
democratic ideals to France in particular, Europe, and world in general.
a. The French Revolution proclaimed individual’s democratic rights in its slogan Liberty, Equality,
Fraternity.
Liberty means freedom for all persons:
 Free from despotism, absolute rule and unjust imprisonment
 From unnecessary and unfair economic restrictions
 To influence and change the government
 Speech, press, religion
Equality refers to equal treatment of all persons:
 Before the law
 In business, society and politics
Fraternity mean the brotherhood of all person working together to make a better world.
b. The revolution ended supreme rule by French kings ,
c. Strengthened the middle class,
d. Abolished serfdom, slavery, inherited privileges and judicial torture,
e. Legal equality became the norm in France,
f. Created the long-lasting foundation for a unified state a strong central government, and a free society
dominated by the middle class and landowners,
g. The French Revolution intensified the spirit of nationalism,
h. Loyalty to the nation permeated all classes and influenced every aspect of life,
i. The French Revolution set precedence for future generation to struggle against all forms of domination
and internal tyranny,
j. The declaration of the Rights of man, as a document that contained democratic principles paved the
way for the growth of democratic governance in Europe and rest of the world.

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k. The Marseillaise, a patriotic song by Rouget de Lisle, was adopted as a nation anthem
l. Set precedence for the future generation to struggle against all forms of domination and internal
tyranny
m. After the French revolution, no European kings, nobles or privilege groups could ever again take their
power for granted or ignore the ideals of equality and liberty.

10.6. The Napoleonic Era (1799-1815) and Its Consequences

Napoleon Military Dictatorship
Napoleon was born from Italian parents of noble families. He joined French Army service at age of 16. He had
won favor from French revolutionary government because he scored victory against British at the battle of Toulon
in 1793 when British, Spanish and the French rebels allied and rebelled against the French revolutionary
government. Napoleon saved the National Convention from attack by bomb.
 In 1796, he fought the Austrians in northern Italy and smashed the Austrian army
 Persuaded Austria to make peace by allowing them to have Venice (Italian province)
 Convinced Austria to surrender the Austrian Netherlands (Belgium) to France and to permit most
of northern Italy to be divided to little republics under Frances “protectorate”.
 Prussia and Holland had already make peace
 Britain remained the only powerful Franc’s enemy

The French Directory Regime needed to make direct attack up on British Isles (island). To do so, French lacked
sea power. Therefore, Napoleon persuaded the directory that the best option would be to conquer Egypt and Syria
in the eastern Mediterranean region that help to weaken the British trade in the East.

The Napoleon campaign against Egypt and Syria was unsuccessful because the British fleet (navy) under Admiral
Nelson defeated Napoleon and forced him to return to France. On his return, he was hailed by people of France
who heard much about his success and little about his defeat

Measures taken by Napoleon:

 In 1799, overthrew the Directory Regime and proclaimed a new constitution for France
 He owned the title, the First Consul and headed by two other consuls as advisors
 Controlled the members of legislative and council in the French government
 Became military dictator

During the reign of Napoleon:

 Britain,
 Russia, and made an alliance and tried to drive France from:
 Austria .Italy,
. Germany, and
. Netherlands
However, Napoleon:
 Crashed the alliance, and gained all Germany west of Rhine River.
 Extended France influence over all Italy
 Strengthened France grip (hold) on Holland and Switzerland
 Forced Great Britain to make peace in 1802
 In 1804, he cast aside (abandon) his First consul and became French Emperor

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 Great Britain
 Austria
 Russia, and made another alliance against France but Napoleon defeated them.
 Sweden

In 1810, Napoleon extended French Empire and annexed:

 Belgium
 Holland
 Western Germany
 Northwestern Italy
 Part of Yugoslavia
The French Empire under Emperor Napoleon also controlled:
 Part of Spain
 Most of Poland
 Group of German states called Rhine Confederation (but not annexed totally)
 Rest of Italy
Napoleon forced some of the European countries against their will (without their interest) to become allies or
supporter of France. Napoleon wanted to use these countries force to defeat the united force of his enemies
(Britain, Russia, Austria and Sweden). Those countries were forced by Napoleon to be French allies were:
 Austria- it was also one of French enemy which allied with others against Napoleon
 Prussia
 Denmark
 Norway (which belongs to Denmark)
 Russian Czar

To help him to control Europe, Napoleon had given thrones to his relatives and favorite generals.
Except Britain, all of Napoleon rivals were defeated. Britain remained undefeated due to it’s:
 highland position and
 better command of the sea or navy that defeated Napoleon at the battle of Trafalgar in 1805
Britain’s victory:
 Saved England from France
 Gave the conquered Europe new hope

Following his defeat by British at the sea, Napoleon faced the problems such as:
 The population of the countries that he controlled rebelled against Napoleon
 At the beginning, the people in the countries of Europe that Napoleon controlled forcefully welcomed the
French army because they thought that the French army was “liberator” who would free them from
unpopular rulers and unjust laws of their own countries.
 But as time went, the conquered people opposed the high price they had to pay for the benefit of France rule
because they were forced to contribute money and soldiers to fight the war of Napoleon
 Napoleon plundered captured cities of their works of art and shipped them to France to beautify the city of
Paris.
 The conquered people feared Napoleon and he was hated and discontent as well as rebellion turned against
him.

In 1812, Napoleon made a mistake in invading Russia:

 At first he defeated Russia and captured Moscow
 But he failed to reckon (consider):
 Russian winter

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 The spirit of Russian people
 When Napoleon reached German soil again, little was left of his army.
 Meanwhile, all his enemies had turned on him.
 Rebellions breakout among the Germans while French armies were defeated in Portugal and Spain.
 In 1813, in the battle of the nations near Leipzig, Germany, Napoleon suffered a disastrous defeat.
 He was driven back to France and finally forced to surrender.
 In 1814, the victories allies sent Napoleon into exile on the island of Elba in the Mediterranean Sea.
 They restored the monarchy, put Louis XVIII, brother of the guillotined King, on the throne of France, and
turned to the problems of bringing peace to Europe.
 But suddenly, the peacemakers were interrupted by startling rumors.
 Napoleon had escaped from Elba! He was in France! He was marching on Paris! The French troops sent to
capture Napoleon joined his army instead. To one of his old regiments he said. ''Here I am. You know me. If
there is a soldier among you who wishes to shoot his Emperor, he can do it''. King Louis XVIII fled the
country, and for 100 days (March to June, 1815) Napoleon was again in control of France.
 The master of France, however, was no longer the master of Europe.
 Napoleon's enemies untied in a last campaign in 1815.
 On the field of waterloo, in Belgium, the British led by the Duke of Wellington, and the Prussians under
Blucher defeated Napoleon.
 This time the British found a safe place for Napoleon the faraway little island of St. Helena in the South
Atlantic. Then he died a few years later at the age of 52. His body now rests in a magnificent tomb in Paris.
Effects of Napoleon's rule upon France
 While Napoleon was in power, he had two main goals, which were to:
 replace the confusion of Revolution with law and order and
 keep those achievements of Revolution which were dear to most Frenchmen.
 Napoleon set up a centralized efficient government for France.
 Taxes were collected properly. Roads, canals, and bridges were built which helped to unite France.
 Napoleon appointed lawyers to finish organizing French law into a uniform code for all France. The new law
codes-seven in number-incorporated some of the freedoms gained by the people of France during the
revolution including religious toleration and the abolition of serfdom.
 To this code of laws he gave his own name, the Code Napoleon. This code has had wide use in Belgium,
western Germany, and Italy, as well as in France.
 Napoleon set up a whole system of public schools-elementary schools, high schools, military academies, and
universities-all under the supervision of the central government.
 French men continued to have complete freedom to worship as they wished, but an agreement was reached
with the pope in 1801 whereby the Catholic Church became the established Church of France.
 The Church agreed to give up claims to its former lands, but regained ownership of church buildings.
 The government agreed to pay the salaries of the clergy.
 this agreement, while it restored the Catholic Church in France, kept it under the close control of the
government.

3.6. American war of independence

The American War of Independence (1775-1783)
The American War of Independence also called American Revolution started as a conflict between Britain and the
13 of North American colonies, which later became the independent USA.

Fundamental Causes of American War of Independence

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From 1763 onwards, British king, George III and his advisors decided on strict control and adopted new measures
that angered the colonies. Each measure in the new program of British king brought protests because it lessened
the freedom of the colonists had enjoyed. The new strict measures and reforms adopted (1763-1765) by the British
government under King George III were:-
1. The king declared the land beyond Appalachians Mountains including Great Lakes region, closed to
colonists.
2. The British parliament set out to enforce laws that restricted trade between the colonies and others
countries. Such a move was a blow to colonial merchants. The merchants objected strongly to the
powers given to British officials to search their homes and ware houses for smuggled goods.
3. To raise funds, the parliament also approved a Stamp Act that attached government’s stamps. The
Stamp Act that aroused violent protests through the colonies were the attachment of Stamp to:
 Articles
 News papers
 Wills
 Business contracts
 Playing cards and pamphlets
4. The parliament passed a law stating that colonists must provide housing for troops who were sent to
defend the colonies.
This program of stricter control was put into effect between 1763 and 1765. During the next 10 years, England and
its colonies drifted farther apart. The colonists showed their resentment toward British policy in different ways. By
their speeches and action, patriot leaders like James Otis, Patrick Henery and Sameul Adams aroused public
feelings against the British.

Therefore, the fundamental (basic) causes of the American war of independence could be classified as:
Economic causes
 Colonial manufacturers and merchants were angered against the English mercantilist laws, which hampered
their industry and trade.
 Plantation owners and frontiersmen, eager for new land, disliked the prohibition against westward
expansion beyond Appalachians.
 Professional people opposed the Stamp tax on printed matter, such as newspapers; pamphlets, and legal
documents.
 Consumers resented import taxes, which raised living costs.
Political causes
 The colonists maintained that they could be taxed only by their legislatures; therefore they considered
taxes voted by parliament as “taxation without representation”.
Social causes
 Many colonists no longer considered themselves English men;
 The non-English colonists such as the Irish, Dutch and French came from countries traditionally hostile to
England.

The Immediate Cause (The Outbreak of the War)

 In 1773, citizen of Boston disguised as Indians protesting the import tax and dumped British tea into
Boston Harbor. The event called the Boston Tea Party.
 American merchants also agreed not to buy English goods. Tension increased between patriots and British
authorities. In 1775, at Lexington and Concord, colonial men fired upon British troops marching from
Boston to seize colonial military supplies and leaders. This was the beginning of the American War of
Independence.
 In 1776, pamphlets were written by Thomas Paine strongly influenced the Americans to start revolutions.
These pamphlets were:

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 Common Sense
 The rights of man and
 The Age of Reason
 Paine’s booklet did much to bring about a final break between Britain and the 13 American colonists.
 George Washington also said that ‘I find Common Sense is working a powerful change in the minds of
men.”

The Declaration of Independence

On July 4, 1776, the second continental congress held and at the congress, the Declaration of Independence, a great
democratic document was drafted by Thomas Jefferson,. The declaration proclaimed that the 13 British colonies
of America were now independent and became the United States of America (USA). The declaration of
Independence introduced a fundamental change in the view of government. In the declaration, Jefferson outlines
the basic principles that underline democratic governments, as follows;
1. “All men are created equal” and “are endowed by their creator with certain unalienable Rights including” life,
Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness.”
2. To secure these rights, governments are instituted among men,” deriving their just powers from the consent of
the governed”, (the people).

Factors for the Final Success of the 13 American Colonies

1. Geographic advantage:
- More than 3000 miles of ocean separated the American colonies from England. This distance together
with the fact that the 13 colonies were spread out over a large area, made the moving and supplying of
large British army’s difficult.
2. The Role of George Washington:
-George Washington, the commander in chief of the army provided effective leadership.
3. Well experienced wilderness fighters
4. Foreign intervention: France, Spain and Holland provided various forms of assistance for Americans.
N.B: By the Treaty of Paris (1783), the thirteen colonies secured their independence from England.

Effects of the American War of Independence

A. Created a federal republic headed by an elected president
In 1787, a group of men gathered in Philadelphia, discussed and debated on the constitution of United States.
The constitution left many powers to individual states but authorized the new central government to:
1. levy and collect tax
2. raise and maintain an army and navy
3. Declare and make treaties, and
4. Regulate trade between states and within foreign nations
B. It was one of the immediate causes of the French Revolution of 1789
C. It led to the struggle for liberation of the Spanish and Portuguese Empires in the American continents and the
independence of Latin America
D. Formation of a new powerful state, United States of America
E. France regained two small colonies, Tobago in the West Indies and Senegal in West Africa
F. England lost her colonies in America and her national debt increased to a great extent
G. France lost heavily during the American Revolution.

3.7. Industrial revolution and its consequences

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The era known as the Industrial Revolution was a period during which fundamental changes occurred in
agriculture, communication, textile, metal manufacture, transportation, economic policies and the social
structure in England. This period is appropriately labeled Revolution.
The change that occurred during this period (1760- 1850), in fact, occurred gradually. The year 1760 is generally
accepted as the eve of the Industrial Revolution.

During the Industrial Revolutions dramatic changes occurred. These included:

 the technique and scale of production,
 Power consumption.
 transition from hand production methods to machines,
 new chemical manufacturing and iron production processes, improved efficiency of water power,
 the increasing use of steam power,
 the development of machine tools.
 it also included the change from wood and other bio-fuels to coal.

The Industrial Revolution began in England in the mid - 1700s. In the century that followed, factories and
machines transformed the nation and spread throughout Europe and North America.

Reasons why Industrial Revolution begin in England

A number of fertile conditions accounted for the outbreak of Industrial Revolution first in Great Britain. These
were:
A. Economic Strength
 During the 1600s, overseas exploration had opened new markets for England, and led to a thriving
economy based on money.
 British merchants invested money in new industries
 New financial institutions such as banks offered business loans that helped to urge industrial growth.
B. Geography and Natural Resources
 England’s rivers offered a dual advantage. Fast-flowing rivers were a source of water power to fuel
machinery, and throughout the nation rivers provided inland transportation routes for industrial goods.
 In addition, England’s excellent natural harbors (ports) were a benefit to merchant ships.
 England had rich natural resources in the form of coal and iron mines. Coal was an essential source of
energy to fuel machinery.
C. Population Growth
 Scientific improvements in farming during the 1700s led to more crops and healthier livestock – an
Agricultural Revolution that brought more food to the people. Health and living conditions improved, and
the population increased.
 A larger population meant greater demand for goods and more available labor (trained man power).
C. Political Stability
 An isolated, Island nation, England participated in European wars of the 18th and early 19th centuries, but
never on home ground.
 England’s industrial growth was not interrupted by war

Generally, the under mentioned fertile conditions contributed for the outbreak of Industrial Revolution in England
1. Sufficient and accelerated capital accumulation

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2. Availability and sufficient size of domestic and foreign market
3. Access and control of raw material
4. Free and cheap labor
5. Political and institutional framework facilitating innovation. England, as compared to the other
counties was in a more advantageous state for the above mentioned preconditions.

Significant Achievements of the Industrial Revolution

No Inventions Inventor Year

1 First electric battery Volta 1800
2 Diesel Engine Rudolf Diesel 1892
3 Light bulb Thomas A. Edison 1879
4 Telephone Alexander Graham Bell 1867
5 Telegraph Samuel Morse 1836
6 Better version of steam engine James Watt 1776
7 Water frame (weaving machine) Arkwright 1769
8 Flying shuttle in textile machines John Kay 1733
9 The first Steam Engine Savry 1698

Consequences of the Industrial Revolution

The Industrial revolution had far-reaching social, economic and political consequences
1. Social Consequences:
 Development and growth of cities
 rural- urban migration
 Improved status and earning power of women
 The social roles of men and women changed
 Increase in leisure time (labor- saving devices were invented and produced)
 Rapid population growth rate increased due to:
Agricultural Revolution → Increased food production → lower food prices → improved
nutrition → more healthy babies were born → life expectancy increased → population
skyrocketed.
 Science and research stimulated
 Economic insecurity,
 increased deadliness of war.
 War became more catastrophic as weapons became more technologically advanced and were mass produced
 Workers relied entirely on their jobs for sustenance
 Housing problems in towns, urban slums, labor exploitation
 Environmental pollution (smokes from factories and industrial wastes polluted air and water bodies
respectively).
2. Economic Consequences:

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 Lange-scale production due to the inventions of modern devices production doubled or tripled
 Expansion of world trade
 Industrial capitalism
 Increased standard of living
 New forms of transportation
 Unemployment
 Factory system
 Industrialized nations expanded their colonial empires and spheres of influence in their search for more
raw materials.
 Colonizers fought one another for colonies and sphere of influence
 They Fought the people in the lands they controlled
 Rose to power of business people

3. Political Consequences:
 Decline of landed aristocracy. The nobility lost its traditional political and economic position.
Landed aristocracy: refers to lords, dukes etc who owned the land. Before industrial revolution wealth was
based on agriculture which meant that those who owned the vast acre of land were the wealthiest.With the
outbreak of industrial revolution, factories became more valuable than land. The wealth of the aristocracy
dwindled.
 Growth and expansion of democracy:
a. The middle class grew during the industrial revolution and gained more rights
b. The working class effectively began with the industrial revolution
c. Legalized unions
d. Established minimum wage
e. Standards for working conditions
f. Forms of social security Nationalism and imperialism stimulated
g. Increased production meant an increased need for raw materials
h. New social classes emerged; the bourgeoisie and proletariat. Bourgeoisie were wealthy
factory owners whereas Proletariat were poor factory workers

Unit Four
4. The Gonderine period (6 hours)
 Refers to the years during which the rulers of the highland Christian kingdom ruled from a new capital
called Gondar.
 Beginning from the mid sixteenth century, the Kingdom gradually shifted its political center from the
Shewan highlands to the Lake Tana region. The shift was caused by:
 Adal's continued threat and
 The pressure of the Oromo population movement.
 After the death of Gelawdows in 1559, Minas (r.1559-63), brother and successor of Gelawdewos,
retreated to the lands north of theAbay River. His successors continued to live in mobile capitals.
Denqez, Gorgora, Azezo, Dembiya, and Qoga in Gojjam and Begemidir were sites where this mobile
capital rested at different times.
Who founded Gondar?

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Gondar:
 was founded by Fasilades around 1636.
 was strategically located on the long distance trade route that linked the Southwestern region with
Massawa on the Red Sea and Metamma on Ethio-Sudanese border.
 its establishment as a permanent capital city ended the tradition of ruling from temporary camps.
 continued to serve as political center for the next two centuries.
 became known for its architectural achievements and building technology. Several kings who ruled
from Gondar built very beautiful castles as palaces, Churches, bridges and swimming pools.
 Particularly, during the reigns of its three successive kings: Fasiladas (r. 1632- 1667), Yohanes I (r. 1667-
1682) and Iyasu I (1682-1706),
 Gondar attained great prosperity and technological developments.
 The city grew and traditional schools of learning were built and expanded around their palaces
and Churches.
 These three Gondarine rulers were also politically stronger than their successors.
 Gondar:
 Developed certain urban features very soon. It had about 70,000 inhabitants. Its population was
composed of different religious, cultural, indigenous and foreign communities.
 Became an important commercial center with a daily market attracting merchants, crafts and
rural people for the exchange of their respective products. This led to intense urban-rural
interactions.
 Traders in Gondar were mostly Ethiopian Muslims, known as the Jeberti. There were also other
occupational groups like the Bete Israel(Felasha). They were engaged in such craft activities as
masonry, pottery, basketry and iron works.
 There were separate living quarters for the Muslim communities, at Addis Alem, for the Felasha
and also for some foreign communities from India, Greek, Armenia and Persia.
 Cash payment for labour services was also introduced.
 The ruling class enjoyed luxurious life and lived in their beautiful palaces and castles.
 However, it was only during the reigns of the first three kings: Fasiladas, Yohanes I and Iyasu I that
Gondar led a life of glory. Later:
 Gondar declined as an important political center and economic prosperity.
 Political disorder and social unrest became common in the city.
 Court intrigues, accompanied by poisoning and assassinations of kings and princes became
common.
 The Gondarine monarchy could not keep its former political power. This was partly because of its
military weakness.
 Finally, the Gonderine kings unable to impose control over regional lords and provinces.
 Following the assassination of IyasuI in 1706, the imperial court itself had to be guarded by powerful
warlords with regional bases. The period led to the strengthening of warlords of different regions with
little or no control from the weakening center.
Who was Mentewab? She was:
 a Quara born woman.
 the wife of Emperor Bakafa ( r. 1721-30).
 dominated the last stage of the Gondarine period due to her growing power and importance.
 soon after the death of Bakafa, she began to rule over the kingdom as a regent for her young son and the
successor of Bakafa, Iyasu II (r.1730-55) until his death in 1768.
 supported by her strong brother, Welde Leul, on whom she bestowed prestigious title of Ras Bitweded.
 The warlords were contending for title of Ras Bitweded and position during the whole period of

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the Zemene Mesafint.
 lost power in 1769 to the Tigrean warlord, Ras Michael Sehul.
Ras Michal Sehul came to Gondar, killed the reigning king, Iyoas (1755-1769), and took over the
title of Ras Bitweded.
 Gondar also suffered from internal splits within the Ethiopian Orthodox Church. The clergy on their
part were engaged in conflicts over religious principles or doctrines, which had also a regional character.
 It was the combination of political and religiousdisputes that finally led to the period of the
Zemene Mesafint or the Era of warlords / Era of princes.

4.1. The Jesuits and their evangelization in Ethiopia

Catholicization and civil wars

The Portuguese military assistance arrived in Ethiopia in 1541and helped the Christian Highland Kingdom to
defeat the Muslim Sultanate of Adal led by Ahmed Gragn in 1543 at the battle of Woyna Dega. However, after
they completed their mission, the Portuguese soldiers did not withdraw from Ethiopia. Instead, they stayed in the
country and invited the Catholic missionaries called the Jesuits, who sought to convert the Orthodox Christian of
Ethiopia to Catholicism.

The attempt to convert to Catholicism was started as soon as the Portuguese soldiers entered Ethiopia in 1541.
Bermudez, who was Lebene Dengel’s messenger to Portugal, and returned back to Ethiopia with the Portuguese
soldiers, made himself Patriarch of the Christian Kingdom. In fact, he was not ordained by Pope of Rome.

Bermudez claimed that Lebene Dengel had nominated him the patriarch of the Christian Kingdom before his
death, and the nomination was approved by the pope of Rome. On the base of this claim, Bermudez:
 tried to force Gelawdewos to fulfill the alleged promises of his father (Lebene Dengel).
 required Gelawdewos to convert to Catholicism and recognize the position of Bermudez as the patriarch of
the Christian Kingdom
 Bold the dependency of CHK on the Portuguese soldiers brought from India that helped him to defeat the
force Ahmed Gragn and tried to force Gelawdewos to fulfill his demands.
 Insisted, Gelawdewos to convert the subjects of the Christian kingdom to Catholicism.
However, Gelawdewos was with his father until his father’s death and knew that his father did not make alleged
promise to Bermudez. Therefore, Gelawdewosrejected the request of Berudez. Following the rejection:
 Bermudez ordered his soldiers not to fight on the side of Gelawdewos against Ahmed Gragn
 But, the Portuguese soldiers knew the basis of Gelawdewos rejection and refused the order of Bermudez to
stop fighting.
 Then, Portuguese soldiers continued fighting on the side of Gelawdewos
 John III(the then King of Portugal) also refuse to recognize Bermudez as the patriarch of the Christian
Kingdom
 Finally, the frustrated Bermudez retired to Debarwa in 1553.
 The official appointment of patriarchs and bishops for the Christian Kingdom began after the retirement of
Bermudez.
 The appointees were selected from the Society of Jesus or Jesuits

The Society of Jesus:

 It was The outcome of the reaction of Catholic Church against Protestant Reformation

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 Founded in 1540 by Spaniard named Ignatius Loyola
 Had two missions (purifying and reorganize the Catholic Church and stopping the expansion of
Protestant Church)
 Its members took the responsibility of converting Christian kingdom to Catholicism

At the end the war of Adals and CHK, Gelawdewos allowed the Portuguese soldiers to live permanently in
Ethiopia, and sent a letter to Portuguese King John II to send Catholic priests to serves the Portuguese Catholic
soldiers in Ethiopia who were given the right live in Ethiopia. However, the Portuguese king wrongly understood
(misunderstanding) the letter of Gelawdewos. Portuguese king thought that Gelawdewos wanted to be converted to
Catholicism. That was why the Portuguese king sent one patriarch and two bishops to Ethiopia, who were selected
from Jesuits. Gelawdewos wrote a letter to the Portuguese governor of India by objecting the arrangement to
convert him to Catholicism.

The Portuguese governor of India sent the Jesuit priest named Rodriguez (the first Portuguese priest to Ethiopia)to
convince Gelawdewos to accept the patriarch and become a Catholic. On his way to Ethiopia, Rodriguez met
Bermudez, and advised by Bermudez to use threat in forcing Gelawdewos to accept his request to be his
conversion. Accordingly, as soon Rodriguez arrived at the court of Gelawdewos, he openly criticized the Orthodox
Church practices such as:
 Circumcision
 Food taboos
 Fasting
 Observance of Saturday as heresies

Geladewos tolerated the priest (Rodriguez) because he needed the Portuguese military help that he tend to use
against his rival Adal which had not yet abated (stopped). But, Geladewos rejected Rodriguez’s demand for
conversion. Therefore, Rodriguez was failed to convert Geladewos and returned to Goa in India.

The second Catholic patriarch to Ethiopia next to Rodriguez was Andre de Oviedo, who was sent by Portuguese
governor of Goa to convince Gelawdewos. Andre de Oviedo avoided force and used peaceful means to convince
Gelawdewos. After Andre de Oviedo arrived the court of Gelawdewos in 1557:
 He tried to convince the king but failed to do so
 Then, he retaliated (revenged) by isolating the Portuguese army from Geladewos
The isolation of the Portuguese army from Gelawdewos was caused by the rejection of the king to be converted to
Catholicism. To confirm his rejection, the king also wrote the book called Confession of Gelawdewos. By the
book, Gelawdewos:
 Acknowledged the Orthodox Christianity
 Defended the practices of Orthodox faith of his kingdom against the criticism of Rodriguez
(Catholic priest).

As indicated above, decision of the king was resulted in the isolating the Portuguese army from Geladewos that left
him without military help and finally brought about the defeat of the king by the force of Adal who defeated and
killed Gelawdewos in 1559.

After the death of Gelawdewos:

 Oviedo moved the Portuguese army to Tigray and joined Yeshaq (the governor of Bahir
Negash) who led opposition against King Minas
 Oviedo assured Yeshaq that the Portuguese force would depose Minas and appoint a puppet
king of their own choice

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 Attracted by the Oviedo promise, Yeshaq and his followers agreed to convert to Catholicism
 But, Oviedo promise was not fulfilled and he himself was died in1597, without achieving his
mission

In 1597, Sarsa Dingel (the Christian king also died), and his death was resulted in the following events:
 Political disorder and power struggle In the Christian kingdom
 The gradual erosion (decline) of the power of the kings since the war of Ahmed Gragn
 Due to the weakness of the kings, the Orthodox Church leaders sought an alley with the more
powerful provincial governors
 The kings could not depend on the loyalty of the army and kings took the advantage of
converting to Catholicism.

After the death of Oviedo in 1597:

 Pedro Paez and Alfonso Mendez were ordained for the Christian Kingdom
 Paez came in 1603 arrive Massawa but died in 1622
 When Paez arrived Massawa, the Christian Kingdom was ruled by the 14 years old Ya’iqob
 But, Ya’iqobwas deposed from power and replaced by another king named Za Dingil before
Paez arrived the Christian court
 Peaz was successful in converting influential dignitaries (notable or known) of the Christian
Kingom
 He converted King Susenyos who ruled the Christian Kingdom from 1607-1632
 Mendez came in 1622 by succeeding Paez and stayed until all the Jesuits were expelled by
King Fasiledes in 1632
 The conversion of the Kings was to get the Portuguese military assistance to consolidate
their royal or political power

King Za Dingil:
 He was advised by Paez to be cautious (careful) not to take hasty or quick measures that might
lead to failure
 Accepted Catholicism and secretly converted to Catholicism
 Banned the observance of Saturdays to satisfy the demand of Paez
 He faced strong opposition from the Orthodox Church which accused him of being converted
to Catholicism
 His conversion was followed by civil war during when Za Dingil was killed in 1604
 Succeeded by King Ya’iqob who put to throne for the 2nd time
 Ya’iqob who assumed power twice was killed during the civil war at the battle and succeeded
by Susenyos in 1607
King Susenyos:
 His period saw the success of the Jesuit bishops
 He gave the Jesuits freedom to preach their faith and recruit converters in the palace
 Of course, he was not the first to be converted to Catholicism
 The first convert was his brother powerful general named Siile Kristos
 Siile Kirstos was rebaptized publically in 1611
 The palace clergy and influential men followed his example and baptized

The consequences ofSiile Kirstos conversion to Catholicism:

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 From 1612 onwards, public debates were held in the palace (court) on the principles of Catholic
 The debate was chaired by Susenyos
 In the debates, Catholics were represented by Siile Kirstos

As the outcomes of the debates, the following Orthodox practices were condemned as heresies:
 Circumcision
 Fasting on Friday and Wednesday
 Observance of Saturday

This in turn also brought about:

 official conversion of King Susenyos in public in 1622
 king’s declaration of Catholic the official state religion in the same year
 mistreatment of Orthodox followers in the palace
 rebellion of the peasants led by the clergy and the nobility
 banning of the long established Ethiopian Orthodox Christian practices
 first peasants rebellion that broke out in 1617 (the 1st large scale peasants uprising in Ethiopia
history)
 Rebellion was mainly caused by the hasty imposition the new religion (Catholic) on peasants.
 the joining of peasants and clergy to defend their religion (Orthodox)
 the active involvements of the peasants in issues of their own affairs

The results of the peasants’ rebellion (civil war):

 King Susenyos understood that he could not suppress the rebellion
 The king failed to suppress the rebellion because the military help he hopped from Portugal
failed to arrive
 The king also understood that his attempt to build a strong and peaceful government using
Catholicism, was leading the country to a bloody civil war
 In 1632, at his last battle of Denqez, Susenyos decided to withdraw from the experiment with
Catholicism
 In the same year, he abdicated his throne in favor of his son named Fasiledes
During the Gondarian period (1636-1769)

Catholicism was declared as a national church of Ethiopia by King Susenyos.

Catholicism was opposed by
 local peasantry,
 nobility,
 orthodox clergy and
 some of the royal family.

The opposition led to a bloody civil war.

Measures taken by King Fasiledes:

Immediately restored the Orthodox faith as a national religion in 1632 (his first measure).
Siile Kristos was publicly hanged because he refused to return to Orthodox
Expelled the Jesuit Missionaries (Catholics) from the country in 1633 (his second measure).
Declared a close door policyfor European Christians (declared period of isolation)

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Negotiated with the Imam of Yemen and Pasha of Swakim and Massawanot let the Europeans to
Ethiopia
Founded Gondar as the permanent political seat of the CHK in 1636.

During the period of isolation, the following Europeans had succeeded in arriving at the Gondarian Court:

Charles Poncet, a French medical doctor, came to treat king Iyasu the Great(Iyasy I) skin disease (r.
1668-1706).
James Bruce, a Scottish traveler.

4.2. The establishment and socio-economic and political

developments of Gondar
Before the establishment of Gondar as permanent political center, the Christian highland kingdom used
mobile capital. The reasons for the mobile nature of the CHK capitals before the foundation of Gondar
Town were to.
put dawn revolts;
safeguard trade routes;
bring new territories under control;
expand Christianity to newly conquered areas;
get provisions such as food and drinking for their followers;
get much wood for fuel and construction; and
Intensify exploitation of peasants.

The use of mobile capitals had the following disadvantages:

slowed down the development of urbanization;

Hindered the development of art and literature;
discouraged diplomats and travelers because they could not trace where the king was;
stagnated the developments of crafts and technology; and
Facilitated the devastation of natural resources.

Some of the Christian kings who made attempts to establish permanent capitals were:

Zer’a Yaeqob - at Debre Birhan in Showa;

Sarsa Dingel - at Guzara near Enfranz (east of Lake Tana).

Gondar was preferred as a permanent capital (reasons why Fasiladas attracted) because it was:

Trade centre that linked the long-distance trade connected from North to South and then diverged to
Mattama and Massawa.
Strategically located at safer distance from the Ormo people pressure.
Closer to the resourceful areas of Dembiya and Lake Tana.

The establishment of a permanent capital at Gondar promoted:

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cultural revival;
The development of crafts and technology.
Architectural achievements and building technology following the tradition of Aksum and Lalibela.
building of:
Large imperial quarters,
magnificent castles or palaces for kings (royal enclosure, the earliest & largest of all
was built by Fasiledes)
Residences for the Abune and Eche’ge, and
Churches in royal compound that also served centers of education, music and poetry.
Development of poetry, theology, law, painting, cross making, and calligraphy.

The well kwon Gondarian kings who remembered for the above developments at Gondar Town were:

However, Gondar experienced a period of glory and splendor only during the reign of the three successive kings
namely:
1. Fasiledes (1632-1667)
2. Yohannes I (r. 1667-1682),
3. Iyasu I (r. 1682-1706),

1. Fasiledes (1632-1667)
 founded Gondar as the permanent capital
 built a swimming pool in Gondar.
 built palaces, churches and other buildings
 made Gondar the political, economic (trade) and cultural centre for more than two centuries
 made Gondar the third permanent capital of CHK next to Aksum and Lalibela.
2. Yohannes I (r. 1667-1682):
 sometimes called Tsadiqu Yohannes
 successor of Fasiledes
 built churches in different provinces.
 incorporated Agaw people to the Christian Kingdom
 constructed a library in the royal enclosure
 Segregated Muslims and Felashas from the Christians
 founded separate living quarter for Muslims called Bete-Islam,
 later, Bete-Islam was named Addis Alem. Traders were mainly Ethiopian Muslims commonly known
as Jebarti.They also engaged in weaving. The Felashas (bête-Israel) involved in crafts activities such
as masonry, pottery, basketry, and iron workers.

3. Iyasu I (r. 1682-1706),

 son and successor of Yohannes I

 nick-named Iyasu the Great

 he given the nick-name because he was the last powerful king before the kingdom fell in to a period
of political disorder
 The most powerful among all Gondarine kings

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 Campaigned to Shewa where he collected annual tribute and became the first Gondarine king to
expand southward after the foundation of Gondar as capital but recognized the power of Shewan
kings
 Revised the traditional civil cod called Fitha Negest.
 Amended land laws
 Recognized taxes and customs.
 His reforms promoted the development of trade through his Egyptian relation
 Reversed the closed door policy and in 1693, received the gift of bell from Dutch of East Indies for
the Church of Dabra-Birhan.
 Violated the close door policy introduced by Fasiledes and visited by French physician named
Charles Poncet, who was invited to cure him from his skin disease.
 The coming of Poncet was followed by the other two Jesuits and one Franciscan missionaries
 Sent 7 young Christian delegations to pope of Rome.
 his foreign relation with the west, his attempt to covert Orthodox Christianity to Catholic provoked
doubt among the clergy. The fear was exacerbated by the earth quake of 1704, which was considered
as God’s expression of anger against Jesuits existence in Ethiopia. Finally the political conflict and
doctrinal quarrel claimed the emperor’s life in 1706. Iyasu was murdered by group of plotters led by
his own son, Takala Haymanot, who succeeded him from 1706-1708.

Gondar developed certain features of urbanization and its population composed of different:
 religions,
 cultures,
 indigenous and foreign communities.
However, the following were not allowed to live in the city (they were given separate living quarters)
 Muslim communities,
 Falashas, and
 Foreigners such as Armenian, Indian, and Persian merchants.
The assassination of Iyasu the Great in 1706 was followed by:
 plotting
 mutinies
 plundering by robbers and bandits
 poisoning of kings
 murder and assassination of kings,
 Conflicts and power struggle
 confusions and
 Violence.
 Endless religious controversy between Orthodox and Roman Catholic Churches
 Political upheavals
 Failure of Christian kings to survive long on throne
 Inability of kings to defend their capital city (Gondar)

The Reign of Bakafa (1721 – 1755)

 Son and successor of Iyasu I

 Under Bakafa, Gondar experienced a short period of relative peace and political stability than his
predecessors because he established efficient administration.
 He made secret journey from region to region to hear the opinion of the people.

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 During his reign, Shewa developed autonomous and independent rule that continued for more than a
century
 During his journey to Quara, he got illness and nursed by a daughter named Mentewab, who was a
daughter of a local inhabitant.
 Mentewab later became Bakafa’s wife and gave birth to Iyassu II.
 Bakafa was died in 1730, and succeeded by his son, Iyasu II or Iyasu the little

Iyasu II(r.1730-1755)

 Iyasu II came to power at age of seven, and he did not actually rule.
 Rather, Empress Mentewab, his mother ruled on the behalf of him (became his regent).
 Etege Mentewab secured her power by the support she got from Quara kinsmen.
 Mentewab became the second influential women in the politics of Christian Kingdom next to Queen Hleni
 But, Gondar’s nobles and regional lords opposed and threatened the growing of Quara’s power in Gondar
court and revolted against Empress Mentewab.
 To save her power, Mentewab appointed her brother, Wold Leul in 1732, and granted him the post of Ras
Bitwaddad.
 Wold Leul was powerful, and became the king maker in Gondar palace (1732-1767)
 He helped Mentewab to exercise full political power
 Wold Leul died in 1767.
 Iyasu’s II power itself was tired by Mentewab’s growing power.
 In the history of Ethiopian, the period from 1728-1768 is known as Mentewab era. It was the period during
which wave of paintings, writing, church and palace buildings were flourished in Gondar Town.
 To reduce Mentewab’s growing power, Iysu II arranged a political marriage with the powerful Wollo
Oromo.
 To achieve his objective, he married with an Oromo lady, named Wabi, who baptized and took the new
name Bersabeh,
 Wabi was daughter of Amizo (a Wollo lord).
 It was in this way that Iyasu II invited the Wollo Oromo family to Gondar court.
 The political marriage among Iyasu II and Wabi had marked the active involvements of Wollo Oromo in
Gondarian politics.
 Iysu II born a son named Iyoas, whose mother was Wabi

The Reign of Iyoas (r. 1755 -1769)

 Son and successor of Iyasu II
 He increased the influence of Oromo family in Gondar palace
 Amhara chiefs challenged Iyoas because of the growing power of Wollo Oromo in Gondar palace
 To strengthen his power, Iyaoys invited his Oromo cousins named Lubo and Birile (Brothers of his
mother Bersabe)
 As a result, Iyoas’s power grew stronger and Oromo language became language spoken in the Christian
palace for the first time
 Iyoas’s power was also challenged by Mentewab (his grandmother)

The death Ras Bitwaddad Wold Leul was followed by power struggle in Gondar palace between Amhara and
Wollo Oromo groups. Ras Bitwaddads were king makers. The Wollo Oromo group was represented by Bersabe
and Iyoas whereas Amhara group was represented by Mentewab. To maintain her political position, Mentewab
invited the powerful Tigiran lord, Ras Michael Sehul, who came to Gondar in 1768 as a guardian of Iyoas, but he
was opposed by Iyoas and told to return back to Tigay. However, Michael refused to return backand got Iyoas

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murdered in 1769 and put a puppet and 70 years old man named Yohannes II (son of Iyasu the Great) on throne.
The assassination of Iyoas marked the beginning of the period of the Zemene Messafint.

4.3. The ascendancy of the Yejju dynasty

Yejju Oromo or Warrasheh

 Founded dynasty in 1786

 The founder of the dynasty was Ali Gwangul or Ali the Great (Ali I) who became the first Yejju Oromo
lord to assume the title of ras bitwaddad
 The Dynasty was founded by the Amharanized Oromo family.
 It was the dynasty that established its dominance in Gondar politics throughout the whole period of
Zemene Mesafint.
 Ras Ali ruled Begemdir and Amhara from his center Debre Tabor.
 WarraSheh or Yejju Dynasty did not rule by their name because according to the Christian tradition, it
was impossible to assume political power out of Solomonic line. Rather, they ruled by the name of
“Solomonic” kings by putting puppet or nominal kings at Gondar Castle.
Gugsa:
 came to power in 1803.
 assumed the political title, Ras Bitwaddad and ruled Yejju until 1825.
 established the Yejju family firmly on power.
 founded the hegemony of Warrasheh or Yejju strong base.
 won the submission of the lords of Gojjam, Wollo, Lasta, Semien, Wagra, Dambiya and other provinces
of the kingdom except Tigray and Showa.
Yimam:
 son and successor of Gugsa
 challenged by Dajjazmach Maru of Dembiya, and Dajjazmach Haile Mariyam,
 later Maru and Yimam defeated Haile Mariyam in 1826.
 Wube Haile Mariyam, tried to revenge the defeat of his father by fighting against Maru and
Yimam.
 But Wube himself was allied with defeated Maru.
 The collaboration of Wube and Yiman marked the collaboration of Maru with Goshu of Gojjam.
In October 1827, the combined forces of Wube and Yimam met the combined forces of Goshu of Gojjam and
Maru at the Battle of Koso Bar in Gojjam. Maru was killed in the battle, but Goshu escaped the death. Yimam
died in 1828, and his brother, Mariye became the guardian of the emperor and the ruler of Begemdir and Amhara.

After the death of Yimam, the serious challenge against the Yejju Dynasty came from the Tigray province led by
Sabagadis, who formed a loose coalition with Christian rulers of Gojjam, Lasta, and Semien against Mariye. In
1831, Mariye decided to put to an end the Tigrean threat to the Warrasheh rule and met at the battle of May
Aslamy, near Dabra Abay in Western Tigray. Yejju won the battle, but Mariye killed at the battle. Sabagadis
surrendered to Wube. Nevertheless, Wube handed him over to the Oromo and Sabagadis was executed. This gave a
good opportunity for Wube. Therefore, Wube was the most beneficiary of the battle of May Aslamy.

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4.4. Decadence within the ruling house and the subsequent

era of the lords

The Period of Zemene Mesafint (1769-1855)

Zemene Mesafint (era of lords) or era of princes was the period of history in Ethiopia, which started with the death
of Iyoas in 1769, and lasted in 1855. The root cause that led to its beginning was the death of Wold Leul in 1767,
which was followed by power struggle between relatives of Mentewab on one side and Wabit, wife of Iyoas on the
other side.

Conditions that led to Zemene Mesafint developed through long period of time. These were:
 The decline or erosion of traditional power and authority of the Christian monarchy due to the war of
Ahamed Gragn
 Repeated attacks from the Oromo people against Christian Kingdom
 The establishment of Gondar as permanent capital. Before the foundation of Gondar, the Christian kings
had mobile capital that moved along with army to control local rebels. After Gondar once founded,
Kings remained in the city and neglected the provinces. Hence, the regional lords built up their power
which threatened the authority of the monarch. Wolde Sellassie of Tigray and the ruler of Shewa were
the best examples of the regional lords. Shewa and Tigray exercised autonomous or independent highest
authority and made their regional power hereditary during Zemene Mesafint. Showa was not influenced
by the political disturbances Zemene Mesafint because it was outside of the control of the Gondarian
Kingdom. Tigray was also autonomous until 1831.

The period of Zemene Mesafint was generally characterized by:

 Collapse (shadow) of central authority of monarchy and absence of effective central authority
(government)
 Feudal political disintegration
 Power struggle between monarchy and the nobility because the monarchy wanted to exercise absolute
power whereas the nobility wanted to be autonomous by undermining the court
 Growth of power of regional lords or Mesafints with actual political authority and more army than
central state.
 Absence of the rule of law
 Arbitrariness, lawlessness, disorder and destruction
 Deterioration of economy
 Political division (regional division). The major political units were:
1. Tigray in the north;
2. Semein,
3. Dambiya,
4. Begemdir,
5. Lasta,
6. Amhara and
7. Yejju in the centre;
8. Gojjam and
9. Showa in the south.

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 Religious controversy within the Ethiopian Orthodox Church and the failure of the church to play the
former traditional unifying role.
 Social disorder.
 Absence of national feeling;
 Poisoning and killing of kings
 Weaker and nominal central government due to lack of strong military force, and power to collect annual
tribute that weakened the economy and military force of the state. The last king of Zemene Mesafint was
Tekle Girogis who enthroned and dethroned six times (1789 -1800). Because of the repeated enthroned
and dethroned, Tekle Giorgis was given the nick-name Fitsame Mengist
 Growing interest of foreign invasion exerted from Egypt. The ambition of Egypt was initially aborted by
Dejjazmach Kinfu, who defeated Egypt at the battle of Wada Kaltabu, in 1837. Dejjazmach Wube also
defeated them. In 1848, Egypt faced resistance from Kasa Hailu (half-brother of Kinfu). Before he became
King Tewodros II, Kassa was defeated by Egypt at the battle of Debrqi
 Endless civil wars to secure the position of ras bitwaddad. The major wars of the period were the battle
of:
 Sabra Kussa, 1771
 Koso Bar, 1827
 May Aslamy, 1831
 Dabra Tabor in 1842 (the battle between the force of Wube and Biru Goshu
of Gojjam against Ras Ali of Yejju Dynasty).
 Guramba, 1852 at which Kassa defeated Goshu of Gojjam
 Gorgora Bichen, 1853 at which Kassa defeated four vassals of Wube and Ali
 Ayshal, 1853 at which Kassa defeated Ras Ali of Yejju
 Deresge, 1855 where Kassa defeated Wube of Semien

The defeat of Ras Ali at the battle of Ayshal heralded the end of Yejju Dynasty in particular and the termination of
Zemene Mesafint in general. The battle of Deresge removed Kassa’s last enemy (Dajjazmach Wube) and marked
the coronation of Kassa, taking the throne name Tewodros II.

The death of Iyoas removed Wollo’s power struggle and helped Michael to crown Yohannes II as a puppet king
at Gondar palace. Michael held the actual political power for himself. But, Yohannes II was inflexible and passive
and he was deposed and poisoned by Michael. But, in 1771, Michael was defeated by the combined forces of
Gojjam, Amhara, Wolloand Lasta lords at the battle of Sabra Kussa and returned to Tigray.

 The different regionally based northern Ethiopian warlords of the Zemene Mesafint fought against each
other for various objectives. These warlords wanted to:
1/ expand their territories at the expense of their neighbors, because large territory means
large human and material resources.
2/ have the title of Ras Bitwededso as to become guardians of the weak Gondarine kings and
their court.
3/ collect as much tribute as possible in the name of these weak kings.
 The regional power conflicts of the Zemene Mesafint were worsened by religious conflicts.
o There was an intense doctrinal controversy within the Orthodox Church during the period. This
weakened the position of both the Ethiopian state and the Church. The Orthodox Church could not
enforce unity among the Christian masses because it was deeply divided in to different factions
within itself. The divisions took a regional character.

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o The internal religious division gave an ideologicaldimension to the power conflict and further
intensified the power struggle of the Zemene Mesafint.

Major consequences of Zmene Mesafint:

 Affected the life of the peasants (the most immediate consequence)
 Peasants fought the endless wars on the side of regional lords
 Products of peasants was plundered by the feudal army
 Farm lands became battlefields
 People abandoned their normal profession and became shiftas or bandits and relied on peasants for
supply
 Merchants unable to conduct trade peacefully and disrupted trade
 Affected the development of traditional crafts
 Declined agricultural production
 Reduced sense of nationalism
 Brought about the backwardness of the country
 . They were robbed by bandits and forced to pay taxes at several kelas

4.5. Politics of Shoa, Omo and Gibe regions, the Emirate of Harar
and Sheikdoms of Assosa
The Shewan Kingdom
 The Shewan kingdom was founded 1695 by the local aristocrat named Negasi Kirstos.
 The core or central area of the kingdom was Menz in the present day north Shewa.
 After Negasi Kirstos, the kingdom was ruled by his successors namely:
Sibste (r. 1703-1745),
Amha Yesus (r. 1745-1775),
Asfa Wossen (r. 1775-1808),
Wosen Seged (r. 1808-1813).
 These successors of Negasi expanded the frontier of Shewa into the territory of the neighboring Oromo and
Gurage lands.
 The distance that Shewa had from Gondar (the then centre of CHK) allowed Shewan rulers to exercise full
authority in their kingdom.
 From about the middle 18th century, Shewa ceased (stopped) to pay tribute to Gondar kings and became
virtually (nearly) independent from Gondar rule.
 Shewa reached the height of its power during the reign of Sahle Silassie (r. 1813-1847).
 Shewan kings before Sahle Silassie used the political titles such as Meridazmach and Abeto.
 Sahle Selassie was the first Shewan king who took the political title Negus.
 He also organized effective administrative system for his kingdom which was divided into 9 provinces namely:

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Minjar Gidim Gishe
Bolga Tegulet Moret
Yafat Menze Shewa-Meda
 Basically, the economy of the kingdom was based on agriculture but also trade contributed additional role to
the wealth and consolidation of the kingdom.

 The territorial expansion of Shewa by Sahle Silassie enabled the kingdom to have access to:
ivory civet
coffee slaves
gold
 Sahle Silassie and other Shewan kings increased the use of forearms and military technology that
helped them to silence their rivals or enemies.
 The economic prosperity and political stability of the kingdom attracted European interest in
Shewa.
 In this respect, the first Europeans who reached the court of Sahle Silassie were missionary society
such as C.W Isenberg in 1835 and J.L Krapf in 1837.
 In 1839, another European of French chemist named Rochet d. Hericourt came to Shewa.
 All the Europeans who came to Shewa had tried to influence their governments to establish relations
with the kingdom
 Then, on the base the recommendation of J.L Krapf, British took the leading and sent an envoy led
by W.C Harris to Shewa in 1841.
 W.C Harris succeededto sign a formal treaty between British and Shewa in 1841.
 In 1843, on the behalf of his government, the French envoy named Rochet d. Hericourt signed a
treaty with Sahle Silassie. It was the treaty friendship and commerce.
 The treaties that Sahle Silassie signedwiththe Europeans helped him to get firearms from them that
he used to expand his kingdom.
 Sahle Silassie died in 1847 and succeeded by his son named Haile Melekot (r.1847-1855)
 After Haile Melekot Shewa lost its independence because its autonomy was destroyed by Emperor
Tewodros II.
 However, Haile Melekot died a little before the Tewodros defeated Shewa in November 1855 at the
battle of Bereket that heralded the temporary end of Shewan hegemony.
 Up on his return to Gondar, Tewodros took Menelik II (son of Haile Melekot) tohis court and
Menelik was under the control of Tewdros until 1865.

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 But in 1865, Menelik had escaped from Meqedella royal prison and established his power in Shewa.
 The first capital of Menelik II was Ankober and with the expansion of his territory, he shifted his
capital to Entoto until the foundation of Finfine (A.A).

The Omotic States

 They are called Omotic because they occupied the territory around the Omo River Basin;
 Speak the following Omotic language family:
Kaffa Gofa
Walayita Koyra
Dawuro Maji
Bench Yem
Dorze Sheka
Gamo Konta
A. The Kingdom of Kaffa
 Found south of Gojeb River;
 Its exact origin is not known because it was not mentioned in any of the medieval Christian
document;
 Gojeb River, big mountains and trees were the natural defensive system of the kingdom;
 The people of Kaffa are called Kaffecho;
 It was a feudal monarchy emerged at the end 14th century;
 It was a highly organized state;
 Its two oldest dynasties wereMatto and Minjo (Matto and Minjowere the ruling clans or
dynasties);
 Mattoruled before 1390;
 Tato (a king) was the political or royal title of the kingdom;
 Tato Minjito was the first king of Minjo Dynasty; whowas succeeded by TatoGira;
 Its Tatos or kings in the 19th century (1821-1897) who successively ruled the kingdom were:
Gahe Nichochi (r.1821-1841);
Kawe Erochi (r. 1841-1843);
Kaji Shorochi (r.1843-1868);
Gali Sarochi (r. 1868-1890) Gali was also called Galito;
Gaki Sharochi (r. 1890-1897).
  Under the above successive Tatos, Kaffa Kingdom:
Developed monarchial system of administration;
Extended or expanded to south, southwest, and northeast of Kaffa;
Divided first into 12 and later into 18 provinces; and finally into 38 districts;
The provinces were called Sawo;
Provincial or Sawo’s governors were known as Worabi;
Tato was advised by a state councilors composed of 7 men called Mikerechowho assisted kings
(the councilors were from 7 clans);
Of course, the member of the council were 8 but one was non-permanent member;
Mikerecho had a very strong power in the state system;
Kaffa had effective/efficient system of frontier defense (Gojeb River, big mountains and trees);
The northern frontier was formed by the Gojeb River which was used as natural defense;
The kingdom developed (well known in) deep and wide man-made ditches as well as fences
for additional defensive purpose;
Both the natural and the man-made defense of Kaffa helped the kingdom to exist independently
until 1897 because it was naturally protected by inaccessible jungle forests, big mountains,
and large rivers as well as man-made ditches;
For additional defensive purpose, erected watch towers secretly at higher points to watch or
detect the approaches of enemies;
The watch towers were erected all along the territory of Kaffa;
The approach of the enemies was signaled by beating drums that imply call for mobilization;
The drums from the border were beaten by assigned clans called the Minjo;
Therefore, duty of Minjo clan was to defend the frontier of the Kingdom;
The Relation of the Kingdom with Neighboring States and its Religion
 had tradition of close contact with the medieval kingdom of Enarya;
 had got its royal title (Tato) from Enarya;
 Christianity was also introduced to the kingdom from Enarya;
 The local people continued to practice the traditional religion centered on the Supreme Being
called Yero;
The Economy of Kaffa Kingdom:
 mainly agriculture, and supported or supplemented by trade;
 Kaffa was a very rich area (resourceful area);
 kept civet to collect musk;
 tax payment had included musk;
  tax collectors were called Tate-kisho (meaning the hand of the king);
 Enset was a staple food of Kaffa people;
 Kaffa was the source or origin of the most (lucrative or profitable) trade items (trade commodities)
such as:
coffee, honey,
ivory, slave, and
musk gold
 As medium or currency of exchange, Kaffa used:
Beads,
Salt bars, and
Iron bars
 Kaffa is also known for its coffee production
 Bonga was its political or royal center (capital); which linked to the long-distance trade in the
north.
Note:
Kaffa was not mentioned in any the Medieval Christian document which implies the
independence of the kingdom from the Christian kingdom until the last decade of 19th century;
Kaffa lost its independence in 1897 when its last king namedGaki Sharochi was defeated and
captured as well as taken to Addis Ababa by Emperor Menelik II
The kingdom was incorporated into the Ethiopian Empire in the same year.
B. The Kingdom of Yem (Yamma)
 Occupied western bank of Gibe River (between Gibe and Omo Rivers);
 Existed since 14th century;
 Halmam Gama was its first dynasty;
 This dynasty had paid tribute in horse to King Yeshaq, the Christian king;
 In the 19th century, the ruling dynasty(clan) was called Mowa, which replaced Halmam Gama;
 Its political title was ano (a king);
 Anoshad both political and religious powers over the people;
 Its administration was hierarchically organized as follows:
ano (a king) – at the top and most powerful;
waso, –title of official whochaired astesor;
astesor – below a king and chaired by waso (astesor had served as council of
officials;
  Administratively, the kingdom was divided into provinces and sub-provinces;
 The provinces were ruled by officials called erasho (rasho);
 Sub-provinces administrators were also called gena.
Economy of the kingdom
 Based on agriculture;
 peasants paid tributes directly to the king;
 Slave was the source of exchange for clothes;
 Auxiliary economic activities include:
trade, and
handcrafts such as waving and iron work
Note:
 The Kingdom was incorporated to the Ethiopian Empire by Menelik II in 1894.
C. The Kingdom of Walayita
 Founded around the beginning of 14th century;
 It had a strong connection with Damot;
 It founded by the strongest king of Damot named Motalami;
 Motalami (the legendary king of Damot) hadfounded the first Walayita’s Dynasty known as Walayita
Mallaat the beginning of 14th century;
 Hence, Walayita is believed to be descended from the Medieval kingdom of Damot;
 In the 15th century, Walayita Malla Dynasty was overthrown (ousted) from power and replaced by the
dynasty called “Tigre” or “Tigrean’ Dynasty of northern origin;
 “Tigre” dynasty ruled Walayita until the end of 19th century;
 Walayita Kingdom became the tributary state of CHK during the reign ofAtse Amde Tsion;
 The kingdom paid horse tribute to the Christian king named Yeshaq and continued as part of CHK until
the war of Ahmed Gragn
 Kwo (a king) was the political title of the kingdom;
 Qoqa was Walayita’s warrior class who had privilege right.
Economy of Walayita Kingdom
 Based on agriculture;
 Like that of Kaffa, enset was the staple food of the kingdom;
 It was characterized by feudal politico-economic system;
 All land in the kingdom was the property of the king;
 The king had absolute power over the life and property of his people;
Note:
 The last king to rule independent Walayita was Kawo Tona;
 Kawo Tona was defeated, captured and taken to Addis Ababa by Emperor Menelik II in t1894 that ended
the independence of the kingdom because it was incorporated to the Ethiopian Empire under Menelik II.
D. The Kingdom of Sheka
 Found to east of Baro and west of Gojeb River (west of Kaffa);
 Batto and Bushasho were the two ruling dynasties before the end of 19th century;
 The first Bushasho’s dynasty kingwas migrated from the neighboring Anfillo area (Anfillo refers to clan) to
Sheka at the end of 16th century;
 Bushasho dynasty ruled from 16th -19th century;
 Christianity was introduced to Sheka during Bushasho dynasty in the late 16th century.
 For the brief period of the 17th century, Sheka was conquered by Mecha Sub-Oromo family belonged to
Borena major Oromo family but regained its independence at the beginning of 19th century;
 Like that of Kaffa’s kings, Sheka’s kings took the political title called Tato;
 politically,
 economically, and Sheka had a close relationship with the people of Enarya, Kaffa &Anfilo
 historically
 The name of the five well known kings of Sheka were:
Bedi Nechochi (r. 1800-1805); Deji Goechi (r.1850-1887);
Tachi Nechechi (r. 1805-1810); Techi Goechi (r. 1887-1897).
Gali Goechi (r.1820-1850);
E. The Kingdom of Konta
 Bounded by Gojeb River in the north; Kaffa in the east; and Omo River in the south;
 The rulers of Konta had a political title known as Kawa, similar to Walayita;
 About 1600, the king of Konta was a vassal of Kaffa kingdom;
 Agriculture was the pre-dominant economic activity of Konta kingdom;
 The last king of Konta had surrendered to Menelik II in 1892.
F. Kingdom of Gofa
 The king of Gofa also had the Political title of Kawa,
 The last two kings were Dahada and Kamma.
 Kamma was the last king of Gofa who was conquered by Menelik II in 1893.
The other Omoic kingdoms were Dawuro and Gamo.
States existed in central Ethiopian highlands
 These states seem to have existed for a long period of time. Some of these states are the following.
Kambata:
 We have little historical information on Kambata.
The Gurage chiefdoms:
 were concentrated in the area west of Lake Zeway and the highlands of Dawaro.
 Its local chiefs used the titles of Azmach, Abegaz and Nigus.
The Agaw kingdom of Gojjam:
 was mentioned in the Christian historical documents.
 was predominantly Agaw speaking and located to the south of Lake Tana.
 It exercised strong control over the Lake and its islands.
 Many Christian kings made successive attempts to bring it under their control. Finally, Amde Seyon
incorporated Gojjam in to the Christian state in the early fourteenthcentury. However, the title of “King of
Gojjam" was maintained by local rulers under the Christian state.
 Since its conquest, Christianity was introduced to Gojjam, its people were Christianized and Churches and
monasteries were built in the kingdom.
 The economy of peoples and states of southern and central Ethiopia was based on profits from trade and
agriculture.
o The main items of trade from these areas were slaves, civet, ivory and other natural products.
Slaves formed the most important trade item in this period. Slaves from this region were highly
demanded in Arabia, Persia, and India.
o The Muslim states, being located between the sources of slaves and the port of Zeila, were the
main conductors of slave trade.
o Slaves as captives of war were obtained not only from south and central regions but also from the
highland Christian territories.

The Southwestern States

1.1.1. Gibe Oromo Monarchies

Monarchial state was emerged in the Oromo states of Gibe at the beginning of 19th century. It was the Mecha
Oromo sub-clan that expanded and occupied the Gibe River area. During its expansion to the region, Macha was a
pastoralist in economy and ruled by gada in a political system. About 1800 (the beginning of 19th century), gada
system was transformed into monarchial system of government. Factors for the disintegration of gada system and
its transformation into monarchial form of government were:
 The contact they established with Omotic states which had longer tradition of monarchial system (Gibe
Oromo adopted monarchial form of state from neighboring Omotic states);
 The expansion of Oromo people affected the effectiveness of gada system because gada system was not
effective in large group from distant areas;
 The strongest Abba Dulas who controlled trade routes along long-distance trade controlled the tribute
paid by merchants that helped them to build strong army and thus they refused transfer power at the
termination of their office and they used this advantage to transfer themselves to monarchial
government;
  The expansion of Islam undermined the power of gada government;
 Frequent wars gave rise to powerful Abba dulasto become influentialtoreject traditional power transfer
based on gada system;
The transformation of gada into monarchial government was first started among the Oromos of Gibe and
Wallaga.
The five Gibe Oromo monarchial states were:
Gera, Jimma, and
Goma, Limmu-Enarya or Hinnaria
Guma,
A. Limmu-Enarya
 Thestate of Limu-Enarya was emerged after Macha Oromo group called Limmu (Sadacha
Oromo) moved to Enarya and defeated Enarya after strong resistance;
 Therefore, the state of Limmu-Enarya was built on the ruins of the medieval kingdom of
Enarya;
 It was also the earliest of all Gibe Oromo monarchies founded at beginning of 19th century
between 1800-1802;
 Limmu-Enarya was the first modern Gibe Oromo state founded by Bofo or Abba Gommol (r.
1800-1825).
 Abba Gommol, a famous abba dula was succeeded by his son, Abba Bagibo (Ibsa) in 1825 and
ruled until 1861.
 Under Abba Bagibo,Limu-Enarya reached the height of its power in the mid 19th century,
 It was also the first to transfer the pastoral economic background of Oromo to sedentary way of
life (mixed agriculture).
 It became powerful because it controlled the long-distance trade route of the region;
 Saqa was its capital located along the long-distance trade route next to Jiren;
 The Oromo traders of Limmu -Enarya were known as Afkalas.
B. Gumma
 It was the second Gibe Oromo state founded in 1810;
 The process of state formation in Gumma was started in the second half of of 18th century Jilcha
but completed in 1810 by Oncho Jilcha;
 Came to being as the result of the struggle between Sarba Oda of Dogoye and Oncho Jilcha of
Chira;
 Oncho Jilcha of Chira killed Sarba and became the founder and the first king of Gumma;
  The political centre of Gumma was Chira;
 Jilcha was succeeded by his son and successor named Oncha (r. 1810-1830).
C. Gomma
 Its formation was started by Abba Boke (the former abba duula of Gomma) but Abba Mano
completed the process of state formation of Gomma;
 Abba Boke was anAbba Dula elected byGada Assembly;
 He continuously engaged in the war against neighbor state (Limmu-Enarya);
 Abba Boke was succeeded by Abba Mano (r.1820-1840);
 Abba Mano totally nullified the gada system and Butaa Ceremony;
 Abba Mano introduced Islam religion to Gomma;
 Gomm was the first Gibe state where Islam became the religion of the whole people.
D. Jimma
 Its foundation was started by Abba Faro from Diggo clan, who was elected gada official;
 Abba Faro was succeeded by Abba Magal, who died before completing the process of state
formation;
 Abba Sanna, or Jifar (son and successor of Abba Magal) reduced Badi clan to the tributary
status of Jimma.
 Jifar was the name of Sanna’s horse;
 Gradually, the name of the founder of Jimma outshinedJimma Kakka,
 in 1830, Jimma Kakka was established by Abba Sanna;
 Thus, Abba Jifar became the name of the king;
 Its foundation was completed by Sanna, who was known by the name of his horse “Abba Jifar”.
 Jimma later became known as Jimma Abba Jifar.
 Abba Jifar I was the powerful ruler of Jimma who ruled untile 1855 and succeeded by Abba
Jifar II who was the most powerful of Jimma because of his control over the long-distance trade
route of the region;
 He consolidated the socio-political and economy of Jimma by trade.
 Trade played a prominent role in the economy of Jimma.
 In order to satisfy his economic motives, Abba Jifar embraced Islam religion than for its
religious purpose.
E. Gera
 Gera was founded by Tullu Gunji (former abbadula) who became a king;
 Tullu succeeded his father in 1835;
  He was challenged by his half brother named Baso;
 To expand his territories, Tullu fought against Kaffa, Gomma and Gumma;
 To assume political power, Baso fought with Tullu;
 The king of Gumma, Oncha helped Baso’s struggle against Tullu, and assisted Baso to kill
Tullu;
 Baso became a king, but overthrown from power by his brother, Abba Rago in 1838.
Note:
 All the Gibe Oromo states were located along the long-distance trade route that helped all of
them to emerge as monarchial and strong states.
 However, all the Gibe Oromo states peacefully submitted to Memelik II of Showa in 1880s.

Wallaga Oromo States (another Southwestern States)

 They were called Leqa States and emerged about the middle of 19th century.
 Leqa States were monarchical states emerged in Wallaga (southwestern Ethiopia).
 They were Leqa Naqamte and Leqa Qelam.
 Political title of Leqas states’ wasmoti(a king).
A. Laqa Naqamte
 Located in East Wallaga.
 Founded by Bakare Godana in the early 19th century.
 The state grew more powerful and reached the height of its power under Moroda Bakare
(son and successor of Bakare).
 It was more consolidated by Kumsa Moroda, who later accepted Orthodox Christianity and
took the Christian name Gebre Egzihaber.
 The state of Leqa Naqamte under Kumsa had peacefully submitted to Menelik II from 1882-
1886, and Kumsa (Gebre Egzihaber) able to maintain his local autonomy.
B. Leqa Qelam
 Located in West Wallaga.
 Founded by Tullu in the 2nd half of 19th century in the then south Wallaga but the present
day west Wallaga.
 It was founded after Leqa Naqamte was already founded.
 Itbecame more powerful under Jote (son and successor of Tulu).
 To control trade in gold, Jote made successful military campaigns against Sheikdom
States
  The main source of Leqa Qelam’s wealth and power was its cross-frontier gold trade
and the trade with the neighboring Sheikdoms of Aqoldi and Bela Shangul.
 Aqoldi was the former name of Assosa.
 Leqa Qelam’s economy was also based on agriculture.
 Thus, Jote exploited the trans-frontier trade (mainly trade in gold) along Ethio-Sudanese
border.
 Hence, Jote was commercially active in the region.
 The income that Jote gained from the above trade helped him to become powerful.
He peacefully submitted to King Menelik II of Showa between 1882 -1886.

The Harar Emirate (Eastern State)

 The political organization of Harari people was the result the political developments of the past
centuries.
 Harar came to eminence (emerge) in 1520s when Walasma rulers of Adal shifted their former
capital called Daka to the new capital Harar.
 Harari was one of the earliestMuslim centers and learning in the Ethiopian region since the
14th century.
 Therefore, in the 1st Quarter of 16th century (1520s) it became the capital of Walasma state.
 For this reason, we can certainly (exactly) say that Walasma state was founded by Adal Muslim
sultanate.
 Harar continued to serve as the capital of Walasma state until 1577.
 As the result of the pressure from the Oromo population movement, Walasma rulers (Adal
rulers) shifted their centre from Hara to Ausa in Afar in 1577.

To protect or defend the invasion of Harar city by Oromos, Emir Nur had built Jogol wall or Jogol
Gimb around the city of Harar.
 From 1577- 1647, Emirs of Harar paid annual tribute to the Imam of Ausa.
 During the first wave of Oromo expansion, the city of Hara secluded (isolated) itself from the
people surrounding the city because the land out of the city was dominated by the Oromos.
 However, when the Oromo’s force in the area declined, the seclusion ended and gave way for the
economic interaction and relation between Harari, Oromo and Somali people out of the wall.
 The gate of the wall was opened only for trade purpose but the traders came outside of the wall
were expected to submit their weapons at the city’s gates for security purposes.
The fertile territory around the city of Harar facilitated fertile ground for:
 The production of fruitsgrains, vegetables as well as the plantation of the two dominants
export trade items like chat and coffee which created broader interactions among people of the
region.
 Accordingly, the source of Harar’s wealth, prosperity and strength was trade which was the
major economic base.
 The wealth helped Hara to extend or expand its hegemony (power) over the surrounding Oromo
and Somali people. ‘
 The expansion of the hegemonic power of Harar was facilitated by both trade and marriage
arrangements among Hararis and the neighboring people.
Harari civilizations:
 GrandMosques and palaces of Emir were the most important edifices (buildings) built in the
city of Harar by Hararis.
 Harar city was also well known by handcrafts.
The New Harari Dynasty
 A new Harari dynasty was founded (inaugurated) by EmirAli ibn Daud in 1647 and ruled until
1662.
 The foundation of the new dynasty was resulted in the end of Ausa power over Harar and
declared the independence of Harar in 1647.
 EmirAli Daud was the first ruler of the new Harari dynasty who declared the independence of
the dynasty from Ausa.
 The new dynasty ruled Harar Emirate for nearly two and half centuries.
 Harar Emirate continued to be the most stable centre of Islamic culture and power.
 It controlled the vital trade route from Gulf of Aden, port of Zeila and Berbera and link to the
Ethiopian interior.
 This was the major factor that strengthened the economy of Harar.

Harar’s Foreign Relation

 The emirate had maintained closer economic and political ties (contact) with the Yemen and
Arabs Peninsula through Zeila and Berbera ports.
 Many foreigners lived in the city of Harar but Arabs, Turks, Persians, Armenians and Greeks
were the dominant of all.
  The ruler of Harar had no direct relations with the Europeans because the emirs were
suspicious of the Europeans.
 Hararis did not allow the Europeans to inter into their territory (Harar).
 The Europeans who tried to inter Harar were imprisoned and killed.
 But the British traveler named sir Richard Burton was able to stay in the city of Harar in 1855
only for 10 days.
 Bruton’s visit disclosed (introduced) the city’s wealth and strategic importance to the outside
world.
 As the consequence of the disclosure, the first foreign threat against Harar came from the Egypt
because the Egyptian ruler named Khedive Ishmael (r. 1863-1879) sent military expedition led by
Mohammed Rauf and occupied Harar in 1875.

The evacuation (withdrawal) of Egyptians from Harar in 1885 was followed by the expansion of Menelik
II of Shewa. The last ruler of Hara named emirAbdulahi was defeated by Menelik II at the battle of
Chelenqo on 6 January, 1887 which was resulted in the incorporation of Harar Emirate, the surrounding
Oromos and Somalis to the Shewa under Menelik in the same year.

The Muslim Sheikhdoms (States of northwestern Ethiopia)

 The Sheikhdoms included small Muslim states called Aqoldi (the present day Assosa),
Benishangul and Khomosha.
 They were formed on the Ethio-Sudanese border.
 The basic factors for the rise of the Muslim states were the influence of Islam and trade.
 The states were also formed as a result of continuous interactions among the local Berta, Gumuz
and the Arabic speaking merchant families from the Sudan.
 The region was very rich mainly in gold and other natural resources that attracted the Sudanese
(Mahdists) and the Egyptians to develop special attention to annex the states.
 Nevertheless, the attempt of Sudan and Egypt was failed because the states were all incorporated
into Menelik’s empire in 1880s and1890s.
 Unit Five
5. Africa and the outside world to 1900 (6 hours)

5.1. Genesis, development and consequences of the

Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade
The Trans – Atlantic Slave Trade
 The background to the beginning of the Atlantic slave trade had been set up by the voyage of
Christopher Columbus to the new continent, America in 1492.
 Soon afterwards, the Spanish conquerors and other adventurers entered the territory of North,
Central and South America. In these areas, very large plantations were established by the
Europeans.
 The Native Americans, the American Indians, called Red Indians by Europeans in the past,
had been brutally exterminated by the Europeans.
 Those Red Indians who escaped the brutal extermination were forced to work in the
European plantations and mine fields under dreadful conditions. This was completely
unknown to the natives of America in their traditional way of life. When they tried to
rebel in mass they were suppressed with great atrocities.
 Most of the American Indians died from European diseases and harsh treatment. As a
result, a severe shortage of free labour was created in the European plantations.
 The Europeans tried to solve the problem by transporting the indentured white slaves
from Europe.
 However, the white slaves were unable to resist the hardships. Therefore, the idea of
transporting the natives of West Africa originated at this critical point.
 Portugal was the first European country that began the slave trade in Africa. Then Spain
followed.
 The Portuguese and the Spanish:-
 Had already transported a limited number of West African slaves to their own countries
before the demand for free labour arose in the American plantations.
 After the demand for slaves grew in the American plantations, they now began to export
West African slaves across the Atlantic Ocean to the American continent.
 In Africa, the slave trade was conducted for over 300 years. During these years, the Atlantic
slave trade passed through three distinct phases.
 The first phase was commonly known as the piratic slave trade. In this phase:-
 the traders who hunted slaves in West Africa were individual merchants,
adventurers, navigators or sea robbers.
 European governmentsdid not take part in the slave trade nor did they give
official support to their citizens engaged in this evil business. The slave trade
which began in this manner in the 15th century continued up to the last quarter of
the 16th century.
  The second phase, which began in the 1580’s, was known as the monopolistic slave
trade. In this phase:-
 the trade was conducted by monopolistic slave trading companies, which were
officially chartered by their respective governments. These companies operated
in a highly organized system, which was assisted by regular armed forces. With
the help of these forces they penetrated deep into the interior of West Africa
where they captured the natives in great numbers.
 The slave-hunting ground was widened and the volume of the trade also
increased. Slave merchants and companies made enormous profit.
 The price of a slave in Africa was 100-200 francs. But in America the market
price of the same slave was 1000-2000 frames.
 The second phase
 is also known as the triangular trade, because the route of this trade tied, in
somewhat a triangular shape three continents-the Americas, Europe and
Africa.
 From western European parts, goods such as cotton, alcoholic beverages, metal
wares and firearms were transported to West Africa, where they were
exchanged for slaves.
 African slaves were transported across the Atlantic to be sold to the plantation
owners in exchange for sugar, tobacco, rum and other products which in turn
were taken back to Europe and sold at high prices.
 The West European nations accumulated enormous wealth as a result of the triangular trade.
These accumulated wealth helped the industrialization of Western Europe starting from the
18th century.
 The third phase:-
 began in the second half of the 17th century
 also called freetrade.
 In 1689, the British government took a legal action by instituting free trade. The
law provided for every individual of the British Empire the right of participation
in any kind of business, including the slave trade.
 Several men joined the slave trade on an individual bases. The increasing
number of slave dealers, incited a fierce competition between the companies as
well as among the individual traders.

The Horrors of the Salve Trade

African slaves suffered torture of various degrees at different stages of the trade.

 First, slaves were captured like beasts.

 Then they were chained and hurried, often bearing heavy burden of ivory, to the coastal ports
which might be located hundreds of miles from places of origin. The African slaves underwent a
bitter hardship in the voyage across the Atlantic.
 The last stage of the horror, which was a lifelong hardship, began in the American plantations.
They toiled daily from dawn to dusk, often in chains. During this lifelong torture, their owners
provided them only with basic necessities barely enough to keep them alive and work. Death was
preferable to living and working in the plantations.
The Abolition of the Slave Trade

 With the growth of the abolitionistmovement in Europe, the volume of the slave trade started to
show a marked decline.
 From the very beginning, there had been movements against the slave trade in Africa. But it was
not well-organized at its early stage.
 Religious people and humanitarians who had read the accounts of travelers on the evil trade put
pressure on their governments for the abolition of the civil business. However, the European
governments ignored the pressure of the abolitionists.
 As a mater of fact, it was only when they found that the abolition of the slave trade served their
economic interest that the European governments began to take action against the slave trade.
 One of the leading European nations to champion the abolitionist movement was Great
Britain.
 In 1807, Britain abolished the trade in slaves in her empire and put pressure on other
European nations to follow suit. This change in the British policy was the result of
industrialization. The profit of the slave trade had helped Britain to build modern
industries.
 British economic interestshifted from slave trade to the search for cheap labour
power, raw materials and markets, for industrial products.
 British economic interest could be served only with the abolition of the salve trade.
African manpower had to remain in Africa to be used by Europeans to extract raw
materials inside Africa for the European industries.
 Therefore, Britain organized a military campaign, which was supported by the British
navy. It was this concerted action that brought the Atlantic slave trade to an end in the
middle of the 19th century.

Consequences of the Slave Trade

Social consequences
 more than 15 million young Africans were exported to the Americas. As a result, Africa lost its
most valuable human resource.
Economic consequences
 With the industrialization of Europe and America, the markets, of Africa were flooded with
cheap industrial products that ruined the traditional crafts of the continents. The livelihood of
African craftsmen had also been ruined.
Political consequences

African chiefs and kings acquired a large amount of firearms. The possession of these large quantities of
firearms intensified war and conflict in Africa. On the eve of European colonial expansion, there were
severe divisions among peoples and states of Africa. As a result, the Africans could not put up a united
resistance against the European colonizers. In this way, the Atlantic slave trade helped to open the way
for the colonization of Africa
 5.2. Scramble for Africa
Before 1870, the Europeans had trade relation with Africa. The major trade items were:
 gold,
 ivory,
 coffee, and
 salve
But with the development of capitalism (1769-1870), The European interest in Africa was increased first
for the need of:
a. raw materials and
b. market places for finished goods
Later, added to the above two needs, the Europeans needs in Africa also increased for the:
a. getting pride among the European power by annexing large colonies.
b. expanding the religion, culture and ways of life of European to Africa
To fulfill the needs of Europeans in Africa, the obstacles Europeans were:
 the slave trade
 un explored part of Africa
 tropical diseases and
 the major European powers preoccupation with domestic problems.
The domestic preoccupations of Europeans were for instance:
a. Germany and Italy did not complete their unification until 1870,
b. France had revolutionary outbreaks in 1789, 1830, 1848, and in 1870-71.
But, Britain did not fall in the internal political disturbance. Thus, it was busy in colonizing and giving
more attention to Far East and South East Asian region like:
 India,
 New Zealand, and
 Australia.
The above regions seemed to be:
 more attractive,
 rich and
 had less resistance than Africa.
Under these circumstances few coastal areas of Africa were occupied by France and Britain in 1830.
France occupied:
 Algeria, and
 later Senegal.
Britain occupied:
 Cape colony and
 Gold Coast (Ghana).
Portugal deeply involved in:
 Mozambique and
 Angola.
However, all colonial powers did not establish firm administration in the above areas except in:
 Cape Colony by British and
 part of Algeria by France.
The coastal posts had been established primarily to serve the purpose of trade particularly, the
Atlantic slave trade. The names given to these posts indicated that the Europeans were involved
more in trade activities than colonization before Industrial Capitalism. Thus, some of these trading
posts were named as:
 Slave Coast,  Ivory Coast, and
 Gold Coast,  Pepper Coast.
There were two main factors for the growth of the desire and speeding up for the colonization of Africa in
the middle of 1880s:
 The first was the British unilateral control of Egypt in 1882. Since the opening of Suez Canal
in 1869, Egypt had become the focus of British and French political and economic interest. The
canal was built by the French engineer called Ferdinand de Lesseps. Thus, France owned a big
share in the Canal Company. Britain had also bought the Egyptian share of the company from
Khedive Ishmael, the then ruler of Egypt, sold the share to over come the bankruptcy he faced
as the result of his venture of colonial expansion. Moreover, the opening of the Suez Canal
increased the importance of Egypt especially to Britain. The Canal was a strategic link with
British Indian Empire and the Far East.
To secure their loans, Britain and France created Dual Control over Egypt since 1879. The Egyptian
nationalists who opposed foreign influence in Egypt rose up in armed rebellion. This revolt was led by a
senior Egyptian officer, Colonel Ahmed Urabi (Arabi Pasha). In May 1882, Urabi and the Egyptian
nationalists successfully gained control of certain part of the country. At this stage of time the British
force intervened in the internal affairs of Egypt and crushed the force of Urabi. Due to change of
government in France and the French could not participate in the intervention. Therefore, Britain
alone intervened and occupied Egypt in June 1882 and established unilateral occupation of Egypt in the
same year. Then, France as European power moved to act quickly to make colonial conquests in
other parts of Africa.
The Second factor was the involvement of two European powers in the colonization of Africa namely:
  Germany and
 Belgium.
a. Germany initially involved in colonial rivalry,mainly to intensity the colonial competition
between France and Britain because Bismarck hoped that the rivalry between the two powers
would divert the French from a war of revenge for their humiliation in the defeat of 1870-71 by
Germany. But after once, Germany involved in the colonial rivalry, her national interest and
prestige and hope of economic advantage forced Germany to continue with policy of colonial
conquest.
b. The other power in the colonial, rivalry was King Leopold II of Belgium, independently of the
Belgian Government; King Leo Plod II employed H.M. Stanley, the famous explorer to explore the
Congo basin since 1876.
The appearance of Germany and King Leopold of Belgium made other powers like Britain, France and
Portugal which already engaged in African coastal areas to move quickly in to the interior before the
whole continent was occupied by the new rivals. Meanwhile, there occurred clash of interests
among these colonial powers in many parts of Africa .The first of such conflicts arose over the Congo
basin, In order to solve the Congo issue and other crisis, an international conference was held at Berlin
in 1884-85.
The Berlin Conference
 Held at Berlin and attended by fourteen European powers as well as the USA.
 At the end the conference, two important resolutions were passed.
The first resolution:
 It was the most important part that dealt with the colonial conquest of Africa.
 It was agreed that all powers had to notify or ratify others about their claim over a portion
of territory and to establish “effective occupation” in these areas. Thus, the Berlin
conference paved the way for African colonization or “legalized” the partition of Africa.
 This conference enabled European colonialists to partition Africa without going to an armed clash
amongst each other.
The second resolution of the conference:
 It was about the right to trade on the Congo River.
 The partition of Africa had already been started before the Berlin Conference.
 It gave international recognition for King Leopold II of Belgium over the Congo Free State in
1884.
 The Belgian king won recognition by promising an unrestricted freedom of trade in the Congo
basin for all other Great European powers.
In 1883, France had controlled territories in:
  Upper Niger.
 But the same move of France in the lower Niger failed.
In subsequent year, France and Britain partitioned West Africa between themselves.
Between 1883 and 1885 Germany occupied many terriers in:
 South West Africa (now Namibia),
 Togo land,
 the Cameroon and
 East Africa.
Britain moved:
 Northward from South Africa to central and East Africa.
 also moved southward from Egypt and controlled Eastern Sudan.
The rest of Africa was portioned among Europeans in the last years of the nineteenth century. By 1900,
with exception of:
 Ethiopia,
 Morocco (until 1912) and
 Liberia, the whole continent of Africa was virtually under European colonial rule.

5.3. Colonial rule

Colonial Policies and Administration
A. French colonial policy
French effected direct colonial policy, which was architected by Albert Sarout.French’s colonial policy
was at the same time called Assimilation, and later Association. The features of assimilation policy
were:
 Assimilate colonial subjects in to cultural Frenchmen
 Granted full legal and political rights to subject peoples as a French citizen but in practice, the
colonies were considered as second citizens.
 Gave the colonies the right to represent their representatives to French parliament in Paris, which
was at the beginning given only to the four Senegalese towns such as Dakar, St, Louis, Goree,
and Rufisque. The representatives were a few French speaking people. The assimilation policy
was resulted in the rejection of Africans personality (identity), culture and customary laws.
 Used Africanchiefs as governors at lower level of local administrators in Dahomey, Tukolor,
Futajalon, which were large colonial states. They were appointed and dismissed based on the will
of French local administrators.
 French appointed Africans’ chiefs at local levels to:
 Collect tax
  Recruit labor (forced or corvee labor)
 Suppress rural Africans oppositions
 Denied any independent religious or legal authority
B. British Colonial Policy
The British colonial policy or rule was designed by the former colonial administrator of Nigeria
named Frederick Lugard, and the policy wascalled indirect colonial policy, or indirect rule. The
British indirect colonial policy used African appointees who safeguard British interests. Indirect
colonial policy was recommended Frederick Lugard in his book entitled “The dual mandate in
British Tropical Africa,” which was published in 1922. British preferred the indirect colonial policy
for the following reasons:
 British believed that direct rule was the cheapest and most effective way of administrating
vast colonial territories. Therefore, British had no interest to spend capital to administer
colonies.
 The other reason behind British preference of indirect rule was the shortage of skilled man
power that British faced to administer British colonial territories.

British indirect colonial administration was not uniform anywhere in British colonies. It varied from
colony to colony. The responsibilities of local African appointees of British were the same with duties
of French local African administrators. Unlike French, British used Africans customary laws to
convince effective administrative system than respective Africans customary laws. The British
indirect colonial administrative policy was implemented through:
 Nominating African chiefs on tribal differences
 Dividing and rule based on differences in language, religion, tribe, dressing style,
housing, and color.
 Intensifying competitions and conflicts between tribes to give political powers
 Inviting ‘tribalism’ by insisting on tribal difference
 Avoiding Africans unity to weaken their opposition against colonialism.

C. Portuguese Colonial Policy

Portuguese colonial policy was similar with French colonial policy, and it was called “Civilsado” or
“Assimilado.” The policy was applied to small African individuals who adopted Portuguese language and
culture. Under this policy the Africans had the responsibilities to collect tax, fulfill Portuguese labor
demands. However, the Africans had no the right to vote in local or central government. Civilsados were
very small minorities and mixed races worked as clerks, teachers, and petty traders. They divorced in
culture and outlook from majority of independent population of Africa.
D. Belgian Colonial Policy
The Belgian colonial policy was a mixture of French and British colonial policy. It recognized cultural
assimilation of a minority of educated Africans known as “evolves.”
Effects of Colonialism in Africa
- Economy and culture of the Africans were destroyed,
- Africans lost their freedom,
- The Africans were exploited and oppressed,
- The Africans were disunited and were forced to accept foreign culture, etc.

Unit Six
6. Formation of the modern state of Ethiopia: 1855-1941
(9 hours)

6.1. Territorial unification and expansion

Attempt at Reunification Through the Use of Force, 1855-1868
Early career or life of Kassa Hailu, the later Twodros II (1855-1868)
6.2. Defending sovereignty and territorial integrity
The Revival of Imperial Power in the Christian Highland Kingdom
and the Process of Empire Building (1855-1900)
The second half of 19th century Ethiopia was characterized by the two major historical
developments. These were:
1. The reunification process and the creation of modern empire, (started by Tewodros II and
continued by Yohannes IV) and
2. The resistance against foreign invasion (Egypt, Italy and Mahdists of Sudan)
The beginning of Reunification through use of force started by of Kassa Hailu (the
latter Tewodros II)
Early Life of Kassa Hailu
 Born in 1818 in Quara, Gondar at the Sharge village from his father, Hailu Wolde-Giorgis
(governor of Quara) and mother AtitegebWondewosen (his mother was Koso vender)
 He was born to a family with no claim at all of descent from the royal house but his father was a
balabat or had rest or land in Quara
 Grew under his half-brother, Kinfu Hailu
 Attended traditional church education first at Mabere Sellassie Monastery and next at Cheneker
Tekle-Haymanot Monastery.
  He got military education under different regional lords(Goshu Zewde of Gojjam and Ali II or Ali
Tinishu of Yejji Dyanasty ruler)
The reason why Kassa changed in to shifta (bandit)
 Following the death of Kinfu, Empress Menen transferred Quara to Goshu Zewude of Gojjam
 The empress was the mother of Ras Ali II (Ali Tinishu or little) and wife of the puppet king named
Yohannis III
 Ras Ali II was the leader of Amharanized Yejju Oromo dynasty or Warrashe family in of Wollo
who was the most powerful and king maker during Zemene Mesafint
 By Menen, Kassa was denied governorship over his family fief, the district of Quara
 Therefore, after the death of his half-brother, Kinfu, Kassa shifted into shita due to:
1. The blockage of Quara, his family fief (Kassa Halilu’s hereditary or legitimate claim) by
empress Menen
2. Kassa’s dream to be king of kings of Ethiopia by ending or suppressing the power of regional
lords of Zemene Mesafint.
Kassa’s persistent challenge to the regime in Gondar (against power of Ras Ali II) was resulted in a political
marriage with Tewabech Ali, daughter of the guardian and the last ruler of the Yeju Oromo who had the title
Ras-Bitwoded. This political marriage was arranged to appease Kassa.
Due to his continuous challenge against the powerful king of Gondar, Ras Ali II, Kassa had got the
following advantages as a form of appeasement:
 He was given half of Qura
 He was granted a military title called Dejazmach
The battles that Kassa fought against regional lords to realize his dream to be king of kings were:
Minor battles:
1. The battle of Dembiya in Gondar in 1846 that helped Kassa to invade Dembiya.
2. The battle of Iloha, near Lake Tana on 18 June 1847 at which Kassa and Empress Menen confronted
The four major battles:
1. The battle of Guramba (27 Nov.1852), at which Goshu Zewde of Gojjam was defeated. Kassa’s first
battling against Goshu was to restore his family fief (Quara) from Goshu
2. The battle of Gorgora Bichen in March 1853, at which vassals of Ali and Wube (Yazew, Belew, Abe
and Biru Aligazi) were defeated.
3. The battle of Ayshal on 20, June 1853, at Ras Ali was defeated
The consequences or results of the battle of Ayshal:
 It marked the end of Yeju dynasty because the strongest of all Yejju rulers, Ras Ali II was defeated at
the battle, and there was no strong leader came to power in Yejju after Ras Ali II
 It also marked the end of Zemene Mesafint because the strongest of all regions of Zemene Mesafint
(yejju) and the strongest of all lords of Zemene Mesafint (Ras Ali II) was defeated by Kassa Hailu
4. The battle of Deresge, at which Kassa defeated Dejjazmach Wube of Semen and Tigre on 8 Feb 1855.
The results of the battle of Deresge:
 It removed Kassa’s last enemy, Dejjach Wube
 The defeat of Dejach Wube had brought about the realization of Kassa’s dream to be king of
kings and cleared Kassa’s way to throne
 It also marked Kassa’a coronation taking the throne name Tewodros II in 1855 at Deresgie
Maryam Church in the hands the bishop, Abuna Salama
The reason why Kassa preferred the throne name, Tewodros II
While Kassa was a church student, he knew the prophecy in Fikare Iyesu, a religious book that promising
the people that a king by the name Tewodros would come to rule and bring peace to the people after
troubles. Hence Tewodros II used the name to get recognition by the people whom people believed to bring
them peace and maintain order.
The two major concerns of Tewodros II were:
1. Reunifying , and
2. Modernizing Ethiopia
Reforms (policies) of Emperor Tewodros II
A. Administrative Reforms
 Tewodros II was the first Ethiopian who had an ambition to reunify the decentralized or disintegrated
Ethiopian regions during Zemene Mesafint
 He attempted to create a unified, centralized and strong unitary modern state by giving an end to
Zemene Mesafint
 In his policy of administration, Tewodros II followed strong (strict) centralization.
 He centralized taxation (forced regional lords to pay tax to central government)
 He ended the supremacy of regional lords over their lands.
 He forced regional lords to be his subordinates by eliminating their privilege political and economic
rights.
 He did not want to see any strong regional lord like lords of Zemene Mesafint
 His policy of reunification was only one and inflexible (rigid), which was use of force to subjugate
regions.
Tewodros’s campaigns to different regions of Ethiopia to convince the submission and subordination
of regional lords
 Immediately after his coronation, Tewodros II first marched to Wollo to subjugated the Wollo lords
 However, the campaigning to Wollo was followed by stiff resistances from Wollo lords for about 6
months.
 Tewodros II made repeated campaigns to Wollo even during rainy seasons and during fasting
 By Wollo campaign, Tewodros had failed to bring about the submission of Wollo.
 The second Tewodros’s campaign was towards Shewa that led to the battle of Bereket in Shewa in
1855 where Tewodros defeated the force of Haile Melekot (of course, Haile Melekot had died a little
before the battle of Bereket)
 Following the battle of Bereket Tewodros took Menelik, son of Haile Melekot with him and Menelik
stayed under the control of Tewodros until he escaped in 1865
Tewodros’s administrative policy lacked consistency and method because:
 In Tigrai, he gave autonomous right (hereditary dynastic right), almost a full right
 The Tigrian lord was the only loyal regional lord to the emperorship of Tewodros II and the largest
revenue to Tewodros was received from Tigrai. This was due to the fact that the defeat of Wube by
Kassa at the battle of Darasge had led to the release of the father of the leader of Tigrian province.
 Tewodros’s appointee in Shewa was named MeridazmachHaile Michael (however, the Shewan
dynastic right was not as such autonomous like the Tigrai
 There were also some hereditary dynastic rulers in Wollo but Gojjam was totally denied dynastic
right where the emperor appointed his loyal military generals and civilian.
 Nevertheless, recognition of local dynasties does not mean continuity with the old practices in the old
way like Zemene Mesafint
 He made all regional lords subordinate to him
B. Religious Reforms
 Initially, Tewodros II had a positive relation with the Ethiopian Orthodox Church because he
declared the Tewahido Orthodox Christianity as the official state religion,
 However, his desire to pay salary to his military officials and the tribute he required from the church
was the major reason (economic reason) for the disagreement between the king and the church.
 Thus, the emperor confiscated church’s lad and gave it to tribute paying peasants and reduced the
number of priests and deacons into 2, and 3 respectively, which in turn intensified the opposition of
church, priests and deacons
 The emperor and church’s quarrel reached its peak when Abuna Salama was impressed by
Tewodros in 1864 and died in prison in 1867
 Church’s opposition isolated Tewodros from the people
 Relatively the king preferred protestant religion than Catholic religion followers because he hoped
that the Protestants would challenge the controversies in the Ethiopian Orthodox Church.
 The king expelled leader of the Catholics in Ethiopia, (De Jacobis).
 Generally, Tewodros did not follow the policy of religious tolerance.
C. Military Reforms
Kassa Hailu’s dream to have a modern firearm, a well-trained, a well-disciplined, and a well-organized
modern national standing army was born at the battle of Dabarqi in 1848 in Gondar where he was defeated
by the well-trained, well-organized, disciplined and better-armed Egyptian force. Therefore, in his military
reforms, Tewodros:
 Had attempted to organize a nationals standing army recruited from all regions under his control
 Emperor Tewodros was the first Ethiopian ruler who tried to manufacture firearms and opened
military school at Gafat, at which he forced European missionaries to manufacture mortar
(Sebastopol).
 Therefore, Gafat military academy near Dabre Tabor and the manufactured mortar represented the
climax of Tewodros’s modernization.
 Had the dream to end Egyptian (whom he called Turkish) encroachment towards Ethiopia
 Had the ambition to remove Turkish from Red Sea region of Ethiopia
 Gave the new military titles to his soldiers (ye hamsa Aleqa, ye aser Aleqa, Ye Mata Aleqa, and
ye Shaleqa)
 Tried to ban (end) looting of rebels or peasants by his soldiers but not uniform everywhere.
 Tried to salaries his soldiers
D. Social Reforms
The social reforms introduced by King Tewodros II were:
 Declaration of Amharic language to be an official working or state language replacing Geez,
 Condemnation of polygamy,
 Attempt to end slavery and slave trade.
 Attempt to end looting of peasants by local rebels during resistance crushing
Factors accounted for the Downfall Tewodros II
The major factors that led to the end of King Tewodros’s regime were categorized under internal and external factors.
a. Internal challenges were:
 Regional Lords (Worqitu of Wollo; Negussie and Tessema W/Michael of Walqayit; Tedla Guawalu of
Gojjam; Menelik II of Shewa since 1865 following his escape from Tewodros’s prison of Maqadalla)
 Anti-Tewodros’s propaganda by Ethiopian Orthodox Church (priests, bishops), which was resulted in the
imprisonment of Abuna Salama
  The clergies became the enemy of the king.
 They turned the population against the king
 Peasants who opposed Tewodros’s cruel, unpopular and amputation cutting off measures
The internal factors were the fundamental causes for the downfall of Tewodros II because Tewodros’s:
Note:
 The initial military victories of Tewodros did not result in political stability and effective central
control.
 Even though the king got recognition from and support from the peasants, but this did not last
long because of the cruel measures that the king took against rebels.
 The legacies of the Zemene Mesafint did not die out soon and the attempt at centralization proved
to be a difficult task to achieve.
 Thus, almost all polices of the king had failed to meet their targets
b. ExternalChallenges
The British Military expedition led by General Napier and the end of the reign of TewodrosII (the
immediate cause for the downfall of Tewodros’s reign)
Basically, Tewodros had a positive attitude toward Europeans. He wanted to use their knowledge and skills
to modernize his kingdom. Tewodros sought the alliance of all Europe particularly Britain to get expertise.
He needed British to remove the Egyptian danger (in his word, Turkish danger) and to assist him in his goal
of modernizing the country. England was his most regard (preference) because of the highest position that
British had in Europe. British was also the most advanced European nation.

Later, Tewodros quarreled with the Europeans particularly the British. The major reason for for quarrel between
Tewodros and British was the imprisonment of Europeans in general and British in particular by Tewodros because of
the failure of citizens from Europe and other European countries to bring expertise to Ethiopia to help Tewodros’s
modernization ambition. Hence, British initially tried negotiate with Tewodros to release Europeans and British citizens
from Tewodros’s prison but the king refused to do it. Therefore, it was when the negotiation was rejected by the king
that British decided to send expendition war against Tewodros. When Napier had arrived Ethiopia, the regional lords in
northern Ethiopia welcomed him. The best example was Kassa Mircha of Tigre. Napier’s expedition took place first at
Aroghe on 10 April 1868 and next at Maqdala in 1868. Maqadala was the battle field that heralded the end of
Tewodros II’s life and his regime. The king had finally committed suicide at Maqdala on April 13, 1868.
 Napier returned to England by:
 looting Ethiopian precious heritages like the crown of King Tewodros, and gold cross etc.
 collecting Tewodros’s arms that Napier handover to Kassa Mircha of Tigre
 taking Leul Alemayehu Tewodros who died in London after some times.

Following the death of Emperor Tewodros at Maqdalla, three strong regional lords competed/contended for
imperial throne. These were:
 Wagshum Gobeze Gebre Medhin of Lasta,
 Ras Bezbiz Kasa Mircha of Tigrai, and
 Negus Menelik of Showa.
Wagshum Gobeze:
 Had been a rebel against Emperor Tewodros
 Crowned himself in 1868 by taking the throne name Emperor Tekle Giyorigis
 Became the immediate successor of Emperor Tewodros and ruled from 1868-1871
  He was challenged by Kasa Mircha of Tigrai who fought against him for imperial throne
The battle of Assem, July 1871:
 It was the battle where Ras Kasa Mircha defeated Emperor Tekle Giyorgis in Tigrai.
 Six months after the battle of Assem, on 21 January 1872, Kasa Mircha was crowned Emperor and took
the throne name Yohannis IV.

Internal Political Developments

Emperor Yohannis:
 As a successor of Tewodros, only inherited regional oppositions and foreign threats.
 Began his reign with efforts at strengthening his imperial power.
 As soon as he ascended to the throne, to get the submission of local chiefs, he launched military
expeditions to:
 Gojjam,
 Begemidir in Gondar,
 Hamasien (Eritrea), and
 Yejju in Wollo.
 Unlike Tewodros, Yohannis did not persist with the use of force for building imperial authority.
 He recognized the local hereditary chiefs so long as they accepted him as an overlord and paid him annual
tributes.
 Thus, he shared power in the Kingdom with vassal rulers including those who were once rebelled against
him.
 He recognized the local rulers of two regions (Shewa under Negus Menelik andGojjam under Ras Adal
Tessema) to rule their respective regions as the vassals of the emperor.
Ras Adal Tessema of Gojjam:
 In 1881, Emperor Yohannis crowned him as Negus Tekle-Haymanot of Gojjam and Kaffa.
 The emperor might have crowned Adal to check the advance of the king of Shewa, Menelik, to the
regions of southwestern Ethiopia.
From the time of his coronation, Yohannis was challenged by:
 Menelik’s resistance, and
 Egyptian threat
The Challenges of Menelik Against Yohannis:
 At the beginning, Menelik did not recognize Yohannis as an emperor until 1878 because he was
competing for imperial throne since the death of Tewodros.
 Menelik lost the chance to be an emperor twice with the coronation of Gobeze in1868 and Kassa Mircha
in 1872.
 Instead of recognizing Yohannis as an emperor, Menelik:
 Used to call himself "king of kings,"
 Started an independent foreign relation as independent ruler which helped him to import
firearms with which he could fight for the throne.
 He made independent foreign relations with states like:
 Egypt,
 Britain,
 France, and
 Italy
 Refused to pay tribute to Emperor Yohannis until 1878.
 Made more expansion to the direction of Wollo, causing political and military threat to Emperor
Yohannis whose political center was in Tigrai.
Yohannis realized the challenge of Menelik, from the start but he was unable to take actions immediately against
Menelik because of two major problems:
  In the first three years of his reign, Yohannis was busy in strengthening his power in the Northern
provinces.
 In 1875 and 1876, Ethiopia was invaded by Egypt and the war with Egypt did not allow Yohannis to
work on the submission of Menelik.
Liche Treaty (Agreement), March 20, 1878:
 In 1878, Yohannis realized the danger imposed on his throne by Menelik, and entered the district of
Manze (north east Shewa) with the objective of putting down the resistance of Menelik against him.
 After minor clash with Yohannis, Menelik retreated to Liche (a place in Shewa near Ankober) and made
an agreement with Yohannis.
 Thus, by the terms of Liche Treaty, Menelik agreed to:
 Renounce/drop his title, neguse negest and use only negus, (a king);
 recognized the emperorship of Yohannis IV;
 stop independent foreign relation; and
 pay annual tribute to Yohannis.
 Emperor Yohannis on his part agreed to:
 recognized king Menelik and his descendants as hereditary rulers of Shewa.
 he also accepted Menelik’s control of Wollo.
 Both Yohannis and Menelik agreed to:
 help each other against common enemies.
The advantages Menelik gained from Liche Treaty:
 tactically delayed the direct confrontation with Yohannis that targeted to wait for an opportune
time until the right time could.
 Saved Shewa without bloodshedfrom possible destruction by the imperial army.
 Menelik realized the fact that he needed time to build strong army if he was to see his dreams come true.
 avoided tension and turned his target to expand toward south, southwest and southeast.
The advantage that Yohannis gained from Liche Treaty:
 secured a peaceful submission of the strongest regional rival, Menilik.
 expanded his base of tribute and economy.
The disadvantage of Liche Treaty for Menelik:
 The Shewan administrative autonomy came to an end and Menelik’s power status was reduced.
 Menelik lost advantages whereas his counterpart, Yohannis got more advantages.
Yohannis’s Religious Policy:
Political centralization under the monarchy envisioned by Yohannis also contained an element of religious unity.
Thus, Yohannis:
 Saw religious uniformity as an essential precondition for building a strong imperial state.
 Yet, his kingdom was in trouble owing to the religious divisions within the Orthodox Church.
 Wanted to stop Catholic evangelization in Northern provinces and the expansion of Islam.
 Ordered his vassals to expel Catholic missionaries from their respective regions, so as to stop Catholic
evangelization in his country.
Borumeda Council (Conference) in May, 1878:
 Borumeda was a place in Wollo where the religious conference was arranged by Yohannis IV to resolve
the religious controversies of Orthodox Church on doctrinal differences.
 The conference was arranged and chaired by Yohannis himself.
 The emperor aimed to convert other religious followers as well as pagans to Orthodox Christianity.
 The objective was to bring religious unity and faith uniformity by resolving religious disputes.
 At the conference, representatives of different doctrines within the Orthodox Church debated over their
differences and tried to justify their own doctrines.
 At the end, Yohannis declared OrthodoxTewahidofaith as the only official state doctrine.
 Yohannis threatened to punish others who refused to conform/follow to and obey the imperial decree.
  Thus, Yohannis did not follow a policy of religious tolerance.
 The emperor was very harsh towards Islam because he declared that all Muslims should become
Christians.
The consequences (results) of the conference:
 Local Muslim rulers of Wollo and their subordinate chiefs were offered a chance between conversion to
Christianity or loss of their power.
 To maintain their power, the rulers chose conversion to Christianity.
 These rulers Wollo who accepted the conversion were:
 Mohammed Ali who took baptismal name Mikael and later became the ruler of Wollo taking the
title first ras and later negus.
 Ahmade Liban/Abba Watew who took baptismal name Haile Mariam
 The ordinary masses of Wollo Muslims followed the example of their rulers and Christianized fear of
persecution and confiscation of their land.
 Muslims of Wollo were the main victims of the forceful conversion to Christianity.
 Those Muslims who refused to accept Christianity were persecuted at the conference.
 Some people in Wollo who refused the forceful conversion were exiled to such far off regions as:
 Gurage,
 Jimma,Metema, and
 Arsi.
 Those Muslims, who remained in Wollo rose in rebellion under prominent religious leader named Sheikh
Talha of Argoba but the rebellion was crushed by the joint army of Yohannis and Menelik.
In the end, the policy of strengthening monarchial/imperial power during the reign of Emperor Yohannis seemed
to have been more successful than that of Emperor Tewodros. This was because during Yohannis:
 All of the provinces Christian Kingdom were brought under the control of his imperial power.
 The newly incorporated territories in the south, southwest and southeast by Menelik made part of
Yohannis’s empire.
In spite of the Liche agreement, Menelik:
 Continued his secret contacts with foreigners.
 Contacted Italians in 1883 and the Italians had promised to help him in importing arms through the port
of Assab.
 Continued expansion to the wealthiest and richest regions of the south, southeast and southwest where he
controlled profitable trade routes.
 The wealth that he used to import firearm was collected from the wealthiest regions of south, southeast
and southwest.
The Battle of Embabo- on June 6, 1882:
 It was the battle fought between Negus Tekle-Haymanot of Gojjam and Negus Menelik of Shewa.
 The battle took place in Horo-Guduru, part of east Wallaga.
 It was the Gojjame’s force that first reached the region.
 The army of Gojjam under Dejazmach Dereso, vassal of the Tekle-Haymanot had already begun
collecting tributes from the local peoples of some of the Oromo areas in the southwest.
 Negus Menelik had also started to expand into the region.
 Thus, Menelik sent the Shewan army commanded by Ras Gobena who crossed the Gibe River and moved
to the Oromo states of southwest.
 Hence, Shewa and Gojjam became rivals with contending interest in the southwest.
 The two rivals fought to control the wealthiest regions of southwest Ethiopia such as Wallaga, Gibe
region and Kafa.
 Despite the order of Emperor Yohannis to avoid fighting, the two kings, Menelik and Tekle- Haymanot
went war at Embabo.
 At the battle, the forces of Tekle-Haymanot was defeated, he himself wounded and made captive by
Menelik.
 After the battle of Embabo, by realizing Menelik's challenge as a serious threat to his imperial power, Yohannis
took the following actions:
 He wished to subdue Menelik.
 Yet, he wanted to look fair, too.
 In August 1882, Yohannis called the two kings to Wara Illu in Wollo.
 Punished them both for fighting, ignoring his warning.
 Took away the province of Kaffa and Agewmider (in Gojjam) from Tekle-Haymanot control.
 Took away Wollo from Menelik.
 However, he made a marriage arrangement between Menelik's daughter named Zewditu with his son,
Ras Araya Selassie.
 This political arrangement was aimed at binding the two dynasties of Shewa and Tigrai to win the loyalty
of Menelik.
 Yohannis also allowed Menelik to expand into the southwestern regions.

2.3. Menelik’sTerritorialExpansion and the Completion of Centralization process of Ethiopia

The battle of Matama (1889) had cleared the way for Menelik II to be king of kings of Ethiopian in 1889. Therefore, it
was the battle of Mattama that realized Menelik’s dream to be king of kings of Ethiopia. Emperor Menelik II ruled
Ethiopia until his natural death in 1913. The creation of modern Ethiopian Empire which had been started by
Tewodros II was continued by Yohannes IV and was completed by Empire Menelik II. Menelik II had already started
territorial expansion to different regions of Ethiopia before he became an emperor. It was while he was king of
Showa (1870s - 1889). But, he completed the expansion as an emperor in 1900. Menelik II is considered as the father
of modern Ethiopia because he completed the reunification process.

 Menelik II achieved his territorial expansion by employing two different methods. The methods were:
 Peaceful submission by influencing local rulers/persuasion followed by Mercy, and
 Forceful subjugation/Swords.
 Menelik hoped for revival of imperial authority with wider territorial coverage, a vast empire.
 He persuaded a policy of territorial expansions at an increasing scale and great magnitude.
 Menlik’s policy of political reunification went beyond the old provinces of the Medieval Christian Kingdom.
 It included the other peoples and states of the southern, southwestern and southeastern regions of Ethiopia.
Menelik’s territorial expansion was divided into three stages:

1. The first stage (it was through both peaceful submission and forceful subjugation)
It was while Menelik was a king of Showa (1875-1889). During this stage, Menelik peacefully incorporated:

 Shewa Oromo in 1870s; and

 Northern Gurage (Christian Gurage) because of their religious affinity with Shewan Christians;
 Wallaga Oromo states (Leqa Naqamte under moti Kumsa Moreda and Leqa Qelam under moti Jote
Tulu) between 1882-1886;
 Illu Abba Bora between 1882-1886;
 The five Gibe Oromo states (Jimma under motiAbba Jifar II, Gomma, Gumma, Gera and Limmu-
Enarya) between 1882-1886;
During the same stage, Menelik forcefully subjugated:
 
The Arsi Oromo fought the expanding army of Menilik with great valor from 1882-86. Finally the
army of Menelik commanded by Ras Darge Sahale Silassie defeated them at the of battle of Azule in
1886;
 Harari and Oromo of southeast were forcefully subdued after bloody encounters at the battle of
Chelenqo in January 1887.At the battle, the lastHarari’s ruler, Emir Abdullahi was defeated by the
army of Menelik commanded by Ras Mekonnen;
 Because of their religious difference with the Shewans, the Muslim Gurage and the Silte (southern
Gurage) resisted Menelik’ under their leader named Hasan Enjamo, but totally subdued by Shewan army
(Meneliks’s army) led by Ras Gobena Dache in 1888;
Three events facilitated the success of Menelik's expansion as king of Shoa were:
 The Liche Agreement (1878) reduced the tensions with Emperor Yohannis. It freed Menelik to concentrate on
the conquest of new areas (expansion to south, southeast and southwest).
 The Battle of Embabo (1882) eliminated a strong rival of Menelik, King Tekle Haymanot of Gojjam, from the
resourceful regions of the southwest. Following the battle, Menelik got royal recognition (recognition of
Emperor Yohannes IV) to his expansion in that direction.
 His commercial relations with the Italians, mainly after the treaty he signed with Italy in 1883, enabled
Menelik to import firearms which his troops used for suppressing rebellions and local resistance.
The Great Ethiopian Famine (KifuQan, 1888 -1892)

 Menelik’s imperial expansion coincided with the outbreak of the Great Famine also known as the KifuQan
(1888-92).
 The basic cause of the famine was cattle epidemic, which deliberately imported by Italy to Ethiopia through
Massawa.
 The famine was further aggravated by locust invasion and drought.

Consequences of the Great Famine were:

 Death of hundreds of thousands of cattle which made farming difficult, and gradually led to famine
Famine in turn paved the way for epidemic diseases as the result of which large numbers of people died;
Some northerners also joined the army of Menelik, participated in his wars of expansions and settled in the
conquered regions of the south;
 Many northerners moved to the relatively less affected regions of the south.
 People ate taboo food and carcass of animals;
 People cannibalism was practiced;
 Enslavement of people was intensified;
 Suicide of people was common;
 Migration of people to less affected regions of the south;
 Death of animals and people;
 The famine in turn paved the way for epidemic diseases that killed large numbers of people;
 Some northern people also joined the army of Menelik and participated in his wars of expansions and
settled in the conquered regions of the south;
 Emperor Menelik's expansion was also motivated by the need for mobilizing resources for the eventual war
with the Italians at the battle of Adwa.
The famine had affected almost all regions of Ethiopia but seriously affected the Northern Ethiopian than
anywhere else because the northern Ethiopia was less fertile than the south.

2. The Second Stage (1889-1896), after Menelik was crowned Emperor, forcefully subjugated:
 Walayta
  Wolayta had a bloody experience with the army of Menelik.
 The Wolayita under Kawo Tona, fought against a huge army of Menelik in 1894.
 After great human and material destruction, accompanied by enslavement, slaughtering, burning
and raids of local people, Kawa Tona was defeated in 1894 and taken as captive to Addis Ababa.
 Bale, and
 Sidamo (other than Borana)
During this stage Menelik's expansion was also motivated by the need for mobilizing resources for the eventual war
with the Italians.

3. The third phase (1896 -1900, forcefully subjugated), following the battle of Adwa:
 Kafa Kingdom Kaffa was crushed in 1897 after Tato Gaki Serocho (Kaffa’s last king) strong
resistance was defeated by the army of Menelik led by Ras Wolde Giyorgis who was supported by
some local Oromo rulers of Southwestern Ethiopia.
 Ogaden, and
 Shiekdom states (Assosa, Komosha, and Bela-Shangul), after defeated at the battle of Fadagino in
1898 were incorporated during this stage.

At the third stage, the main motive of Menelik was to create buffer zones between the Ethiopian interior and the
adjacent European colonies.

The Foundation of Addis Ababa (1886)

The foundation of Addis Ababa in 1886 marked the end of mobile courts in the Ethiopia history. Empress Taitu
facilitated the process of the foundation while Menelik was in Harar to incorporate Harari and southeastern Oromo
People.

The permissive conditions that allowed the foundation of Addis Ababa were the:

 incorporation of the neighboring Oromo states, which reduced the possible threats of the Christian kings;
 attractive hot spring of Fin Fine; and
 hostile cold weather condition and steepness of Entoto or Dildila (Menelik’s royal court before Addis
Ababa or Finfine);
 Conducive climate of Finfine area.
Factor for the consolidation and continuation of Addis Ababa as a permanent capital were:

 Adwa victory, which attracted foreign diplomats and the opening of foreign legations;
 The registration of urban land and the land charter of 1907;
 The introduction of eucalyptus tree that solved the shortage of firewood and construction material for the
royal camp;
 The construction of Djibouti-Addis Ababa railway that connected Ethiopia with outside world and
contributed for the growth of Addis Ababa as commercial city.
The Consequences of Menelik’s Territorial Expansion:
 Enlarged the size of Menelik’s empire.
 Created modern map of Ethiopia).
  The demarcation of the Ethiopian boundaries with the neighboring colonial powers in the years 1896-1908.
 The formation of the modern Ethiopian Empire which completed in 1900.
 The fate of peoples and rulers in the newly incorporated regions were decided based on the nature of their
reactions to the expansion of Menelik.
Accordingly, areas whose rulers had peacefully submitted to the conquerors:
 They were saved from raids, devastations and enslavement of the local peoples.
 They were, at least initially, spared (saved) from the quartering of Menelik's soldiers known as the neftegna.
 Local rulers of these regions were allowed to keep their positions and exercise autonomous administrations.
 They were required to pay fixed annual tributes to the central government.
On the contrary, wherever the royal army met resistance (the fate of peoples and rulers, forcefully incorporated):
 Bloodshed and destruction during the wars of conquest.
 The local people were looted and many were enslaved.
 Many people were compelled to flee their regions.
 There was harsh treatment of the local people.
 Local rulers were removed from their regional power and replaced by appointees of Menelik from among
those who played vital roles during the process of expansion.
 The conquerors were quartered over peasants.
 The peasants forced to supply the conquerors with all their domestic needs.
 The peasants had to render the conquerors a variety of labour services on their farm fields and households.
 It developed excessively exploitative and harsh neftegna-gebbar relations in the forcefully incorporated
regions.
Both forcefully and peacefully incorporated regions had faced the following situation in common:
 Faced harsh feudal exploitation.
 They had to pay heavy tributes.
 They suffered ethnic and religious oppression.
 The conquerors worked at suppressing local traditional institutions, beliefs and practices. But these attempts
were partially successful in some regions.

Expansion to the South-West, South and South East

The process of expansion and formationof the modern Ethiopian Empirewas completed during the reign
of Emperor Menelik II (r1889-1913). Menelik used the methodsof both forceful subjugation and
peaceful submission by influencing local rulers. Menelik hoped for revival of imperial authority with
wider territorial coverage, a vast empire. He pursuaded a policy of territorial expansions at an increasing
scale and great magnitude. Menlik’s policy of political reunification went beyond the old provinces of
the Christian Kingdom. It included the other peoples and states of the southern, southwestern and
southeastern regions of Ethiopia. Menelik had already begun expansion into these regions, when he was
king of Shoa. But, he completed the expansion as emperor.
During the years from 1875 to 1889, Menelik succeeded in subduing and incorporating the regions of
Gurage, Illubabor, Wollega, the Gibe states, Arsi and Harar. Most of the Oromo of western Ethiopia and
Christian Gurage were incorporated through the peaceful submission of local rulers who were promised
local autonomy. On the contrary, the Muslim Gurage, Arsi and Harar were subjugated after bloody wars
with the invading armies of Menelik. The Muslim Gurage and the Silte resisted Menelik under their
leader named Hasan Enjamo, for over a decade, until they were totally subdued in 1888. The Arsi
Oromo fought the expanding army of Menilik with great valor from 1882-86. Finally, they were
defeated at the final battle of Azule in 1886. The resistance of the Harriari and the Oromo of the
southeast were subdued after a bloody encounter at the battle of Chelenqo in January 1887.

Three events facilitated the success of Menelik's expansion as king of Shoa. These are:
 The Liche Agreement (1878) reduced the tensions with Emperor Yohannis. It freed Menelik to
concentrate on the conquest of new areas.
 The Battle of Embabo (1882) eliminated a strong rival of Menelik, king Tekle Haymanot of Gojjam,
from the resourceful regions of the southwest. Following the battle, Menelik got royal recognition to
his expansion in that direction.
 His commercial relations with the Italians, mainly after the treaty he signed with Italy in 1883,

enabled Menelik to import firearms which his troops used for suppressing rebellions and local
resistance.

Menelik's expansion also continued after he was crowned Emperor. His imperial expansion
coincided with the outbreak of the Great Famine also known as the KifuQan (1888-92). The cause of the
famine was cattle epidemics that killed hundreds of thousands of cattle. This made farming difficult, and
gradually led to famine. Famine in turn paved the way for epidemic diseases as the result of which large
numbers of people died. Many northerners moved to the relatively less affected regions of the south.
Some northerners also joined the army of Menelik, participated in his wars of expansions and settled in
the conquered regions of the south. Emperor Menelik's expansion was also motivated by the need for
mobilizing resources for the eventual war with the Italians, as we shall see below.
Wolayta, Bale, and Sidamo (other than Borana) were incorporated the coronation of Menelik. Of
these regions, Wolayta had a bloody experience with the army of Menelik. The Wolayita under Kawo
Tona, fought against a huge army of Menelik in 1894. After great human and material destruction,
accompanied by enslavement, slaughtering, burning and raids of local people, Kawa Tona was defeated
and taken as captive to Addis Ababa.
Emperor Menelik completed his expansion in the subsequent years after Adwa, between 1896-
1900. Then, the main motive was to create buffer zones between the Ethiopian interior and the adjacent
European colonies. During these years, Menelik incorporated the border areas of Ogaden, Assosa, Beni-
Shangul, Borana and the Kingdom of Kaffa. Kaffa was a strong feudal kingdom that survived long
history of repeated attempts at subjugation by the Christian Highland Kingdom and the rulers of the
neighboring Oromo states. The peoples of Kaffa under their local king Tato Gaki Serocho strongly
resisted the army of Menelik. Ras Wolde Giyorgis supported by some local Oromo rulers of
Southwestern Ethiopia, eventually crushed Kaffa in 1897.

Menelik's territorial expansion enlarged the size of his empire. The present shape and map of
modern Ethiopia is the result of the military expansion discussed above and the demarcation of the
country's boundaries with the neighboring colonial powers in the years 1896-1908. The formation of the
modern Ethiopian Empire had become an accomplished fact by 1900.
The fates of the peoples and rulers of the newly incorporated regions were decided based on the
nature of their reactions to the expansion of Menelik. Areas whose rulers had peacefully submitted to the
conquerors were saved from raids, devastations and enslavement of the local peoples. They were, at
least initially, spared from the quartering of Menelik's soldiers known as the neftegna. Local rulers of
these regions were allowed to keep their positions and exercise autonomous administrations. They were
required to pay fixed annual tributes to the central government. On the contrary, wherever the royal
army met resistance, there was harsh treatment of the local people. Besides bloodshed and destruction
during the wars of conquest, the local people were looted and many were enslaved. Many others were
compelled to flee their regions. Local rulers were removed and replaced by appointees of Menelik from
among those who played vital roles during the process of expansion. The conquerors were quartered
over peasants. The peasants had to supply the conquerers with all their domestic needs. They had to
render them a variety of labour services on their farm fields and households. Thus, an excessively
exploitative and harsh neftegna-gebbar relations developed in these regions.
In both cases, however, the incorporated regions faced harsh feudal exploitation. They had to pay
heavy tributes. They suffered ethnic and religious oppression. The conquerers worked at suppressing
local traditional institutions, beliefs and practices. These attempts were partially successful in some
regions.

The battle of Matama cleared the way for Menelik II to be king of kings of Ethiopian in 1889 and ruled until
1913. The creation of modern Ethiopian Empire which had been started by Tewodros II and then continued by
Yohannes IV was completed by Empire Menelik II who achieved his plans through a large scale territorial
expansion which was already embarked on while he was king of Showa.
Menelik II achieved his territorial expansion by employing two different methods. They were:
 Mercy or peace full submission, and
 Swords (forceful subjugation).
In terms of periods, Menelik’s territorial expansion was divided into three stages.
4. The first stage
It was while Menelik was the king of Showa (1870s-1889). During this stage:
 Northern Guraghe,
 The five Gibe Oromo states (Jimma, Gomma, Gumma, Gera and Limmu-Enarya)
 Wallaga Oromo, Leqa Naqamte, Leqa Qelam
 Shewa Oromo and
 Illu Abba Bora were peacefully incorporated to Menelik’s territory
From 1888-1892, there was no territorial expansion due to the Great Famine (Kifu Qan) in Ethiopia. Forcefully
subjugated states during the first stage were:
 Arsi after defeated at battle of Azule in1886,
 Harar after defeated at the battle of Chelenqo in 1887, and
 Western Guaraghe (1888),
5. The Second Stage (1889-1896)
 Walayta (1894) was forcefully subjugated.
6. The third phase (1896 -1900).
 Kafa (1897),
 Ogaden,
 Borena, and the Shiekdom states (Assosa, Komosha,and Bela-Shangul), were incorporated during
this stage following the battle of Adwa.
Power Struggle, the Rise of Absolutism and External Relation
As has already been described earlier, the year 1906 was a landmark in the history of the reign of Menelik II.
Because Menelik suffered from his first stroke that left him partly paralyzed. Thus, since 1906 he was not an
effective ruler of Ethiopia though he had lived until his death in 1913. Ras Mekonnen, Menelik's cousin also died
in 1906. He was the expected heir to the throne because Menelik had no son viable to throne. Zewditu was
Menelik's daughter but her sex prevented her from becoming heir. Thus, the dying emperor was always
concerned about his heir particularly since 1906. On the other hand his wife, Empress Taytu, was appropriating
conditions to accumulate power in her hands after his death.
In 1906, too, in addition to the palace crisis that brought about the power struggle among followers of Tayitu and
Lij Iyasu, Ethiopia also faced foreign threat for British, Italy and France, which signed the Tripartite Treaty in
the same year. The main objective of the signatory powers of the treaty was to avert or avoid possible conflict of
interest among themselves and to block Germany’s economic penetration in Ethiopia. In this case, they agreed
mutual recognition of each other. France was recognized to build Djibouti-Addis Ababa Rail Way. Britain was
recognized on Nile Basins and its source whereas Italy recognized to build rail way that expected to connect
Eritrea and Italo-Somaliland.

As a response for the proposals of the foreign threat, being on the bed, Menelik took two measures. To show the
continuation imperial succession he declared Lij Iyasu as his heir. To show that Ethiopia was a modern country
and strong enough, the emperor also established the first Council of Ministers in October 1907.

Due to the uncertainty of his health, Emperor Menelik wanted to nominate a successor to the throne. Among the
possible candidates for succeeding Menelik were his daughter, Zewditu, and his grandson by Shewaregga
Menelik, Iyasu. But Zewditu was disqualified because of her sex. Now, the only viable candidate was Iyasu.
Thus, the emperor hoped to be succeeded by Iyasu. But Menelik faced another problem in connection with his
proposal of nomination.

The Challenges of Taytu

Empress Taytu had no offspring who born to Menelik II. Thus, she saw political power for herself and her
relatives in the candidate for the throne. To this end, she married her niece, Mentewab Walle , to Ras Mekonen.
But Mekonen’s death in 1906 upset her long term plan. After the death of Mekonen, she married her nephew,
Gugsa Wolle, to the daughter of Menelik, Zewditu, considering he candidature for the throne in the event of
Menelik’s death. She hopped to secure political power for her family through this marriage tie. Menelik seem to
have understood that the political ambition of Empress Taytu would bring a challenge to the political supremacy
of the Shewan dynasty.

Therefore, in 1909, Menelik designated his grandson, Lij IyasuMichael, as heir. Iyasu was son Shewareged,
(Menelik’s daughter. This indicates that Menelik faced the problem of succession because he had no son to
succeed his power.

Menelik’s choice of Lij Iyasu did not satisfy both the showan nobilities and Taytu. The Shewan nobilities feared
that since Iyasu was a 12 years old kid, his father, Michael (the strongest king of Wollo) might use his son as an
opportunity for his political ascendancy. But the Shewan nobility accepted the case because it was the order of
Menelik and the choice of Shewan noble, Ras BitwadedTassama Nadaw as the regent of Iyasy. The Shewan
nobility hoped that Tassama Nadaw could maintain their political interests. For Taytu, however, the choice of
Iyasu created a source of great axiety because his father, Ras Michael had hostile relations with her brother and
ruler of Yeju, Ras Wolle. Menelik tried to appease the empress by a marriage arrangement of her grand niece
Romanworq Mengesha Yohannes, with Lij Iyasu, which did not bear fruit.

To secure her political interest, Taytu arranged wave of political marriage. In 1909, she made shum
shir(propositions and demotions) against the Council of Ministers. Taytu behaved as an actual head of state
making decisions on behalf of sick husband. Her shum shirsincluded the old nobility like FitawrariHabte
Giorgis and NegadrasHaile Giorgis, Ministers of war and commerce respectively. In the stead of them, she
promoted her relatives to key positions.

Taytu’s shum shir became the threats of the old Shewan nobility. Therefore, the Shewan nobility arranged strong
opposition against Taytu. Moreover, to give the opposition the character of public movement, the Mehal
Sefariwere agitated to lead a demonstration. The Mehal Sefariconsistedof different military units and civil
servants attached to the palace. To remove Taytu from power, Abune Mathewos (the bishop) blessed the
opposition. In March 1910, the empress was removed from power through coup d’état and was restricted to take
care for her dying husband. Since then, she exiled to the church of St. Marry at Intoto where she died in 1918.

The period of Lij Iyasu (1913-1916)

Practically the reign of Lej Iyasu was started in 1911. This was because Iyasu’s regent, Ras Tassama was died in
this year. The official reign of Lej Iyasu was came to being in 1913 following the death of Emperor Menelik II.
Lij Iyasu met internal and external oppositions
A. Internal oppositions were:
 Personal weakness
 Polygamous marriage
 Lack of attention to government issues
 Rumor to his abandonment of Christianity
 Attempt to weaken Orthodox church
The above criticisms were emanated from old Showan officials of Menelik
Root causes of the internal opposition to lij Iyasu
 Lij Iyasu’s attitude towards the Old nobilities of Menelik
 Iyasus’s political measures that were seen as threats to Showan political supremacy
 Iyasu had no respect for old Showan nobilities
 His demotion and promotions
N.B: Of all his measures, the one that was considered to be the most serious political threat to the Showan interest
was the coronation of his father Ras Mikael. In 1914 Ras Makael was made Negus of Wollo and Tigray, later in
1915. He was made negus of Begemidir and Gojjam
B. External Challenges to Iyasu
Due to his method he used in his foreign policy
Challenge from British, France and Italy
Two policies of Iyasu antagonized these powers
 His friendly relation with Germany and Ottoman Turkey - mortal enemies of British, France and Italy
during WWI
 Iyasus’s moral and material support to the Somali nationalist Sayyid Mohammed Abdile Hassen, who had
waged a war of resistance against British and Italian colonialism in Somaliland

British secretly assisted the Showan nobilities to carry out the coup.
Iyasu’s father, king Michael of Wollo had tried to avert the condition, and met the Showan force at the battle of
Segele in1916, but he was defeated by the Showan force. The victory of Segele marked the restoration of Showan
political supremacy.

Iyasu was succeeded by Empress Zewditu-daughter of Menelik II. She crowned Feb 11, 1917. To avoid possible
problem of succession, the Showan nobility nominated the son of Ras Mekonnen. By this succession
arrangement, a woman took the imperial crown for the first time in the Ethiopian history. The reason why the
Showan nobility nominated woman crown Zewditu were:
 Zewditu was a suitable choice for the Showan nobility as she was politically less ambitious
 As a daughter of Menelik, Zewditu could maintain their interests

The Diarchy (1917-1930)

It refers to the period of dual rule from 1917-1930. During this period, two centers of power emerged: Zewditu
and Ras Tefferi. Zewditu was the empress, but her heir and regent Taffari, exercised extensive powers. Thus, the
period has often been referred to as the diarchy
The diarchy was not free from political crisis due to the persistent power struggle between two political groups:
 The Traditionalist (Conservatives) represented by Zewditu. Old nobilities
 The Progressives (Modernizer) represented by Taffari. Young and educated
The Traditionalists
 Defended the old order of socio-economic political and religious system
 They opposed the growing power of Taffari
  They opposed modernization
 They opposed extensive diplomatic relation
 They opposed foreign investment in Ethiopia

Comparatively Zewditu was passive in political interests and she had no administrative experience where as
Teferi had more educational background as well as administrative and political experience than Zewditu. Teferi
was supported by educated Ethiopian elites and foreigners due to his educational background; administrative and
rich political experiences.

Emergence of Autocracy in Ethiopia (1930 -1935)

Autocracy:
 The term autocracy refers to a political system in which power has concentrated in the hands of one ruler.
 The government of Emperor Haile Selassie was an autocratic state.
 Haile Selassie built his government with a highly centralized system of rule.
 He exercised unlimited power.
 The coronation of Ras Tafari Negus in 1928 and Emperor in 1930 marked the beginning of Haile Selassie's
autocracy.
 Once he secured virtual control of power, the emperor introduced many changes and reforms aimed at laying
the foundation for an autocratic rule.
To highly centralize power and build autocratic rule, Emperor Haile Selassie took the following actions:
I. Introduced the Constitution of 1931
 The first written constitution of Ethiopia was introduced in 1931.
 The 1931 Constitution served as a legal basis of the incipient autocratic state.
 According to one of the Emperor's speeches of the time, the reasons for the introduction of the constitution
were the need for:
 regulating the relations between the monarchy and the nobility,
 establishing friendly relations with foreign powers, and
 keep 'fair rule' and guarantee 'justice' for the people.
These reasons point to a combination of internal and external factors behind the need for the Constitution.
Internally, the Emperor wanted to resolve the:
 challenge of regional forces to the central government, and
 problem of succession.
Externally, he wanted to demonstrate:
 his interest to modernize the country.
 the concern for fair justice for people.
However, the constitution was more of a white-wash constitution than a genuine conviction. Above all, the
Constitution was intended to be a legal instrument of Haile Selassie's incipient autocratic rule.

The Constitution gave extensive powers to the emperor. He was empowered to:
 appoint and dismiss civil and military officials,
 declare or end wars,
 establish a parliament which he could convene or disband at his own will,
 decide on the size of the army and command it,
 issue decrees and sign treaties in the absence of Parliament.
Thus, the Constitution reserved the imperial throne only for the family of Haile Selassie I and his descendants.
The two houses of the parliament established by the constitution:
 The Parliament established by the constitution had two houses known as the Chamber of Senate and the
Chamber of Deputies.
 Members of the Parliament were not elected through universal adult suffrage.
 The masses of the Ethiopian peoples were not given the right to vote in elections.
 Instead, the Senators were appointed by the emperor from among the nobility, princes, judges, ministers and
other high-ranking civil and military officials.
 The Deputies were nominated by the nobility and local chiefs.
 The Constitution stated that this was to continue until the Ethiopian peoples were able to elect members of
Parliament.
The Constitution:
 Greatly reduced the political power of the hereditary nobility of provinces.
 However, it still respected their economic privileges, such as the rights over tributary lands.
 Did not allow nobilities to sign treaties with foreigners, and import arms and decorations without the
permission of the Emperor.
 Obliged the nobility to defend the throne and the Constitution.
Additional provisions of the constitution:
 The Constitution also consisted of the rights and duties of citizens.
 Accordingly, Ethiopians were granted the right of free movement, security of private property, appointment to
civil and military posts and due process of law to those accused of crimes before any punishment.
 Conversely, all Ethiopian citizens had the obligation of paying government taxes and tributes and of giving
military service when the need arises.
However, the constitution did not satisfy the will of the Ethiopian people because:
 Civil rights were remained on paper.
 The Ethiopian masses were not really represented in the Parliament.
 The dominant feudal mode of production continued to be highly exploitative.
 The only beneficiary of the Constitution was the ruling class.
 The Constitution was chiefly aimed at legitimizing the autocratic rule of Haile Selassie.
II. Centralized Administration
The emergent autocratic state adopted a policy of monarchical control over the provinces. The objective of this
policy was:
To eliminate the possibility of regional challenges to the central government.
It also aimed at establishing complete control over human and material resources of all provinces in the empire.
To realize these objectives:
Local hereditary chiefs were dismissed one after the other and replaced by loyal appointed officials.
A more direct control over Wollo was established following the defeat of Negus Michael in 1916.
After the defeat of Ras Gugsa in 1930, Begemidir came under the direct control of the central monarchy.
The local dynasties of Gojjam and Jimma lost their autonomy in 1932 and 1933, respectively.
The only region that was allowed to continue to be ruled by descendants of local hereditary chiefs was Tigrai.
Tigrai was governed by the grandsons of Emperor Yohannis IV, Ras Seyoum Mengesha and Ras Gugsa
Araya.
Emperor Haile Selassie tried his best to win the loyalty of the Tigrean princes through political marriages.
At the center, state was committed to the improvement of its bureaucracy and consolidation of power. To this end:
 Efforts were made at the expansion of modern education in Addis Ababa and the provinces.
 Graduates from local schools, and foreign educated Ethiopians were appointed to different administrative,
financial, diplomatic and military posts.
 Other than Ethiopians, a number of foreign advisors were also employed in different ministries.
III. Centralized Economy
To revitalize the economy, the incipient autocratic state centralized the financial resources. Reforms were
introduced to collect the two major sources of state income known as land tax andtax on goods. Under the new
state:
 Land sale became a common practice.
 In the southern provinces, the process of land sale farther reduced peasants to landless tenants.
 The tenants had to pay rent for cultivating the land which formerly belonged to them.
 They had no right on the land, and eviction from land was common in these regions.
 The government also encouraged settlement on uncultivated lands through exemption from tax for some
years.
 This gradually increased the size of lands that paid taxes.
 Finally in 1935, the government began the practice of collecting fixed taxes in cash at the rate of 30 Maria
Theresa talers per gasha (40 hectares of land).
 Tributes in kind and labor gradually changed to cash payment.
Likewise:
 The land tax and the income from goods tax were centralized.
 Traditional customs posts were reduced in number.
 The government established its own customs posts, at which its own officials were in charge.
 Rules and regulations were set for the collection of taxes.
 Customs officials were regulated and supervised by the central administration of customs and commerce.
IV. Made Military Reforms
Eliminated regional forces, one after the other, which helped Emperor Haile Selassie to embark upon the
creation of a national army.
The army served the autocratic state as a major force of control over its own people.
The state also reorganized military training.
In 1930, the Ethiopian government began the training of the Imperial Bodyguard by Belgian officers.
The main unit of the bodyguard was stationed in Addis Ababa, but sub-units were also formed in the
provinces.
The troops of the Imperial Bodyguard were the most privileged ground troops in the country.
In 1934, the first modern military academy for the training of officers was opened at Holeta Gennet, on the
way to Ambo, the province in Shoa.
The trainees were recruited from schools to be trained for three years.
Instructors of the officers' school came from Sweden.
In addition to training at Holeta Genet, few young Ethiopians were sent to Europe for advanced military
training.
However, the outbreak of the Italo - Ethiopian War in 1935 soon forced the closure of Holeta School.
3.3. Socio-Economic Developments 1906 -1935
Despite the protracted political crisis that emanated from internal power struggle, the modern Empire of Ethiopia
also saw wide range of socio- economic developments, during the first three decades of the 20th century.
I. Urbanization
 One significant development was urbanization.
 The process of urbanization had already begun in the last quarter of the 19th century.
 During that period, the expanding army of Emperor Menelik established many garrison centers in the newly
conquered and incorporated regions.
 These garrison centers gradually evolved into Ketemas, (towns).
 These later grew into provincial towns.
 The capital of the Empire itself, Addis Ababa, was founded in 1886.
 The site where Addis Ababa founded was Empress Taytu's choice.
 The expansion and development of Addis Ababa was, however, a post-Adwa phenomenon.

Factors contributed to the expansion of Addis Ababa:

 The relative peace and internal stability that followed the Adwa victory, encouraged settlement of different
social classes in the capital.
 Job seekers and foreign nationals, diplomats and merchants were settled.
 As the result of this settlement churches, markets and different modern institutions were established.
  The completion of the construction of the Djibouti - Addis Ababa railway, in 1917, contributed to urban
development.
 In the provinces crossed by the railway line, a number of stations like Dire Dawa, Miesso, Nazreth
(Adama), Modjo and Debre Zeit (Bishoftu) grew into big commercial centers.
II. Trade
The introduction of the railway facilitated:
 The revival of external trade through Djibouti.
 Important channel for the introduction of foreign technology, ideas and culture.
 Transportation and efficient administration in the regions along the railway.
 The increase of European powers interests which had colonies adjacent to Ethiopia to maintain and expand
commercial relations with the country.
However, Ethiopia's external trade was dominated by foreign merchants consisting of Indians, Greeks,
Armenians, and Syrians.
The ruling family and the business:
 Some members of the ruling class began to involve in business undertakings such as:
money lending,
hotel,
taxi transport,
cinema,
banking, etc.
 These members of the ruling class saw changes in their way of life.

They adopted a new mode of consumption, leisure and easy life.

 This was accompanied by privatization and sale of land, cash payment of taxes and tributes, and
accumulation of capital.
The peasants under the new condition:
 The new transformation worsened the condition of the peasantry more than ever.
 The amount of tribute peasants had to pay in cash, kind and labour grew quickly.
 Land sales drove away peasants from their own farms, or reduced them to tenancy.
 Life became increasingly difficult, particularly in the newly incorporated regions of the empire.
 The state attempt at the eradication of slave trade and the abolition of corvée labour were continued. Yet,
these reforms brought no significant improvement on the life of the common people and peasants.
III. Modern Communication and Social Services
To ensure the efficient administration of the vast Ethiopian Empire:
Emphasis was first given to the import of modern communications technology such as telephone,
telegraph and postal services were introduced before the close of the 19th century.
These were followed by the introduction of the motor car in 1904.
Bank of Abyssinia was introduced 1905.
Menelik II School was opened in 1908.
Menelik II hospital was established in 1910 and different small scale industries and public services were
introduced.
The Addis Abana Djibouti railwayconstruction completed in 1917
Generally, modern technology was not an outcome of indigenous inventions. The main agents of technical
innovation in the country, the craftsmen were ostracized /disliked, looked down upon and associated with evil
spirits and practices by traditional Ethiopian society. There was no incentive for creativity. Hence, modern
technology was totally imported from advanced countries. Even then, it was only the few urban centers, which
benefited from the changes introduced.
.

6.3. Modernization
Emperor Tewodros II had implemented the followingreforms policies
A/ Administrative Reforms
 Tewodros II was the first Ethiopian who had an ambition to reunify the decentralized or disintegrated
Ethiopian regions during Zemene Mesafint
 He attempted to create a unified, centralized and strong modern state by giving an end to Zemene Mesafint
 In his policy of administration, Tewodros II followed strong (strict) centralization.
 He centralized taxation (forced regional lords to pay tax to central government)
 He ended the supremacy of regional lords over their lands.
 He forced regional lords to be his subordinates by eliminating their privilege political and economic rights.
 He did not want to see any strong regional lord like lords of Zemene Mesafint
 His policy of reunification was only one and inflexible (rigid), which was use of force to subjugate
regions.
Note:
Emperor Tewodros dreamt of restoring imperial power and began his imperial career with implementation of two
major policies. These were:
1. Political reunification, and
2. Modernization
Tewodros’s campaigns to different regions of Ethiopia to convince the submission and subordination of
regional lords

 Immediately after his coronation, Tewodros II first marched to Wollo to subjugated the Wollo lords
 However, the campaigning to Wollo was followed by stiff resistances from Wollo lords for about 6 months.
 Tewodros II made repeated campaigns to Wollo even during rainy seasons and during fasting
 By Wollo campaign, Tewodros had failed to bring about the submission of Wollo.
 The second Tewodros’s campaign was towards Shewa that led to the battle of Bereket in Shewa in 1855
where Tewodros defeated the force of Haile Melekot (of course, Haile Melekot had died a little before the
battle of Bereket)
 Tewodros’s campaign against Shewa had also took 5 months
Tewodros’s administrative policy lacked consistency and method because:
 In Tigrai, he gave autonomous right (hereditary dynastic right), almost a full right
 The Tigrian lord was the only loyal regional lord to the emperorship of Tewodros II and the largest
revenue to the Tewodros was came from Tigrai. This was due to the fact that the defeat of Wube by Kassa
had led to the release of the father of the leader Tigrian province.
 Tewodros’s appointee in Shewa was a hand-picked man named MeridazmachHaile Michael (however,
the Shewan dynastic was not as such autonomous like the Tigrai
 There were also some hereditary dynastic rulers in Wollo
 Nevertheless, recognition of local dynasties does not mean continuity with the old practices in the old way
like Zemene Mesafint
 He made all regional lords subordinate to him
 But, in contrast with the above regions, Tewodros denied applying dynastic rule in Gojjam, and he
appointed his loyal military generals and civilian over there.
Note:
Tewodros’s campaigns against different regions were always resulted in:
 Subduing one region after another through protracted and punitive military expeditions.
 Military victories
 Continuous local rebellion that drove the Emperor Tewodros to launch further expeditions
  Repeated military expeditions that were accompanied by very harsh treatment of captives throughout his
reign.
 Treated rebellious regions very harshly, punishing most commonly with the cutting off captives’ limbs,
burning houses and harvests to ashes and looting the local people.
Note:
The more harsh Tewodros became, the more multiplied were the rebellions and his unpopularity. This in turn,
provoked more tyrannical measures by the emperor. Thus, a vicious circle was created, the cumulative effect of
which was a complete failure of his policy of unification.
B/ Religious Reforms
 Initially, Tewodros II had a positive relation with the Ethiopian Orthodox Church.
 He tried to end religious controversies in by different Orthodox Christian sects but failed to resolve the
crisis.
 As time went, however, Tewodros’s modernization demand in the military and administrative sectors
pushed him to confiscate church’s land, and followed by the reduction of the number of priests and
deacons into 2, and 3 respectively.
 Even though king Tewodros declared the Tewahido Orthodox Christianity as the official state religion, his
desire to pay salary to his military officials and the tribute he required from the church were the major
reasons for the disagreement between the king and the church.
 The emperor and church’s quarrel reached its peak when Abuna Salama was impressed by Tewodros in
1864
Then, the king reduced church’s land and gave it to tribute paying peasants because at a time the major
source of state’s revenue was land tax pained by land cultivators
 Tewodros did not want to see Islam religion follower. Relatively the king preferred protestant religion
than Catholic religion followers because he hoped that the Protestants would challenge the controversies
in the Ethiopian Orthodox Church. Generally, Tewodros did not follow the policy of religious tolerance.
C/ Military Reforms
Kassa Hailu’s dream to have a modern firearm, a well trained, a well disciplined, and a well-organized modern
national standing army was born at the battle of Dabarqi in 1848 in Gondar where he was defeated by the well
trained, and better-armed Egyptian force. Therefore, in his military reforms, Tewodros:
 Had attempted to organize a nationals standing army recruited from all regions under his control
 Wanted to import the technical know-how for manufacturing firearms locally and to opened military
school at Gafat, at which he forced European missionaries to manufacture mortar (Sebastopol). Therefore,
Gafat military academy near Dabre Tabor and the manufactured mortar represented the climax of
Tewodros’s modernization.
 wanted to see his countrymen learn from the technical advance made by west European countries
  Had the dream to end Egyptian (whom he called Turkish) encroachment towards Ethiopia
 Had the ambition to remove Turkish from Red Sea region of Ethiopia
 Became the first Ethiopian ruler, who for the first time tried to manufacture firearm
 Gave the new military to his soldiers (ye hamsa Aleqa, ye aser Aleqa, Ye Mata Aleqa, and ye Shaleqa)
 Tried to ban (end) looting of rebels or peasants by his soldiers
 Tried to salaries his soldiers
D/ Social Reforms
The social reforms introduced by King Tewodros II were:
 Declaration of Amharic language to be an official working or state language replacing Geez,
 Condemnation of polygamy,
 Attempt to end slavery and slave trade.
 Attempt to end looting of local rebels during resistance crushing

Emperor Yohannes IV
 Appointed foreign consul as representative of Ethiopia in London.
 Hired French mechanic, a Hungarian gunsmith and Italian construction worhers
 Introduced modern style of vaccine against small pox and tried to prevent the spread of syphilis
 Tried to resolve doctrinal disputes within Ethiopian Orthodox Church by arranging the Boru
Meda religious conference
Modernization efforts of Emperor Menelik II
Modern communications technology such as telephone, telegraph and postal services were introduced
before the close of the 19th century.
Motor car was introduced in 1904.
Bank of Abyssinia was opened in 1905.
Taytu Hotel opened in in 1907
Ministerial system introduced in 1907
Menelik II School was opened in 1908.
Menelik II hospital was established in 1910 and different small scale industries and public services were
introduced.
The construction of Addis Ababa Djibouti railway completedand 1917.
Reforms of Lij Iyasu
 the introduction municipal nicknamed Terunbule,
 the abolition of Quragna and Leba Shay systems
 the guaranteeing of Muslims’ freedom to practice their religion freely
 Introduction of secular education.
 He modified the traditional method of tithe (Asrat) collection
  He established a modern municipal police force
 Introduce government auditing system
Lebashaywas system was a traditional method of detecting thefts whereas Quragna system was the system
thattied the accuser and accusant together until justice was given.
Reforms taken by Ras Taffari
 Expanded modern education
 Established printing press
 Welcomed foreign investors and missionaries
 Made Ethiopia member of League of Nations in 1923
 Anti-slave trade decree was issued
 Extensive tour in Europe
 Introduced airplane to Ethiopia in 1929

6.2. Defending sovereignty and territorial integrity

2.4. 2.The Treaty of Wuchale, and the Birth of Eritrea as an Italian Colony, and the
Battle of Adwa
The Early contact of Italy and Shewa:
Italo-Shoan relations had officially started in 1876. At this time, an Italian Geographical Society under Antinori,
came to shoa. Menelik gave the Italians a camping site at Let Marefia in Shoa. That site, however, was used as a
station and a base of intelligence work in Ethiopia. In 1883, an Italian envoy Count Antonelli and King Menelik
signed the Treaty of Commerce and Friendship. The major objective of the treaty was to strengthen the Assab -
Shoa trade. In the treaty, Shewa and Italy agreed upon:
 consular exchange,
 free movement of people,
 free trade, and
 free propagation of religion.
Wuchale Treaty:
 It was signed on 2 May 1889 between Italy and Ethiopia.
 The treaty was named Wuchale, a place in northern Wollo where it was signed.
 Count Pietro Antonelli represented Italy and Emperor Menelik represented Ethiopia.
Reasons why Emperor Menelik's to seek Wuchale Treaty with Italy:
 Firstly, the Italians had already occupied a considerable part of the Mereb Melash region before the signing of
Wuchale Treaty. As Menelik had not yet established a firm imperial power over his empire, Menelik seemed
to have found it difficult to dislodge Italians by force.
 Secondly, Menelik feared that any disagreement with the Italians would result in their subversive activity
among his rivals for the throne, mainly the Tigrean princes like Ras Mengesha Yohannis.
Articles of the Wuchale treaty:
 The treaty has 20 articles.
 Article three of the treaty deals with the boundary delimitation between Ethiopian and Italian which occupied
Merb Melash (some parts of Eritrea).
  By article 3, the Italians were promised considerable territories in the region of the Mereb Mellash as far as
Asmara. Yet, they were not satisfied with this.

Additional Convention signed to support the Wuchale Treaty:

 The Additional Convention was signed in October 1889 between Italy and Ras Mekonnen who went to Rome
to get the ratification of the Wuchale treaty.
 By the Additional Convention, the Italians inserted in the convention the clause of "Effective Occupation".
This clause stated that boundary demarcation would depend on the basis of actual possession where Italian
soldiers controlled. This allowed the Italians to occupy more and advance further south as far as the Mereb
River.
 By late 1889 Italians had taken control of all areas north of the Mereb River which they declared to be their
colony of Eritrea on 1 January 1890.
 Menelik's protest over the violation of the boundary agreement bore no fruit.
Article XVII (17) of Wchale Treaty
Article seventeen of the Wuchale Treaty was about the role of Italy in Ethiopian's foreign relations. The Italians
wanted to use this Article as a legal document for their claim of protectorate over Ethiopia. Article Seventeen of the
Treaty was written in two contradictory versions. The Amharic version says Ethiopia could use the services of Italy in
her foreign relations with Europe, whereas the Italian version bound Menelik to make all his foreign contacts
through the agency of Italy. By implication, the Italian version of Article Seventeen reduced Ethiopia to the status of
an Italian protectorate. Accordingly, in October 1889 Italy notified the major powers of Europe that Ethiopia had
become her protectorate. Most of them recognized the Italian protectorate claim based on Article Seventeen. Only
Russia and France had reservations and opposed the Italian claim.

Menelik’s reaction against the Italian version of Article XVII of Wuchale Treaty:
 Emperor Menelik was unwilling to accept the loss of his sovereign right.
 He requested the Italian King, Umberto of Italy to correct the Italian version of Article Seventeen.
 Italy was not willing to change the Italian version and tried its best to convince Menelik to accept it.
 Menelik, however, notified European powers the fact that he was a ruler of an independent nation and that he
had no obligation to use Italy in foreign relations. Nor did he accept the Italian version despite repeated
attempts to convince him.
 In February 1893, he declared the abrogation of the Wuchale Treaty, and notified major European powers
including Italy.
The continuation of Italian subversive activities to win Ethiopian collaborators on the side of Italy:
 When Menelik declared the abrogation of Wchule Treaty, the Italians were engaged in subverting local
peoples and above all the Tigrean princes.
 In December 1891, they met RasMengesha Yohannis and other Tigrean local rulers near River Mereb and
managed to conclude what they called the Mereb convention, in which they had sworn an oath of friendship.
 Generally, however, the Italian policy of subversion failed.
 The submersion was failed because the Eritrean people including collaborators were against Italian racist
activities and above all their policy of white settlement on peasant lands.
 The Tigrean regional rulers, too, soon broke their allegiance.
 RasMengesha and RasAlula left the Italians and renewed their loyalty to Menelik in June 1894.
 In December of 1894, the Italians faced a peasant rebellion in Akale Guzay, in Eritrea, under the leadership of
their former collaborator, Dejazmach Bahta Hagos.
 The rebellion was crushed, but it led to further resistance to Italian colonialism.
 The Italians also fought with RasMenegsha at the battles of Qoatit and Senafe in 1895.

The Battle of Adwa (1896)

The fundamental/basic cause of the battle of Adwa was the Italian ambition to colonize Ethiopia whereas its
immediate cause was Italian version of Article XVII of Wuchale Treaty.
 Italians were unwilling to abrogate the Wuchale Treaty which was abrogated by Emperor Menelik in
1893.
 They also refused to renounce/stop their colonial ambition.
 Emperor Menelik and his wife Taytu preferred war rather than surrendering the sovereignty their country.
To this end, for the eventual war with Italy:
 Menelik mobilized human and material resources.
 His wife organized women and engaged them in making utensils, clothes, and stock traditional medicines.
 In September 1895, Menelik issued a general mobilization order.
The eve of the Battle of Adwa:
 At the command of more than 100,000 soldiers and camp-followers of both sexes, Menelik marched
northwards to fight the Italians that had already controlled Tigrai.
 The people of Ethiopia rose against the invaders.
 Menelik led a united Ethiopians against the Italians.
 Contingents were sent from almost all regions of Ethiopia.
 Half of the Italian troops commanded at the battle were askaris/colonial soldiers recruited from Eritrea.
The first phase,7 December 1895:
 It was the battle at which the Menelik’s advancing troops crushed an Italian army at the battle of
Ambalage in southern Tigrai.
 The surviving Italians from the battle retreated to the north and joined with an army that was fortified at
Mekele.
 At the battle, Italian war commander named Toseli was killed by Fitwarary Gebeyehu.
The second phase was the Mekele Besiege (1896):
 It was proposed or architected by Empress Taytu to besiege the Italian fortification of Mekele.
 Mekele besiege closed/cut off the Italians from their access to water and other supplies for two weeks.
 As a result, Italianseventually surrender Mekele fort to the Ethiopians and driven out of Mekele.
The third phase (the battle of Adwa) that took place on 1 March 1896:
 It was the major battle and the decisive engagement lasted for one full day.
 At the battle:
 Ethiopian troops displayed a high degree of courage and unity.
 Local people, including former collaborators of Italy, showed their support to the Ethiopian
fighting force in different ways.
 The collaborators supplied misleading maps and information to the Italians.
 The Ethiopian women supplied water and arms to the fighters and encouraged them to fight with
determination.
 The women carried the wounded Ethiopian fighters to camps, and some joined their menfolk in
actual combat.
 Empress Taytu commanded her own contingent fighting force.
 The battle of Adwa was extremely bloody.
 The Italians lost the battle whereas Ethiopians won it.
Factors contributed for the defeat of Italians/the victory of Ethiopians at the Battle of Adwa:
1. Ethiopians’:
 numerical superiority;
 moral support rendered by clergies, women and minstrels/traditional singers;
 strong moral, unity and commitment;
 the role of double-agents/Italian collaborators such as Basha Awalom;
 proper coordination;
 geographical advantage and proper geographical knowledge;
 better military strategy.
 Pre-University Remedial Programme History module for the 2014
E.C ESSLCE Examinees

2. Italians’:
 used false information and false map;
 lacked proper knowledge of Ethiopian topography;
 underestimated the Ethiopian unity;
 weak and poor military leadership at battles;
 lack of coordination among Italian brigades; and
 Italians wrong military strategy.
The Consequences of the victory of Adwa:
1. On the Ethiopian side:
 Out of 100,000 troops, 7000 soldiers died;
 Complete victory over Italians;
 Adwa victory become source of national pride and dignity;
 Guaranteed the full political independence of Ethiopia;
 Major colonial powers, including Italy recognized the independence of Ethiopia;
 Adwa victory motivated Emperor Menelik to complete his expansion by incorporating Kaffa,
Belashangul, Ogaden and the rest of Ethiopia;
 Further consolidated the Ethiopians unity and solidarity;
 The Victory at Adwa Battle attracted foreign diplomatic relation to Ethiopia;
 Accordingly, different foreign diplomatic powers opened their legations in Ethiopia/Addis
Ababa.These countries were:
 Italy – 1896
 Britain- 1897
 France- 1897
 USA - 1903
 Germany- 1905
 European colonial powers in the neighboring countries of Ethiopia such as in Sudan, Kenya,
Somalia and Djibouti signed treaties of boundaries delimitation with Ethiopia. These colonial
powers which signed treaties of boundary delimitation with Ethiopia as the result of the Ethiopian
victory at Adwa were:
 Italy in Eritrea in 1900, 1902, 1908;
 France in Somaliland (Djibouti) in March 1907;
 Anglo-Egyptian in Sudan in 1902;
 British East Africa (Kenya) 1907;
 Italian Somaliland in 1908.
 Addis Ababa Peace Treaty was signed between Ethiopia and Italy.
The Addis Ababa Peace Treaty:
 It was concluded between Ethiopia and Italy 7 months after the battle of Adwa on 26 October 1896.
The most important provisions of the agreement/the treaty included:
 It concluded/ended Italo- Ethiopian war of 1896;
 Italy totally accepted the abrogation/cancelation of Wuchale Treaty;
 Allowed Italy to continue the Eritrea control or domination;
 Italy agreed to recognize the absolute independence of Ethiopia;
 Ethiopia and Italy also agreed to observe the boundary along the rivers of Mereb, Belessa and
Muna;
 Ethiopia agreed to release the Italian war prisoners,
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 However, the treaty postponed/left the boundary issue or delimitation between Italy in Eritrea
and Ethiopia for the feature.
2. On the Italians Side:
 It was a shameful scare for Italy in particular and the whites in general because the Ethiopians
victory at the battle of Adwa was the battle field at which whites were defeated by blacks for the
first time at global scale;
 Italian people opposed the their defeat and held Popular demonstration in Rome;
 Italians defeat aroused internal oppositions against the government of Francesco Crispi (the Italian
Prime Minister at a time) and it speeded up the downfall of Crispi government and overthrew the
Prime Minister from power;
 Italians lost one third out of the total number of their 20,000 troops that included native recruits
from their colony of Eritrea;
 About 2000 Italians were taken as captives of war and about 1500 troops were wounded;
 Italians were cleared out of all Tigrai and confined themselves to their colony of Eritrea;
 Italians plan of colonizing the rest of Ethiopia failed;
 General Baratori, the commander in-chief of the Italian army at battle of Adwa was imprisoned by
the Italian government;{{{{

3. The other consequences of the Battle of Adwa:

 The Adwa victory became a symbol of black dignity and self-rule.
 It inspired further black solidarity and nationalism.
 In countries of Southern Africa, it motivated the emergence of “religious separatist” movements
known as Ethiopianism.
 Ethiopianism:
 It was a preference for African churches independent from European missionary churches.
 The churches formed part of general anti-colonialist struggle.
 The echo of Adwa also inspired the early Pan-Africanist movement.
 The victory of Ethiopia at the battle of Adwa speeded up the colonization of Sudan by British.
The weakness/drawbacks of the Ethiopian victory at battle of Adwa:
 Ethiopians did not follow their victory at the battle of Adwa to withdraw Italians from Eritrea.
 Hence, Italy continued in Eritrea.
 The Ethiopian failure to withdraw Italy from Eritrea was resulted in:
 the Ethiopian loss of access to the Red Sea and ports.
 remaining of Italy in Eritrea until 1941.
 Italians use of Eritrea not only as a base for her subversive activities against Ethiopia but
also for another invasion of the country in 1935 after about 40 years.
The Tripartite Treaty:
In December 1906, the three colonial powers (Britain, France and Italy), signed what has come to be known as
the Tripartite Treaty. In this Treaty, the colonial powers defined their respective interests in Ethiopia. The
treaty was signed without the knowledge of Ethiopia. Accordingly, the signatory powers recognized:
 French interests in the Djibouti-Addis Ababa Railway,
 British interest over the Nile Basin, and
 Italian plan of constructing a railway that would link her colonies of Eritrea and Italian.

The Expansion of Egypt in the Horn of Africa

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In 1798, Egypt was invaded by Napoleon Bonaparte of France. French occupation of Egypt lasted for
only three years, but it had influenced the course of Egyptian history in the years ahead.
 Firstly, it led to the fall of the Mamluk Dynasty that ruled Egypt for six centuries.
 Secondly, it led to a joint Anglo- Ottoman military operation which expelled the French army
from Egypt in 1801.
The rise of Mohammed Ali to power in Egypt
 Liberated Egypt from France soon fell under the control of Mohammed Ali who founded a new
dynasty that ruled Egypt up to 1952.
 Mohammed Ali was a general who originally came to Egypt in command of an Albanian
contingent in the Ottoman army.
 Once he seized power, in 1805, his first goal was to establish a firm economic and political
basis for his rule.
 The next plan of Mohammed Ali was the modernization and transformation of Egypt to a
powerful state that would enable Egypt to meet the challenges posed by European powers.
 The successful implementation of this major program demanded skilled manpower and strong
financial basis.
 This was how the idea of Greater Egypt, or Egyptian expansionism in the Middle East and the
Horn of Africa was conceived by Mohammed.
 However, the expansion to the Middle East was resisted by Britain from the very beginning.
Thus, Mohammed Ali:
 Saw bright prospects in the southward expansion towards the Sudan and the neighboring regions
in Africa.
 He hoped to control the gold mines in the region and the upper waters of the Nile as well as the
areas for slave raids.
 Besides these, Mohammed Ali's expansion to the Red Sea region was aimed at controlling the
lucrative trade of the Ethiopian region.
 This was also true of his ambition to control Arabia.
The Egyptian occupation of Sudan:
 In 1821, the Egyptian army overran the Sudan.
 There were protracted Sudanese resistances to Egyptian aggression under the leadership of local
chiefs.
 However, the Funj Kingdom fell easily to Egypt mainly due to the conquerors' military
superiority and internal disunity in the Sudan.
 Egypt used the occupied Sudan as a stepping stone to attack the border western Ethiopia regions
of:
 Semen,
 Dembiya, and
 Sheikdoms of Assosa and Beni Shangul.
Ethio-Egyptian Relations from 1820s - 1872
 Ethiopia and Egypt had had religious, commercial and diplomatic relations going back to several
centuries.
 Mohammed Ali's expansion into the border regions of Ethiopia was a revival of an old Egyptian
ambition to control the source areas of the waters of the Nile.
 The Egyptian threat to Ethiopia coincided with a period of economic, political and religious crisis
of the Zemene Mesafint (1769-1855) in the Central Christian Kingdom.
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 Due to the weakness of Imperial power, the responsibility of checking Egyptian expansion fell on
the shoulders of local chiefs and peoples along the Ethio-Sudanese border.
 Thus, the Ethio-Sudan border became an area of continuous cross-border conflicts.
 In the provinces of Semen and Dembiya, the Egyptians faced strong resistance by local notables
such as:
 Dejazmach Wube of Semen,
 Dejazmach Kinfu of Quara who defeated the Egyptians at the battle of Wadqaltabu in
1837
 The rebel Kasa Hailu, (half-brother of Kinfu) fought against the Egyptian expansions at
the battle of Debarqi in 1848 but defeated by Egyptians.
 However, because of religious affinity/similarity, Egyptian expansion was more
successful among the Sheikdoms of:
 Assosa,  Guba, and
 Beni Shangul,  Khomosha.
Ethio-Egyptian conflict during Emperor Tewodros II:
 Ethio-Egyptian conflict continued during the reign of Emperor Tewodros II (r. 1855-68), the
former Kasa Hailu.
 Before he was crowned, when he was a rebel in the lowland of Quara, Kassa was defeated by
Egyptians at Debarqi in 1848.
 The Battle of Debarki left a lasting impression on Kasa.
 The incident was at the root of Tewodros' unfailing hatred for Egypt.
 His great interest in the modernization of the army and manufacture of modern arms in Ethiopia
was also partly related to the Egyptian threat.
 Of course, his military reforms were also partly aimed at subduing regional forces.
Note: The first stage/phase of Egyptian aggression against Ethiopia:
 Came from the direction of northwest and west (from the direction of Sudan),
 Small in scale compared to the second phase,
 Launched by Mohammed Ali, the then ruler of Egypt.
Egyptian Aggression on Ethiopia, 1872-1885 (The second Stage of Egyptian Aggression):
 In 1846, already Egypt had taken over possession of the port of Massawa with the official consent
of the Ottoman Sultan.
 In 1866, Egypt had officially taken Massawa by a lease contract.
 Controlling Massawa, Egypt prevented the import of arms to Ethiopia and levied heavy taxes on
Ethiopian merchants.
 In 1872, controlled Bogos, the Ethiopian land in Eritrea.
 Even worse, the Egyptians started to make attacks on areas further inland in Mereb
Mellash/Eritrea mainly after 1872.
 Thus, the Ethio-Egyptian conflict reached its peak during the second half of the 19th century or
during the reign of Emperor Yohannis IV (r.1872-1889).
 The early phase of Egyptian expansion into the border regions of north-western Ethiopia and the
Red Sea coast gave way to a more aggressive general invasion and attempt at occupation of
Ethiopia.
Khedive Ismail Pasha who ruled Egypt from 1863-1879:
 Initiated the second and more aggressive expansion of Egypt towards the territories of Ethiopian.
 The sole objective of Ismail was to build greater Egyptian empire that would come to being
through the control of waters of the Nile.
 He inherited the policy of aggressive expansion adopted by his predecessors like Mohammed Ali.
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 Under Ismail, the idea of building Greater Egypt in North-East Africa was given a new
momentous.
 He hoped to establish mastery over the Nile Valley and its sources.
 Indeed, Khedive Ismail wanted to rule the region from the Mediterranean Sea to the Equatorial
Lakes and from Chad to the Indian Ocean.
 As the source of the Blue Nile, Ethiopia became a major target of Egyptian expansion.
 Ismail sought the richest and lucrative trade routes of North-East Africa as a major source of
income to Egypt.
 To widen sources of Egyptian income, he introduced modern institutions and technical services
into Egypt.
 He also opened of the Suez Canal in 1869.
 To build modern institutions and open Suez Canal, Ismail borrowed millions of dollars from
Europe.
 The need to pay back this Egyptian debt encouraged territorial expansion into Sudan and
Ethiopia.
The second stage of Egyptian aggression on Ethiopia launched by Ismail was encouraged by
developments in Ethiopia and Europe: These were:
1. Firstly, because of the success of the 1868 British military expedition, Egypt considered Ethiopia
as a weak country unable to defend herself from enemy.
2. Secondly, Egyptians believed that the internal political turmoil and the regional rivalries,
following the death of Tewodros II had further weakened Ethiopia.
3. Thirdly, Ismail saw Europeans as friends to Egypt, who would not give military support to
Ethiopia.
Note:
 The opening of the Suez Canal, considerably added to the strategic and economic value of Egypt.
 Even more, Egypt had also opened her doors wide to European investment and trade.
 All of the above mentioned factors encouraged Egypt to take offensive measures on Ethiopia.
Werner Munzinger:
 Originally, he was a Swiss-German in citizen.
 He had served as a French Consul at Massawa on the Red Sea coast, but entered into Egyptian
service in 1871.
 His profound knowledge of the economic, political, diplomatic and religious conditions of
Ethiopia and the Red Sea region enabled him to become a major agent of the Ismail’s expansion.
 Therefore, he was architect the second stage of Egyptian aggression in Ethiopia.
 In 1871, Khedive appointed him as governor ofMassawa.
 In 1872, Munzinger led an invasion into the region of Bogos, in present day Eritrea.
 At the same time, Egyptians followed a policy of trying to get the support of Ethiopian
dissatisfied nobles against Yohannis IV.
 Nevertheless, the Egyptian attempt to get collaboration of dissatisfied Ethiopian nobles failed to
enlist many collaborators.
The Reaction of Emperor Yohannis against the Egyptan Aggression:
 On his part, Emperor Yohannis had already felt the Egyptian threat before his coronation.
 However, he was not ready for a military confrontation with Egypt because for the first three
years of his reign, he had to bring local rebellions under control and strengthen his imperial
power.
 But, he did not remain passive.
Seeking Diplomatic Solution:
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 The first reaction of Yohannis was a diplomatic campaign aimed at seeking a peaceful solution to
the Bogos crisis.
 Then as diplomatic solution, he wrote a letter to Khedive Ismail, late in July 1872.
 In the letter to Khedive Yohannis:
 protested Egyptian occupation of Bogos,
 defined his boundary in the north-east, and
 demanded the withdrawal of Egyptian troops from Ethiopia
When Khedive Ismail ignored the protest and continued to take control of more Ethiopian territories,
Yohannis continued to look for a diplomatic solution. To this end, in August 1872, Yohannis sent letters
to the rulers of:
 Britain,  Austria, and
 France,  Russia
 Germany,
In his letter to the European powers, Yohannis:
 Informed the European of the unlawful invasion of his country by Egypt, whom he accused of planning to
Islamize and enslave his people.
 Expressed his belief and hope that the Christian nations of Europe would defend his country from
Egyptian aggression.
Unfortunately, Europeans were not prepared to help Yohannis because they did not want to risk their trade and
investment in Egypt by a direct conflict with that country. On the other hand, Khedive Ismail had taken some
diplomatic measures, too. Accordingly:
 Khedive told Europe that his expansion in Ethiopia was motivated by a desire to expand Western
civilization, and
 To end slavery and slave trade.
The Europeans were inclined to believe Ismail. Hence, Yohannis was diplomatically isolated, and Europeans
remained indifferent towards his protests. They remained silent when Ismail launched a military attack on
Ethiopia in 1875. In 1875, the Egyptian invasion came from the direction of the sea along three fronts.
 An Egyptian army led by Mohammed Rauf Pasha moved from the port of Zeila and controlled the
Emirate of Harar in October 1875.
 Munzinger led a small Egyptian army of about 400 men from the port of Tajura into Afar territory in
Ethiopia.
 The aim of Muzinger’s expedition was to control the trade routes of Wollo and Shoa.
 However, almost all the soldiers of Munzinger including himself were killed in late November
1875 by the Afar people who were fiercely resisting the invaders.
 An Egyptian army of about 2500-3000 men under a mercenary from Denmark, named Colonel
Arrendrup, entered via Massawa, in the north. Though small in number, the army of Arrendrup:
 Had modern training and was well armed
 Reached the region north of the Mereb River with little resistance.
Note: The Second Stage of Egyptian Aggression of Ethiopia:
 It was a large scale aggression than the first.
 Came from the direction of the Red Sea.
Yohannis found no other alternative but to mobilize his army and defend his Empire. He declared war on Egypt
on 23 October, 1875. Within two weeks, he mobilized about 20,000 to 30,000 soldiers. On 16 November, 1875
Ethiopia and Egypt fought at the Battle of Gundet, near the Mereb River.
 The Egyptian armywas encircled and the Ethiopians scored a complete victory at Gundent.
 A large number of Egyptian soldiers, including Arrendrup were killed.
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 The Ethiopians captured arms and prisoners.

 For Egypt, the Ethiopian victory was a serious blow to her grand ambition of imperial expansion.
Ismail following his defeat at the battle of Gundet:
 He determined to avenge/revenge his defeat and began to mobilize a strong force in 1876.
 He recruited European and American generals and officers for his army.
 In 1876, about 15,000 Egyptian soldiers equipped with modern arms were sent to Ethiopia under the
commander Mohammed Rattib Pasha and the second-in- command of this army was the American
General Loring.
On his part, Yohannis did two things following his victory at Gundet:
 First, he continued to try to find a peaceful solution through European arbitration.
 Secondly, he warned Ismail to respect his borders.
When diplomacy failed to bring peace, once again, Yohannis mobilized his army for a second time. A more
bloody war than that of Gundet was fought from 7 - 9 March, 1876 at Gura.
 The Battle of Gura resulted in heavy losses on both sides.
 Ethiopia achieved a resounding victory, once again.
 Egyptians lost a significant number of arms and prisoners to the Ethiopians.
 Ethiopia scored two victories within a matter of four months.
 Yet, Ethiopia could not clear the Egyptians out of her territories.
 Yohannis left the Egyptians in some of the occupied regions of Ethiopia because:
 He did not want to endanger his military victory by advancing against them with an exhausted
army.
 His army consisted of volunteers, the majority of whom were peasants who had to return home to
cultivate their fields.
As a result, Yohannis postponed further military confrontation with Egypt to the end of Kiremt (rainy season),
and returned once again to seek a peaceful solution.
The Aftermath of Gura
The military victories of Ethiopia at the Battles of Gundet and Gura destroyed Egyptian plans of expansion in
Ethiopia. However, Ethiopia did not earn much from the battle Gundet and Gure because despite her equal
concern for a peaceful resolution to the crisis, Egypt behaved like a victor. Like a victor, Egypt:
 requested Yohannis to return arms captured from the battles
 demanded to free the prisoners of war.
 Egypt was unwilling to restore Ethiopian territories.
 She also turned down Yohannis's demand for war indemnity.
 Of course, Egypt agreed to free trade with Ethiopia.
Yohannis’s response’s to Egyptian demands:
 Released the prisoners of war.
 But, refused to return the captured weapons.
 Demanded Egypt to pay war indemnity to Ethiopia.
 Thus, the first peace initiatives failed.
General Gordon Mission to Ethiopia
 In 1877, Khedive Ismail sent the British General Gordon to Yohannis to negotiate peace on behalf of
Egypt.
 However, his mission, too, remained fruitless.
The mission failed because despite his agreement to the term on free trade, Ismail:
 expressed the need to limit the import of arms to Ethiopia.
 Moreover, he was not willing to restore occupied areas of Ethiopia.
Following the failure of Gordon’s peace mission:
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 a period of "no peace, no war" set in.

 This situation lasted up to 1884.
 In 1884, however, Britain abandoned her indifference to the Ethio-Egyptian crisis and intervened as a
peace negotiator on behalf of Egypt.
British involvement in the Ethio-Egyptian crisis was the result of two developments:
 First, Egyptian rule in the Sudan had met a very serious challenge since 1881. The challenge came from:
 a religious revivalist and nationalist movement of the Sudanese people known as the Mahdia or
the Mahdist Movement.
 End of Egyptian control of the Sudan in late 1883, and some Egyptian troops were trapped in
the areas along the Ethio-Sudanese border. The fate of this army fell in the hands of Ethiopia,
i.e. it could only be saved if it were allowed to escape through the Ethiopia territory.
 Secondly, Britain intervened on behalf of Egypt, her colony since 1882.
 The urgent concern of Britain was to save the sandwiched Egyptian garrisons in Eastern Sudan.
 She wanted to achieve this goal by winning the help of Yohannis through a peace treaty.
Hewett /Adwa Peace Treaty, 1884:
 Britain sent her envoy, Rear Admiral William Hewett, to Ethiopia to negotiate with Yohannis, on behalf
of Egypt.
 Hewett Treaty or Adwa Treaty was signed on 3 June, 1884, at Adwa. Among the articles in the treaty, the
first three stipulated:
 the right of free transit through the port of Massawa for all goods including firearms to
and from Ethiopia,
 restoration of Bogos to Ethiopia, and
 Ethiopian agreement to help in the safe evacuation of the trapped Egyptian army via Massawa.
 The safe evacuation of the trapped Egyptian soldiers was the ultimate aim of the treaty.
The Hewett Treaty might appear to have been a diplomatic victory for Ethiopia. In reality, however, it had
disastrous consequences on Ethiopian independence because:
 Firstly, in fulfillment of his promise Yohannis sent his general Ras Alula to western Ethiopia to
help in the evacuation of the Egyptian troops. Alula accomplished his mission at a very great cost.
He fought against the Mahdists at the Battle of Kufit in September 1885 and other battles. By so
doing, Ethiopia was considered as an ally of Egypt, hence an ardent enemy of Mahdist Sudan.
 Secondly, though Egypt finally lost control of all regions of Ethiopia, Ethiopia did not regain
Massawa. Added to this, while Yohannis was expecting for the restoration of Massawa through the
help of Britain, the British secretly invited Italy to take the port. Italy was invited to Massawa, in
order to stop the possible expansion of France to that area. Italy occupied Massawa on 5 February
1885.
Ethio - Mahtdist Conflicts:
Ethio- Sudanese relations across the border had a long history. They were characterized by both hostile and
friendly relations.
 The commitments Ethiopia entered with the Hewett Treaty set off animosity and armed clashes between
the two countries.
 In another words, the basic cause of Mahdst-Ethio was was the implementation of Hewett Treaty.
 The offensive came from Mahdist Sudan, and:
 The Mahdists attacked Ethiopia, invaded the border lands, and raided the local peoples.
 They enslaved some of the people and forced the payment of tributes.
 They undertook forceful Islamization of the peoples.
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 The main theatre of war in the Ethio-Mahdist conflicts was the region of north-western Ethiopia, along
the Metemma-Gondar area.
 Mahdist invasion in that direction was destructive, and it reached as far as the city of Gondar.
 In the meantime, Emperor Yohannis IV was busy trying to check Italian territorial encroachment in the
Mereb Mellash.
 This period was known as the “Triangular Tension of Yohannis” because he was encircled between:
 Mahdists in the West,
 Italians in the north, and
 Negus Menelik and Negus Tekle-Haymanot agreed to work against him (deserted him)
 When Mahdists invaded Gondar, Yohannis ordered his vassal in Gojjam, Negus Tekle-Haymanot to
defend the north-western region (the Metemma-Gondar areas).
 Negus Tekle-Haymanot initially attacked Metemma in January 1887 and defeated them.
 But soon, under the commander Abu Anja, the Mahdists came back to revenge him and fought and
defeated his army at the Battle of Sar Wuha, north of Lake Tana in 1888.
 Encouraged by this victory, Mahdist soldiers burnt down churches, and carried out mass enslavement.
 The efforts of Yohannis to check Mahdist advance through his vassal kings including Menelik failed.
 Instead, Menelik and Tekle Haymanot were rumored to have plotted against the emperor in mid-1888.
 Consequently, Emperor Yohannis was forced to postpone his confrontation with the Italians and marched
south to deal with his two rebel vassals.
 He first punished Gojjam, and got the submission of Tekle Haymanot.
 After this, he marched on to Shewa but was persuaded to make peace with Menelik.
The Battle of Metema, March 9, 1889:
 Yohannis, turned his attention towards the Mahdists.
 Though too late, Yohannis tried to make peace with the Mahdist rulers.
 Mahdists were unwilling to make peace.
 Instead, they required him to embrace Islam as a precondition for peace.
 War became inevitable the force of Yohannis met the Mahdists at the Battle of Metemma.
 Despite an initial victory, Ethiopians lost theday, after Yohannis was wounded.
 Yohannis died the next day.
 The Mahdists captured his dead body and beheaded it.
 Despite their victory, the Mahdists did not follow the retreating Ethiopian army deep into the
country. Nor was any other major war fought between Ethiopia and the Sudan afterwards.
The battle of Metema heralded the death of Emperor Yohannis and cleared the way for Menelik’s ambition to be an
emperor.

Italian Colonialism in the Horn of Africa

The Birth of Italian colony in Eritrea:

 In 1869, an Italian private shipping company had bought the port of Assab (on the Red Sea coast of
Ethiopia in Eritrea) from local chiefs.
 Thirteen years later (1882), the possession of Assab was transferred to the Italian Government.
 On February 1885, the Italians Landed at the port of Massawa (another Read coast of Ethiopia in Eritrea).
 After landing at the port, Italy used Massawa as a springboard to her colonial expansion into Ethiopia.
At the early stage of their expansion, Italians:
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 Occupied the coastal regions of Aylet, Wia and Saatiin Eritrea with inland extensions up to 30-40
kilometers.
 Their expansion headed to the direction of the highlands of Mereb Mellashin Eritrea.
 In violation of the Hewett Treaty of 1884; the Italians:
 Firstly, took control of Massawa.
 Moreover, they blocked the import of firearms into Ethiopia.
 Then, began demanding heavy taxes from Ethiopian merchants.
The reaction of Ethiopia against the Italian expansion to Mereb Melash (Eritrea):

 Emperor Yohannis complained to the British government about the violation of the Hewett Treaty and Italian
occupation.
 At the same time, he requested the British to help in the restoration of the occupied regions and the port.
 The British government’s response to Yohannis was not satisfactory.
 Queen Victoria of England wrote to Yohannis advising him to live in love and peace with the powerful
Italians.
 By refusing to accept Emperor Yohannes’s request to stop expansion Italian continued to occupy highlands of
Mereb Melash and this had led to the Battle of Dogali in 1887.
The Battle of Dogali (1887)

 Its basic cause was the Italian expansion into the highlands of Mereb Melash (Eritrea)
 Then, governor of the Mereb Mellash, Ras Alula Engida (Alula AbaNega) warned the Italians to clear out of
the Ethiopian territory.
 The Italians were not willing to accept Alula’s warning.
 To stop their further advance, Ras Alula marched to Saati and attacked their fortress on 25 January, 1887.
 The next day, he ambushed and destroyed a force of about 500 Italians sent to save Saati, at a place called
Dogali.
 The event came to be known as the victory of Dogaliin (Dogali incident) 1887.
The Consequences of the Battle of Dogali:
 Italians were defeated by the army of Alula.
 The Battle of Dogali created a deep shock and an urgent desire for revenge in Italy.
 The Italian imperialist government allotted an additional budget to revenge the Italians defeat at Dogali.
 The Italian troops of Massawa were reinforced with additional contingents to revenge Alula.
 Following her defeat at Dogali in Eritrea, Italy sought British intervention to fulfill her colonial ambition in
Ethiopia.
 The British government intervened as a negotiator by sending SirGerald Portal, who proposed peace terms to
favor Italy.
 Portal met Yohannis in November 1887 and proposed the following demands to Ethiopia or Emperor Yohannis.
Portal demanded Emperor Yohannes to:
 Officially apologize for Alula's "unjust attack" on the Italians.
 Agree to retain the regions of Saati and Wia by the Italians.
 Accept Italy's protectorate right over Assawrta and Habhab and occupation of Saati.
Responses of Emperor Yohannes to the Portal’s proposal and Italians demands:
 Yohannis was not at all ready and willing to accept these peace terms.
 Thus, Portal's mission failed.
 Yohannis was highly offended by British diplomatic dishonesty.
 He sent a letter to Queen Victoria of Britain, in which he made clear his anger over the violation of the Hewett
Treaty, and Italian aggressive expansion.
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He also informed Britain of his readiness and preference for war rather than let the Italians take Ethiopian
territories.
 Yohannis also wrote to the French government about British diplomatic mischief.
 Meanwhile, he declared war on the Italians and called his people to rise in arms.
Methods that Italy used to get Ethiopian collaborators on her side:
 The method was called Italian Subversive activity.
 In Ethiopia, Italy began to recruit Ethiopians collaborators (supporters of Italy).
 Internal conflicts in Ethiopia laid the ground for divisive activities of Italy to get Ethiopian collaborators.
 Regional lords of Ethiopia welcomed foreign allies (Italians) in order to secure modern arms with which they
could defeat their internal rivals.
 Regional lords, including Menelik, became promising candidates for Italian subversion.
 As a contender of the throne, Menelik was relatively more powerful and had already been in contact with the
Italians.
 The Battle of Dogali had increased the value of Menelik to the Italians.
 The Italians wanted Menelik to fight Yohannis from the south.
 However, Menelik was not willing to fight Yohannis. Instead, he preferred to mediate between the Italians and
Yohannis. The Italians were not interested in mediation, but at least they wanted his neutrality in the event of
war with Yohannis.
 Italians approached Menelik by promising him 5000 rifles.
 Menelik signed the Convention of Neutrality in October 1887 on condition that the Italians would not take an
inch of land in Ethiopia.
Emperor Yohannes’s campaign against the Italian Fort of Saati:
 Within a short time, the emperor mobilized about 70,000 troops.
 The response of the Ethiopian people was immediate and whole-hearted.
 Emperor Yohannes marched north to fight the Italians at their strong fortification of Saati in March 1888.
 The Ethiopian army provoked the fortified Italians, but the Italians refrained to come out of their fort and face the
numerically superior army of Yohannis.
 The situation lasted for about a month that way.
Reasons why Emperor Yohannes left the Italians in the fort of Saati and returned to Gondar (Mattama):
 The Ethiopian army began to suffer from shortage of food.
 The majority of the troops were peasants who wanted to go back home to work on their fields due to the coming
of rain.
 Yohannis received news about fresh Mahdist invasions of Gondar.
 Internally, Menelik II and Nigus Tekle Haymanot of Gojjam plotted Yohannes.
 After Yohannes’s vassal, Nigus Tekle Haymanot of Gojjam was defeated by the Mahdists, Yohannis went to
Mettema where he died fighting against the Mahdists in 1889.

Resistance to the Egyptian Expansion to Ethiopia
Ethiopia and Egypt had a long history of relationships which involved cultural, commercial and religion. This
relationship was affected since the turn of the 19th century as Egypt embarked on a vigorous expansion into the
Horn of Africa, which included Ethiopia as the source of the Blue Nile. The age-old ambition to control the Nile
drainage system was the main interest of Egyptian rulers. Despite fierce resistance, the military superiority of the
Egyptian army and internal conflicts among local people left Sudan an easy prey to the Egyptian conquerors. As
the source of the Blue Nile, Ethiopia was also victim of Egyptian expansion.

Early Egyptian threat against Ethiopia during the period of the Zamana Masafent was facilitated by.
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 The internal crisis of the period provided an opportunity for Egyptian periodic attacks and penetrations
into the Ethiopian border regions.
 The absence of a well organized national defense, the individual attempt of local chiefs to check the
advance of Egyptian troops in their respective regions could not bring a lasting solution.
During Zemene Mesafint, by expanding towards Ethiopia during Yohannes IV too, Egyptians:
 Posed a serious problem on the social, economic and religious life of the peoples along the
Ethio-Sudanese border.
 Posed heavy taxes on regions they occupied.
 Looted and enslaved the local people, and
 Burnt fields and homes to ashes, when they faced resistance to their expansion.
The Egyptian Aggression against Ethiopia had took place in two phases:
I. The First phase (1821-1840s)
 Since 1517, Egypt was annexed by Turkey
 From 1794-1797, Egypt was controlled by French ruler, Napoleon
 In 1797, Turkey expelled Napoleon from Egypt, and one of the Turkish military general named
Mohammed Ali remained in Egypt and established his own military state and became Egyptian pasha or
ruler from 1797-1840.
 Mohammed Ali was the first to start the Egyptian aggression of Ethiopia.
 The Egyptian aggression of Ethiopia was started when Mohammed Ali’s (Egyptian ruler at a time)
troops overrun the Funj kingdom of Sennar, in Sudan which was the beginning of Egyptian rule in the
Sudan. Egypt invaded Funj to make it the stepping stone to invade Ethiopia.
 The main aim of Mohammed Ali was to control source of Blue Nile River and its tributaries for Egypt
that he could use for the so called creation of “Greater Egypt”.
 The first Egyptian aggression against Ethiopia was the small scale aggression.
 After the occupation of northern and central Sudan, then Egypt pushed towards the eastern border lands
of Sudan towards Ethiopia.
 This brought them into confrontation or clash with Ethiopia authorities on three fronts:
1. In Semen,
2. Matama and from northwest direction
3. In south (in sheikdoms of northwestern Wallaga) along Ethio-Sudanese border, the today’s
Benishangul Gumuz regional state.
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 While Egyptians exercised some degree of authority in Muslim sheikdoms because of religious similarity
(Islam), they were seriously challenged (strongly opposed) in the northwest by lords of Zemene Mesafent.
 The powerful regional lords of Zemene Mesafint who fought Egypt at different battles were:
1. Dejjazmach Wube of Semen,
2. Kinfu of Dembiya defeated the Egyptian at the battle Wadakaltabu in 1837.
3. Kassa Hailu fought with Egypt in 1848 at the battle of Dabarqi, but Kassa was seriously
defeated by Egyptians.
Thus, the first phase of Egyptian expansion to Ethiopia came from the west, the direction of Sudan.

Ethio-Egyptian conflicts were intensified during the reign of Emperor Tewodros. In 1865, the Egyptians:
 Took over the possession of the port of Massawa on the Red Sea coast from the Ottoman Turks on the
basis of a lease contract.
 Began to collect heavy taxes from Ethiopian merchants and
 Blocked the import of firearms through Massawa to Ethiopia.

The above Egyptian measures or actions was one of the major reasons for the unsuccessful attempt of
Emperor Tewodros to get the military support of Great European powers so as to remove the Egyptian
influence from the Red Sea region.

II. The Second Phase

Though manifested (started) even earlier, foreign threat against Ethiopian independence reached a peak in the
second half of the nineteenth century during the reign of Yohannes IV, which came from several directions such
as:
 Egypt,
 Mahdist Sudan, and
 Italy.
Therefore, the reign of Yohannes IV was characterized by the following two major developments:
i. The continuation of the reunification process which was already started by Tewodros, and
ii. Resistance against foreign threat which reached highest stage during his reign.

During the second phase of the Egyptian expansion to Ethiopia, the Egyptian ruler who personified the second
phase of Egyptian aggressive expansion (large scale expansion) was khedive Ismail pasha (1863-1879).
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Therefore, Khedive Ismail Pasha initiated the second and more aggressive expansion of Egypt towards the
territories of Ethiopia. The sole objective of Ismail was to build “Greater Egyptian Empire” ” in the North-East
Africa that would come to being through the control of waters of the Nile. The above objective means Egypt
aimed at becoming masters of the Nile basin and the Nile sources. The architect of the second Egyptian
aggression of Ethiopia was Warner Muzinger who initially a Switzerland in citizen and later given a French
citizen. At this phase, Egyptian aggression came from the direction of the north, the direction of Red Sea
(Eritrea) and East.

At the second stage, Egyptian aggression was encouraged or motivated by the following developments in Ethiopia
and Europe. They were:
1. Egyptian rulers seem to have underestimated the military strength of Ethiopia because of the success of
the 1868 British military expedition, Egypt considered Ethiopia as a weak country that could not defend
herself from enemies. But, by the middle of the 1870s, Ethiopia was not anymore politically divided and
weak as before.
2. Egyptians believed that the internal political turmoil and the regional rivalries, following the death of
Tewodros II had further weakened Ethiopia;
3. Khedive Ismael saw Europeans as friends to Egypt, who would not give military support to Ethiopia; and
4. The opening of Suez Canal in 1869. To open the canal, Ismail borrowed millions of dollars from Europe
(Britain and France). The opening of the canal was undertaken by a French engineer named Deylisence.
The need to pay back the debt needed territorial expansion into Sudan and Ethiopia.
To implement his objective, Ismail occupied:
 Massawa and Swakim on Eritrean coast of Red Sea in 1864 by purchasing from Turkey.
 Bogos in Eritrea (the then in Ethiopia) in 1872 immediately following the coronation of Yohannes IV
because Egypt hoped (expected) that Yohannes did not consolidate his powers and did not get
recognition of strongest regional lords who Egypt wanted to mobilize against Yohannes. But, Egypt
faced expectation crisis because even though Yohannes first sought diplomatic solution to the Egyptian
expansion to Ethiopia, at the end of the day, he successfully crushed the force of Egypt in Ethiopia.
 Harar in 1875.
As part of diplomatic attempt, in July 1872, Yohannes had written to Khedive Ismail a letter in which he:
 Defined his boundaries in the north and coastal regions, and
 Demanded the withdrawal of the Egyptian troops from his country
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In the absence of a positive response on the part of Egypt for his letter, Yohannes turned to seeking European
diplomatic intervention. To this end, he sent letters to the rulers of France, Germany, Russia, Austria and
Britain. He let them know the unlawful invasion of his country by Egypt and the intention of the Egyptian
ruler, as he claimed, to Islamize and enslave his people. With full confidence, he expressed his hope that
Christian European nations would not tolerate the ‘Muslim unjust attack’ on a Christian nation and requested
fair justice for his people.

In the due course of Yohannes’s attempt to resolve the crisis through diplomacy, he wrote letters. to the Egyptian
ruler that called for continental solidarity and brotherhood (demanded to live in peace) whereas the letter he
wrote to the great European powers called for religious solidarity (Christianity) by bolding that a Muslim
country (Egypt) was expanding to a Christian Ethiopia. Then, requested the Christian Europeans to save Ethiopia
from Islamization by Egypt. However, Egypt refused the diplomatic solution. The great European powers
themselves also did not want to give support to Yohannes.Following the letter that Yohannes wrote to European
powers, they replied to Yohannes as Egypt had no objective to annex Ethiopian territories. Their response was
based on the pretext reason that Ismail justified to the European to hidden his objective of expansion. Initially,
Yohannes preferred diplomacy because he did not consolidate his power over the Ethiopian region and hoped the
European intervantion.

The pretext reasons that Ismail presented to justify Egyptian expansionist ambitions were:
 Eradication of the slave trade from Ethiopia, and
 “Extension of western civilization” or European civilization into Ethiopia in particular and Africa in
general.

Khedive Ismail was able to get support from European powers using the above arguments (pretext reasons).
Indeed, the strategic significance of Egypt, due to the newly opened Suez Canal in 1869, was more attractive to
Europeans than Christian Ethiopia. Thus, Ismail was diplomatically more active than yohannes because he
convinced Europeans not to support Ethiopia.

In 1875, the Egyptian image (consideration) of a weak and disunited Ethiopia, and the absence of European
opposition towards Egyptian expansion in the Horn of Africa encouraged a large scale invasion of Ethiopia in
1875. The ports of the Gulf of Aden and Massawa served as launching pads (stepping stone) for the three-front
invasion of Ethiopia by Egyptian troops.
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To realize his penetration deep into the Ethiopian interior (expansion to Ethiopia), Ismail launched
invasion from three directions in 1875. They were:
1. From the south, (from the direction of Somaliland)
 Mohammed Rauf Pasha led the Egyptian force and invaded Harar in 1875 and controlled Muslim
city-state of Harar.
2. From the east,
 Muzinger, advanced to centre (Showa) from the direction of Tajura.
 But Muzinger and his army were ambushed and destroyed by the Afar people in Denakil desert on
their way to Showa before they achieved their objective.
 The major aim of Muzinger’s marching towards Showa was either to win Menelik’s support against
Yohannes or to convince Menelik to remain neutral (not to support Yohannes).

3. From the north direction (Massawa), or Eritrea

 The third and most serious Egyptian trust to push into the interior of Ethiopia came from this direction.
 The invasion was led by (the commander in-chief of the northern front) named Colonel Arendrup who
was recruited from Denmark, who reached the banks of river Mereb by late October 1875.
 On 16 Nov 1875, the commander in-chief of the Ethiopian force (Emperor Yohannes IV) met the force
of Egypt at the battle of Gundet.
 The other Yohannes’s war commanders at the same battle were Ras Alula (governor of Mereb Melash
or Eritrea) and Dejjazmach Hagos.
 Then, Yohannes with his generals fought for about two hours and defeated the Egyptian force at the
battle of Gundet (Gunda Gunde).
Consequences of the battle of Gundet:
 Arendrup was killed and beheaded,
 instant victory for Ethiopians,
 1320 Egyptian troops were killed in the battle,
 A large number of Egyptian troops and firearms fell into the hands of Ethiopians.

Although Egyptians suffered a humiliating defeat, the victory that Yohannes scored at the battle of Gundet did
not:
 calm the Egyptian claim to the Ethiopian territories. Rather, it triggered Egypt to start war of revenge,
 result in the restoration of the Ethiopian territories under Egyptian control to Ethiopia.
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Therefore, for the second time, the Egyptian force led by Mohammed Ratib Pasha (the commander in-chief of
the battle of Gura) who was supported by an America General named Loring launched an attack against
Ethiopia in 1876 and faced similar punishment like that of Gundat. Colonel Makidai and Colonel Charles Fild
were also recruited foreign military commanders of Egypt at the battle of Gura under Mohammed Ratib
Pasha and General Loring. The preference of staying in their forts by the confronting parties (Ethiopia and
Egypt) had delayed the beginning of the battle of Gura or Gurts (ጉራፅ) that was resulted inshortage of
supplies on both sides. The battle of Gura was aimed by Egypt to revenge her defeat at the battle of Gundet and to
realize her expansion to Ethiopia.

The consequences of the battle of Gura:

On the Ethiopian side:
 victory went to Ethiopians once again,
 Ethiopia lost about 4000 soldiers dead but with no prisoners of war lost to the enemy,
 Ethiopians collected a significant booty of arms.
On the Egyptian side:
 Egypt lost about 3500 soldiers dead and 2500 taken as prisoners,
 the surviving Egyptian troops retreated,
 Egypt's military defeat in Ethiopia had resulted in a grave political consequence for the country. These
were the:
1. fall of Khedive Ismail in 1879, and
2. British occupation of Egypt in 1882.

However, the victory at Gundet and Gura were attended by neither peace nor restoration of the pre-occupied
Ethiopian territory (Bogos) and others. This means, the victories of Gundet and Gura were remained hallow
because the Egyptians:
 remained in control of occupied regions and ports,
 acted or behaved as victor than victim.
The implications of Egyptian act as a victor were the Egyptian demand to:
 get reparation payment or war indemnity from Ethiopia,
 release their prisoners of war,
 cease the occupied Ethiopian regions to Egypt.
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At the two successive battles of Gundet and Gura, Yohannes successfully defeated the well armed and well
organized force of Egypt due to the following reasons:
 The Ethiopian moral to fight against the invading enemy
 Geographical advantage (Ethiopians fought on their village and soil)

After the battle of Gura, Yohannes did not follow or pursue his victory the retreating Egyptian army and he
returned back because:
 He did not want to risk his victory by continuing his attack on Egyptian troops with an exhausted army.
 He also wanted to know the reaction of the European powers to the crisis.
Thus, Yohannes preferred postponing further war and pushing his victory to its logical conclusion. Instead, he
once again chose to try a peaceful solution that was later supported by Egypt after 8 years of no peace no war.
Note:
The success of Yohannes at political unification should not, however, be explained in terms only of his
diplomacy and tolerance for local dynasties. He also saw religious uniformity as an essential precondition
for political unity.

The Hewett (Adwa) Peace Treaty (June 3, 1884)

From the early 1880s onwards, Egypt sought a diplomatic alliance with Ethiopia (Egypt needed Ethiopia than
Ethiopia needed Egypt). The peace treaty was arranged or proposed by British and led by Rear-Admiral Sir
William Hewett. The treaty was called Hewett because it was ledby a British colonial officer name Hewett and at
the same time, the treaty was called Adwa because it was signed by Yohannes IV of Ethiopia and the
representative of Ismail of Egypt at place called Adwa in Ethiopia.
The treaty was concluded after 8 years period of no peace no war (from the battle of Gura until Hewett Treaty).
The reasons why the period was called no peace was because of the continuation of Egypt in controlling
Ethiopian territories. It was also the period nowar because of the absence of opening war between Ethiopia
and Egypt.

Two events accounted for this change of Egyptian stand (attitude) in seeking peace with Ethiopia. These were:
 Firstly, Egypt fell to British occupation in 1882, and
 Secondly, the rise of a religious revivalist and nationalist movement in the Sudan by the Mahdists
which began to dismantle Egyptian control of that country.
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The Mahdist attacked and defeated Egyptian troops in the Sudan. Both Egypt and its protector, Britain, were not
able to stop the energetic Mahdist attack. Therefore, the Hewett peace treaty was urged or speeded up by England
to let free the encircled Egyptian force by the Mahdists of Sudan along Ethio-Sudanese border. The reason why
Britain quickly intervened between Ethiopia and Egypt as peace maker and negotiator was the interest she
established in Sudan by indirect control using Egypt as a watch dog and she considered herself as a protector of
Egypt because she had already established full Egyptian colony since 1882.
By the first two articles of the terms of the Hewett Treaty, Egypt (Khedive Ismail agreed to:
 restore Bogos (the occupied territory) to Ethiopian;
 allow (promised) Ethiopian free access (free-transit) to the sea;
 appoint new bishops for Ethiopia Churches from Alexandria;
 allow Yohannes IV to import duties and limited amount of firearms via port of Massawa (Red Sea);
 withdraw of Egyptian troops from Ethiopian territories.
On his part, Yohannes IV also agreed to:
 facilitate the evacuation of the Egyptian troops from their encircled position in eastern Sudan,
through Ethiopian territory to Massawa, and then to Egypt (article 3 of the treaty). This was the
fundamental of all proposals or agreement of Hewett Treaty.
 thus, to fulfill his promise, Yohannes sent his general named Ras Alula Abba Nega to rescue the
Egyptian army trapped in the Sudan. Alulae defeated Mahdists at the batlle of Kufit in 1885 and
safely evacuated Egyptian soldiers through Ethiopian, and send them to Egypt via Massawa.

Both Yohannes and Khedive Ismail) agreed to exchange criminals. British also recognized the Ethiopian gain
and promised to mediate the future possible territorial dispute might arise between Ethiopian and Egypt when it
referred to British.
Focus:
 On the surface, the Hewett Treaty seemed to be more rewarding (advantage) for Ethiopia than the
military victories of Gundet and Gura because it promised restoration of occupied regions and opening a
sea outlet to Ethiopia.
 Whe he signed Hewett, for Yohannes, what he needed further was British diplomatic support to restore
the port of Massawa to Ethiopia. That was why Yohannes wrote a letter to Queen Victoria of England to
help him get back Massawa.
 By signing and implementing Hewett, Yohannes chose to become an ally of Egypt but this earned
Ethiopia a serious enemy, Mahdists of the Sudan.
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 By implementing the treaty in evacuating Egyptian through Ethiopia, Yohannes traded one weak enemy
(Egypt) with two strong enemies (Mahdists and Italy).
 Ismail only partly fulfilled his promise and he evacuated from Bogos and other Ethiopian territories but
in practice, Ethiopia was not benefited from Hewett because of the following:
 Against the claim of Yohannes and in violation of the Hewett Treaty, the British government
secretly invited Italy to occupy Massawa. British did this because she wanted to check the
French expansion in the Red Sea region and aimed to strength and use Italy by favoring Italian
expansion in the region, which opposed the terms of the Hewett Treaty.
 Italy took control of Massawa (British handed Massawa to Italy) when the Egyptians left it on 5
February 1885. Even worse, Italy:
blocked import of arms to Ethiopia,
collected heavy customs duties and began to expand into the highland region of
Mareb Melash of present day Eritrea.
 Though Egyptian troops withdrew from Tajura, Zeila and Berbera, shortly after the
withdrawal of the Egyptians, these coastal regions failed easy prey to colonial European powers
competing in the region.
 Example of colonizers in the coastal and adjacent regions of Ethiopia:
 British, who had already been in control of Aden since 1839, occupied the ports of Zeila and
Berbera. They expanded into the interior of Somalia and created their colony of British
Somaliland in the Horn of Africa.
 French did the same and formed their colony of French Somaliland (Djibouti) by expanding
from their 1862 possession of Obock (former name of Djibouti).
 Italy, the port of Assab which was purchased by a private Italian Shipping Company (the
Rubbatino Company) in 1869 had already been taken by the government of Italy in1882.

 The British policy was in favor of strengthening Italy in the Red Sea region which aimed at checking
French expansion in the region because British former watch dog (Egypt) was defeated and withdrew
from Ethiopia. Thus, British used Italy as an alternative ally to replace Egypt in the Red Sea region.

 However Yohannes did not give up hope of a diplomatic solution. He once again wrote a letter to
Queen Victoria protesting the violation of the Hewett treaty and the unlawful Italian advance into his
territory. He sought explanation on whether or not the British were backing this Italian adventure. The
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response of Britain was negative. Yohannes was advised to live in love and peace with the powerful
Italians.
Ethio - Mahdist War
Mahdists as they prefer to call themselves (Ansars) were freedom fighters and religious revivalists in Sudan.
The major goal of Mahdist’s movement was to liberate Sudan from directly Egypt domination and indirectly
British occupation. The major cause of Ethio-Mahdist war was the implementation of Hewett Treaty by Yohannes
IV, which facilitated the escape of the enemy of the nationalists (Mahdists). Hence, Mahdists major aim was to
revenge Yohannes IV. To achieve their intension, Mahdists invaded Matama and Gondar. Thus, in 1887, when
Mahdists invaded the western border lands of Ethiopia, they were defeated by Negus Tekele Hamanot of Gojjam
who was sent by Yohannes IV to check them, and Tekele Haymanot defeated the Mahdists and controlled
Dembiya and Mattama.
In the meantime, on 26 January 1887, Yohannes faced additional foreign invasion of Italy because Italy started to
expand their holding in Eritrea. Initially, Italian expansion to the Ethiopian interior from the north direction (Red
Sea coast) or Massawa was checked at the battle of Dogali by Ras Alula Abba Nega, governor of Mereb Melash
(Eritrea).

After Italians were defeated by Ras Alula, a British envoy, General Portal met Yohannes IV in Nov 1887 and
proposed peace terms that demanded Ethiopia to:
 Pay war indemnity to Italy
 Officially apology Italy for Alula’s attack but Portal’s mission failed because Yohannes declared his
choice of war rather than accepting the proposals, and he mobilized his peasant army and campaigned
against Italy where he awaited then for longer days at Saaiti.

By the proposal of Portal, British supported Italy because it was British that invited Italy to control the
Ethiopian region and she did not want the Italian removal from the region.

In 1888, Mahdists led by Abu Anja defeated Negus Tekle Haymanot at the battle of Sar Weha and destroyed
Gondar Town. Upon his return to Gojjam, Negus TekleHaymanot meet with Menelik II who was lately arriving
after Tekle Haymanot was already beaten by Mahdist. Tekle Haymanot was convinced by Menelik II to make a
front against Emperor Yohannis because the emperor was suffering from foreign invasions from two directions
(the direction of Mattama by Mahdists and from the direction of Eritrea by Italians). Thus was resulted in the
“Triangular Tensions of Yohannes IV”. The tensions were due to the two foreign invasions and the plotting of
the two regional lords against the emperor. When the news about the plotting of the regional lords reached
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Yohannes, he left Italians in Saaiti and marched to Gojjam to punish TekleHaymanot. After Emperor Yohannes
seriously beaten Tekle Hamanot that caused bloody destruction in Gojjam, and got the resubmission of Tekle
Haymanot, he postponed repeating the same measure against Menelik in Shewa because of two things:
 Menelik was stronger than Tekle Haymanot and war with him would take longer time to get
Menelik’s submission
 The emperor was advised that the war with Menelik would change into civil war while the country
was facing foreign invasions
As a result, in 1889, by leaving Italians at saati because Italians refused to come out from their forts and
prolonged beginning of war with Yohannes, Yohannes turned his face from north towards the west (Mattama) to
first deal with Mahdists. Yohannes’s aim was first to remove the Mahdists threat. Next, he amid to deal Menelik,
and finally aimed to remove the Italian threat. Accordingly, he confronted them at the battle of Mattama where he
was defeated by the Mahdist, beheaded and lost his life.
The Battle of Adwa
Wuchale Treaty (May 2, 1889)

Emperor Menelik II and Pietro Antionelli of Italy signed Wuchale Treaty on 2 May 1889. Among several
agreements signed at Wuchale, the major ones were:
 peace between Ethiopia and Italy;
 resolving boundary problems with commissions;
 Ethiopian free access to port of Massawa;
 exchange of criminals, and
 the condition through which Ethiopia expected to conduct foreign diplomacy (Article XVII), which
reduced Ethiopia, to the status of Italian protectorate

Article XVII of the treaty was later became the source of conflict, and finally led to the battle of Adwa in 1896
because in the visions of the article, Italy tricked Ethiopia. The Italian version the article for instance, articulated
as “to make foreign relation Ethiopian should have to consult and have permission from Italy” where as the
Amharic version had the phrase “Ethiopia could consult Italy if she wants.”

To realize her colonial ambition in Ethiopia, Italy followed twin policies of persuasion and subversion. The first
refers to Article XVII of Wuchale Treaty. The firsteffort was completely aborted when Menelik II abrogated or
cancelled the treaty in Feb 1893. The subversive activity initially succeeded in winning the dissatisfied Tigrain
and Eritrean chiefs or nobles on their side in 1891. Then, the Italians got the temporary defection of Ras
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Mengesha Yohannes (choosen of Yohannes IV as his successors) of Tigrai and Ras Alula of Eritrean governor
under Yohannes IV. However, the defected chiefs renewed their loyality to Menelik II in June 1894. In Dec 1894,
Dejazmatch Bahta Hagos, the former collaborators of Italians and governor of Akale Guzay in Eritrea started
peasant rebellion against Italian but the rebellion was suppressed by Italy.

The Battle Adwa (1896)

 The first phase of the battle of Adwa was the battle of Ambalage in 1895 at which Toseli of Italy was
killed by Fitwarary Gebeyehu.
 The second phase was the Maqale siege (1896) architected by Taitu that aimed to cut off the Italians
from their supplies including water, which was effective and forced Italians to withdrew from Maqale.
Since the Italian version of the article was rejected by emperor Menelik II,
 The third or the major battlefield was (Adwa) that took place on 1 March 1896 and resulted in the defeat
of Italy.
 Half of the Italian troops commanded at the battle was askaris (colonial soldiers) from Eritrea

Factors contributed for the defeat of Italians were:

On the Ethiopian side:
 numerical superiority;
 moral support rendered by clergy, women and minstrels (traditional singers) to Ethiopians;
 strong moral, strong unity and commitment;
 the role of double-agents;
 proper coordination;
 better military strategy
On the Italians side:
 Used false information and map;  lack of coordination among Italian
 lacked proper knowledge of Ethiopian brigades; and
topography;  Italians wrong military strategy and poor
 underestimated the Ethiopian unity; leadership.
 weak leadership;
The Addis Ababa Peace Treaty (on 26 October 1896)
It was concluded between Ethiopia and Italy following the battle of Adwa. The most important provisions
of the agreement included:
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 concluded of the Italo- Ethiopian war of 1896;

 totally abrogated (cancelled) of Wuchale Treaty;
 continuation of Italian control in Eritrea;
 recognition of the absolute independence of Ethiopia by Italy; and
 the repatriation of the Italian war prisoners.
 However, postponed the boundary issue between Eritrea and Ethiopia for the feature
However, it left boundary delimitation between Ethiopian and Italian colonies for the future.
The Consequences of the victory of Adwa
The Ethiopians victory at the battle of Adwa:
 become source of national pride for the Ethiopian people
 it was shameful scare for Italy in particular and the whites in general because the Ethiopians
victory at the battle of Adwa was the battle field at which whites for the first time were defeated
by blacks
 Guaranteed the full political independence of Ethiopia.
 In Italy, the defeats at Adwa aroused internal oppositions against the government of Francesco
Crispi and downfall of Crispi government
 General Baratori, the commander in-chief of the Italian army at battle of Adwa was imprisoned
by the Italian government
 The Adwa victory became a symbol of black dignity and self-rule.
 It inspired further black solidarity and nationalism.
 In countries of Southern Africa, it sparked the emergence of “religious separatist” movements
known as Ethiopianism. The churches formed part of the general anti-colonialist struggle.
 The echo of Adwa also inspired the early Pan-Africanist movement.
 The Ethiopian victory at the battle Adwa precipitated (speeded up) the colonization of Sudan by
British. British quickly moved to Sudan and colonized it because in 1885, when Egypt withdrew
from Ethiopian region of Eritrea following Hewett Treaty of 1884, Italy secretly invited by
British to control Eritrea. British did it because she used Italy to check the movement of French
from Djibouti to Sudan to control White Nile. Hence, following the devastation of Italian force at
the battle of Adwa, British feared the quick movement of French towards Sudan and British by
herself quickly moved to Sudan and controlled it.
 The Victory at Adwa Battle also attracted foreign diplomatic relation to Ethiopia. Accordingly,
different powers opened their legations in Ethiopia. These countries were:
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 Italy – 1896  USA - 1903

 Britain- 1897  Germany- 1903
 France- 1897
 European powers with adjacent colonies with Ethiopia signed treaties to delimate their
boundaries. These colonial powers were:
 Italy in Eritrea in 1900, 1902,  Anglo-Egyptian in Sudan in 1902
1908  British East Africa (Kenya) 1907
 France in Somaliland (Djibouti) in  Italian Somaliland in 1908
March 1907

The weakness (drawback) of the Ethiopian victory at battle of Adwa

 Ethiopia did not follow its victory at the battle of Adwa to withdraw Italians from Eritrea
 The Ethiopian failure to withdraw Italy from Eritrea was resulted in the Ethiopian loss of access
to the Sea

Italian Fascist Aggression Against Ethiopia, 1935-1941

1. Immediate cause of the War

It was the Italian encroachment to Walwal at the end of 1934. Walwal was the area in Ogaden,
Ethiopian, endowed with good water wells. The Italians pretext or false reason that claimed Walwal as
their Italo-Somaliland marked the beginning of minor clash between Ethiopia and Italy.
2. The shameful scar as result of her defeat at the battle of Adwa, 1896 (the fundamental factor)
 Fascists advocated the restoration of the power and glory of ancient Rome, take revenge to erase
the shame of Adwa
 Mussolini also wanted to win prestige for himself through military success
 Moreover, in 1930s Italy fac4ed serious economic difficulties as result of the World Economic
Depression
 Until the final aggression, Italy presented herself as good friends of Ethiopia. These included:
 Italy did not oppose Ethiopian membership to the league of nations in 1923
 Italy gave a warm reception/welcome to Taffar’s European visit in 1924
 Furthermore, Italy signed a Treaty of Peace and Friendship with Ethiopia in 1928

Methods used by Italy to implements its colonial ambition (53&55) 14-15

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A. Conduct underground subversive activity aimed at creating internal divisions in Ethiopia

 Carried out by the then Italian governor of Eritrea,Corrado Zoli
 He bribed and agitated the chiefs of Tigray, Wollo, Begemdir and Gojjam against the
Emperor
B. Military preparations: Italy made great military preparation
Britain and France had made the Hoare-Laval Agreement by which they offered Italy to take
Ethiopia. The Italo-Ethiopian War launched on 3 October 1935 in three directions and two fronts
 The Northern direction: the Italian troops was first led by General Emilio DeBono, later
replaced by General Petro Badoglio
 In the Southern, the Italian army was commanded by General Rudolfo Graziani. The main
objectives of these two fronts of war was to enter the capital, Addis Ababa
The Ethiopian army on the Northern Front consisted of three major divisions. Therefore, the major
Ethiopian army was deployed in the Northern Front were commanded by:
1. Ras Imiru Haile Selassie: assigned to Shire
2. Ras Mulugeta Yigezu: war minister to the Eas, top of Amba Aradom
3. Ras Seyoum Mengesha and Ras Kassa Hailu: assigned to the center to fight on the Temben Front
Battle of Maychew
 The decisive battle in the course of Italo-Ethiopian War
 It was broke out on 31, March 1936
 It was personally lede by Emperor Haile SelassieI
 The fighting lasted for 13 continuous hours
 Italians used Aero planes, and chemical weapon, Mustard gas, which was international banned

The Southern Front

 General Rudolfo Graziani was the commander of the Italian army
 The Italian army was moving in to two directions:
 Bolled-Ben-Qorahe-Degahabur-Jijiga-Harar
 Bidewa-Lug Gonama-Negele-Yirgalem-Mojo
 The commander of the Ethiopian army in the Southern Front was Ras Desta Damtew, governor
of Sidamo province
 The Ethiopian army in the southeast was under the command of Dejjazmach Nasibu Zamanuel,
the Governor -General of Hararghe province
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Italian under Badoglio entered Addis Ababa before Graziani reached Harar. On May 2, 1936, Haile
Sellasie went to Europe. From May 2-5, 1936 there was chaotic order and plundering, shooting and
burning
On the Southern Front and Northern Fronts, the Ethiopian armies had been defeated. On 5 May 1936,
Fascist troops made victorious entry into Addis Ababa

Factors for the defeat of Ethiopia

1. The Fascist armies were numerically and technically superior. They were equipped with modern
rifles, gun artillery, armored cars, and airplanes
 The Fascist army also used tanks and poisoned gas. In contrast, the armaments of the Ethiopians
consisted mostly outdated rifles (guns)
 Italian commanders were highly trained and well experienced
 Above all, there was a severe shortage of cartridges
 Ethiopians had only 8 transport airplanes against the Italian’s 400 planes of which most were
bombers
2. Ethiopian forces had no organized system of military logistics
 Here was no organized supply of provisions and munitions
 The army lacked doctors and medical supplies to care for the sick and wounded
 Lack of effective radio communications prevented the Ethiopian army from making coordinated
military operations
3. There were differences and dissatisfactions within the Ethiopian army.
 This was the result of Emperor’s policy of strengthening the central government, which was meant
to weaken the power of the regional lords. Because of this, many of the nobilities were on bad
terms with the Emperor
 Some regional lords sided with Italy
 Rivalry among the nobility weakened the Ethiopian army
 Lack of proper coordination
4. Many of the commanders of the Ethiopian army were the old nobility with little knowledge of
modern warfare.
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They lacked the perseverance of warriors and could not give effective leadership. The main reason for
this was that there had been no major war for forty (40) years after the battle of Adwa, which reduced the
military experience and military capacity of war leaders
N.B: Men fought at Adwa born in war, grow up in war and died in war. But, Men fought in
Mychew born in war and grow up in peace
5. Ethiopia’s war efforts had been further weakened by an arms embargo/sanction. The neighboring
European colonial powers blocked the import of arms into Ethiopia, accusing Ethiopians for using
arms in slave raids.
6. Emperor Haile Sellasie’s much faith on the League of Nations

The new empire came to be called “Africa Oriental Italian” ( AOI)-Italian East Africa (49&50)
The Italian East Africa was divided into six regions with respective capital as shown below

No Region Capital
1 Addis Ababa ( later renamed Shoa) Addis Ababa
2 Amhara (Begemdir, Wollo, Gojjam and Northern Gonder
Shoa)
3 Italian Somaliland (Including Ogaden) Mogadishu
4 Oromo-Sidama Jimma
5 Eritrea (Tigray Asmara
6 Harar Harar

Each of the six regions had its own Governor-General. Different Italian colonial officials held the position
of viceroy in the following order
Marshal Emilio Badoglio-Marshal Rudolfo Graziani and Amadeo Umberto, the Duke of Aosta
The last viceroy was considered as more liberal-minded than his predecessors
During the years of Italian occupation, the Fascist authority in Ethiopia was largely confined to the urban
centers. This was because rural areas were centers of patriotic resistance

Italians accomplished several projects in the city

 Fascists introduced electric light and supply of pure water into Addis Ababa for the first time
 They built big big commercial center called Mercato
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 Several manufacturing factories were also built. For instance, cotton and cement factories in Dire
Dawa and edible oil factories and flour mills
 Above all, road engineering was the most important legacy of the Fascist occupation. Italians were
heavily engaged in road construction to facilitate colonial expansion and rule in Ethiopia
 Establishment of schools
 Modern building, garages
 Expansion of hotels, commercial development
 Development of urbanization, master plan

Demerits of Fascist Occupation

 Expulsion of foreign/expatriate firm organizations
 Linguistic influence- Italian loan- words asquala, ospedala, bandira, pena, machine are Italian loan
words to mean school, hospital, flag, pen, and car respectively
 Widespread of prostitutions
 Destruction of valuable heritages, documents
Social Effects of Italian occupation
 Hand shaking as a form of greeting  Prostitution
 Impact in dressing style  Commercial development
 Inter-marriage  Linguistic influence

The Nature of Fascist Rule

Fascist occupation was a military rule, racist violent and highly centralized. Its officials were highly
corrupt, inefficient and irresponsible
Negative impacts of Fascist Occupation
 Great human and material destruction/devastation. Hundreds of thousands of Ethiopians lost their
life. Young educated Ethiopians were executed
 Ethiopians were deported to the prisoners
 Massive migration
 Families were broken up and children orphaned
 Large destruction of valuable historical documents

The patriotic Resistance Movement

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The Italians faced nation-wide opposition from the very beginning of their occupation of Ethiopia.
Fascists rule triggered protest and large-scale oppositions virtually in all parts of the country
There were two stages/phase of patriotic resistance against Italian rule
1. First stage of patriotic resistance
 It was the continuation of the major war
 It lasted up to the early 1937
 It was largely led/commanded by members of the upper nobility
 It was conventional in its character
 It was characterized by vacillation and compromise
2. Second stage of patriotic resistance
 It was led/ commanded by the lower nobility
 Characterized by guerilla warfare
 Largely centered in the rural areas
 Intensified following the Graziani massacre of Feb 1937
 It was uncompromising on the issue of resistance
N.B: many renowned guerilla leaders in this phase were
 Haile Mariam Mamo Belay Zeleke
 Abebe Aregay Bekale Woya
 Amoraw Wubineh Takla W/Hawariat
The Graziani Massacre and its consequences
On Feb19, 1937, two young Ethiopians named Moges Asgedom and Abraha Deboch made an attempt to
assassinate the Italian Viceroy, Graziani. Graziani was seriously wounded while others officials were
killed. As revenge, Italian soldiers carried out a wholesale massacre of Ethiopians in Addis Ababa. The
incident referred to as the February or Graziani Massacre.
Results of Graziani Massacre
 Over 30,000 Ethiopian were killed within three days
 Destroyed the irst generation of modern educated Ethiopians
 Created shortage of man power in the post-liberation period
 Mass execution of monks at the monastery of Debre Libanos. 499 monks had been killed
 Provoked a new wave of nation-wide opposition to Italian rule
 It significantly changed the Ethiopian resistance movement from conventional to guerilla war
fare/surprise attack from a hidden position
Problems of Ethiopian patriots during the anti-Fascist resistance movement
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1. Lack of sufficient supplies and logistics. Shortage of arms, food, clothing and medicine
2. Personal conflicts/rivalry and competition among patriotic leaders
3. The patriots also lacked proper coordination
4. They had no strong uniting political organization
5. Absence of effective communication system

Contribution of Yewust Arbegnoch (“inner patriots”)

 They were patriots who lived and often worked with the Italians in towns but supplied
vitalinformation to the patriots. Some members of this group used to give underground service to
the patriots fighting in the bushes
 They contributed in the collection of arms, medicine, food and intelligence reports
 They arranged secret killings of Italian officials
 They collected arms from corrupt officials and deserters
 In addition to the underground activities, there were women that led their own troops in battles of
resistance.
Prominent examples of women in the patriotic resistance movement were:
A. Shewareged Gedle of Addis Alem
B. Kebedech Seyoum of Shoa
C. Shewanesh Abera of Lasta
D. Abebech Derqos of Gondar
E. Lekyelesh Beyan of Jiru
Note: The two Ethiopian nationals Zerai Deres and Abdisa Aga showed exemplary patriotism in Italy
itself.
 Zerai Deres killed the Italian Facsst leaders at square in their own country where as
 Abdisa Aga conducted a long fight against the Fascist in their own country. He broke Italian
prison.
Factors for the Restoration of Ethiopian Independence
A. Internal factor: strong nation-wide Ethiopian patriotic resistance
B. External factor: The outbreak of WWII and associated developments
 The year 1940 was a turning point for the liberation of Ethiopia. This was because in 1940, Italy
joined WWII on the side of Hitler. This posed a serious challenge/ danger for British interest in
East Africa. As result, British wanted Ethiopian ally to dislodge Italy from East Africa to keep/
safeguard her East African colonies.
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 British provided military assistance to Ethiopia

 As result of the aforementioned developments, Ethiopia re-gained its liberation in 1941

The Ethio-Somalia War of 1977-1978

Cause of the war
The year 1977 saw the emergence of the most serious external challenge to the revolutionary regime. The
root cause of the conflict was the Somali irredentism and the desire of the Somali government of
Mahammad Siad Barre to annex the Ogaden area of Ethiopia. Somalia's instrument in this process
was the Western Somali Liberation Front (WSLF), a Somali guerrilla organization, which took the
advantage of the Darg's political problems as well as its troubles in Eritrea.

The 1954 Anglo - Ethiopian Treaty recognized Ethiopia's claim over the Ogaden, and restored Ogaden
and Haud Grazing land to Ethiopia that was opposed by Somali Youth League. The position was based on
three crucial issues.
 First, the treaties disregarded the agreements made with the clans that put themselves under the
British protection.
 Second, Somalis were not consulted on the terms of these treaties and as far as they were
concerned they had not been informed of their existence.
 Third, the treaty violated the principle of self determination of the Somali people.
The Ethiopian regime also found itself opposed by domestic groups such as the Tigray People Liberation
Front which was advocating autonomy for Tigray province. After 1977 the new US president, Carter
expressed displeasure with Ethiopia's deteriorating human rights record, and consequently reduced its aid.
Realizing the desperation of his situation and the unwillingness of the US to provide support to his
regime, president Mengistu Haile Mariam expelled US diplomatic and military advisors and turned to the
Soviet Union for financial and military support. The Somali government, on the other hand, expelled the
Soviets and the Cubans from the country and offered the strategic (Soviet built) Berbera military base to
the Americans. The shift of the superpowers alliances created uncertainty in the Horn and led to Somali
misperceptions of Soviet and US intentions.
Somali’s Somali misperceptions were:
 First, Somali leaders miscalculated how changing alliance patterns would affect the local
balance of power.
 Second, the Somalis misjudged the nature of military aid that the US (and its allies) would be
willing to provide.
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 Third, the Somalis miscalculated how their intervention in Ethiopia would affect subsequent
international involvement on the Horn.
US considered Somalia to be the aggressor in the Ogaden conflict and still regarded Ethiopia as the prize
of the struggle. The Soviet Union's involvement in Africa primarily was designed to undermined Western
influence.
Course of the War
The Ogaden war began on 13 July 1977 when Somalia mounted a full scale attack in the southern Ogaden
and Bale province. Simultaneously, the Western Somalia Liberation Front (WSLF) attacked the major
Ethiopian towns of Harar, Dire dawa and Jijiga in the northern Ogaden. Despite its air superiority, the
Ethiopian army was quickly and easily defeated. Jijiga, a major town and regional military cantonment,
fell to WSLF and Somali control in early September 1977.
After the OAU decided to support Ethiopia, the Soviets began to supply Ethiopia with large quantities of
modern weapons. They also arranged for Cuba to provide combat troops, training instructors, and pilots
for newly acquired Soviet aircraft. The Soviet Union, Cuba and other East Bloc allies such as South
Yemenis supported Ethiopia.
The Early Successes Somali
 Succeeded in destroying five bridges on the Addis Ababa-Djibouti railway.
 WSLF established its control over 60% of the Ogaden.
The Somali operations were under the command of Lieutenant General Mohamed Ali Samantar, who was
simultaneously Somalia’s Vice-President, Minister of Defense and Commander of the. Somali National
Army. Nevertheless, overall command was assumed by Siad Barre. Through swift strikes, the Somali
forces captured the major towns in the southern part of the Ogaden, including Degahabur, Werder and
Gode.
The Somali troops’ finest success of the war came in September 1977 when they captured Jijiga in their
second attempt. After several days of fighting, during which they inflicted heavy losses on Somali
armour, the demoralized Ethiopian troops mutinied and withdrew from the city. When Jijiga eventually
fell, the Somali forces “acquired substantial quantities of Ethiopian equipment, including tanks and
ammunition”. However, the final victory went to Ethiopia.
The Final Ethiopian Successes
By the end of October 1977, the Somali forces were “essentially stalemated at various points along the
road to Harar”. After weeks of being bogged down by bad weather, in January 1978, the Somali forces
eventually mounted an attack, but having “neither the supplies nor the manpower to take the city. This
long-awaited counter-offensive, which would score major successes in a short period of time (five
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weeks), was launched in early February 1978, and involved around 40,000 regular Ethiopian troops
(augmented by 80,000 troops of the People’s Militia, and reinforced by thousands of Cuban troops).
The Ethiopian counter-offensive “consisted largely of slow advances along the entire front, employing
artillery barrages and massed columns of armour”. In addition, in a carefully engineered manoeuvre,
Ethio-Cuban forces crossed the Amhar Mountains “bypassing Somali troops dug in around the Marda
Pass”; Soviet Mi-6 helicopters airlifted pairs of tanks from Dire Dawa around the Amhar Mountains to
Jijiga After the fall of Jijiga, the Ethiopian forces swept through the parched Ogaden desert to recover the
Ogaden’s major towns. The Ethiopian victory was assured when on March 9. Siad Barre announced that
his troops had been recalled from Ethiopian territory.
The principal factors which accounted for the Ethiopian successes
1. Ethiopia’s decisive air superiority
2. Sentiments of nationalism (which ran deep in the Ethiopian national character) and mass
mobilization and recruitment of regular soldiers as well as huge People’s Militia.
3. Massive Soviet weapons’ transfer
4. Better strategic command
5. Somali force had a problem of supply
6. Increased Ethiopian morale
7. Improvement in field command:
8. The contribution of Soviets mobilized by Russia, Cuban, and Yemen forces

Unit Seven
7. Major Global Developments
7.1. The two world wars

The First World War (WWI, 1914-1918)

Causes of the WWI were categorized under fundamental and immediate causes. The immediate causes
were:
1. Imperialism rivalry for Colonies
2. Militarism and the arms race
3. Creation of military alliance
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4. Nationalism

1. Imperialism rivalry for Colonies :

They were:
 Economic competition
 Political rivalries among industrialized powers Europe that came to being due to industrial
Revolution
 The competitions were resulted from the development capitalism in Europe
 The development of capitalism gave rise to intense economic competition both in Europe and
outside Europe among major European powers such as:
 Germany  Italy
 France  Austro-Hungary, and
 Britain  Russia
 The competitions were generally over:
 Economic interest
 Territory
 Getting recognition
 Getting great powers status
 Getting prestige (glory)
 Overseas colonial possession outside Europe except Austro-Hungary and Russia
 Raw materials
 New opportunities of investment
 Profitable market for finished industrial goods
 The best examples of clashes among Great European powers:
 In 1882, British and France were in bad terms when British established a unilateral
control of Egypt
 In 1898, Fashoda Crisis in Sudan where Britain and France were about to fight (close to
fight)
 In 1911 &1912, Italy and Turkey fought to control Libya
 Germany and France were on the verge of fighting to control Morocco
 Later Britain later intervened on the side of France in 1911
The 1905 Moroccan crisis:
 Caused by the 1904 the Anglo-France anti-German cordiale
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 It gave French free hand in Morocco and England in Egypt and Sudan
 In 1905, Germany sided with Morocco against French invasion in to Morocco.
 The conflict was resolved by International conference that recognized the French occupation of
Morocco.
The 1911 Moroccan crisis:
 Caused by Germany’s opposition against France claim over Morocco.
 The crisis was solved when France allowed Germany to control some parts of Congo, formerly
belonged to France.
 In 1911 and 1912, Italy and Turkey fought for the control of Libya.
 Germany and France were on the verge of fighting for the control of Morocco.
 Britain later intervened on the side of France in 1911. This incident came to be known as the Agadir
Crisis. These and other similar incidents further strained the existing tension.
 Thus, France given a free hand to establish protectorate over parts of Morocco in 1912.

2. Militarism and the arms race:

The leading European powers were in the state of fierce competition to get themselves ahead of their rivals
in terms of armaments and military power. The growing contradictions and strained relations created a
sense of insecurity among European powers and it was due to this factor that they formed military alliances.

France for instance, after her defeat in Franco-Prussian war (1870-1871):

 Busily engaged in building her military power
 Her nationalists criticized the government for the defeat France suffered
 Nationalists demanded the restoration of Alsace and Lorraine to France that were lost to Germany
due to the 1870-1871 Franco-Prussian war
Following her unification, Germany:
 Became the most powerful country in Europe
 To maintain her position, Germany increased her military budget more than ever before
 Expanded her navy
 Her naval power was aimed to compete the most powerful British naval power (battleship) which
was built in 1906
 In 1906, Germany built similar battleship
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Accordingly, European powers:

 Increased the size of their respective armies
 Increased their war materials
 Made national military service obligation for citizens
 Intensified war propaganda that stirred up the national feeling of each citizen

3. Creation of military alliance:

After Franco-Prussian war (1870-1871):
 Bismarck, the ruler of Germany followed the policy of isolating France
 He implemented his policy by approaching his former enemy, Austria-Hungary
 In 1879, Germany and Austria-Hungary concluded a treaty of friendship known as “Dual
Alliance” which was joined by Italy 3 years later
 The joining of Italy transformed the “Dual Alliance” into more stronger military block
called “Triple Alliance”
The Triple Alliance:
 Originally formed in 1882.
 Later named Central Powers that included:
 Germany,
 Austria-Hungary
 Italy,
 Ottoman Turkey that joined it in 1914.
 Bulgaria joined Central Powers in 1915.
 But Italy left it in 1915 and joined Triple Entente.
The formation of Triple Alliance created fear on the part of other European powers. Hence, to secure
themselves, they formed military alliances. To this end:
 France and British fist formed Entente Cordiale in1904
 Britain, France and Russian signed a friendly understanding treaty in 1907 and when
Russian joinedEntente Cordiale in 1907, Entente Cordiale was transferred in to Triple
Alliance
Triple Entente and its members were:
 Great Britain
 France
 Russia
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This military block later became Allied Powers (Britain, France &Russia) when joined by:
 USA in 1917  Rumania
 Japan  Belgium
 Union of South Africa  Serbia
 Portugal and
The Triple Entente was formed to prevent German expansion in Europe, and to prevent Germany from
getting more overseas colonies.
The mutual suspicious was resulted in the formation of military alliances that in turn led to:
 arms race (military competition to get ahead of others)
 increasing of quantity and quality of weapons
 building of naval base by Germany to challenge British naval supremacy
 heightened tensions in Europe

4. Nationalism:
In the 19th century Europe, nationalism probed to be the main source of conflicts. The origins of the
nationalisms were:
 The humiliating defeat that France faced by the 1870-1871 Franco-Prussian war
 The French loss of Alsace and Lorraine to Germany
 The coronation of united Germany’s Emperor, Wilhelm I that was conducted in French
palace of Hall of Mirrors at Versailles in 1871
 The creation of desire by French nationalist to revenge Germany
The Balkan Nationalism:
 From 1820s onwards, the Balkan region fought against their oppressor, Ottoman Turkey
 As the result of this fighting, they ended Turkey’s domination and 5 independent new states
appeared on map of Europe.
 The 5 newly emerged Balkan states were:
1. Greece
2. Bulgaria
3. Rumania
4. Serbia
5. Montenegro and
However, many of these states felt that their independence was incomplete because large numbers of their
fellow national were under foreign domination. For example:
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 Bosnia and Herzegovina were under Austria-Hungary’s since 1878

 whereas Macedonia was still under Turkey
With the support Russia:
 Serbia
 Montenegro formed the league known as Balkan League
 Bulgaria
 Greece
The first Balkan War or crisis (1912):
 The above Balkan states defeated Ottoman Turkey and took Macedonia
 But the league members quarreled among themselves over the division of Macedonia
The second Balkan war or crisis (1913):
 Caused by the quarrel over the division of Macedonia
 As the result of the second Balkan war, Bulgaria lost almost all gains of the first Balkan war
 Serbia got advantageous and became more stronger
 Serbia also wanted Bosnia which was under Austria-Hungary

The quarrel between Serbia and Austria-Hungary:

 Its basic cause was the competition to get Bosnia
The results of the 1912-1913 Balkan crises:
 Brought Serbia and Russia closer together
 Intensified the hatred of Russia and Serbia for Austria

The immediate cause of the war (The triggering event) of the war:
 The assassination of Archduke Francis Ferdinand, the Crown Prince of the Austria-
Hungarian Empire and his wife named Sophie by a Serbian nationalist named Gavrilo
Princip on June 28, 1914 at Sarajevo (Bosnia).
 Before taking action against Serbia, Austria sent an envoy to Germany to know the attitude of
Germany regarding the situation.
 Germany’s Emperor, Wilhelm I assured the envoy that Germany would support any action
Austria-Hungary might take against Serbia
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 The statement of assurance Germany gave to Austria-Hungary came to known as a diplomatic

“Black Cheque”
 Then, after she realized Germany’s support, Austria-Hungary gave Serbia a list of demands
(ultimatum) that demanded Serbia to:
 Stop anti-Austria-Hungarian propaganda and
 Allow Austria to enter Serbia to investigate the assassination of Archduke
Francis Ferdinand
 But Serbia rejected the ultimatum because she considered as it violate her sovereignty
 Thus, Austria-Hungarian declared war on Serbia on July 28, 1914.
 Russia, which considered herself to be the protector of the Slavs and Orthodox state of the
Balkan supported Serbia and declared war on Austria-Hungarian.
 Before declaring war on Russia and France, Germany sent ultimatum to Russia to stop
mobilization against but Russia rejected the ultimatum
 Germany sent another ultimatum to France to remain neutral but French also refused to accept
the neutrality
 To help Austria-Hungarian, Germany declared war on Russia first and then on France on
August 1and 3, 1914 respectively
 Germany invaded the neutral Belgium on August 3, 1914 that threatened British security
Britain declared war on Germany and her allies on August 4, 1914 that heralded the official
beginning of WWI
 To support the neutral Belgium, which was invaded by Germany and to support France, Great
Britain declared war on Germany.
 August 6, 1914, Austria-Hungarian declared war on Russia.

The Course of the War

The war was fought between two major military blocs:
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Allied powers
 Britain, bloc leader
 France
 Russia, until 1917
 Belgium
 Serbia
 Italy (joined in 1915)
 USA (joined in 1917)

Central powers
 Germany, bloc leader
 Austria-Hungary
 Bulgaria
 Turkey

Europe was where WWI fought mainly on two fronts: western and Eastern. The central Powers, situated in
between the British and French forces in the West and Russia in the East, were compelled (obliged) to fight
on two fronts.

The Western Front

 Schlieffen was the German war strategy or plan on this front
 The plan was aimed to quickly defeat France to the west before Russia started mobilization against
Germany because Germany hopped that Russia would mobilize slowly and the Belgians would give
little or no resistance to German force in the west.
 According to the plan, Germans would inflict a sudden and crushing defeat on France by forcing her to
make peace, and then would turn to the Eastern Front against Russia.

Results of the Schlieffen plan:

 Germany started a massive attack on France by going through Belgium and Luxemburg.
 Contrary to the assumptions of the Schlieffen Plan:
 The Belgians put up a heroic resistance and delayed the Germans for a little time.
 British and French sent their force into Belgium to defeat Germany in Belgium along the
Franco-German frontier.
 However, the Germans managed to push back the British and French forces in Belgium
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 When the Germans were close to Paris, the French government evacuated Paris and moved to
Bordeaux. At this critical time, the French commander, General Joffre, gave battle to the advancing
Germans on the Marne River (September 6 -12, 1914) where the first French mistake was made
during WWI.
 The battle of the Marne forced Germans to be driven back, though not very far.

Despite their success at Marne, the French generals were unable to follow and expel the Germans from the
area. This was the second mistake of the war in the very first week. The second mistake was emanated from the
French believe that attacking was best than defense, thus had thrown their best troops against advancing
Germans in the center and south. For this reason, the army were beaten and pushed back.
On the Eastern Front
Russia
 Moved faster than the Germans had expected.
 Invaded East Prussia from the south and east (the 1st Russian mistake).
 Invaded the province of Galicia in Austria-Hungary (2nd Russian mistake).
 The above Russia victory did not last long and the Russians made the third mistake because in August,
the Russians and the Germans fronted one another at Tanenberg in Poland.
 The outcome of the battle was heavy loss and defeat for the Russians.
The Reason Why Italy joined the war
 By 1915 the war had reached a deadlock because it became clear that neither side could defeat the other
quickly.
 During the deadlock time, many battles were fought, but no side could claim a conclusive victory.
 The only significant event or success of 1915 was that Italy joined the war on the Allies side (on the side
of Triple Entente).
 The Allies bloc wins Italy by promising, that if they achieved victory on central powers (Triple
Alliance) mainly Germany), Italy would get her lost territories from Austria (her claims from
Austria).
 They Allies also promised to give Italy certain parts from Turkish Empire.
The war following the entry of WWI on the side of Allies:
 Then, Italy declared war on Austria-Hungary in May 1915.
 In the east, Germans advanced into Russia and the Russians advanced into Austria.
 In 1916 the deadlock continued.
 With the entry of Italy, the Allies got little advantage.
 In four battles with Austria, the Italians gained little ground.
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 The Russians also faced heavy losses in battles they fought with Austria- Hungarian and German armies
in 1915-1916.
 The only success so far by the Allied forces was the conquest of Germany's overseas colonies.
British Offensive war against Turkey:
 Britain opened offensive war by taking the peninsula of Gallipoli (Turkey).
 The offensive was aimed at taking Constantinople (capital of Turkey).
 In addition to take Constantinople, the British invasion of Turkey was aimed to:
 Put out the Ottoman Turkey from the war
 Decided that offensive would make it easier to supply Russia and strengthen Serbia and
possibly leading to the collapse of Austria-Hungary.
 However, the Gallipoli campaign failed due to strong resistance of the Turkish army.
 This Turkish force was led by General Mustapha Kemal.
 The Allies had to give up their offensive war in 1916.
The Battle of Juteland (in the North Sea) 1916:
 It was the battle at which the great fleets of Germany and Britain clashed
 Defeat for one side would have meant much more than the loss of a fleet.
 So they developed a war of blockade.
 Both sides tried to disrupt each other’s trade routes and prevent vital foods and raw materials reaching the
enemy.
 This was by using a new kind of warship called the Submarine.
 The German submarines had caused huge damages on the British ships until mid-1917.
 The British defended its merchant ships by escorting safely across the seas by war ships.
 While the German navy forced the British government to ration their people's food, the British navy
ensured that Germany’s people suffered even worse shortages.

The two crucial events that shifted balance of Power on the side of Allies in 1917:
1. The withdrawal of Russia from the war
 Russia withdrew from the war due to the outbreak of a popular revolution in Russia, in March 1917.
 The main factors for the outbreak of this revolution were economic hardships, and disastrous defeats
the Russian army suffered on the war fronts.
Consequences of the Russian Revolution and its relation with the war:
 Russian Tsaristregime overthrown from power and a Provisional Government was established.
 The Provisional government was a bourgeois government.
 It had seized power in March 1917.
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 This government continued the war against the will of the Russian people who were already exhausted of
the war needed Russia to withdraw from WWI.
 The Bolsheviks, who won the support of the masses, staged the second revolution on November 7,1917
and overthrew the provisional government.
 Immediately, they signed an armistice (cease-fire) with the Central Powers (Germany).
 This armistice was signed on March 3,1918 at the town of Brest-Litovsk.
 Hence the Brest-Litovsk Treaty resulted in Russia withdrawal from the First World War.
2. The Entry of USA on the side of Allies
 Up to April 6, 1917, the USA had remained neutral in what was considered a European war.
 The policy of the USA which stuck (fixed) to American neutrality was changed as a result of the war at sea.
 The Allied powers aimed at blockading the Central Powers so as to force them to surrender from lack of
food and supplies.
 But Germany responded by sinking, both war ships and merchant ships by its submarines.
 The German U-boats (submarines) sank many passengers and freight vessels which had many Americans on
board.
 This inflamed American public opinion against Germany and led the USA to declare war on Germany on
April 6, 1917.
The results of USA entry in to the war
 America's entry into the war dramatically changed the balance of power in favor of the Allies.
 It boosted the morale of the Allied forces.
 America’s fresh resources, both human and material, arrived in Europe and devastated the war efforts of
the Central Powers.
 In the spring of 1918 the first Unified Allied command was created in the west under Marshal Foch (USA
war commander).
 The Allied forces crushed the last desperate offensive of the Germans and pushed them back.
 Hence, the Central Powers began to crumble one after the other.
 Bulgaria was the first to surrender on September 30, 1918.
 In October some of the subject peoples of Austria-Hungary broke away, and Emperor Charles fled the
country.
 The same month the Ottoman Empire surrendered.
 In Germany on November a revolution forced, Emperor, William II (Wilhelm II) to abdicate.
 The next day, he fled to Holland. Finally, on 11 November 1918 at 11.00 A.M on the 11th day of the 11
month, (11,11,11,1918) the Germans signed an armistice (cease -fire).
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4.3. End of the War and its Consequences

4.3.1. Peace Treaties
The purpose of the cease-fire agreement (Nov. 11,1918) was to stop the fighting as it did. It had been followed by a
peace treaty/treaties signed by the warring nations through which they would settle their disputes and establish an
enduring peace.
1. The Paris Peace Conference (1919)
 It was the first peace talk started in France.
 The dominant figures in the peace conference were the so called ''Big Four'' namely:
 Prime Minister Lloyed George of Britain,
 Prime Minister. V. Orlando of Italy,
 Premier Clemenceau of France, and
 President Woodrow Wilson of the USA.
 Allies held the view that the central powers were responsible for the destruction of the war caused and they
have to be punished for it and the Big four came up with their own proposals.
 Clemenceau of France - insisted on imposing mind harsh terms on Germany so as to
prevent it from becoming a strong military power again.
 Orlando of Italy - demanded the rest of the Allied powers (Allies) to fulfill what they
hadpromised to Italy when she joined the war in 1915.
 Lloyed George (British) - hoped to maintain a balance of power in Europe without weakening
Germany too much.
 President Wilson (USA) - stood for an enduring world peace that would be realized by applying
his Fourteen Points.
 On the whole; the final settlement seems to have more or less satisfied British and French interests,
though France was bitterly disappointed at not being allowed to annex German territory up to the
River Rhine.
2. The Treaty of Versailles (June 1919)
 Signed on the basis of Paris peace conference with the leading member of the central powers, Germany.
 Versailles Treaty turned out to be harsh and dictating as the victors liked it to be.
 By the treaty, Germany:
 lost all her colonies in Africa which were given to Britain, France, Belgium and South Africa as
trust territories (Mandatory rule) to be administered under the supervision of the League of Nations
 lost her colonies in the Pacific Ocean, which were divided among Japan, Australia and New Zealand.
 lostAlsace and Lorraine which were given back to France.
 surrenderedalmost all lands of Poland which she had gained during the partition of Poland in the 18th
century.
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 forced to incorporate Danzing (a predominantly German population) in to the Polish tariff system
(nominally) as free city.
 lost upper Silcsia to Poland although a plebiscite (1921) indicated a German majority throughout the
greater part of the disputed territory.
 transfered small districts like Eupen, Morcsnet, and Malmedy to Belgium and a plebiscite in the
province of Schleswig gave part of Schleswing back to Denmark.
 reduced her army to 100,000 men and the army would not possess heavy artillery, tanks and aircraft.
 navy was limited in size and number of ships and could have no submarines.
 forced to pay a financial compensation called reparations that amounted to $ 6,600,000,000. In fact, it
did not pay even half of this amount.
 made the Rhineland a demilitarized zone.
 This treaty had imposed harsh terms on Germany.
3. Saint German Treaty (September 10, 1919)
 It was another treaty that the Allies signed with other central power partners (Austria) which had already
become a state on its own..
 This treaty limited the Austrian Republic to an area one tenth the size of the former Habsburg Empire.
 Some of Austria Hungary's former territories went to the new republics of Poland and Yugoslavia, and
to the kingdom of Italy.
4. Treaty of Trianon (June 4, 1920)
 It was a separate settlement signed between the Allied powers and Hungary which was formed as a
separate from the dismembered of the Austro-Hungarian Empire.
5. Treaty of Sevres (August 10, 1920)
 It was signed between the Allies and Ottoman-Turkey
 According to this treaty, the former Ottoman territories in the Middle East were given to Britain and
France as trust territories.
 Hence, Syria and Lebanon went to France, while Iraq, Palestine and Trans-Jordan were given to Britain.
 The Allies even tried to partition Asia Minor, the heart land of Turkey.
 However, a successful movement of Turkish nationalists, led by Musapha Kemal (Kemal Ataturk, as
he was known since then) aborted this plan and established an independent Turkish Republic in 1923.
6. The Treaty of Luasane (1923)
 The Allies signed the treaty with the new republics.

In general, the terms of most of these treaties were harsh and unjust which caused strong reaction and
resentment in the defeated nations. Especially the Versailles treaty was extremely harsh which was
denounced by the Germans as the 'diktat' i.e., a dictated peace forced on Germany. Indeed, as it is pointed
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out by many scholars, the Treaty of Versailles sowed sees of future war rather than establishing peace in
Europe.
4.3.2. Birth of the League of Nations
 The birth of the league was one of the consequences of WWI
 The League of Nations emerged as the first international organization aimed to keep world peace.
 Its constitution had already been incorporated into the Treaty of Versailles.
 The underlined objective of the League is stated to be settling disputes through peaceful means such as
conciliation, arbitration and judicial procedures.
 The formation of the League of Nations was the result of the tireless efforts of President Wilson of the
USA and his famous 14 points.
 Although W. Wilson succeeded in realizing the formation of League, he was unable to get the approval
of the US senate on America’s membership into the League and US did not become a member of the
League.
 All big nations were finally became members of the League.
 However, Germany was not allowed to join League membership until 1926, and Russia until 1934.
 The League's headquarter was located in Geneva, Switzerland, where the first Assembly that
inaugurated the birth of the organization, met in 1920.
The League consisted of different organs, namely:
 General Assembly
 Council
 Permanent Court of Justice or Court of Arbitration
 Secretariat, and
 Various commissions and committees.
The General Assembly
 primarily an administrative organ
 In principle, the Assembly was the highest organ of the League. In reality, however, the council was the most
decisive organ of the League.

The Council
 Dealt with issues related to peace and security.
 Members of the council were:
 Great Britain,
 France,
 Italy, and
 Japan
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 Later, the number of the council increased to nine.

 The council was dominated by the Big Three (Britain, France and Italy).
 For the reason that the USA declined to join the League and the Soviet Russia had not been accorded official
recognition, the places reserved for these powers on the council remained vacant.
 But Germany was granted a permanent seat on her admission to the League in 1926.
 In 1933, Japan and Germany announced their intention to withdraw from membership and in 1934; Russia
was admitted and received a permanent seat in the council.
The Permanent Court of Justice
 Concerned with legal issues
The commissions and committees
 They were responsible for issues related to labor, the mandated territories and many other issues from time to
time.
Successes or strengths of the League
 During the first years of its existence, the League successfully handled the mediation of some national
disputes.
The weaknesses of the league
 The remained weak and inefficient because the League had no effective mechanism for averting war or
stopping aggression due to lack of armed force to enforce its decisions.
 Thus, when some states began to violate the principle of the League by following aggressive policies, the
League was unable to stop war and this brought an end to any influence of the organization (League) for
instance, it failed to stop Japanese aggression on Manchuria in 1931 and the Italian aggression on Ethiopia
in 1935-36.
 In 1931 Japan occupied the Chinese province of Manchuria and turned it into a puppet Manchu state called
Manchuko.
 The League criticized Japan but nothing else and the only result was that Japan simple left the League in
1933. The League also failed to do something effective about the Italian aggression of Ethiopia.
Some other short comings or challenges which discredited of the League were:
 The world big power, the USA was not its member (neutrality of the USA).
 Germany and Soviet-Russia were not at the beginning admitted to the league.
 The league was dominated by France and Britain.
 The General Assembly had no effective power.
 The League had no armed force to stop aggressors or to enforce it decisions.
4.3.3. Other Consequences of the WWI
 USA emerged the most powerful country in the world.
 But the USA was not willing to use this power in a global scale.
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 It soon started the traditional policy of ignoring European problems, and stayed out of the League of Nations.
 WWI was fought in almost in all continents except on Australian and American soil.
 About 65 million men were mobilized.
 Of the above figure, 8.5 million were killed, about 21 million were wounded.
 The civilian casualties were incalculable.
 The aggregate expenditure of the belligerent nations was estimated at 35,000,000,000.
 The above figure does not include the cost sustained in material destruction (roads, machines, factories,
domestic and farm, buildings etc)
THE SECOND WORLD WAR 1939-1945
After the end of World War I, the allied statesmen believed that:
 Treaty of Versailles. and
 League of Nations avoid future world wars and ensure lasting world peace and security
However, the two decades that followed the end of World War I:
 Witnessed widespread conflicts.
 The post - war governments in almost all European countries had to face many problems such as:
 political,
 economic and
 social problems.
Italy:
Note: Particularly Italy was hard hit by above crisis. Although Italy was one of the Allied powers and a victor
nation of WWI, it faced various problems and crisis in the immediate post-WWI, these problems and crisis were:
 Widespread social and political popular unrest which was the result of popular uprisings.
 Workers in leading industries went on strike.
 Shutting down of production and took over factories after the example of the Russian Bolsheviks.
 Peasants also revolted against wealthy land owners.
 Intensification of fear among the wealthy landowners and the town middle class who feared a communist
revolution.
 Italian nationalists and soldiers who served in the Italian army were also dissatisfied with the terms of the
Versailles peace settlement.
 The accumulated war debts,
 Economic depression and
 Unemployment.
These problems caused widespread political and social unrest.
 The post - war government of Italy was unable to control the situation.
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 The prevailing dissatisfaction and chaos created a favorable condition for the rise of Fascists to power in
Italy in 1922.
"Fascism":
 Origin - Latin term "fasces", which was a bundle of sticks bound together with an axe that served as a
symbol of power and unity in ancient Rome.
 A political movement that propagated "the unity of all social groups under the control of a nation
state".
 According to Mussolini, fascism was the dictatorship of the state over many cooperating classes.
 Fascism was extremely nationalistic.
Fascists:
 Came to power in Italy in 1922
 Fascists maintained that whatever the cost, the cause of the nation had to be promoted.
 According to fascists, national goals could be advanced by means of war and conquest.
Benito Mussolini:
 was the leader of Fascist party (1883-1945)
 Fought in the First World War as a corporal.
 Before the war, he was a socialist.
 But, during the war, he abandoned socialism and became an ardent nationalist.
 In the war years, he developed new ideas about government which he called "fascism".
 Used all the discontents and fears of the people for his own political end.
 Promised to establish strong law and order, to end social unrest and protect private property.
 Promised different interests to different groups such as:
 To nationalists, promised to restore Italy's greatness.
 To capitalists and landlords, his movement was a defense against communism.
 To workers promised to job security and other benefits such as old age pensions and insurance.
By doing so, Mussolini and his Fascist Party won popular support which encouraged him to take state power.
 Accordingly, in October 1922, the Fascists organized a big march to Rome.
 The government was divided on the action to be taken.
 Some urged King Victor Emmanuel III, the then King of Italy, to declare martial law (imposition of direct
military control of normal civilian functions of government).
 But the king rather appointed Mussolini as Prime Minister.
 At this time, the Fascists did not have a majority in the parliament.
 Therefore, Mussolini made arrangements for an election to be held in 1924.
 In this election Fascists won majority seats in the Italian parliament.
 Using this situation to his advantage Mussolini then swept into power.
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 Mussolini called himself "Il Duce" or "The Leader" and took into his hands the destinies of Italy, as
dictator.
Germany:
 Founded Nazism (the German version of Fascism).
 When Germany lost WWI, her Emperor, Wilhelm II, fled to Holland.
 The government which took power after Wilhelm’s departure was weak.
 The weakness of the government was further worsened when groups of Communists known as the
Spartacist League staged an armed rising in January 1919.
 The rising was crushed, but there remained the fear of another communist revolution in Germany which
lasted to 1923.
The suppression of the communist insurrection in 1919 was followed by:
 The 1919 elections to a Constituent Assembly.
 The Assembly held its meetings in the town of Weimar and carried out the task of writing a new
constitution for Germany.
 After six months in session, the work on the constitution was completed and a republican regime was set
up.
 The republic was called the Weimar Republic, after the town where the Constituent Assembly held its
meeting.
The Weimar Republic had to deal with a range of problems:
 One of the problems was related to severe economic set backs.
 According to the Versailles Treaty, Germany had to pay a huge sum of reparations to the Allied powers.
 The reparations were fixed at £6,600,000,000.
 In 1922 the German government announced that it was not able to pay the reparations.
 To enforce payment, France sent troops to occupy Germany’s industrial Ruhr area, to collect reparations
in the form coal and steel.
 Opposing French occupation, German workers went on strike.
 The German government tried to cover the expense by printing more and more paper money.
 The consequence was a serious inflation, a situation where the amount of money in circulation is very high
with a very weak buying power.
 Although inflation was finally stopped and the economy recovered, it ruined German economy and
weakened the Weimar Republic politically.
 There was a wide spread blamed the Republic for resentment to, the Treaty of Versailles and the inflation
which followed the war.
During these troubled years several parties emerged in Germany. One of those parties was the Nazi Party. The full
name of the party was the National Socialist German Workers’ Party.
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Hitler:
 A veteran of World War I.
 Joined the party in Munich, a city in southern Germany where Hitler settled after serving in the German
army during the First World War.
 Helped the Nazi party grew in power especially after became its leader (1889 - 1945)
Stormtroopers (SA) or “Brown Shirts”:
 Organized as soon as Hitler became the leader of the Nazis,
 It was a private army named after the color of their uniform.
 The members of the Brown Shirts were recruited mainly from young German war veterans and street
hooligans.
 In November 1923 Hitler and his Brown Shirts staged a coup d’ etat (German: putsch) to take power in
Munich.
 But the German police suppressed the coup.
 Upon the failure of the coup, Hitler was brought to trial and sentenced to serve a five years prison term.
 The time in prison was important in the political career of Hitler. This was because, during his time in
prison, Hitler wrote an autobiography entitled MeinKampf (My Struggle).
MeinKampf (My Struggle):
 It was the book written by Hitler in prison
 Described the ideology of Nazism and Hitler’s future plan to make the Germans dominant in Europe.
In this book:
 Hitler expressed his belief that the Germans were a “master race” who deserved to rule.
 He blamed the Jews and the Communists for Germany’s defeat in the First World War.
 On the whole, all policies and practices the Nazis carried out after taking power in Germany were already
stated in the Mein Kampf.
Hitler was released from prison in December 1924 and this was followed by:
 The period of economic recovery and political stability in Germany.
 Under such conditions, Hitler and the Nazis could not get the support of the general public.
 However, the period of economic recovery and political stability was short lived.
 In 1929 German economy collapsed because of the economic crisis that hit the whole world.
 The economic crisis was the result of the Great Depression which lasted from 1929 to 1933.
 The immediate cause of the depression was the Wall Street stock marketcrash in America in October
1929.
The fundamental causes of the depression are still controversial.
 Periodic economic crisis had been common in the capitalist economy.
 But the economic crisis caused by the Great Depression of 1929 – 1933 was exceptionally severe.
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 All industrialized and other nations of the world were hard hit by the Great Depression.
 It was very severe in the United States.
 In many countries workers lost their jobs.
 In the USA alone around 16 million Americans were unemployed in the early 1930s.
The means through which Hitler became a German chancellor:
 The Weimar Republic was one of the European states which was bitterly affected by the Great Depression
and the economic crisis it resulted.
 The Great Depression stopped foreign loans, especially US loans.
 Workers lost their jobs.
 Many enterprises went bankrupt.
The above desperate situation brought Hitler and the Nazis once again to the political scene. After once Hitler
became a German chancellor:
 Many Germans began to listen to and appreciate Nazi propaganda, and became Nazi supporters.
 But until 1932 the Nazis were a minority in the Reichstag, the German parliament.
 In the election of 1928, for instance, they won only 12 seats in the Reichstag.
 But in the election of 1932, they won 230 seats.
 Although the Nazis became the largest party in the Reichstag in 1932, they were still short of a majority.
 In 1933 there was politicaldeadlock among the political parties in Germany.
 The deadlock was because none of the parties obtained a sufficient majority to form government.
 To solve the crisis, Paul Von Hindenburg, the President of the Weimar Republic, offered Hitler the office
of Chancellor, that is, head of the government (Prime Minster) in 1933.
Hitler after taking the office of Chancellor,
 Arranged for a new election to be held in 1933.
 The aim of the election was to win a sweeping majority for the Nazis in the Reichstag.
 To achieve this aim, communist influence among the workers had to be reduced.
 A week before the election, the Reichstag building caught fire and burned.
 Without any evidence, Hitler accused communists as being responsible for this criminal act.
 It is important to note that on one occasion Hitler wrote: “The great masses of people . . . will more
easily fall victims to a big lie than to a small one.” (Mein Kampf ).
 Whoever was really responsible for the Reichstag fire, Hitler intended to reduce the support communists
had among the workers and Hitler was successful.
 Civil rights were suspended, and many communists were arrested.
 As a result, in the election the Nazis obtained sufficient seats in the Reichstag that gave Hitler, full powers
to rule, in effect, as a dictator.
 Hitler took the title “Leader”, Fuhrer in German.
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 Soon afterwards, Hitler started to take aggressive measures which ultimately led to the outbreak of the
Second World War in 1939.
The fundamental cause of the Second World War:
 The unfair decision at Versailles Treaty;
 Emergence of governments which have Fascist ideas in Italy, Nazism in Germany, and militarism in Japan
as well as the formation of the Rome - Berlin - Tokyo Axis;
 The weakness of the League of Nations to solve conflicts;
 World economic depression.
The unfair decision at Versailles:
 The peace settlement sowed the seeds of a future war.
 Public opinion in Italy and Germany was strongly opposed to the peace treaties.
 The fascist regimes which came to power in both countries were determined to reverse the peace settlement
and restore their lost glory through war and conquest.
The emergence of Fascist ideas in Italy, Nazism in Germany, and militarism in Japan:
 In Japan there was also militarist groups who took power in the early 1930s followed a similar policy of
achieving greatnessthrough territorial expansion, which targeted East and South East Asia and the
Pacific.
 Thus, the aggressive policies of Italian fascists, German Nazis and Japanese militarists finally forced the
world to face another destructive war in the twentieth century.

The weakness of the League of Nations to solve conflicts and stop aggressors:
Japan:
 Took the lead in waging aggressive war on its neighbors.
 In September 1931, the Japanese army conquered Manchuria, the northern province of China, and set
up a puppet government named Manchukuo for Manchuria.
 China appealed to the League of Nations.
 When the League condemned Japan as an aggressor and told it to withdraw from the Chinese
territory, the Japanese announced their withdrawal from the League of Nations on 27 May, 1933.
 Further aggressive expansion of Japan against China finally led to the outbreak of open War between
Japan and China in July 1937.
Italy:
 The Japanese boldness in 1931 encouraged Italy to make a similar move against Ethiopia.
 In December 1934 the Fascists unleashed the Walwal Incident which was followed by a full scale invasion
of Ethiopia in October 1935.
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 Emperor Haile Sellassie appealed to the League of Nations, upon which the League condemned Italy as an
aggressor and imposed certain sanctions on it.
 But the League’s action did not stop Mussolini from his military conquest in Ethiopia.
 He achieved a quick victory over Ethiopia by using poison gas which was against international law.

On the whole, the Failure of the League of Nations and the failure of western powers to take effective action
against militarist Japan and Fascist Italy for their criminal act in Manchuria and Ethiopia meant the end of
collective security, and a return of the old principle of "might is right."
Germany:
 Hitler’s aggressive actions were responsible for the outbreak of the Second World War in Europe.
 Hitler took the following aggressive actions against the Treaty of Versailles as well as against international
law.
Hitler’s aggressive actions were:
i) The introduction of national military servicein 1935 violating the Treaty of Versailles which limited the
German ground force to only 100,000 men and prohibited conscription.
ii) The Germanarmies occupied the demilitarized zone of the Rhineland in
March 1936.
 By the Treaty of Versailles, The German army had been forbidden entry into Rhineland
 But, Germany returned to rearm at a rapid pace and occupied Rhineland.
iii) In March 1938, German armies annexed Austria
 For a long time, Hitler had dreamed of an “Anschluss” that is, the annexation of Austria.
 As early as 1924, Hitler wrote in MeinKampf that “German – Austria must return to the Great
German mother country . . . one blood demands one Reich. [state]”
 This dream was realized when Austria was annexed by the German army in March 1938.
iv) In 1938 and 1939 Czechoslovakia became a target for Hitler’s policyof German expansion.
 The crisis over Czechoslovakia marked the last phase in the move towards the war
 Czechoslovakia held a strategic position in Eastern Europe.
 In particular, the Sudetenland, an economically important and heavily fortified region in north
western Czechoslovakia along the German border, was the target of Hitler’s aggression.
 There were about 3 million Germans who lived in the Sudetenland.
 At the time, these Germans were on bad terms with the Czechoslovak government which provided
Hitler a pretext to move against Czechoslovakia.
 Hitler in fact encouraged Sudeten German leaders to complain of Czech "oppression" and make
demands.
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 On 12, September 1938 Hitler demanded that the Czechoslovak government give the right of self –
determination to the Germans of the Sudetenland.
 The Czechoslovak government not only refused to accept Hitler’s demand but also declared martial
law in the territory.
The Munich Conference (Agreement) in September 1938:
 It was the Appeasement Policy:
 proposed by British Prime Minister, Neville Chamberlain
 supported by the French Prime MinsterEdward Daladier; and
 attended by Hitler of Germany and Mussolini of Italy
 It was an effort to avert war through which British and French agreed to meet Hitler to discuss on
war problems.
 By the Appeasement (Munich Agreement):
 Germany was allowed to annex the Sudetenland.
 In return, Hitler promised to respect the sovereignty of the rest of Czechoslovakia.
 Hitler also promised to settle future disputes by peaceful means.
 Britain and France should in part be blamed for Hitler’s bold moves that finally ended with the outbreak of
the Second World War.
 In dealing with Hitler, they followed the policy of “appeasement” or satisfying Hitler’s demands.
 Above all, Chamberlain was the leading proponent of the policy of appeasement.
 By the Appeasement Policy, Chamberlain hoped to maintain peace and stabilize Europe by making
concessions to Hitler.
 However, it did not take much time to prove that appeasement was ineffective in dealing with Hitler and
Mussolini.
 It rather encouraged Hitler to continue with his plans of aggressive expansion.
 Moreover, the attitude of the western power at Munich confirmed Hitler’s opinion that the west
would not go to war with Germany in defense of an East European power.

The Reason why Britain and France refrain to react to Mussolini’s invasion of Ethiopia:
 When Hitler violated the Treaty of Versailles by introducing national military service and occupying the
demilitarized Rhineland, Britain and France did nothing.
 They feared to antagonize Mussolini and push him into alliance with Hitler.
 Despite their caution, however, the Fascist military bloc was formed.
 The military block was formed in 1936 when Mussolini announced the formation of a Rome – Berlin Axis,
which was the alignment of Italy and Germany.
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 In the same year, Italy, Germany and Japan signed the Anti – Comintern Pact (an anti – communist
alliance).
 The formation of an anti – communist alliance was resulted in Soviet Russia willing to join the western
powers against Germany and its allies.
 But, Britain and France refused to accept this policy because they feared that the formation of such a
front would provoke war.
 In addition, the British and French governments and their bourgeoisie elite disliked the USSR as much as
Nazi Germany.
 When Hitler invaded Austria, Britain and France refused to be involved in the crisis.
 Finally, in the Munich Agreement they attempted to satisfy Hitler at the expense of Czechoslovakia.
On his way home after the Munich Agreement, Chamberlain was confident that there would be no more
trouble from the Nazis. He trusted that Hitler would keep his promises. However, far from keeping his promises,
Hitler:
 Was encouraged to make further moves.
 On 15 March, 1939, only six months after the Munich Agreement, Hitler sent his armies into
Czechoslovakia and occupied the western part of the country.
 In eastern Czechoslovakia a German puppet state called Slovakia was set up.
 In the same month, Hitler turned toward Eastern Europe where he annexed Memel from Lithuania.
 It was clear that Poland would be the next victim.

Now it became clear to the British and French governments that the policy of appeasement had utterly failed,
though Chamberlain himself still hoped he could get a firm agreement with Hitler. Therefore, British and French
decided to increase their armaments and also pledged themselves to give military assistance to:
 Poland,
 Greece,
 Rumania and
 Turkey, if these countries were invaded by Nazi Germany.
The means through which Nazi – Soviet Non – Aggression Pact was signed
 Despite mutual distrust between the Soviets and the Western powers, the Western powers wanted to
consolidate the anti-German alliance by including Soviet Russia.
 When the Western powers requested the Soviet Union to join them against the Nazis, the Soviet leader,
Joseph Stalin, asked in effect a free hand for the USSR in Eastern Europe, especially in the Baltic
republics and Poland.
 Chamberlain refused to accept Stalin’s terms.
 This pushed Stalin to turn to Hitler.
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 The consequence was the agreement known as the Nazi – Soviet Non – Aggression Pact which was
signed on 23, August 1939.
In the agreement:
 The two sides pledged to remain neutral if one of them was at war with a third power.
 They also agreed to divide Eastern Europe into their spheres of influence.
 In this respect, Poland was to be partitioned into west and east to be occupied by Germany and Soviet
Russia respectively.
 In addition, Finland and the Baltic republics of Estonia, Latvia and (later) Lithuania were recognized
as part of the Soviet sphere of influence.
By Nazi – Soviet Non – Aggression Pact:
 Both Soviet and Germany got diplomatic value,
 But, both Stalin and Hitler from the very beginning knew that the pact would have no lasting effect.
 Stalin calculated that the agreement would give him time to strengthen Soviet military power.
 Hitler also wanted the agreement because it would relieve him of the need to fight the Soviets while
Germany fought a war elsewhere, without having to worry about an eastern front against the USSR.

The British and French leaders realized that the Nazi – Soviet Pact destroyed the last opportunity of stopping
Hitler without war. But Hitler still hoped that the west would not act against him.
6.2. Military Aspects and the Course of the War
i.The "Blitzkrieg", the "Sitzkrieg" and German Success on the Western Front.
Invasion of Poland by Germany:
 This event marked the beginning of the Second World War was Hitler’s army invasion of Poland
from different directions on September 1, 1939.
 Two days later, Britain and France declared war on Germany.
 In spite of its numerical superiority, the Polish army could not stand the well armed German
attackers.
"Blitzkrieg" or lightning-war
 Is the Germany’s Second World war strategy used to invade Poland
 It was aimed to win a quick and decisive victory through the coordinated attacks of the German
air force and fast moving ground forces.
 Helped Germans to succeed to invade Poland by using a massive aerial strike followed by a swift
advance of the German infantry and armored divisions.
 Enabled Germany to shatter whatever Polish resistance,
 Assisted Germany to overrun Poland in less than a month.
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 On the 30th of September German troops entered into the Polish capital, Warsaw.
 Poles, with no direct assistance from their western allies which nominally declared war on Germany
were defeated.
 Germany annexed Danzig (Polish town).
Invasion of Eastern Poland, Baltic States and Finland by Soviet Russia:

In the meantime, the Soviets (Russia):

 Advanced quickly into eastern Poland to get its share of the spoils.
 Took over Eastern Poland.
 Forced the Baltic States to accept the establishment of Soviet military bases inside their territory
and later incorporated the Baltic States into the USSR (1939-40).
 Fought a difficult but finally victorious war with Finland and annexed some Finnish territory.
 The annexation of:
 Eastern Poland,
 Baltic States and
 Finland gave the soviets security against Nazi invasion

But the USSR did not use the time gained by the Nazi- Soviet Non- Aggression Pact for which Stalin is now
blamed.
“Sitzkrieg” or Sitting War (Phony war):
 For about seven months after the Polish surrender, there was no real fighting on the Western Front.
 Therefore, it was the period of no fighting or war
Invasion of Denmark and Norway by Germany End of Phony War:
 It came to an end on 29 April, 1940 when the German army invaded Denmark and Norway.
 Denmark surrendered after only a few hours
 But the Norwegian resistance took the Germans longer to overcome.
The Invasion of Netherlands, Belgium and France by Germany in 1940:
They became the next victims of German invasion on the Western Front.
 France was invaded on May 10, 1940 along the Meuse River and through the Ardennes hills, which
Britain and France believed, wrongly, to be impossible terrain for German tanks.
 The French and British High Commands did not anticipate (did not expect) German war strategy.
 They expected the Germans to attack through the plains of Belgium as they had done in 1914, in World
War I.
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 Because of this, British and French forces moved into Belgium to defend what they thought to be the main
German line of attack.
 But the Germans broke into France through the Ardennes.
 In only a few weeks the Germans, having broken through the French line and trapped the Allied army in
Belgium, compelled (forced) this Allied force to retreat to Dunkirk, a port in northern France.
 300,000 troops of allied powers, was saved from falling into German hands by evacuating across the
English Channel, but all the equipment was left behind.
The Italian (Mussolini’s involvement in the war):
 The rapid success of the Germans on the Western Front prompted Mussolini to declare war on
Britain and France on 10 June, 1940.
 Mussolini mistakenly calculated that the war was closer to its end, while it was just beginning, and
wanted to be on the winning side.
 Four days later, on June 14, 1940 Paris surrendered to the Germans.
 Then the French signed an armistice (peace agreement) with Germany, which came to effect on 22
June, 1940.
 According to the terms of the armistice:
 Germany occupied northern France, including the territory along the Atlantic coast to
the Spanish border.
 In southern France a puppetgovernment was set up under Marshal Henri Petain in
the town of Vichy, hence the "Vichy government".

ii. The Battle of Britain

 After the fall of France, Hitler attacked Britain.
 The offensive was to be launched from the air.
 The use of air was aimed to win air supremacy before a full scale invasion of Britain.
 Therefore, Hitler aimed at weakening Britain’s defense capacity by destroying the British Royal Air
Force (RAF) and its airfields.
Reaction of Britain against Germany
 Winston Churchill became Prime Minister of Britain in May 1940 by replacing Neville Chamberlain.
 In his first speech to the House of Commons, Churchill clearly stated his government’s policy in favor of
war against Nazi Germany as follows:
#
 You ask, what is our policy? I will say: It is to wage war, by sea, land, and air, --You ask,
what is our aim? I can answer in one word: Victory – victory at all costs, victory in spite of all
terrors; victory, however hard and long the road may be; for without victory, there is no
survival.$
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The first phaseof the Battle of Britain:

 Started in early August when the “Luftwaffe” (the German Air Force) began bombing southern Britain.
 In August and September, the Luftwaffe launched its attack in daylight.
 The aim of day light attack was to wipe out British airfields and fighter planes.
 But the British Royal Air Force (RAF) used the new detection instrument, “Radar” (then called RDF –
Radio Direction Finding) to locate the attackers beforehand.
 Consequently, by counter-attacking, the RAF considerably reduced the German bomber and fighter planes
in air battles.
 The decisive air actions of the first phase took place between 15 and 21 September, during which the
Germans lost some 120 planes.

The Second Phase of the Battle of Britain

 Started in early October, 1940.
 At this stage, the Germans changed their tactic from attacking in daylight to night bombing.
 By the night bombing of London and British industrial centers, Hitler wanted to destroy British industrial
production and to terrify the population which might induce the British government to ask for peace.
 However, the “Luftwaffe” was unable to paralyze production or break the morale of the British people.
 By the end of November, it became clear that Germany had lost the Battle of Britain.
 This was Hitler’s first major defeat since the outbreak of World War II.
 Although Britain could defend itself from German invasion, it was not strong enough to send an army back
into Europe.
 Hitler could therefore turn against the USSR in the east.
iii. The invasion of Germany against Soviet Union on 22 June 1941
Germany’s failure at the battle of Britain was followed by the invasion of Soviet Union by Germany which was
thought by Hitler to be accomplished before winter. The Soviet Union invasion was to fulfill the goal of Hitler
called “Lebensraum” which the vast Soviet territory could provide for German settlers. Additional aims of the
Soviet invasion were to the wheat of Ukraine and the oilfield of Caucasus:

The Soviets responded with a so-called scorched earth policy which called for destruction of everything that could
be of use to invaders in 1941. In December 1941, the Russian winter entered. In June 1941, the German’s plan
called Operation Barbarossa; Hitler launched an attack on the USSR. In the same year, Germany troops were
close to Moscow. But the Russians showed a heroic resistance in Stalingrad. Added to the Russian resistance, the
Germans failed to withstand the Russian cold winter and failed to invade Moscow, the capital of Russia.
iv. The Attack on Pearl Harbour
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 Since the conquest of Manchuria in 1931, the Japanese had been engaged in the task of achieving their
ultimate goal of expansion in Asia and the Pacific.
 In 1937, they launched a full scale invasion over China which resulted in the establishment of a Japanese-
dominated government in part of China in March, 1940.
 The ultimate goal of Japan in 1940 was to establish the official plan called a “New Order in Greater East
Asia”. To this end, Japan adopted the slogan “Asia for the Asians” that announced the goal of Japanese to
establish a “Greater Asia Co-prosperity Sphere”.
 Japan also had the aim to replace the western imperialism by Japanese imperialism and “Co-
prosperity” for other Asian peoples was only pretence (cover). As a step to fulfill this goal, Japan
invaded the Tonkin the province in Indonesia.
 In response to the Japanese actions of invading Tonkin, USA extended a loan to China and put an embargo
on the export of scrap iron on Japan. This promoted Japan to sign a Tripartite Treaty with German and
Italy widely known as "Berlin -Rome-Tokyo Triangle" or” "Berlin -Rome-Tokyo Axis” to assist each
other in the event of attack on any of them.
 In 1941, Japan extended its control over Indo-china that strained relation between Japan and USA.
 When USA’s embargo was more strengthened on Japan, Japan decided to attack the USA’s naval and air
power in Pacific and East Asia.
 On 7 December1941, Japanese bombers launched a surprise attack on the American naval base at Pearl
Harbour, in Hawaii.
 In the attack of December, 1941, the Japanese sank 19 American ships and destroyed 188 planes.
 However, the US aircraft carriers, not present in Pearl Harbour at the time, were saved.
 Japan for a time made rapid advances in the Pacific and South East Asia and occupied.
 Hong Kong,
 Philippines,
 Burma, and
 Malaya
 On December 8, 1941, USA declared war on Japan.
 On 11December 1941 to keep their Tripartite agreement, Germany and Italy declared war on USA.
The World at War
 The Pearl Harbour catastrophic made the war fully a world war. In August 1942, the war was being
fought in several theatres situated in:
 Eastern Europe  China
 North Africa  Atlantic and
 Mediterranean  Pacific
 Burma
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 In the meantime, Italian troops had already invaded:

 Egypt and
 Greece.
 In the winter of 1941-42 Soviet forces opened a counter-offensive and pushed the Germans back some
distance from Moscow.
 But in the summer of 1942 the Germans opened a new offensive against the Soviet Union in the south.
The Battle of Stalingrad in Soviet Russia:
 German troops mounted a major attack against Stalingrad, a major industrial centre on the Volga
River.
 The city also served as one of the Soviets' lines of communication.
 This city was named after the Soviet leader, Joseph Stalin. The fall of the city to the Germans would have a
severe psychological impact on the Soviets’ national pride.
 Given this, Stalin and the Soviets were determined to hold the city. Hitler, on his part, was equally
determined to take the city and kept on ordering German forces to continue with their assault.
 For weeks, fierce battles were fought for each building, or street.

In November 1942, the Soviets launched a major counter-attack against the Germans fighting in and near the
city. In the counter-attack the Soviets encircled the Germans fighting in Stalingrad. At the time, the Germans
were already suffering from the Russian winter.

 On 1 February, 1943 the Germans were forced to surrender. This brought an end to the battle of
Stalingrad in which a large part of the German army was destroyed.
 The Stalingrad battle was a decisive turning point in the course of World War II.
 In Europe on theatre of war the heaviest fighting was done by the Soviet armies, and the Soviet armies had
the heaviest losses.
The war in North Africa
 In North Africa, the German forces commanded by General Erwin Rommel had dominated the desert war
since 1941.
 In 1942 they had nearly taken Egypt.
 In late October, 1942 the British and Commonwealth troops under General Bernard Montgomery
launched a major attack against Rommel’s troops.
 Allied forces landed in Algeria and Morocco in November 1942.
 Fierce battles continued in the desert and in Tunisia which came to an end with the victory of Allied
troops.
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 In May, 1943, the Axis forces in North Africa surrendered to the Allies. Then followed, in July 1943, the
invasion of Italy.
 Victor Emmanuel III, King of Italy, deposed Mussolini and appointed Marshal Pietro Badoglio as
Prime Minister of Italy.
 Although Marshal Badoglio promised Hitler that Italy would continue in the war on the Axis side, he
signed a secret act of surrender to the Allies.
 Suspecting this secret act, Hitler sent German forces into Italy which occupied Rome and rescued
Mussolini who was put in control of northern Italy.
 Heavy fighting went on in Italy until the end of the war but on 4 June, 1944, Allied troops occupied Rome.
 Near the end of the war, Mussolini was captured by Italian communists and shot by them.

End of the war

 On June 6, 1944, USA, Britain and Canadian forces invaded Normandy in France against Germany this
invasion was called operationOverland.
 The commander of the Allied troops was the USA’s General Dwight Eisenhower.
 This invasion ofthe allied troops liberated almost all of France from Germany. In the meantime, the leader
of Free France, General Charles de Gaulle, triumphantly entered Paris on 25 August 1944.
 In July 1944, Soviets crossed the Polish territory.
 Between August and October 1944, major part of central and Eastern Europe was under Soviet control.
In 1942, the battle of Midway Island fought between USA and Japan in the Pacific region resulted in the defeat of
Japan navy. At the end of 1944, the allied troops invaded Germany which resulted in the committing suicide of
Hitler a week before the capitulation of Berlin on May 2, 1945.
 Admiral Karil Doenitz, Hitler’s successor declared by Hitler himself authorized Germany’s surrender to
the allied force.
 On the same day General Alfred Jodal surrendered the German force in the West to Eisenhower.
 The next day, the German force in the East surrendered to the Soviet Marshal Georgi Zhukov.
 Thus, 8 May 1945 became VE (Victory in Europe)
After the VE day, the allied had fight Japanese in Asia. The Japanese surrender was forced by the use of the newly
invented atomic bomb.
 Thus, on 6 August 1945, the first of atomic bombs was dropped on the Japanese city of Hiroshima.
 On 9 August the second atomic bomb, was dropped on the Japanese town, Nagasaki.
 Finally,on 15 August 1945, the Japanese Emperor Hirohito authorized Japan’s unconditional surrender and
consequently, the Second World War came to end.
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 However, Soviet historians argue that in terms of military strategy the use of the bombs was not required.
Since Japan was the only Axis power still in the war, its surrender could have been forced without those
bombs.
Consequences of WWII
 Greater loss of human life (50 million deaths
 Material damages estimated to 2 trillion dollar
 Holocaust (mass murder of European Jew by Nazi) an minorities like:
 Gypsies, and
 Slavs
 The mass killing or Holocaust was carried out in concentration camps, among which the most infamous
were:
 Auschwitz,  Belsen and
 Dachau,  Nordhause
 Buchenwald,
 In these camps:
 The Jews and others worked and lived under horrible conditions.
 Many died of starvation and disease
 Others were made victims of cruel experiments conducted by Nazi doctors
 Jews, however, were usually marched into gas chambers where they were killed with poison gas.
 WWII had far-reaching political consequences:
 End of European Age because Britain and France lost their place as world powers
 The experience gained from the war helped to accelerate the struggle for national liberation from
colonialism
 Marked the emergence of new independent states in Asia and Africa
 Brought about new international alignments
 Change in the balance of power
 the rise of the United States as a super power
 expansion of the soviet union (USSR) and its rise as another super power
 Since 1945, there were series crisis in almost all parts of the world
 the emergence of the cold war
 the beginning of the Nuclear age
 a renewed effort to secure lasting peace through the new international organization called United
Nations Organization (UNO)

7.2. Formation of UNO

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Formation of the United Nations Organization (UNO)

In August 1942, President Roosevelt of USA and Prime minister Winston Churchill of Britain
held a historic conference on the Atlantic coast of Canada. In this meeting they made a joint
declaration known as the Atlantic Charter in which they expressed their commitment to the creation of
an international organization. This laid the foundation for the establishment of the United Nations
Organization.
In January 1942 twenty six nations, who took part in the war against Germany met in
Washington and agreed to accept the Atlantic Charter. The following year, China, Great Britain, the
Soviet Union and the United States, met in Moscow and pledged to set up an international organization
that could take the place of the League of Nations.

Between August- November 1944, a conference of delegates from allied countries met at
Dumbarton Oaks, (near Washington D.C) to implement the Moscow declaration of 1943. In June
1945, at San-Francisco, representatives of 50 nations approved the charter of the future United Nations
Organization UNO. Then the UNO was formally set up on April 25,1945.
The goals of the UN are:
1. maintain international peace and security
2. takeeffectivecollectivemeasuresforthe prevention and removal of threats to the peace and
suppress acts of aggression.
3. encourage international cooperation in solving economic, social, cultural or humanitarian
problems.
4. develop friendly relations among nations
5. prormoterespectforhumanrightswithoutdistinctionastorace,sexlanguage,or religion.
Structure of UNO
The General Assembly - is composed of all member states. Each member nation has one Vote in the
Assembly, though it may send up to five delegates to its meetings. It elects the non-permanent
members to the security council and the members of other councils and committees.

The Security Council - This is the leading organ of the U.N.O. It has five permanent members:-
Britain, Russia, the USA, France and China (after 1971). The number of non-permanent member
originally were six, later grew to ten and then fifteen. The non-permanent members are elected every
two years. The permanent members have the right of Veto.
The council has a military staff committee and has the power to mobilize an armed force under
U.N control. The council may also order the imposition of economic sanctions against offending
nations. The council controls the election of the Secretary General and the admission of new members

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into the organization. It has also the power to send commissions to investigate problems in areas of
conflicts or crisis.
The Secretariat: The secretariat draws its 15000 workers from various member nations. It is seated at
the headquarter in New York. Its major duties include:
 implement the decisions of the Assembly and Councils;
 brings issues of major concern to the attention of the General Assembly;
 draws up an annual report of the organization;
 coordinate the activities and direct funds for the many specialized agencies.

The Secretary General

The Secretary General is appointed by the General Assembly on the recommendation of the
Security Council for a period of five years. The first UN. Secretary General was Trygive Lie of
Norway. In 1952 he was followed by Dag Hammarskjold of Sweden who died in 1961 in a plane
crash, in Congo. U-Thant of Burma, who succeeded Hammarskkiold served the office for two terms
until 1966. Kurt Waldheim of Austria succeeded U-Thant in 1971 and was succeeded by Perez de
Cuellar of Peru. Then came Then came Butros, Butros Gali of Egypt Kofi Anan of Ghana held the
secretary Genership since 1977.

The Economic and Social Council

It is assigned by the General Assembly for three-year term. Its responsibility is to handle
matters related to economic and social affairs. It discusses, study and make recommendations on
social, economic, humanitarian and environmental issues. Through its specialized agencies it
accomplished remarkable works. These specialized agencies are the International Labour Organization
(ILO), the Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO), the World Health Organization (WHO), the
United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) and others.

UN-Successes and Limitations: Since 1945, the UN has achieved impressive successes. It stopped
the Civil War in Greece, and the Korean war (1950-53). It halted the religious bloodshed between
India and Pakistan and arbitrated the Arab - Israeli conflict. It also mediated the Suez Canal crisis of
1956 among Britain, France, Egypt and Israel. In 1948 the General Assembly had adopted the
Declaration of Human Rights- a world charter that gave recognition to the natural rights of man. In the
same year it had approved the Genocide Convention to protect any ethnic group from extinction.

However, the Veto Power enjoyed by some members affects the UN very principle of the
equality of member nations. UN inability to establish a permanent international armed force is one

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other limitation of the organization. With in the UN there were political blocs (American bloc,
Soviet bloc, Afro-Asia bloc). This hindered its internal unity and effectiveness.

7.3. The two superpowers during the Cold War

Post - War Political Developments
During the Second World War, major powers of the world formed an alliance against the Axis
Powers and brought the war to a victorious end in 1945. By 1947, however, this temporary unity came
to an end. The war-time alliance and cooperation gave way to the Cold War. The term Cold War was
used to describe the Post World War II struggle between the two power blocs- the Western bloc
headed by the USA, and Eastern bloc headed by the Soviet Union. During the Cold War period which
lasted from the mid-1940s until the end of 1980s the struggle between the USA and the Soviet Union,
and their respective allies was carried on in the form of an armed race and propaganda campaigns
against each other, rather than open military clashes or wars.
Conflicting political and economic goals were the basic causes of the Cold War. Fearing the
American influence in western Europe the Russians encouraged the establishment of communist
regimes in eastern Europe between 1945 and 1948. These communist states turned out to become
Russian satellites during the years of the Cold War. These Russian satellite states were Albania,
Bulgaria, Hungary, Rumania, Czechoslovakia, Poland and East Germany. Yugoslavia under Marshall
Tito, broke away from these assemlage of satellite states.
In China, a communist party took over power in 1949 and established a communist state. It also
assisted in the formation of a communist state in North Korea. In Greece communist guerillas rose
against the monarchic government with the help of the Soviets and some satellite states. Communists
were also active in the Middle East, Latin America, Southeast Asia and Africa patronizing the
establishment of Communist governments.

The Western Reaction. The western struggle against the expansion of the Soviet bloc took three
forms.
i. Containment. In 1947, the American President Harry Truman called for an end to communist
expansion. This came to be known as the Truman Doctrine. The Truman Doctrine made ready
military, and financial aid to any nation under pressure from communism. To this effect the USA,
pledged financial aid, and direct intervention to counter communist attacks in Greece, Turkey,
Korea and Indo-China. These were some of the places where this policy was practically

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implemented. This was further strengthened by the formation of a series of defensive military
alliances designed to contain communist expansion.
On April 4,1949, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) was formed with the
initiative of the USA. NATO original members were Belgium, Canada, Denmark, France Iceland,
Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, the united kingdom and the USA. Later, Greece and
Turkey in 1952, and West Germany in 1955 joined NATO. The NATO, headquarter was originally
located in Paris, but later moved to Brussles.
Other western sponsored military allignments were formed in south east Asia (SEATO)
which included New Zealand, Pakistan, the Philippines, Thailand, France, England and the USA.
The Middle East Treaty Organization (METO) was organized by England and financed by the
USA. It included Turkey, Iran, Pakistan and England.

ii. Strengthening Europe's Economic Defense

On 5 June 1947, George C. Marshall, U.S secretary of state, announced what was known as the
Marshal Plan. In this plan, America pleaged her readiness to provide huge financial assistance to
help Europe to recover from the ruins of war. In the Marshall Plan (1948-52) the USA launched a
program of rebuilding Europe's economy. Stalin, on the other hand, announced that no Russian
satellite would receive this aid. West European countries which were willing to accept this aid
formed the Organization for European Economic Cooperation, (OEEC). In April 1948, the USA
donated 5.3 billion dollars, This donation was raised to 13 billion dollars by 1952. This financial aid
was distributed among west European countries by the OEEC. The economic assistance facilitated
the speedy recovery of western Europe.

iii. Strengthening of Non -European Economic Defenses.

To check communist expansion into the more backward areas of the world, the USA and its
allies began large scale program of economic aid to these areas. Under President Truman's doctrine
of Point Four Program, technical assistance was provided to these countries to improve their natural
resources and agriculture. Through American Export-Import Bank and the Development Bank,
billions of dollars and pounds were donated to the backward areas of southeast Asia, and Africa.

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Unit Eight
8. African move towards independence ( 9 hours)
8.1. Resistance and results
Early Resistances of Africans against the European Colonial Expansion to Africa
 The Africans did not at all welcome the European rule.
 In fact, the African reaction to the imposition of colonialism was not the same everywhere.
 In some parts of Africa, the Europeans got the collaboration of Africans that they used divide and rule
system to occupy the areas they desired.
 In some Africans too, Europeans signed fake treaties with African chiefs because African chiefs needed
to get firearms and military support from Europeans against their internal rivals.

However, some Africans developed strong military institutions based on centralized political system.
1. Maji-Maji Rebellion (1905-1907)
 It was the resistance started in German East Africa (Tanganyika), in what has now become mainland
Tanzania
 It was a resistance against the German colonialism
 This rebellion was started in 1905 when Africans refused the imposition of forced labour.
 Within short period, the rebellion engulfed much of German East Africa.
 The rebel warriors attacked all foreigners with out discrimination.
 The rebels caused much destruction and killed several foreigners.
 In 1906, the Germans started a cruel suppression.
 The rebel villages were burned and their crops were destroyed. In 1907 the rebellion came to an end
and over 26,000 Africans were killed as the result of this revolt. In addition to this tens of thousands
lost their lives due to hunger or sickness.
2. Samore’s struggle against the French expansion in West Africa (1882-1898).
Samore was a Mango warrior who confronted the French around the Niger River in West Africa.
 First he had made peaceful agreements with France in 1886 and 1887. However, the peace agreements
did not last long and the two groups confronted one another.
 His clash with the French started in 1882 with the first armed conflict which took place at Keniera.
 He organized the Mandika people under his empire and developed formidable against France
 He did not only fight the French with arms but through diplomatic means as well.
 He tried to play off the British against the French.
 Samore was able to get modern weapons from Sierra Leone on the coast.
 Later he was cut off from his supply of arms, and finally he was defeated by the French in 1898.
3. Rabih Ibn Fadel Allah in the central Sudan
 It was the main resistance against French conquest of central Sudan led by Rabih Ibn Fadel Allah,
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 In 1885, Rabih set up his own military state in the Bahir el-Ghazal.
 In 1900 two major French armies conquered Borno (central Sudan).
4. The Battle of Adwa in Ethiopia
The battle of Adwa was among the greatest black African struggle against colonial invaders. The battle of Adwa
was , however , the only great African resistance which was culminated by the brilliant military victory of
the black Africans (Ethiopians) over the technologically advanced, well trained and equipped European
colonial army (Italians).
There were also other several instances of Africa resistance to European colonial expansion. Nevertheless,
Ethiopia was the only African country which succeeded in warding off European colonialism.
Several factors accounted for the failure of African resistance.
 Firstly, Africans were not united to challenge the European conquests.
 Secondly, the Europeans had the advantage of modern fire arms which the Africans did not possess.
 European troops were disciplined, experienced and well trained.
 Thirdly, Europeans signed deceptive treaties with Africans, like for instance, the Treaty of Wuchale, a
Treaty signed between Emperor Menilik and Italy.
 Because of the factors mentioned, Europeans were in a better position to crush African resistance.
 In many cases, European colonial rule in Africa lasted for about sixty or seventy years. During this
period the Europeans employed different forms of colonial administration.

8.2. Pan Africanism

Pan-Africanism before 1945

Origin:
Pan-Africanism originated as a movement of intellectual protest against ill-treatment of blacks all over the
world.
 The origin of the idea of Pan-Africanism was from outside Africa, in the New World (America).
 It was initiated by black Americans and first started in West Indies in America whose ancestors
came from Africa (started in America and the Caribbean by people of African descent).
 These people felt that they had been made homeless by their transfer to foreign countries and made to
live in a social environment unknown to them.
 They wanted to have equality with the other races and justice for black peoples.
 Therefore, It was the movement aimed to restore the dignity and status of Africans and Diasporas.
 Probably coined by Henry Sylvester William (1869-1971)
Focus:
 Originally (at the beginning), Pan-Africanism movement was a cry of revolt against slavery and racial
discrimination and , it was a form of opposition of black people against racism
 At this stage, Pan-Africanism stood for:

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 Unity
 Solidarity and
 Cooperation among blacks of the world
 The main ideas of Pan-Africanism:
 Africans and peoples of African origin must recognize Africa as their home land
 Solidarity among men and women of African descent
 Restoration of African history
 Pride of African culture and heritage
 Africa for Africans in church and state
 The hope for a glorious and united future Africa
Even though many of the descendants of the slaves did not know much about Africa, they thought of Africa
as a continent where black people lived in happiness and freedom. Apparently, this view of an Africa without
frontiers or divisions seems to have led to the birth of the idea of united Africa. The term “Pan” is of Greek
origin and means “all”, hence Pan Africanism means “all African”.

Factors for the Emergence and Development of Pan-Africanism

1. Slave trade
2. European colonization
3. The inhuman conduct of Western European exercised in Africa
The term Pan-Africanism was used expresses two main generalized ideas:
 Firstly, it is an expression of a desire for African unity.
 Secondly, it aims at fomenting (encouraging) a sense of unity among all black peoples of the world,
whose ancestors originally came from Africa.
 The second expression is broader than the first because it assumes a common brotherhood
of all black peoples of Africa, North and South America, and the West Indies.

The First Pan-African Conference (Congress)

 It was held in London in 1900.
 This was earliest organized form of political expression of Pan-Africanism.
 The conference was organized by a Trinidad (West Indies) lawyer, H. Sylvester Williams.
 The participants of the conference came mainly from America and the West Indies.
The two famous leaders of Pan-Africanism during before 1945 were
 Dr. William E. Burghardt Du Bois (1868-1963) and
 An African-American scholar and writer.
 He became an organizer and preacher of Pan-Africanism.
 He came to be known as the Father of Pan-Africanism.

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 Marcus Garvey (1887 - 1940).

 A Jamaican who moved to and lived in the U.S. and Killed there by white racists
 The founder and leader of the Universal Negro Association.
A major point of difference between Du Bois and Garvey

Du Bois and Garvey had some differences on the future of blacks living outside Africa. Du Bois maintained
that blacks outside Africa should struggle for the respect of their rights in the countries they lived in. But
Garvey insisted that the only future for blacks in America and the West Indies was to return to Africa.
On the basis of this idea, Garvey organized a ''Back to Africa'' movement. The Universal Negro
Improvement Association established by Garvey in 1914, was meant to promote this Back to Africa
movement. Although the idea of the movement attracted millions of blacks, it achieved very little.
9.1. Pan-Africanism Since 1945

The year 1945 marked the beginning of a new chapter in the history of the Pan-
Africanist movement. In that year, the Fifth Pan-African Conference was held in
Manchester. This conference was important in two respects.
Firstly, for the first time in the history of Pan-Africanism, Africans from the
continent participated in a Pan-African conference. Many of them were
students in Europe and America. They were the future leaders of Africa,
such as:
 Kwame Nkrumah of Ghana and
 Jomo Kenyatta of Kenya.
Secondly, the conference seriously demanded the independence of Africa

Attendants of this conference expressed their determination to resort to violent

means unless the demand for independence is seriously considered. In effect,
the decision of this conference provided a slogan which brought Africans
together in the struggle for independence.
The Idea of United Africa
 The Manchester Conference was also important because it marked the emergence of new tendencies in
the Pan-African movement mainly a desire for African unity.
 The movement's slogan for this leading idea was United Africa.
After 1945, however, there was a division in the opinion over creating a united single Africa. Remaining
loyal to the original ideals of Pan-Africanism, some nationalist leaders considered the creation of nation-states
as the first step towards creating a larger United Africa. Among this group of leaders were:
 Julius Nyerere, the President of Tanzania, and
 Kwame Nkrumah, the President of Ghana.
After independence creation of single united Africa met opposition. Therefore:
 In many countries nationalists began to concentrate mostly on their own countries.
 According to these nationalists, Pan-Africanism could only be successful in independent Africa so long
as it did not weaken the position of individual nation states.

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 This division in Pan-Africanism, became a source of problem, which continued to trouble the unity of
African states in the post-independence period.
Pan-Africanism in Africa
 Held in Acra (Ghana) in 1958
 Called by Kwame Nkrumah
 The conference of Acra was the first ever conference of independent Afriacn states conference.
 Eight (8) independent African states came together on the soil of Africa but the union of South Africa
was not invited
 The independent African countries participated the conference were:
 Ghana,  Morocco,
 Egypt,  Libya,
 Sudan,  Liberia and
 Tunisia,  Ethiopia
Outcomes(results) of Pan-Africanism:
 Since 1945, focused on the liberation of the continent of Africa from colonialism.
 Using both violent and non-violent forms of struggle, Africa was able to achieve independence from
colonial rule, during the post-1945 period.
 The formation of the organization for African Unity was another outcome of the Pan-African movement.

8.3. Organization of African Unity(OAU)

The idea of forming the Organization for African Unity (OAU) was a result of the Pan-African Movement. This
conference was important for two reasons.
 Firstly, representatives of nationalist movements from 28 non-independent African countries attended
the conference as observers. The intention was that from what they saw at the conference, nationalist
representatives could hasten the process of independence in their respective countries.
 Secondly, many of the resolutions of the conference became corner stone for OAU that was established
five years later. One of those read:
The member states declared that they would observe a policy of 'positive neutrality'. They
pledged themselves to observe one another's political and territorial integrity and to settle
their differences by conciliation and mediation within the African community.
 In order to set up OAU, Emperor Haile Sellassie of Ethiopia, Jemal Abdul Nasser of Egypt and
Kwame Nkrumah of Ghana had played a vital role.

The main objective of the Accra conference was to set up the Organization for African Unity. However, with
regard to the structure of the organization, there was no consensus among African states. This led to the
emergence of two groups of states with different ideas.
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Therefore, before the realization of the formation of OAU, the independent African states were divided in to
political blocks pertaining to the form of the union.
 The leader of Ghana, Kuwame Nkrumah, Guinea, Sekou Toure wanted to establish poetically
united states of Africa whereas the other African leaders had the objective to establish unity of
African states in a sense that cooperation of Africans should given priority than politically united
Africa.
 Therefore, the disagreements or division of African heads of states were due to:
 Ideological difference;
 The need to dominate African politics;
 The question of national interest-difference in natural resources;
 The eager to see sovereign states because most of them were newly independents.
 Differences in official languages used by African states ( English, French, Portuguese, Spanish
and Arabic speaking) but not insoluble obstacle to unity of action
 Many states were members of other non-African organizations. In North Africa many states
belong to the Arab League and their interest was to fight against Israel. The problem was that
some members of the Arab League tried to bring the Israeli issue to the OAU forum.
Focus:
 Their attitude towards the ex-colonial powers was one point of difference between the two
groups.
 However, the main point of difference was the issue of a unified Africa under one
government and one head of state advocated by Nkrumah that required each African state
giving up its sovereignty.
 His proposal would reduce the new nation-states to mere provinces of the continental state.
 But most African states wanted functional cooperation rather than integration.
 This and other points of difference continued to undermine the solidarity of African states
The two major political blocks or division on the issue of continental organization of Africa were:

1. The Brazzaville-Monrovia Group

 “The Moderates” heads of African states held their own conference in Monrovia.
 proposed African union and cooperation than politically united Africa
 The Monrovia group was considered as pro-Western
 Its members were:
 Sierra Leone,  Togo,
 Liberia,  Ethiopia and
 Nigeria,  Libya.
2. The Casablanca Group
They held their conference in Casablanca in January 1961. The group was identified as “radicals” and

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included:
 Ghana,  Algeria,
 Mali,  Guinea and
 Egypt,  Morocco)
The group:
 reject the idea of African union proposed by the Monrovia Group
 Dedicated to form politically united Africa.
 led by Kwame Nkrumah.
 regardedanti-Western,.
Finally, Casablanca’s Group proposal had postponed and the Monrovia’s Group proposal won
majority support and in May 1963, the formation of OAU was realized in Addis Ababa.
Events that facilitated the formation of OAU:
 In 1963, majority of Africans declared their independence;
 Agreements were met on the importance of continental unity;
 Racism and Apartheid in South Africa were universally condemned;
 All of the conferences held between1958-1963 passed resolutions in support of national liberation
struggle on the continent of Africa.
Aims or purposes of OAU:
 Promoting the unity and solidarity of the African states.
 Coordinating and intensifying their cooperation and efforts to achieve a better life for the peoples of
Africa.
 Defending their sovereignty, their territorial integrity and independence.
 Eradicating all forms of colonialism in Africa, and
 Promoting international cooperation having due-regard to the charter of the UN and the Universal
declaration of Human Rights.
Principles of OAU
 Respecting sovereignty of all member states;
 Non-interference in the internal affairs of states;
 Peaceful settlement of disputes;
 Absolute dedication to the independence of all African states from colonialism; and
 Affirmation of the policy of non-alignment.
Focus:
 The highest organ was the Assembly of the Heads of State and Governments. This organ met at
least once a year.
 Another organ was the Council of Ministers made up of the Foreign Ministers of member states. The
Council met twice a year and prepared agenda for the annual meetings of the Heads of States and
Governments.
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 The most important organ was the General Secretariat. It did most of the work of the OAU. The
Office of the General Secretariat was in Addis Ababa. The first General Secretary of the OAU was a
Guinean, Diallo Telli.
 The OAU also had various commissions set up to deal with the social, economic, educational, health
and nutritional problems of Africa.
Achievements or Successes of OAU:
 The establishment of the African Development Bank (ADB) is its outstanding achievement.
 Enabled African countries to speak with one voice on many world issues.
 Brought many countries in Africa in to closer contact than ever before.
 Its ability to control the war by implementing peaceful resolutions.
 It solved more border disputes For instance OAU mediate between:
 Algeria and Morocco,
 Somalia and Ethiopia,
 Niger and Dahomey,
 Tanzania and Uganda.
 Its strong struggle for the liberation of dependent countries in the continent. In order to support the anti-
colonial struggle of dependent countries, the OAU established the African Liberation Committee, which
initially contained 9 members.
 Its decisive struggle against the white minority and racist rule (Apartheid) in South Africa.
The failure of OAU
The major weaknesses of OAU include:
 The continuation of minority whites’ domination of the majority in South Rhodesia (Zimbabwe) and in
South North Rhodesia (Zambia).
 The prevailing racial discrimination in South Africa.
 The continuation of South Africa in ruling South West Africa (Namibia).
 Borders conflicts were remained unsolved.
 Inability to stop frequent military coups and dictatorial military governments in Africa.
 OAU failed to solve economic independence of Africa for longer years.
 The continuation of economic exploitation of Africans by the former European colonizers, and the
problem of neocolonialism.

The general challenges of OAU:

Starting from its foundation, the OAU had faced greatest challenges. Some of the challenges were the
followings:
 In the political aspect, peoples died in many independent countries of Africa caused by civil wars and
border conflicts.

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 There was lack of unanimity among the African states on how to deal with the problem in Southern
Rhodesia, Namibia, Angola, Mozambique, the Republic of South Africa, the Palestine-Jewish conflict
and the Morocco-Spanish Sahara War.
 Many of the young states of Africa suffered from instability. Series of coups and counter-coups had
taken place during the first decades of their independence. This still had continued in the majority
countries of the continent.
 Secessionist plots have caused serious civil wars in Zaire, Nigeria and Ethiopia.
 Lack of funds did not yield the desired results.
 Certain aspects of the constitutional organization were defective. It had to rely on the willing
cooperation of member states. No provisions had been made for sanctions. Even the payment of
contributions was voluntary

9.4. Contemporary Africa

In terms of chronology, contemporary Africa is in the post-colonial period. Perhaps, it would be correct to start
from the year 1963, when the Organization for African Unity came into being because at the time, around 31
states were fully independent.

Contemporary Africa is full of the following challenges and problems

 Lack of political stability.
 The post-independence decades were especially marked by coupd'etats and counter - coups.
 Governments in many countries collapsed one after the other in quick succession. For instance:
 Between 1963 and 1969 five violent changes of government occurred in Dahomey (later
Benin).
 In many countries leaders were assassinated.
 Generally, the problems affected every part of the continent were:
 In December 1962, Habib Borgiba, President of Tunisia, barely escaped death from an
attempted assassination.
 In August 1963, President Fulbert Youlou of Congo Brazzaville was overthrown.
 In June 1965, a military coup in Algeria overthrew President Ben Bella.
 In January 1966, a coup in Nigeria destroyed the lives of many political le aders.
 In February 1966, Kwame Nkrumah was overthrown from power.
 In September 1969, the army took power in Libya, removing King Idris.
 In February 1971, an army officer, Idi Amin, took power in Uganda after overthrowing Milton
Obote.
The reasons why political shake-ups took place in Africa
 One of the explanations (reasons) was the ex-colonial powers quickly withdrawal before Africans
got enough experience in self-government. But for some scholars, this was not the case in point.

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They argue that it was only in former Belgian Congo and Angola that the colonial regimes made
hasty withdrawals. In other colonies, especially in French and British colonies, educated groups
were given enough time to have experience in administration before the withdrawal was effected.
 The second explanation maintains that: "…the political systems and organs of government left
behind by the ex-colonial powers were really unsuitable for, and unworkable in Africa."
According to some scholars, this explanation is to some extent correct. The political system that was left
behind by colonial powers was based on western democracy. This system works best where two or
more political parties. And that has to be done through periodic elections in which citizens, who are
nearly all literate, participate. These conditions were not ripe in Africa.

Colonialism has also left behind legacies of problems which contribute to political instability.
 One result of colonialism was the creation, supposedly, of nation states. However, many of these
nation states are ethnically very diverse. For instance, Gabon has about 40 ethnic groups; Nigeria over
250; Tanzania more than 120 and Zambia about 73. Many of these ethnic groups had fought bitterly
against one another in the pre-colonial period.
 They had never planned of living together within the same boundaries under one
administration.
 Despite years of interaction under the colonial regime, the pre-colonial ethnic conflicts had not
died out.
 They reappeared upon independence and became a source of political instability.
 Ethnic conflicts have grown into bloody civil wars and genocide
 Some examples of economic conflicts were occurred in:
 Congo-Kinshasa in 1960 due to secessionist movements in Katanga
 Nigeria in 1967 due to secessionist movements in Biafra, and
 Recently in Rwanda.
Focus:
The major problems and challenges of development in post-independent Africa considered as legacies of
colonialism are generally:
 International dept
 drought
 Shortage of foreign exchange.
 Unbalanced trade
 Civil wars
 military dictatorship
 boundary conflicts
 illiteracy
 poverty

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 insufficient leaders
 weak and very poor administration
 corruption
 absence of democracy
 HIV AIDS

8.4. Decolonization

National Liberation Movements

Several factors affected the nature of national liberation movements in Africa. The most important affecting
factors were:
 The attitudes and political traditions of colonial powers, whether or not the colonies contained white
settlers, and
 The political experience of African nationalists.
National liberation movements took mainly two courses, violent or non-violent.
National Liberation movement in British West Africa
1. Gold Coast
 In the region, independence was achieved from British fairly smoothly.
The main reason for achievement of independence through fairly smoothly was that West Africa had no white
settlers. Additional factors were:
 The nationalist movements in West Africa had long history and better experience enabling them to
provide leadership and facilitate the struggle for independence.
 The move towards independence was hastened by the effects of the Second World War.
 During the war, the Allied Powers had used slogans meant to rouse peoples of the world against the
Axis Powers.
 For instance, Article Three of the Atlantic Charter promised to "respect the rights of all peoples
to choose the form of government under which they will live”.
 In effect, African nationalists believed that the article meant that at the end of the war they would have
the right to demand and be granted independence.
Although Britain was well disposed (had better interest) towards granting independence to her colonies,
nationalist struggle and conflicts came to being in British West Africa.
 The main reason for the nationalists struggle and conflict was disagreement on how soon self-
government and independence should come.
 Britain maintained that ''it would take some time since she felt she still had to train the nationalists in the
business of running a modern state.''
 But the nationalists, rejected the British view that they were not ready to exercise political power.

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 Gold Coast was where Nationalist agitation in British West Africa was especially strong because the
nationalists were the strongest and well experienced who led the struggle, and Kwame Nkrumah of
the Gold Coast (Modern Ghana was the best example).
 Between 1945 and 1954 nationalists accused British colonial officials of trying to keep their rule in
West Africa by claiming to train Africans in the management of a modern state.
 As a result of nationalist pressure Gold Coast able to win full independence on March 6, 1957
adopted the new name Ghana Nkrumah became the first president of independent Ghana.
2. Nigeria
 Nnamdi Azikwe of Nigeria was another strongest nationalist in West Africa who led Nigeria national
independence movement and well experienced like Nkrumah of Gold Coast
 The first independent prime minister of Nigeria was Tafewa Balewa.
 He also struggled against British colony in West Africa
 Nigeria got independence on October 1,1960
3. Sierra Leone became independent on April 27,1961
4. Gambia on February 18, 1964.
National Liberation movement in French West Africa
Administratively, the colonies were divided into French West Africa and French Equatorial Africa. In French
West Africa, the colonial administration was varying. As a result, the liberation movement remained slow and
started very recently
 After 1945, France was aware of the need to grant more political and civil rights to its colonial people of
French West Africa.
 However, originally, the French government did not plan to give independence for the French African
colonies, but only rights as part of an association with France itself.
 Instead of giving full independence to her colonies, France introduced reforms and this was the
way in which French tried to maintain or continue colonization in West Africa.
 According to the reform, each colony in French West Africa was allowed to elect a territorial assembly.
 Compared with the pre-war situation in the French colonies, this was a big progress.
 Yet, the reforms were not enough because the colonies did not have legislative power and this was why
radical nationalists demanded full independence.
 In 1958 General Charles de Gaulle became French President and a new French constitution was
issued in the same year.
 In the new constitution, de Gaulle intended to transform the French Union into the French
Community.
The French Community:
 It was a sort of French Commonwealth of Nations similar to that of the British.
 But unlike the British Commonwealth, it was to be under effective control of France.
 It would have an Executive Council consisting of::

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 The French President,

 a number of French Ministers and
 Prime Ministers of the member states.
The Executive Council of the French Community:
 It would be responsible for common interest to the community such as defense, foreign affairs and
economic policy.
 It was planned that each of the colonies of French West Africa would hold a referendum on the new
constitution.
The reason why French allowed a referendum to be conducted in her colonies of West Africa in 1958:
The referendum was aimed to choose between voting 'Yes' and becoming autonomous republics within the
French Community, or voting 'No' and becoming immediately independent outside the French Community.
According to de Gaulle, those who chose 'No' would lose French economic and technical assistance.

Out Comes of the Referendum

 Only Guinea voted “No” or not to continue in the French Community (Guinea voted Yes for
independence and No to continue under French Community)
 The, Guinea became fully independent and Sekou Toure became the first president of free Guinea
 France immediately recalled all her professionals and technical assistants from Guinea and stopped
other assistance to Guinea.
 This forced the President of independent Guinea, Sekou Toure, to turn to the Soviets.
 The U.S.S.R. soon responded favorably and filled all the gaps created by French withdrawal.
 Voting 'No' seemed dangerous to many colonies because economies of the French West African colonies
were highly dependent on French assistance.
 Because of the economic dependence, almost all colonies of French West Africa voted “Yes” to continue
in the French Community and they became autonomous within the Community.
 But the Soviet advance worried France very much.
 At the same time, leaders in other colonies of French West Africa began to demand full independence.
 France accepted the demand for full independence.
 And by November 1960 (13) or all French West African colonies achieved full independence.
 After independence, except Guinea, all of the French West Africa maintained their close ties with France.
They were:
 Cameroon,  Chad,
 Togo,  Ubang-chari (Central African Republic),
 Dahomey (Benin),  Middle Congo (Republic of Congo-
 Niger, Brazzaville),
 Upper Volta (Burkina Faso),  Gabon,
 Ivory Coast (Cote Divorcé),  Senegal,

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 French Sudan (Mali) and  Mauritania.

Focus:
 In British and French West Africa, independence was gained through non-violence means through
negotiations
British and French Colonies where independence got through violent armed struggle
 In contrast to the French and British West African colonies, there were colonies where independence
was achieved only after violent armed struggle.
 These colonies shared one common element which wasthe existence of a large number of white
settlers in each of them that complicated independence movement and delayed independence.
French Colony of Algeria:
 Algeria, a French colony since 1830 in North Africa.
 The French administered Algeria as part of France.
 There were large numbers of white settlers in Algeria known as colons(colonists).
 The colons considered Algeria as belonging to them alone.
There was much delay in the rise of the Algerian liberation struggle. This was the result of the French policy of
assimilation which exercised strong influence upon many Algerians. Until the end of the Second World War,
many Algerian elites including Ferhat Abbas believed that Algeria was part of France.
 After the WWII, Ferhat and other assimilationists soon discovered the fact that an Algerian Nation
did exist and its freedom should be restored.
 But the colons did all they could to resist the independence of Algeria.
 As a result, the Algerians had to fight one of the bloodiest wars of independence in colonial Africa
against the French government and French settlers in Algeria.
The Algerian War of independence
 Began in November 1954.
 At the time, the French were at war in Indochina, which they soon gave up after a humiliating
defeat.
 Because of this, France was determined to make up in Algeria for the loss in Indochina.
 Added to Ferhat Abbas, Ben Bella a Nigerian nationalist fighter, who later became the first President
of independent Algeria.
The Revolutionary Committee for Unity and Action
 It was set up Ben Bella and his comrades to fight for independence.
 The organization later changed its name to the National Liberation Front (FLN).
FLN
 Became very strong, mainly because of the financial assistance it got from:
 Egypt,  Tunisia and
 Morocco,  Arab League
 Its fighters were trained in:

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 Tunisia,  Egypt and

 Morocco,  the former East Germany.
 By 1956, it established itself in Algeria as a highly organized and structured fighting force.
 It harassed the French army and won the Algerians majority support by conducting an active
propaganda campaign along with military operations
 The advocated propaganda was the kind of social changes they would bring in independent Algeria as
follows:
The Algerian revolution is not and cannot be a mere fight for the conquest of political power. It is an economic
and social, as well as a political revolution. Independence cannot be an end itself.. . The Algerian workers
are.... fighting in order to guarantee land for the peasant, work for the worker and better living conditions.
Consequences of Algerian War of Independence
 Created serious political crisis in France
 The downfall of the French Fourth Republic was partly the result of the Algerian war.
 The crisis brought Charles de Gaulle, who lost his office earlier, back to power in May 1958.
 In 1959, de Gaulle offered the Algerians three choices:
1. ''integration”,
2. “absolute independence”, or
3. “independence in co-operation with France.''
 The FLN made it clear that they were fighting for absolute independence.
 This was what the colons hated.
 In 1960 and 1961 the colonsand some French generals attempted to overthrow de Gaulle.
 Both in Algeria and France colons set up the terrorist organization called the Secret Armywhich
targeted to attack all who favored the independence of Algeria.
The Negotiation among De Gaulle and FLN
 In 1960, De Gaulle realized that the FLN had strong popular backing (support) in Algeria.
 He also realized that the FLN fighters were costing the French a lot in terms of money and manpower.
 These convinced him to sit for negotiations with the FLN.
 On March 18, 1962, France and the FLN signed the Evian Agreement, which ended the Algerian war.
 On July 1, 1962 Algeria became independent.
Focus:
 The Algerians road to independence was bitter struggle or violent war
 Then, at the end of the day it was the war that convinced De Gaulle to negotiate with FLN and led to
Algerians

The independence of the Portuguese colonies of Angola, Mozambique, and Guinea

 The independence movements were violent struggle.

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Angola and Mozambique:

 They had significant numbers of white settlers.
 But the real problem for independence in these Portuguese colonies was not the existence of white
settlers.
 The problem was the fact that Portugal itself was under the rule of an outdated dictatorship.
 Since 1932 Antonio Salazar had been the Prime Minister of Portugal and ruled the country as a
dictator.
 In 1968 he was succeeded as Prime Minister by Macello Caetano.
 Both Salazar and Caetano considered Portuguese controlled areas in Africa as overseas territories,
which were not colonies, but part of Portugal.
 Because of this, during their rule in Portugal, they totally rejected the demand for independence which
led to violent armed struggle.
 This was why the Portuguese colonies had fought bloody wars for liberation
 Particularly, the independence struggle in Angola and Mozambique was very bitter.
 Angola Mozambique’s liberation movements were led by the Popular Movement for the Liberation
of Angola (MPLA) and Front for the Liberation of Mozambique (FRELIMO).
 Agostino Neto was the leader of MPLA of Angola whereas Eduardo Mondlane was leader of
FRELIMO of Mozambique
 Eduardo Mondlane was killed in a bomb explosion in 1969 and was succeeded by Samora Machel
 From the very beginning, the major liberation movements in Angola and Mozambique were led and
supported by Marxists who organized the freedom fighters
 The movements also obtained foreign assistance such as:
 MAPLA form Guinea, and
 FRELIMO first from Tanzania and later from Zambia.
 To crush the movement in both Angola and Mozambique, Portugal was supported by white
mercenaries from the west and from the Republic of South Africa
 In 1973 Guinea made a unilateral declaration of independence (UDI)
 Meanwhile, violence in Mozambique was growing against Portuguese
 The consequence of the violence was the overthrow of Caetano in Portugal through coup in 1974
 The coup was led by General Antonio de Spinola, who replaced Caetano in power
 General Spinola, with first-hand experience of the wars in Africa, understood the hopelessness of
attempting to crush the liberation movements.
 Moreover, radical elements in the Portuguese army demanded an immediate end to the colonial
empire
 As the war of independence continued it became a heavy burden on the Portuguese economy
 As a result, Portugal began to face political crisis at home

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 Therefore Portugal lacked alternative than giving independence to its colonies

 Accordingly, Guinea became independent as the Republic of Guinea - Bissau.
 Mozambique achieved independence in June 1975 under Samora Machel'sFRELIMO government
 In the same year (1975), Sao Tome and the Cape Verde Islands also became independent.
 Angola’s independence was arranged in November 1975
Even though Angola’s independence was arranged in November 1975:
 Portuguese did not transfer power properly to MPLA.
 Like their Belgian counterparts in the Congo (Zaire), the Portuguese made a hasty and mismanaged
withdrawal.
 This resulted in power struggle between MPLA and its opponents National Front for the
Liberation of Angola FNLA and National Union for the Total Independence of Angola UNITA.
The Civil war in Angola
 Immediately took place following Angola’s declaration of independence as the result of the
power struggle among MPLA and UNITA
 The basic cause of the war was Portuguese’s disorganized withdrawal
 The neighboring countries as well as the opponents in the Cold War took sides with the opposing
forces in Angola.
 In early 1976 an independent Angolan People's Republic was set up under Agostino Neto's MPLA
government.
 But the government had to fight against its opponents, especially Jonas Savimbi's UNITA.
 UNITA continued guerilla warfare against MPLA for many years to come.
The National Liberation Movements for Independence in East Africa
British East African colonies
1. Kenya
 It was based on a violent liberation struggle because Kenya had a large number of white settlers.
 Since the establishment of the colony in 1895, the white settlers were able to own almost all the fertile
highlands of Kenya, taking it from the Africans.
 This created serious land shortage, which resulted in serious tension especially after 1930.
 Until 1930, the European settlers often rented their estates to African farmers, but from 1930 on they
started to uproot these farmers from the rented farms.
 That was in order to set up large farmlands operated by wage labour.
 The nationalist movement in Kenya was started as early as the 1920s, when the first political
organization, the Kikuyu Central Association, emerged.
The Young Kikuyu Central Association (native African Association)
 Anti-colonial organizations, which were set up among various ethnic, social and professional groups,
continued to expand until the end of the Second World War.
 Organized by workers of urban areas and white lands
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 The factor that initiated workers to start the association was the cut in pay of the workers by 1/3
by white farmers.
 British preferred Kikuyu high lands for white settlement because of the lands fertility
 The major objective of the association was to restore lands expropriated by the whites settlers.
 The effects of the Second World War gave additional energy to the liberation struggle in Kenya.
 The end of the war had created a large number of demobilized soldiers, who were unable to get jobs.
 To all these was added the long standing land problem in Kenya, which to led to the violence of the
post-war years.
The role of the Mau Mau in the struggle for the independence of Kenya
 In the post -WWII years, the problem of land shortage became acute.
 This gave rise to a violent rising known as the Mau Mau Rebellion started as an underground
movement.
 Even though the British colonial government detected the movement in the late 1940s, from 1950
onwards, the Mau Mau began administering oaths to members.
 The oaths required members to support the colonial organization and fight against the colonial regime
until independence was attained.
 In 1951, the colonial government clearly marked the activities of the movement and banned it but it was
too late.
 In October 1952 the situation became very serious and a state of emergency was declared.
 British troops tried to arrest the Mau Mau leaders, which were meant to contain the danger.
 The Mau Mau had members in almost all tribes of Kenya, but its main centre of activity was the
Kikuyu inhabited districts.
 The movement used violence as a means to independence. Numbers of people were killed for assisting
The Kenya African National Union (KANU)
 Emerged after the Mau Mau rebellion and demanded the independence of Kenya.
 In 1952 Jomo Kenyatta, who later became the leader of KANU, had been arrested.
 Kenyatta was accused of organizing the Mau Mau Rebellion but he was released from prison in
August 1961.
 After a series of negotiations and preparations, Kenya achieved independence in 1963 and Jomo
Kenyatta became its first President.
2. Tanganyika
In 1954, the people of Tanganyika demanded independence and formed a political party called the Tanganyika
Africa National Union (TANU) under leader Julius Nyerere. The British decided to decolorize Tanganyika
and in 1961, Tanganyika became independent.
3. Zanzibar
 The Zanzibar’s independence movement was led by the radical Zanzibar Nationalist Party (ZNP)

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 In December 1963, the British also gave independence to Zanzibar and Muhammed Shamate became
the prime minister of independent Zanzibar.
 In 1964, Tanganyika and Zanzibar were united and formed the Republic of Tanzania.
4. Uganda
Uganda nationalists began to demand independence from British rule was challenged by cultural differences in
the country because it became obstacle to form a strong national liberation front and to start the struggle in the
country in the early period. At last Uganda achieved her independence with the leadership of Milton Abote in
1963.
5. Italian-Somaliland and British-Somaliland,Rwanda and Burundi
 Italian-Somaliland and British Somaliland united to achieve independence in 1960.
 With the co-ordination role of the UNO, Rwanda and Burundi also won independence in 1962
 Djibouti got independence in 1977
National Liberation Struggles and the Winning of Independence in North Africa
1. Egypt
The Wafdist Movement or Uprising, 1918 and 1919
The uprising was led by a group of educated elites who formed the Wafd Party under Said Zaghlul’s
leadership. The party continued to play active role in Egyptian politics until 1952.
 In 1922, Egypt declared nominal independence.
 But, the declaration of Egypt’s independence was not a complete one.
 This was due to the remnants of British colonialism and British domination over Egypt.
 British troops were stationed in the Canal Zone until 1956.
 Therefore, it was in 1956 that Egypt gained her full independence from British colonial rule, and
Gamal Abdul Nasser became the first leader of independent Egypt.
2. Sudan
On February 12, 1953, the Anglo-Egyptian agreement on the Sudan abrogated the condominium regime and
recognized the right of the Sudanese people to self-determination at the end of a transitional period of three
years. The last of the British troops were out of Sudan by the end of 1955, and on January 1, 1956, the country
was proclaimed an independent republic.
3. Libya
Originally, the country was a colony of Italy. However, the Italians lost Libya as a result of WWII. It became a
UN trust territory under British administration. In 1952, Libya became independent under King Mohammed
Idris al-Sanusi. Libyan independence was proclaimed by the decision of UN General Assembly.
4. Tunisia
Tunisia gained independence through armed struggle from French colonial rule. The bourgeois nationalist
political party called the Neo-Dasturparty under Habib Burgiba and the Communistparty under
Mohammed Enafaa led the struggle for independence. At last, the French were forced to negotiate, which

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brought about the national independence of Tunisia in 1956. On independence, the country became a republic
with Habib Burgiba as the first president.
National Liberation Struggles and the Winning of Independence in South Africa Countries
 As compared to the other regional countries of Africa, the independence of the South African
countries was delayed by the racist rule of South Africa and the consolidation of white settlers in
Zimbabwe.
1. Belgian Congo
In 1960, Belgium offered independence to the Congo in which Lumumba became the first independent prime
minister of the country.
2. Nyasaland
 Nyasaland ended British colonization and proclaimed independence under the name of Malawi .
 Husting Banda became the first independent leader of Malawi.
3. Zambia
 Northern Rhodesia, the colonial name of Zambia also gained independence in October 1964 and
dropped the name it had been given in honor of Cecil Rhodes to be known as Zambia, after the river
Zambezi.
 The famous liberation leader, Kenneth Kawnda became the first independent leader of the country.
4. Zimbabwe
 In Southern Rhodesia, the colonial name of Zimbabwe, the struggle against the white settlers had
continued until the country achieved independence under Robert Mugabe in 1980.
5. Bechuanaland
 Bechuanaland gained her independence in 1968.
6. South Africa
 The independence question of South Africa became very complex due to the formation of Apartheid
rule by the white racists.
 To fight against the white oppressive system, the African National Congress (ANC), which was
formed in 1912, became a voice of protest in the region.
 The ANC followed peaceful form of struggle under its leader, Albert Lutuli.
 The peaceful struggle, however, did not bring independence for the people of South Africa.
 Therefore, the ANC decided to struggle by forming a military wing.
 After the death of Lutuli, Nelson Mandela became the president of the ANC.
 Because of the intensification of the armed struggle, the ANC leaders, such as Mandela, Tabo
Embeki and others were detained in 1967, and sentenced to life imprisonment at the Robin Island.
 The situation forced the leader of the racist government, Deklerick to start negotiation with the ANC
leaders.
 In 1990 ANC leaders were released from Robin Island. Nelson Mandela became the first Black
president of South Africa that marked the final down fall of the Apartheid regime.

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7. South West Africa (Namibia)

 South West Africa was a mandated territory of South Africa. South West African Peoples’
Organization (SWAPO), led by Sam Nujuma, escalated its guerrilla campaign to oust the South
African white racist rule. South Africa continued to resist the struggle of SWAPO until December 1988

Unit Nine
9. Ethiopia from liberation to revolution ( 12 hours)
9.1. British and American eras
The Ethio- British Relation (1941-1955) or British Era
Following the Ethiopian liberation from Italian rule, British strongly opposed to recognize neither the
Emperor nor an independent Ethiopia. Then, British reduced the power of the emperor and practically
shared the Ethiopian power with the emperor that created overlapping of Power in Ethiopia. In 1941,
British effectively established the administration she used to call Occupied Enemy Territory Administration
(OETA) that encompassed the whole Italian East Africa including Ethiopia that helped British to administer
Ethiopia from April 1941 to January 1942.

In 1941, probably to satisfy the British military and colonial officials, Emperor Haile Sellassie I continued to
assert that Ethiopia agreed to British terms that implicitly reduced the status of the country down to a
protectorate level under British.
Ethiopia, as a result of it liberation by the help of British troops, was firmly put under the British political and
economic control. These key positions and powers included the forcing of Ethiopia to:
 Incorporate into British based sterling area.
 Use British East African Shillings.
 Be dependent on British banks.
 Be served exclusively by the British Overseas Aviation Corporation (B.O.A.C).
 Be under British political and military power that included censoring of the Emperor’s private
correspondence.

Although Emperor Haile Sellassie restored his monarchical government on May 5, 1941 his government’s
power was directly reduced and controlled by British. After he entered Addis Ababa, Emperor Haile Sellassie
took only five days to:
 Reinstitute his imperial prerogative rights.
 Make the first ministerial appointments, but not functional due to British domination.

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British used the internal instability and the continuation of WWII as a pre-text to fully control both the
Ethiopian internal political affairs and the Horn of Africa as well. This created confusion among the
Ethiopia people including the emperor as to whether Ethiopia was liberated from colonial rule or re-
conquered by British because British did not allow the emperor to exercise his full prerogative right (privilege
political right).
Although this arrangement made by British and Ethiopia helped Emperor Haile Selassie to bring peace and
normalization in the countryside, the emperor needed to regulate his relations with the British. He also wanted
to regain the complete, full prerogative right and independent powers of the emperor (the monarch). This was
the reason why the emperor made repeated negotiations and signed treaties with British. The
negotiations were aimed to reduce the British influence in the Ethiopia.
The First Anglo-Ethio Agreement (Treaty) On January 31
 Recognized Ethiopia as a sovereign state
 Ended the OETA.
 But, the treaty guaranteed British the right to exercise final authority over the Ethiopian:
► Foreign affairs,
► Internal administration,
► Finance,
► Military and
► Police force.

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The agreement further helped British to establish ‘‘Reserved Area’’ along the Franco- Ethiopian rail way line for
strategic purpose, where she included Ogaden to merge it with the former Italian Somaliland and the British
Somaliland.
 The British reasoned that the Second World War was still being fought and Djibouti was under a pro-
Nazi, Vichy government, and there might be a danger from that direction.
 The Emperor had no other choice but to accept what the British asked for.
 This passive acceptance provided an excuse for the British officials to have extraordinary rights
particularly in:
 the Ogaden,
 certain strategic areas alongFrench Somaliland border areas, and
 Addis-Ababa-Djibouti railway.
Note: The first Anglo-Ethio Treaty did not bring meaningful benefits to Ethiopia. Rather, it gave more
advantages to British.

The Second Anglo-Ethiopian Treaty (Dec. 19, 1944)

The British combined the Ogaden with former Italian Somaliland and began to administer the whole area taking
Mogadishu as a centre. In 1940 they had proposed to combine the five Somali-inhabited territories of:
 Northern district of Kenya,
 Italian Somali land,
 British Somali land,
 Djibouti and
 Ogaden to form a single state called Somalia.
Above all, they developed a plan to create what they called ''Greater Somalia''. Their secret plot in the
Reserved Area, along the southeastern borders, forced the Emperor to open another round of negotiations.

Therefore, both the entire Anglo-Ethiopian relation and the condition in Ogaden forced Emperor Haile Selassie to
start a new negotiation with British in 1944. The aim of the emperor was to:
 Regain Ogaden in particular, and
 His prerogative right in general.

However, British used the ongoing of WWII as the pre-text and then, she referred to the importance of Somaliland
and Ogaden as strategic position to set out military operation against Japan, and refused to restore Ogaden to Ethiopia.

As the result of the Agreement, even though Ogaden was not restored to Ethiopia,
► Ogaden and the “Reserved Area” were unconditionally recognized by British as the integral parts of Ethiopia.

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► British made some concessions to the Ethiopian government such as the Ethiopian right to:
 Recruit non-British foreign personnel.
 Control Djibouti Rail way communication line.
 Get the British support to train the Ethiopian military force to replace the British army in Ethiopia
► By the agreement, British requested only to remain in Ogaden and Reserved Area regions of Ethiopia for two
more years that Ethiopia allowed British to exercise military administration in Ogaden and the “Reserved
Area” for two additional years until the end of WWII.
► British continued to control Eritrea and Ogaden because Ethiopia’s claim was not accepted by British. This
was because British had the intention to merge Ethiopian territories of Ogaden and Haud Grazing land with
Somaliland to establish ‘‘Grater Somalia’’ which was coined by British.
Focus:
 Ethiopia won better diplomatic advantage by the 1944 Anglo-Ethiopian Treaty than the 1942 treaty.

The Third Anglo-Ethio Treaty (1948)

In 1948, UN decided to put the Italian Somaliland under the Italian Trusteeship and the British objective to
Greater. Somalia failed. This UN decision forced British to abandon the idea of creating ‘‘Greater Somalia’’ and
Ethiopia used that opportunity to negotiate with British to restore Ogaden. In the same year, British submitted to the
Ethiopian claim and practically restored Ogaden to Ethiopia. But the following Ethiopian regions were kept under
British control until 1955:
 The Haud grazing land and
 The corridor known as the "Reserved Area", stretching from the Haud to the border of French Somaliland, as
part of British Somaliland.

The return of Ogaden was a diplomatic victory for the Emperor. However, the restoration of Ogaden to Ethiopia in
1948 was not followed by settled political atmosphere in Ogaden because the Somali Youth League at Moqadishu,
which was formed in 1943 by British to mobilize support for her proposal to build ‘‘Greater Somalia’’, strongly
opposed the British restoration of Ogaden to Ethiopia.
The Anglo-Ethiopian agreement on the issue of Haud Grazing land was concluded in 1955. Indeed, Haud was
restored to Ethiopia in the same year and in 1955, British influence in Haud was totally terminated and further ignited
the grievances of the Somalis in the British Somaliland.

New administrative structure was made functional and Ogaden was divided in to two districts:
1. Qebri-Dehar in the south, under the leadership of Girmame Neway, and
2. Jijiga in the north under the leadership of FitawratiDemissie Teferra.
However, the restoration of Odaden and Haud grazing land was resulted in:

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 Opposition of Political groups in British Somaliland and in the Italian Trust territory that expressed their
protest against the British agreement with Ethiopia over the Haud.
 Some members of those groups came into the Ogaden and agitated the people to rebel.
The Ethiopian government responded by using force which helped it to regain control over the region.
. Ethio-American Relation (American Era)
After World War II, American influence became powerful in the Middle East. At this time it was Ethiopia which took
the initiative to get closer to the Americans. The Emperor, who could no longer tolerate British heavy-hand over
Ethiopian, wanted alliance with the USA. To counter-balance the British Political machinery, Ethiopia began to
seek a new foreign diplomatic relation. Then, Emperor Haile Selassie established relation with USA.

The first Ethio-American relation was dated back to the beginning of 20th century when American envoy named
Robert P. Skinner came to Ethiopia in 1903 and received by Emperor Menelik II. Skinner and Menelik signed the
treaty of friend ship and commerce.

The British domination of the internal and foreign affairs of Ethiopia right from 1941 onwards, was the major
cause for the new diplomatic relation that Ethiopia established with USA. Ethiopia demanded UAS’ assistance
to restore Ogaden and Eritrea that British controlled.
Although USA signed a commercial treaty with Ethiopia in 1903, she did not actively engage in the matters of
Ethiopia until the end of WWII. The diplomatic efforts of Emperor Haile Sellassie convinced USA to establish
relatively better diplomatic relation with Ethiopia as a counter weight/balance to the British control over Ethiopia key
positions.

 Officially, Ethio-American relation was signed or started in 1943. Accordingly, Emperor Haile Sellassie sent
Yilma Deressa, the then Ethiopian vice- interior minister to USA. Then, Yilma officially expressed the
Ethiopian interest to USA’s to get USA’s:
 military aid
 exerts and
 legal advisors.
The emperor himself also secretly met Roosevelt, the then USA’s president in 1945 in Egypt. The Emperor met
President Roosevelt in Egypt and asked for support in the struggle to regain the Ogaden and Eritrea. The
understanding reached in Egypt became the basis for future Ethiopian-American friendship and cooperation.

In 1945, USA formally involved in the issue of the Ethiopian financial system. It was due to the fact that in the post
liberation period, British knowingly complicated the Ethiopian currency because she had the intention to eliminate
Maria Theresa, which was circulating in Ethiopia with popular Ethiopian people’s support. According to British,

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Maria Theresa was old aged and out dated. This was the pretext that British used to replace Maria Theresa with East
African Shillings that in turn aimed by British to dominate currency circulation.

In 1943, Ethiopia America Treaty laid a sound base for the beginning of the American financial assistance.
USA printed the Ethiopian Currency Note at Philadelphia in USA. The Ethiopian note currency was first printed at
the beginning of 1945, and replaced Maria Theresa Thaler and East Africa shilling. The Americans had felt the
strategic importance of the Red Sea and in particular the Radio Marina in Eritrea. In Ethiopia, America had already
acquired Radio Marina in Eritrea in 1942, which America considered as strategic position to control the situation
in the Middle East. Radio Marina was an Italian facility built by Italy on the out skirts of Asmara in Eritrea.
America began to use the Radio Marina for military purposes. It helped America to receive message from naval
vessels and to send message to pentagon military base in America.

In 1948, Britain decided to bring an end to her administration in Eritrea. American replaced Britain as the
dominant power in Ethiopia since 1953. The threat from the communist bloc made Eritrea an increasingly
valuable asset to retain. Thus the Americans preferred Eritrea to be a part of Ethiopia and supported
Ethiopia's claim over that territory. America gave attention to Eritrea because unless Eritrea was qualified for
independence, it will remain weak and might fell under the influence of Communist bloc led by USSR, which
was the single rival block of USA’s capitalist bloc.

The Ethiopia’s involvement in the Korean War (1950-1953) on the side of America convinced America to urge the
Ethiopian support. Therefore, USA supported the federation of Eritrea with Ethiopia. Later, Radio Marina was
renamed Qagnew station to commemorate the Ethiopia contingent force that fought in the Korean War on the side of
the West (America) and returned on 22 may 1952. After 1953 Radio Marine (Qagnew station) became a large self-
contained base, and became an important link in the U.S global communications network.The Americans took
Ethiopia as a potential ally, which might play an important role in the politics of the Middle East.

The 1952 Ethio-American Treaty

The agreement included:
 The Qagnew and its facilities administration by USA that continued unit 1978.
 Point Four Agreement (agreements that USA agreed to provide to Ethiopia):
1. Agriculture and public health education,
2. Locust control,
3. Public administration training, and
4. Awarding of scholarships.
The 1953 Ethio-American Treaty

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The treaty was signed to substantiate (confirm) the continuation of Qagnew station under American use. To
compensate this advantage, USA agreed to offer military assistance to Ethiopia. The military support was started
when USA attached Military Assistance Advisory Group (MAAG) to all branches of Ethiopia’s armed force. The
group gave military training to the Ethiopian army.

Before Ethiopia received American assistance in military sector, the Ethiopian:

 Air Force was trained Swedish
 Navy was trained by Norwegians.
Following the Ethio-American Treaty of 1953, the Harar Military academy largely obtained America’s financial,
technical assistance as well as advice. Unfortunately, the Ethiopian police force and Imperial Bodyguard did not
receive sufficient Assistance from America.

The extent of America’s military support was raised in 1960 because the alignment of Somali with USSR for a
military aid proposed to be used in the future war against Ethiopia initiated America to increase the Ethiopia’s help.
The Debrezeit air force, which was founded in 1948, received the highest aid from USA. In Ethiopia, the largest
American aid was given to civil aviation. The Ethiopia’s Civilian Airline was set up in 1945. It was founded by the
Ethiopian delegation who attended the founding conference of UN in the same year.
The airline was founded with the help of America. The America’s organization which set up the Ethiopian Air Line
(EAL) was known as Transcontinental and Western Airline (TWA). The EAL embarked on functions with five
aircrafts identified with the name C-47.

Road maintenance was another concern of American support to Ethiopia. In 1951, America established the Imperial
Highway Authority (IHA) in Ethiopia. The major activity of IHA was maintenance and development of the
Ethiopia’s road network. America repaired the Ethiopia’s Telephone lines with the help of the organization known
as American Multi-National International Telephone and Telegraph (ITT). In 1952, under America’s advice and
assistance, the Ethiopian Imperial Board of Telecommunication was established.

America also became the main sources of Ethiopia’s students’ scholarship. The American agencies, which carried out
this programme, were the African American Institute, and African Graduate Fellowship program (AFGRAD).
The standard of evaluation were made American college’s model.
In 1960, the programme of Peace Corps Volunteers from America, was launched in Ethiopian high schools, and
reduced the contributions of Indian teachers. The Peace Corps Volunteers served in Ethiopia towns, and remote rural
areas, where there were no any modern facilities.

However, the dominance of American in all Ethiopian sectors did not earn acceptance among Ethiopian’s university
students. Because they viewed American’s involvement in Ethiopia as global frame work of imperialism. The

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students’ opposition against America was followed by the deterioration of Ethio-American relation and
American disengagement in Ethiopia.

The pro-western shift of Egyptian policy initiated by Anuar Sadat and the positive relation established with
America as well as the advances in satellite communication that reduced the importance of Qagnew station in
Ethiopia added fuel to the Ethiopian students’ opposition against America, and finally terminated the American
assistance to Ethiopia.

9.2. The Eritrean problem

The Federation of Eritrea with Ethiopia

Back ground:
 In 1557, Eritrea, on the Red Sea coast was conquered by Ottoman Empire and Ruled by governors
appointed by the
Ottoman pasha of Jeddah.
 Massawa controlled by Egypt in 1820s and 1840s, and Massawa came under Italy in 1885.
 Eritrea was part of Ethiopia before it became full Italian colony in 1890.
 Formerly, Eritrean officials took the title called Bahr Negash ((literally, ruler of the sea).
 Under Italy, Eritrea from 1890 to 1941 did not experience democracy.
 In Eritrea, Italy:
 Intensified regional and religious differences.
 Applied the policy of divide and rule.
 Used modern education for Colonial purpose.
 Deprived the right to from political parties until 1941.

Eritrea during Immediate post Liberation of Ethiopia

 Made parts of British OETA in 1941.
 In the same year, held demonstration that called for unification with the motherland, Ethiopia.
 On the same day, formed the Unionist Party.
 Unionist Party members were both Muslim and Christian people, but dominated by Christians.
 Members of the unionist Party included:
 Gebre-Meskel Woldu (the leader of the party),
 Wold-Ab Wold Mariam,
 Ibrahim Sultan, and
 Abdulkadir.

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 The party members propagated the independence of Eritrea from foreign administration (British).
 From 1941 onwards, British allowed Eritrean people to exercise political democracy such as:
 free speech
 free press
 the right to form political parties based on ethnic religious groups
 the to hold demonstrations and meetings
To liberate Eritrea from Ethiopia, British:
 Aggravated differences than integrity.
 Deliberately formed separatist political parties on regional and religious basis to keep differences.
 Deliberately instigated the establishment of opposing political parties in Eritrea to counter balance
the Unionist Party.
 Proposed to merge Arab speaking wetern low land Eritreans with her colony of Sudan, and to merge
highlander Eritreans with Tigray to from independent state of Tigary.
 In 1943, initiated the Liberal Progressive Party (separatist group) led by Ras Tessema Asmeron.
 The party was founded by high land Eritrean elite to create a unite Tigray
 British also encouraged the foundation of Muslim League in 1946 to challenge the Unionist Party.
 The league demanded independence for Muslim-inhabited lowland Eritrea or union with the
Sudan.
 Accordingly, between January and February 1947,the Unionist Party, the Liberal Progressive Party
and the Muslim League were duly registered.
 A pro-Italian party was also formed later, towards the end of 1947,
 This party wanted the return of Italian colonial rule under the cover of UN Trusteeship.
 It was dominated by Italians and half-castes, who were well established in Eritrea.
 However, it had few followers and could not play any meaningful role at the coming of the
Commission of Enquiry.

The Movements of Eritrean Unionist party

 Patriotic Association for the Union of Eritrea with Ethiopia was formed in Ethiopia in 1944.
 Wold Giorgis Yonannes, the Chief Minister of the then Ethiopia in Addis Ababa was its leader in same year.
 Later, its leader became Dejazmach Beyene Beraki and Ato (later Dejazmach Tedla Bahru).
 Its funds were raised by the ‘‘Society of the Unification of Eritrea with Ethiopia’’. Its head quarter was in
Asmera, and chaired by Colonel Nega Haile Sellassie (leader of fund rising).
The Four Power’s Commission of Inquiry sent by UN to Eritrea:
The Commission:
 Was arrived Eritrea in 1947.

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 Members’ were USA, Britain, France and the USSR.

 Was sent to identify the willing of Eritrean people (either union with Ethiopia or to be independent).
 The arrival of the Commission signaled the climax of political agitation or boosted the moral of Unionist Party and
the Muslim League because both groups were the major opposing groups and expected the arrival of the
commission as supporters of their independent interests.
 Held referendum in Asmara in 1948.
The Results of the referendum:
 About 50% of the Eritrean people voted for union with Ethiopia.
 Nearly 50% were voted for separation from Ethiopia (for independence)
 The rest voted either for the union with Sudan or to continue under Italian administration.
 Then, the commission failed to conclude the fate of the future Eritrea by referendum, and brought the case to UN
General Assembly.
 To investigate more cases about future Eritrea, UN General Assembly sent Commission five Men to Eritrea from:
1. Burma,
2. Guatemala, a pro-Italian
3. Norway, pro-Ethiopian
4. Pakistan, Champions of Muslim League
5. South Africa
 The recommendations of the Commission about future Eritrean did not come to unanimity (an agreement)over the
issue because they recommended different proposals listed below:
 Norway--- favored union with Ethiopia
 Guatemala and Pakistan – favored independence
 South Africa and Burma -- favored federation with Ethiopia.
 The UN General Assembly supported the majority opinion (federation).
 USA and Britain supported federation and in 1950, the UN General Assembly decided to federate Eritrea with
Ethiopia, which practiced in 1952.
An Eritrean constitution was written by the UN, which among other things prohibited (according to Article 91) the
Eritrean Parliament from passing legislation that violated the Federal Act.
 Political parties were organized and competed for the seats in the Legislature.
 In the first election of 1952, the pro-Ethiopian Unionist Party emerged as the largest party.
 The unionist party got 32 out of the 68 seats in the Parliament.
 The founder of the party, Tedla Bahru, became the chief Executive of Eritrea.
UN General Assembly recommended Eritrea to have the following under federation with Ethiopia:
 separate regional government,
 her own parliament,

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 Prime Minister,
 a national flag,
 two official languages (Tigregna and Arabic),
 Police force,
 To form Federal Council in which Ethiopia and Eritrea equally represented,
 Granted freedom of press and association, worshiping, and due process of law.
UN also decided the power of Central Government of Ethiopia over Eritrea which included:
 Foreign affairs,
 foreign and interstate trade,
 foreign communications,
 issuing of currency,
 Administration of finance.
1. Eritrea from Federation to Union:
 From the beginning, Emperor Haile Sellassie and Prime Minister Akilu Habte-Wold did not respect the federal
arrangement of Eritrea.
 The Emperor and his representatives were against Eritrea's separate identity under the federal system.
 The emperor and his supporters accepted the federal arrangement only out of necessity.
 The Emperor did not want to accept the special status given to Eritrea.
 He feared that the relatively higher degree of democracy and civil liberty exercised by the Eritreans might
incite the rest of the Ethiopian people that were under his autocratic rule.
 However, Prime Minister Akililu Habtewld was able to see in time the danger of the dissolution of the
Eritrean Federation, and opposed to it in the early 1960s.
 But the Emperor was determined to follow his own interests and transplanted his autocratic rule in Eritrea.
 This emperor’s measure antagonized all the Eritrean parties including the Unionist Party that had struggled for the
union of Eritrea with Ethiopia.
 Tedla Bahru, chief executive of Eritrean Assembly, was forced by the emperor to resign in 1955.
 The emperor replaced Tedla by Asrate Kassa (a Shewan notable), who was loyal to the emperor.
 Therefore, the emperor made the following changes in Eritrea:
 abolished Tigregna and Arabic languages and adopted of Amharic as the official language of Eritrea,
 abolished of the flag of Eritrea, and hoisted the Ethiopian flag
 Outlawed of the official Eritrean seal.
 forbade any political activities and political parties in Eritrea;
 Abolished the equality of religion in Eritrea.
 appointed more loyal Christians to responsible positions.

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In November 1962, the Eritrean Assembly voted itself out of existence by ending the federal arrangement and decided to
unite with the rest of Ethiopia. Eritrea lost its federal status and became one of the provinces of Ethiopia. The extinction of
the federation consolidated internal and external opposition.
The emperor’s measures taken against Eritrea had marked the formation of opposing groups. Accordingly,
 In 1958, Eritreans in exile founded the Eritrean Liberation Movement in Cairo (ELM).
 The ELM was a movement which sought to achieve its objective by political and diplomatic means,
including intervention from the UN.
 This organization was soon neutralized, and a new organization called Eritrean Liberation Front (ELF)
came into existence in 1961 which was established by Eritrean exiles in the Middle East under the
leadership of Idris Awate.
The ELF:
 support Iraqi and Syrian
 launched armed attacks in September 1961, under the leadership of a former rebel, Idris Awate, in
the western lowlands.
 its sectarian conception of the struggle soon resulted in division within itself, and three major groups
emerged
 These three groups began the process of merger to form:
 The Eritrean Liberation Front, and Popular Liberation Force (ELF-PLF) formed in 1972
 Finally all merged in 1973, and the Eritrean People's Liberation Front (EPLF) was formed.
The last years of Haile Sellassie's reign witnessed two organizations competing for recognition as leader of the
Eritrean separatist movements:
 ELF with its popular Arabic designation Jabha (Front,and
 EPLF with its popular Arabic designation Sha'abiya (Popular).
The two groups carried out a relentless struggle for supremacy in the period from 1972-1974, in which the EPLF
triumphed (won victory).

Until the outbreak of the 1974 Revolution, the movement in Eritrea remained only a local issue without gaining wider
international recognition. It was only a few Arab states which were sympathetic to the movement and provided
material support. They regarded Eritrea as an “Arab” land and hated the regime of Haile Selassie because of its close
ties with Israel.
After the 1967 Arab–Israeli War, most states of the Middle East and the Persian Gulf adopted a strong anit-Zionist
policy. This was a great opportunity to the Eritrean cause. Arab support to the Eritrean movement became significant.

In Ethiopia, even the Ethiopian leftists in the student movement, which had a firm stand on Ethiopian unity, in
principle adopted the position of recognizing the right of Eritreans to self-determination.

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9.3. Opposition against the imperial regime

Consolidation of Autocratic Power
8.4.1. Control over Central Administration
Emperor Haile Sellassie built his autocratic control central administration through the make use of the
following:
 The 1942 and 1943 decrees that helped the emperor to:
 Concentrated more political, administrative and economic powers in the hands of the central
government at Addis Ababa at the expense of the provincial (regional) lords and administrations.
 The emperor reduced the power of the nobilities by the above 1942 and 1943 Provincial Administration
Decrees
 The criteria that the emperor used to promote individuals into the highest posts during the post-liberation
period:
 Loyalty than being member of a royal family (loyalty to the person of the Emperor was the chief
criterion for recruitment and promotion of all individuals, of whatever origin, to higher posts)
 Men of humble origin
 The sons of loyal persons were more preferred to the sons nobility of birth
 Dependence on the emperor for position
 Absence of independent source of power unlike hereditary nobles
 Better modern educational background
 Traditional (Political marriage) relations with the emperor’s state functionaries to confirm loyalty
 Tradition marriage brought rapid promotions to several educated Ethiopians and men of noble
background.
 Palace service
 Men of exile were benefited than men of patriots
 The above connections to the Emperor and the royal family made officials be totally subservient to the
will of the Emperor, and blindly obey him.
 Most of the high ranking officials and the ministers of government frequently visited the Emperor at his
palace to report on all matters that required his directives and decisions.
 The order of the Emperor was made effective through the Ministry of Pen.
 The Minister had the traditional title of Tsehafe Tezaz (literally, scribe).
Tsehafe Tezaz Wolde Giorgis Wolde Yohannes:
 The most prominent political figure who was Tsehafe Tezaz from 1941 to 1955
 powerful and smart.
 used his powers, at times, for political intrigues against the other ministers.

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Mokonen Habtewold:
 Minister of Finance
 Organized and led the opposition against Tsehafe TezazWolde Giorgis and sacked him from the post
in 1955.
Prime Minister, Makonen Endalkatchew:
 Remained a nominal figurehead from 1943 to 1957.
 Later appointed President of the Senate.
Aklilu Habtewold:
 Made Minister of Tsehafe Tezaz (Pen) in 1958
 But it was in 1961 that he actually assumed real power as Prime Minister and Tsehafe Tezaz
 He did not have as much power as Wolde Giorgis
 This helped the Emperor to exercise his autocratic power without any limit
 Haile Sellassie was well aware of the sources of danger. Therefore, to minimize threats for his power,
emperor gave less influential political powers to aristocrats such as:
 Asrate Kassa (made governor of Eritrea, and later crown council).
 Endalkachew Mekonen and Michael Emiru were assigned to ambassadorial posts.
 Ras Kasa Haylu, Ras Seyoum Mengesha, Ras Mesfin Seleshi, and Ras Emiru Haile Selassie were
made members of the crown Council that gave them some opportunity for political influence
 However, Abiy Abebe (Minster of War) and Yilma Deressa (Minister of Finance) were remained
exceptional and given highly ranked powers.
 The above all methods helped Haile Selassie to maintain his autocratic position, by playing off the
nobility of birth against the nobility of service

Haile Sellassie had alsofull control over the fiscal (financial)system which remained the pillar of his power.
 In the post-war years, the Ministry of Finance emerged as the most influential agency of the
government.
 The Emperor had control over all allocations of state revenues until the early 1960s.
 The Emperor used budget in the manner of a benevolent father, and at times ordered expenditures for
non-governmental purposes

8.4.2. The centralization of Provincial Administration

 In principle, provincial administration was left to the traditional ruling powers.
 But is practice, the recruitment remained under the strict control of the Emperor.
 To overcome regional tendencies, generally the nobility were deprived of their traditional political rights.

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 Except Tigray and Eritreaunder two noblemen, the rest of the provinces were generally governed by
members of the royal family, loyal officials of no aristocratic background or close friends of the royal
family.
 The country was divided into 12 administrative provinces.
 Later, the provinces were made 13 by splitting Hararghe into two and creating Bale, as a separate province.
 Finally with the federation of Eritrea with Ethiopia, the total number of the provinces became 14, which were
divided into sub-provinces (Awrajas) and districts (Woredas).
 According to the 1964 count, there were 99 awrajas (sub - provinces), 444 districts and 1,328 sub-districts,
over which a uniform administrative structure was forced from the central government.
 Governor-generals of the provinces as a rule were persons with traditional education, with no modern
qualifications.
 What was expected from Governor-generals was loyalty and the maintenance of "peace and security"
(Tsetita).
 Governor-generals had supreme power over all civil servants, according to imperial directives.
 Since the provincial administration was highly centralized:
 The provincial administrators were forbidden from appointing, dismissing or transferring state
servants.
 They also strictly forbidden from recruiting their own police force.
 They deprived the right to leave their provinces prior to the permission of Ministry of Interior.
The 1955 Revised Constitution
The 1931 Constitution was revised in 1955 mainly:
 To create a false positive image for the state.
 To have similarity to that of Eritrea, that had a more progressive constitution and was federated with Ethiopia
in 1952.
In reality, however, the 1955 Constitution:
 Stressed on the special rights of the Crown.
 Articles (about ¼) were concerned with the issue of imperial succession and the power of the Emperor at
large.
 Largely a legal charter for the consolidation of absolutism.
 States that "By virtue of His Imperial Blood, as well as by the anointing which he has received, the
person of the Emperor is Sacred. His dignity is inviolable and His power indisputable".
 Includedprovisions on human rights, such as freedom of speech and press but were made ineffective by
phrases such as "in accordance with the law." or "within the limits of the law".

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In the revised constitution, if there was anything progressive in it, it was the introduction of the representative
principle for the Chamber of Deputies or Lower House of the Parliament in addition the Upper House of the
Parliament or Senate
The Chamber of Deputies (Lower House of the Parliament):
 Members were elected on the basis of universal adult suffrage.
 Arranged to be filled by elected representatives of the people, beginning from 1957.
 Its president was elected by the members
 Most of its members were conservatives.
 Property qualification for being a candidate, and many Deputies were in fact landlords.
 Political parties were not allowed to a candidate.
The Senate or Upper House of the Parliament
 Remained an appointed chamber.
 The Emperor kept the power and the right to:
 postpone,
 extend,
 suspend sessions, and
 dissolve the Parliament.
 Its president was appointed by the Emperor
Proposals of either Houses of the Parliament (the Senate and the Chamber of Deputies) were forwarded to the
Emperor through the Prime Minister for approval to become a law. The Parliament had no right of selecting the
Prime Minister and the Council of Ministers, who remained accountable to the Emperor and chosen by him.
Like the feeble role (weak role) assigned to the Parliament, the post of the Prime Minister meant little until the failed
coup d'etat of 1960.
 The coup was a shock to the Emperor.
 Haile Sellassie was forced to examine political conditions in the country.
 Committees were formed to study and recommend the following reforms.
 Constitutional Revision and separation of the function and position of the Head of State to be
separated from the function and position of the Head of Government.
 Executive authority be transferred from the Emperor to the Prime Minster and the Council of
Ministers.
In 1960 the Emperor announced that he had made a significant change in the position of the Prime Minister
and the Council of Ministers, and that the ministers would be responsible to the Prime Minister. Thereafter the
Prime Minister and the Ministers would be collectively responsible to the Emperor and Parliament. But, all
this was not practically implemented and the power of the Emperor remained intact up to the outbreak of the
1974 Revolution.

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Controlling Media
 To widen the scope of centralization process, Emperor Haile sellassie controlled the media.
 Newspapers had no the right to provide negative comments and critics on government policies.
 They were responsible to bold the positive activities of the emperor, and they were told to magnify
personality of the emperor by printing the name and sometimes the emperor’s photos on schools, books,
hospitals, and along roads as well as avenues.
 According to the emperor, activities considered assubversive that resulted in punishments like demotion and
intimidation were:
critic
disloyalty
Reluctance.

Early Resistances (Oppositions) against the Imperial Regime

1. The patriots’ Oppositions (Blatta Takala Walda Hawaryat, Dejazmach Belay Zeleke, and Bitwaddad
Negash Bezabih)
When in 1941, he was restored to his throne with the backing of the British government, many resented his restoration
to power. On top of that, the Emperor favored the exiles and even some collaborators, ('bandas',) ignoring and
marginalizing the genuine patriots.

Blatta Takala Walda Hawaryat

His opposition was started as early as the emperor’s flight to exile in 1936 and he tried all means to prvent the
Emperor from returning to the throne in 1941. The emperor’s preferring of exile life was strongly opposed by Takala.
Takala did his best to prevent the emperor not to regain his throne. The major aim of Takala was to establish a
constitutional monarch. When the Emperor was restored to power, he started to plot against him. His first plot
started soon after liberation in 1941. His plot was uncovered but he was put in prison and freed in 1945. He was again
involved in another plot the following year. This time his detention lasted until 1954. On his release, Takala was given
a high government post, becoming successively Vice Minister of the Interior and Afa Negus. In November, 1969,
however, he organized a group of armed men to assassinate the Emperor. The plot was discovered, and he was killed
in a shoot - out with the police that claimed his life.

Belay Zeleke
During the Italian occupation, Belay Zeleke was the strongest patriotic leader in Gojjam. He was one of the patriots
who opposed the emperor’s fleeing to exile. He struggled to prevent the emperor from restoring his throne. After
liberation, the emperor suspected his popularity and due to this fact, except Belay, Gojjam patriots were promoted to
the highest political title (Ras Bitwadad).

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Accordingly, Belay Zeleke was rewarded only the title of Dajazmach and made the governor general of Bichena. The
lowest political title that Belay granted from the emperor and loss of Motta and Debre Marqos districts
aggravated his discontents and resulted in his rebellion against the emperor. The loss of Mota and part of Debre
Marqos districts which had been under his control, angered him as a disgrace to his reputation. Out of anger, Belay
made the ill-fated decision to stand up against the government by turning to banditry. He expressed his
grievance by disobeying orders coming from both the Governor-General and the central government. In 1944,
Belay was defeated and surrendered as well as captured by the force of the emperor. He tried to escape, but finally,
recaptured and publically hanged.
Bitwaddad Negash Bezabih
He was also the patriot who led an opposition against the emperor. Before 1951, he was Vice Minister, and President
of the senate. In 1951, he led a conspiracy against the emperor. The objective of the conspiracy was to kill the
emperor and proclaim a republic. Finally, the plotters failed to achieve their intention because they were arrested
and sentenced to various terms of imprisonments.
The Aborted Coup d’état
► The 1960 aborted coup was the first organized attempt that intended to overthrow Emperor Haile Sellassie
I from power.
► It was arranged by educated elite.
► The master-minded behind the coup was Gimame Neway, who architected the operation.
► Gimame was supported by his brother Mengistu, the commander of the Imperial bodyguard and the leader
of the coup.
► The fundamental cause of the coup was the backwardness of Ethiopia compared to the recently emerged
independent African states and theineffectiveness ofthe imperial regime to initiate real progress in Ethiopia.
On 14 December 1960, the coup makers achieved some successes because:
► They seized public buildings and took the members of imperial family and leading figures of the government
to hostages and;
► Declared a new government to be headed by the liberal aristocrat, Ras Emiru Haile Sellassie.
The mouth-piece of the coup makers was Asfawosen, the future salaried constitutional Monarch. Major General
Mulugeta Buli, the commander-in-chief of the Imperial Bodyguard was designed chief of staff of the armed force.
The coup makers also promised salary increment for soldiers.
The serious mistake that the rebels committed was their failure to win the support of the army and Air forces. In this
case:
► They made no ample effort either to win them on their side or neutralize them.
► They did not enlist the entire military unit and radical elites in their program.
► Rather, they camouflaged or hidden their agenda.
The royalists confronted with coup makers and saved the imperial throne. At the end:
► The coup failed and

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► The two brothers, Mengistu and Girmame Niway shot the hostage held in Ganata L’ul palace and fled to the
outskirt of Addis Ababa.
► Finally, Girmame was killed on his way to Ziquala Mountain, and Mengistu was wounded, captured and
hanged.
Though it failed to achieve its objective, the aborted coup:
► Powerfully impressed the minds of the educated group.
► It undermined the power of the emperor and indicated the possibility of overthrowing him from power.
► Further, the physical elimination of the coup makers did not bring to an end the total discontinuation of their
legacy.
3. The peasants’ Rebellion
3.1. The Wayane Peasants’ Rebellion (1943).
Wayane peasants’ rebellion covered the regions of Raya, Azebo and Wajirat in Tigray Region.
Causes:
Under the Italian rule, Wayane peasants were exempted from taxation, but did not last long because the restoration of
the monarch was quickly followed by the imposition of taxation on the peasants.
Therefore, the basic causes of the rebellion were:
 Corruption
 Rapaciousness of government appointees and tax assessors.
 Tax assessors had engaged in plundering and looting of the peasants.
 The old aged confrontation between the Raya and Azebo Oromo people that further precipitated the rebellion.
 The government’s attempt to abolish the traditional autonomy and customs’ of Raya, Azebo and Wajirat people.
The immediate cause for the beginning of the campaigning of the emperor against the peasants was the refusal of the
peasants:
 To pay tribute, and
 To accept new representatives of the government.
The Wayane rebellion was triggered bythe:
 power abuse of tax assessors and
 government’s involvement in to the communal life of Raya and Azebo people.

The power centralization process of Emperor Haile Sellassie disappointed the nobility and resented and as well
as initiated them to join the rebels.
Courses:
The first expedition of the government was intended to punish the Wajirat people who were suspected to take
cattle and the other booty from the Afars. To fight against the government the:
 discontented peasants,

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 dissatisfied provincial nobilities and

 self-seeking bandits had formed a coalition under the leadership of Blatta Haile Mariam Radda (the leader
of Wayane peasants’ rebellion) and intensified fighting against the emperor.
End of the Rebellion:
 The last decisive battle took place on 6 October 1943.
 The government used mortar and artillery.
 It was also supported by British air force that helped the emperor to crash the force of Haile Mariam Radda in
1943.
Consequences:
The consequences of the Woyane peasants’ rebellion included the following:
 Haile Mariam Radda was highly condemned;
 he was punished by a long and solitary imprisonment, and
 the Raya-Azebo people were punished and lost their lands and became tenants.

3.2. The Bale Peasants’ Rebellion (1963)

Fundamental Causes:
Over taxation
Land alienation:
The levying of heavy taxation that the peasants could not able to pay was resulted in land
confiscation in the districts of Delo, Fassil, Genale and Wabe.
Religious bias: The political and financial assistance that Orthodox Christianity received from the
state and the absence of the same aid for Muslims increased the conflicts between the government
and the Muslin Sultanates in Bale.
Ethnic animosity between the settlers and the farmers.
The policy of imperial land grants
The 1963 land re-measurement (Qalad) practice of Emperor Haile Sellassie I had triggered the Bale
peasants’ rebellion.
The mal-administration of Warqu Enqu-Sellassie.
The precipitating factor or immediate cause of Bale Peasants’ rebellion was:
 The 1963 land re-measurement policy of the imperial regime
Courses:
The first large scale rebellion was started in 1963 in the district of El-Kere, in specific area named Afker. Kahin Abdi
was the first leader of the rebellion. From El-Kere, the rebellion was spread to Filtu, Delo, Genale and Wabe which
was led by Balambaras Waqo Gutu.

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 The rebels lost the support they initially granted from Somali Republic and defeated by the Ethiopian
government.
Consequences:
During the war, peasants’ villages, animals and crops were destroyed.
However, after the war, the state treated the people fairly.
Revenge was prohibited by the government.
None of the rebel leaders were forced to exile life.
Waqo Gutu, the rebel leader himself was granted new title (Girazmach) and land from the
government.
Land tax up to 1967 was cancelled.
Some local gentries were strengthened in power
3.3. The Gojjam Peasants’ Rebellion (1968)
Fundamental causes of the uprising Causes:
I. The autocratic administrative policy of Tsehay Enqu Sellassie in Gojjam (1960-1969).
II. Tshaye’s policy of promotion or demotion (shum shir) that deliberately implemented to reward his friends
and to punish his enemies.
III. The campaign initiated to collect overdue taxes (formerly unpaid tax) by the same governor.
IV. The cash collection for the so called development of the region.
V. The peasantry was also required to contribute payment to erect the emperor’s statues to commemorate the
emperor’s return from exile.
Immediate cause of the uprising:
On the eve of the uprising, Tsehay required all the people of the region to have their guns registered upon very
little payment. This changed the situation from bad to worse and scaled up the uprising.
Courses:
The uprising was started in the district of Mota and spread to Bichena, Debre Marqos, Bahir Dar and Dega Damot.
In 1968, an incident took place in Debre Maqos district, and changed the mood from bad to worse. The incident had
taken place in Awobel village on 9 March1968 while the villages were enjoying a feast in their parish church on
Saturday. The cause of the incident was the beginning of land measurement by tax assessors.
To investigate the complaining of the peasants, the government sent three commissions to Gojjam from April to July
1968. Therefore, the first commission was sent to Gojjam and returned to Addis Ababa accompanied by seven elders
represented from Bichena and Motta.
Accordingly, the elders asked the emperor for better:
 government,
 education,
 health facilities, and

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 transport.
They also asked for:
 stopping of tax assessment,
 the withdrawal of tax assessors and
 the abrogation of tax law.
However, the emperor was not pleased with such boldness and rejected their demands, and rather he warned them to
give up the “unlawful activities”.
The districts specially Qwarit and Bibugn were continued their rebellion, but overrun by forces of:
 Territorial Army
 police and
 peasants of Agaw Mider (the neutral district from the conflict).
In February, all rebellions had been crushed down and the situation was fairly stabilized.
Consequences:
 The emperor made log awaited visit to Gijjam.
 He toured the province paying his respect to the monasteries and great churches.
 He gave promotions and banquet as well as award titles and medals.
All this were made to appease the gentry and clergy. The peasants also won significant concessions such as:
 Unpopular bureaucrats and administrators were removed from Gojjam,
 Tax assessors were recalled, and
 The Income Tax was postponed;
 Farmers were exempted from tax arrears for 19 years.
 All of the peasants received clemency.
3.4. The Wollo Peasants’ Rebellions
Causes
The basic cause of the uprising was land alienation.
Courses
The first rebellion was started by attacking the prison in the district’s capital (Woldya) in 1948. The Wollo peasant
uprising was led by Qagnazmach Melaku Taye and Unda Mohammed. However, the rebels finally crashed with the
help of Netch Lebash and they were publically beaten on market day.
The second uprising had taken place in 1970. It was caused by the attempt of the government to introduce
mechanized farming on pasture land. The peasants responded to the attempt by killing the beneficiary of the project
namely Qagnazmach Abte Haylu. Finally, without so much serious challenge the provoking condition was
managed by the force of Netch Lebash and local police.
3.5. The Gedeo Peasants’ Rebellions (1960)
Causes

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It was also caused by land alienation. The land was alienated because Gedeo district was endowed with widespread
coffee plantation that attracted a large number of men from various areas. The major objective of the flocking of
people to the area was to get land from the district. Prince Tenagneworq, the daughter of Emperor Haile Sellassie,
was one of the land seekers in Gedeo. The land alienation was resulted in reducing of Gedeo’s peasants in to tenants
and economic exploitation of the entire people.
Courses of the uprising
The peasants challenged the oppressive system by refusing to pay erbo tax that required the tenants to pay quarter of
their products to the landlords. The peasants collected their coffee without waiting for tax assessor who expected to
determine the amount tax (erbo) needed to be paid for the governors.
The last engagement took place at Michille. The government envoy, Afa NegusEshete Gada ordered offensive
attack.
Consequences:
 The government destroyed peasants’ properties and killed more than a hundred peasants.
 Finally, an “arbitration” commission led by Afa NegusEshete Gada restored the previous peace and order.
 However, the local elders who were considered as the organizers of the rebellion were punished and forced to
pay compensation
4. The Ethiopian Students’ Movement

The opposition of the students’ against the imperial regime was mainly caused by the autocratic rule of the emperor
that intensified:
 Nepotism,
 Corruption,
 Unemployment,
 Poverty and
 Backwardness of the country.
The other source of dissatisfaction among the educated Ethiopians was the issue of curricula that directly imported
from different Western countries.

More than anything else, it was the 1960 aborted coup that undermined the popularity of the emperor and
initiated the students to involve in radical oppositions.

In the early years of the movement, the students confined only to the struggle for free:
 presses and
 union.

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Accordingly, through their paper called News and Views, they expressed their grievances in the form of traditional
poetry, Qine. By any means, the university students exposed the backwardness of the imperial regime in
disguised manners and called up on the mass to struggle for reform and progress.
 The coming of English speaking African students to Ethiopia to attend their scholarship contributed positive
input for the students’ movement.
 The African students were surprisingly disappointed with the prevailing of strict censorship and lack of political
freedom in Ethiopia and they told the Ethiopian students the ways through which struggle can bring full freedom
and equality.
 Through the Ethiopian University Service (EUS) that required a fourth year students to give one year public
service before graduation, the university students spread their objectives to the high school students.
“Land to Tiller” was the principal slogan of the students’ movement. In 1965, the students presented their
demonstration in front of the parliament while the parliamentarians were debating on the regulation of tenancy. In
detail, the slogan called for:
 The distribution of land for the cultivators,
 Massive transfer of resource from landlords to tenants.
The idea was also strengthened by the secondary school students.
 In 1966, the university students held another slogan “Is Poverty a Crime?” and protested against the “Shola”
Concentration Camp (prison).
 In the same year, the students’ newspaper “News and Views” was replaced by the newspaper known as
“Struggle”, and merged together varies college unions in to Union of Students of University Students of
Addis Ababa (USUAA).
 In November 1969, the “Struggle” published article on nationality problem. Walelign Mekonen was one of the
authors of the article.
 In December 1969, the government agents killed the president of USUAA named Tilahun Gizaw.
 External influences were transmitted to the movement through students of abroad (Ethiopian students studying
in Europe and USA).
 The Ethiopian students from abroad had the journal called Tateq (gird yourself), which circulated among
university students. It helped them to have an insight of the external world.
 However, the main inspiring power came from an internal group known as the “Crocodile Society”, which was
established in 1964.
 The 1972-1973 Wollo and Tigray famines gave the students additional opportunity to expos the nature of
regime.
 The 1960s Ethiopian students’ movement contributed a lot for the 1974 popular Ethiopian revolution that
overthrew Haile Sellassie I from power.
The Aftermath of the Students’ Movement

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By the time the government collapsed, however:

 The students were not organized enough to fill the political vacuum.
 Nobody was ready to step in to the power vacuum.
 But, it was only the military which was relatively in a position to control state power after the 1974 popular
Ethiopian Revolution because students did not establish a political party to play a pivotal role in the power
transmission.
 However, the students’ movement gave a direction and guidance to the military regime.
 It was due to this fact that the basic questions held by the students such as the question of:
 Land reform,
 Cultural and
 Linguistic equality and freedom were used by Darg to consolidate its political power.
The 1974 Ethiopian Revolution
3.1. Causes of the Revolution
The root (major) causes that drove various social groups of Ethiopia to participate in the 1974 popular Revolution
were:
 the backwardness of the country
 the failure of the imperial regime to effect significant economic and political reforms
 corruption
 rising inflation
 famine that resulted in the death of over 200,000 people
 the growing discontent among the urban groups
 maladministration,
 power abuse,
 Absence of political freedom, freedom of speech, and freedom to political parties.
On the eve of the revolution, the following measures were taken by different social groups:
A. Ethiopian teacher’s opposedthe Educational Reform Program (The Sector Review) adopted in December
1973 that advocated universal education up to 4th grade followed by vocational training thereafter. The Teachers’
Association petitions on February 18, 1974 were concerned with teachers (salary scales and the Sector Review).
Their petition also included the following demands:
 the liberalization of the laws concerning the right to demonstrate
 fair payment for all wage earners
 increment of payment for factory workers
 price control
 pensions for industrial workers
 improvement of the laws concerning dismissal of workers

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 regular employment
 excluding judges and other high officials from being members of company board.
 granting of employment priorities to Ethiopians
 expansion of employment opportunities and
 The right to join trade unions for employees of certain organization.
B. Army mutiny:
The main actors of the popular uprising that took place from January toJune 1974, against Haile-Selassie's
government were the armed forces.
 The 4th brigade in the Town of Negele-Borena (Sidamo province) demanded:
 payment and pension increases,
 better food allowances,
 injury benefits,
 improved living quarters,
 removal of disciplinary injustices,
 price control and
 access to water wells.
 Debre - Zeit Air Force.
 The Second Division seized the radio station in Asmara (Eritrea)
C. Addis Ababa taxi drivers: The Addis Ababa taxi drivers went on strike to protest the petroleum Price
increase due to the fourth Arab-Israel war.
D. Ethiopian students opposition which was active since 1960s
E. Employees of the Civil Aviation Agency
F. Workers of the Addis Ababa Municipality
G. The Muslim community demanded equal status for their religion.
H. The Confederation of Ethiopian Trade Unions
Note: Famines in Wollo and Tigray (1972-3) that the emperor attempted to hide its existence had precipitated
the mass opposition.
The government's responses to the demands of different social groups
 The Sector Review had suspend (postponed),
 The teachers also reassured that their other demands would be met within a month and urged them to resume
(start again) teaching.
 For taxi – derivers the petroleum price was reduced by ten cents
 Soldiers’ and policemen salary increased by eighteen birr

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The soldiers were not satisfied by the government responses and representatives of the various military units in and
around Addis Ababa went to the king and submitted the following demands:
 freedom of political parties
 the democratic election of administrators
 land reform
 the improvement of employee-employer regulations
 freeing of all political prisoners
 free education for all
 enforcement of necessary price controls
 Prosecution (trial) of officials who directly and indirectly embezzled public funds.
 salary rises for members of the army and other workers to meet market prices
 The formation of a committee including members of the army and the civilian to follow up the enforcement
of the demands.
As result of the first round of military and police uprising:
 Prime Minister Tsehafe Tizaz Aklilu Habte-Wolde resigned on February 24, 1974
 The king appointed General Abiy Abebe as Prime Minister.
 However, the army preferred Lij Endalkachew Mekonnen to be Prime Minster and the king replaced Abiy
Ababe by Endaldachew as Prime Minister.
The radical Bodyguard junior officers, army and police officials made Colonel Alemzewd Tessema (commander
of an air born brigade based in Addis Ababa) a head of an informal, inter-unit coordinating committee that came
to be known as the Armed Force Coordinating Committee (AFCC). Acting with the approval of the new prime
minister, Alemzewd arrested a large number of disgruntled air force officers and appeared to support the
Endalkachew’s government.
In early June, a dozen of members broke away from AFCC and requested that every military and police unit sent their
representatives to Addis Ababa to organize for further action. Then, the army not above the rank of major organized
themselves in to a new body called the Coordinating Committee of the Armed Force, Police and Territorial
Army that soon came to be called Darg (Committee) under the chairman of Major Mengistu Hailemariam and vice
chairman Atinafu Abate.
Note: The rural populations of Ethiopia were not involved in the uprising which prevailed over the first sixmonths
of 1974.

9.4. The establishment of Dergue and its policies

The Popular Revolution of 1974 and its Aftermath

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The Emergence of Darg (Military Dictatorship) the Junta

The Darg was the organization in which the members were unions or associations. The task of coordinating the
demands, strikes and demonstrations of February-June 1974, fell on the elected leaders and committees. Some of
associations that took part in the revolution include:
 The Confederation of Ethiopian Labour Unions (CELU),
 The Ethiopian Teachers Association and
 Union of Addis Ababa University Students.

The nationwide resistance against the autocratic government of Emperor Haile SelassieI finally dismantled the old
regime. But the country entered in to another socio-economic and political crisis. The Darg formally known as the
Coordinating Committee organized from the Armed Forces, Police and Territorial Army set up on June 21, 1974.
Major Mengistu Hailemariam was elected as chair person and Major Atinafu Abate as deputy (vice chairman).

The Darg military government excluded civilian participation in decision-making processes and had restrictive
policies on democratic rights. The Darg provided its legitimacy (legality) among students, the rural and urban
masses through the slogans known as “Ethiopia Tiqdem”(Ethiopia first). To implement its objectives, the Darg used
threats and of extreme force.
The Darg Regime
The Derg formally deposed and imprisoned Emperor Haile Selassie on September 12, 1974. Three days later, Darg
transformed itself into the Provisional Military Administrative Council (PMAC) under the chairmanship of
Lieutenant General Aman Mikael Andom, and Major Mengistu Hailemariam the vice chairman.Thus, Darg
proclaimed itself the nation's ruling body.
In November 1974, Darg executed over sixty detainees (prisoners) without any court of law by the decision of the
regime. Among those executed were two Darg members, five non-Darg member junior officers and one other ranked
member of the armed force. Lt. General Aman Mikael Andom, Chairman of the Darg, was one of the sixty killed on
the same day. The remaining fifty-two victims of the Darg's political decision where twenty-nine of some them were
highest civilian dignitaries and twenty-three were senior military and police officers of the former regime.

To consolidate its unlimited power, the military government immediately began to take different measures.
To this end, took the following measures:

Outlawed all opposing political parties and rebel fronts.

Established its own party, the Workers Party of Ethiopia (WPE) and made the country a one party state.
 Imprisoned top military and civilian officials of the Imperial Regime
 Banned of all anti-government strikes and demonstrations
 Repress all forms of protests

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 executed 52 renown officials and functionaries of the old regime, as well as General Aman Mikael Andom,
the PMAC chairman in November 1974
 Conducted the programme called Development Through Cooperation Campaign or Yetimihirtinna
yeediget zemecha(Idiget Behibiret) to spread literacy and organize the peasantry beginning from 1974
 Proclaimed “Ethiopian Socialism” and adopted the official name of the Provisional Government of
Socialist Ethiopia.
 Nationalized of banks, insurance, industrial and commercial companies, as well as all rural and urban land in
1975
 Eliminated opponents to the personal dictatorship of Mengistu Haile Mariam between 1977 and 1978.
Aman urged the reconciliation of the Eritrean insurgents and he opposed the death penalty for former government and
military officials who had been arrested since the beginning of the revolution.
The Darg immediately found itself under attack from civilian groups, especially student and labour groups who
demanded the formation of a people's government in which various national organizations would be represented. By
mid November, Aman was opposed by the majority of the Darg members. He was killed on November 23, 1974. The
event became known as Bloody Saturday because fifty nine political prisoners were executed. Among them were:
 prominent civilians such as Aklilu and Endalkatchew
 military officers such as Colonel Alem Zewd and General Abiye Abebe and
 two Derg members who had supported Aman.

Following the events of Bloody Saturday, Brigadier General Tafari Banti, a Shewan, became chairman of the PMAC
and head of state on November 28, but power was retained by Major Mengistu who kept his post as first vice
chairman of the PMAC and emerged as the leading force in Darg.
In April 1976, the Darg set its goals in greater detail in the Program for the National Democratic Revolution (PNDR).
The objectives of PNDR included progress toward socialism under the leadership of workers, peasants, the pity
bourgeoisie and all anti- feudal and anti-imperialist forces. The Darg's ultimate aim was the creation of a one-
party system. To accomplish its goals, the Darg established an intermediary organ called the Provisional Office for
Mass Organization Affairs (POMOA). POMOA was designed to act as a civilian political bureau in the hands of the
all Ethiopia Socialist Movement (whose Amharic acronym was MEISON), headed by Haile Fida, the Darg's chief
political adviser. Haile Fida, as opposed to other leftists who had formed the Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Party
(EPRP), had resourcefully adopted the tactic of working with the military in the expectation of directing the
revolution from within.
Ethiopia's Road to Socialism
Soon after taking power, the Darg promoted Ye-Itiopia Hibretesebawinet (Ethiopian Socialism). The concept was
embodied in slogans such as self-reliance, the dignity of labour, and the supremacy of the common good.

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Darg launched Land Reform Proclamation of March 1975, which nationalized all rural land and abolished tenancy.
Farmers were expected to organize peasant associations. Implementation of these measures caused considerable
disruption of local administration in rural areas. Urban residents were organized into urban dwellers' associations, or
kebeles.
Challenges against the Darg’s Military Regime
One of the serious challenges came from one of the leftist underground political organization, the Ethiopian People’s
Revolutionary Party (EPRP). This opposition force had been active mainly among the urban people. It carried out
armed struggle in the country side and urban centers. Further, the EPRP challenged the Darg’s control of the
revolution.
The Red Terror
The Darg soon provoked a government counterattack called the Red Terror which lasted until late 1978, the
government security forces systematically hunted and killed suspected EPRP members and their supporters, especially
students. The Red Terror was a campaign of urban counter-insurgency waged in the main cities of Ethiopia, between
1976 and 1978. It was one of the most systematic uses of mass killing by the state.
In 1978, the Darg promoted the union of several existing Marxist−Leninist organizations under a single umbrella
called the Union of Ethiopian Marxist− Leninist Organizations (whose Amharic acronym was EMALEDEH). The
duty of the new organization was similar to MEISON that aimed to promote control of Ethiopian socialism and
obtaining support for government policies through various political activities. The creation of EMALEDEH
symbolized the victory of the Darg in consolidating power.
The Red Terror took place in the Provinces
 Debre Markos, Gojjam
 Dessie and Kombolcha, Wollo
 Gondar
 Hararge
 Sidamo
 Bale
 Tigray
 Gurage

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Next to Addis Ababa, the Red Terror was severe in Tigray. Three different armed opposition movements
were active in Tigray. They were:
 EDU (Ethiopian Democratic Union)
 EPRP and
 TPLF in Meqele
Impact of the Red Terror
Many people were killed, imprisoned or forced to flee abroad. A minimum of 10,000 were killed in
Addis Ababa alone in 1977 and probably a comparable number in the provinces in 1977 and 1978. A
larger number were detained and subjected to torture.
The White Terror
In February 1977, the EPRP initiated terrorist attacks known as White Terror against Darg members and
their supporters.
The 1984 - 1985 Famine
In 1984-85 severe famines ravaged the country. Colonel Mengistu did not want to acknowledge the
existence of the famine. The international community came to know the extent of the famine trough
documentary films produced by foreign journalists. In Wollo, Tigray, Eritrea and Gondar, kiremt rains
began to fall by the end of July and stopped abruptly. As result of widespread crop failure, people in
Wollo, Tigray and eastern Gondar drifted to relief camps at Korem and Ebenat.
To save the lives of famine victims, the following stations were established by foreign aid. These were:
Distribution points - places where famine victims visited. Only food aid distributed. The people
receive the aid then return to their home.
Feeding stations - places for those malnourished children, elderly mother, were given food by the
NGOs.
Shelter - places for those people migrate to the station, stay in the shelter, given grain and
cooked or prepared by themselves.
Government (internal Response)
In 1984, the government was preoccupied with the colourful celebration of the 10th anniversary of the
Revolution and party formation. The primary government response to the drought and famine was the so
called Resettlement Programme by which large numbers of peasants who lived in the affected areas in
the north resettled in the southern part of the country. In 1985 and 1986, about 600,000 people were
moved forcefully from their home villages and farms by the military and transported to various regions in
the south. Many peasants fled rather than allow themselves to be resettled; many of those who were
resettled sought later to return to their former regions.
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International Response
Foreign journalists were allowed to visit famine affected areas. Some took pictures and produced
documentary films. Charles Stewart’s film “seeds of Despair” taken from the wollo- Gondar border areas
was aired the British Central Independent TV in July 1984. In October 1984, Mohammed Amin took
horrifying pictures from the korem and Meqale shelters. In the west (USA), a movement began with a
slogan: “A hungry child knows no politics” and mobilized aid for the famine victims.
Villagization (1984-90)
In late 1984, the Ethiopian government began a program of villagization, which was intended to regroup
the scattered homesteads, small hamlets and traditional villages of the entire countryside into a
completely new pattern of villages. The aim was ostensibly to promote social and economic
development and facilitate the delivery of services such as education and water supplies. To Darg
collecting the farmers into villages enable to promote production. It will also change a farmer's life,
thinking and helps to form modern society in the rural areas and bring about socialism.
Civil wars During the Darg Period
After 1974, insurgencies appeared in various parts of the country, the most important of which were
cantered in Eritrea and Tigray. The Eritrean problem, inherited from Haile Selassie's regime, was a matter
of extensive debate within the Darg. It was a dispute over policy toward Eritrea that resulted in the death
of the PMAC's first leader, General Aman, an Eritrean, on November 23, 1974, so-called Bloody
Saturday. Hereafter, the Darg decided to impose a military measure on the Eritean Liberation Front (ELF)
and the Eritrean People's Liberation Front (EPLF).
In addition to the Eritrean secessionists, rebels were highly active in Tigray, where the Tigray People's
Liberation Front (TPLF), formed in 1975, was demanding social justice and self−determination for all
Ethiopians. In the southern regions of Bale, Sidamo, and Arsi, the Oromo Liberation Front (OLF) and the
Somali Abo Liberation Front (SALF), active since 1975, had gained control of parts of the countryside,
and the WSLF was active in the Ogaden. Under Ali Mirah's leadership, the Afar Liberation Front (ALF)
began armed operations in March 1975, and in 1976 it coordinated some actions with the EPLF and the
TPLF.
Despite an influx of military aid from the Soviet Union and its allies after 1977, the government's
Counterpart increased effort in Eritrea. Annual campaigns by the Ethiopian armed forces to dislodge the
EPLF from positions around the northern town of Nakfa failed repeatedly and proved costly to the
government. Eritrean and Tigrayan insurgents began to cooperate, the EPLF providing training and
equipment that helped build the TPLF into a full−fledged fighting force. Between 1982 and 1985, the
EPLF and the Darg held a series of talks to resolve the Eritrean conflict, but failed to reach agreement. By
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the end of 1987, dissident organizations in Eritrea and Tigray controlled at least 90 percent of both
regions.
Darg’s Military campaign against Eritrean Insurgency
In August 1977, Colonel Mengistu Haile Mariam called for "total people's war" against the "aggressors
and secessionists." His first target was the Somali invasion and second was the Eritrean fronts. In
December 1977, the EPLF stormed the port of Massawa, but failed to control.Between 1978 and 1984 the
war was waged on an unparalleled scale.
In May 1978, using a newly-completed airfield in Meqele in neighbouring Tigray, the Ethiopian air
force began a campaign of saturation bombing of positions in Eritrea held by the ELF and EPLF. In
June, in response to peace offers from the ELF and EPLF and diplomatic pressure from the USSR and
Cuba, the government held a political conference on the future of Eritrea, but failed to make any
significant concessions to the rebels.
The Red Star Campaign
The 1982 war was the worst war in Eritrea in which the government made an all-out attempt to crush the
EPLF. It was also the year in which the government tried its most systematic attempt to use less
destructive counter- insurgency methods, including economic reconstruction.
In January 1982, Mengistu moved the national capital temporarily to Asmara. By this time nearly two
thirds of the army was stationed in Eritrea. "Red Star” was the offensive attack launched by Darg against
EPLF. Mengistu described the EPLF as “anti-freedom, anti-unity, anti-people and anti- peace bandit
gangs” and “the pitiful dregs of history".
Social and Political Changes
Although Addis Ababa quickly developed a close relationship with the communist world, the Soviet
Union faced difficulties with Mengistu and the Derg. These difficulties were largely the result of the
Darg's preoccupation with internal matters and the promotion of Ethiopian variations on what
Marxist−Leninist theoreticians regarded as preordained steps on the road to a socialist state. The Darg's
status as a military government was another source of concern. In a move to ensure continued communist
support, the Darg formed the Commission to Organize the Party of the Workers of Ethiopia (COPWE) in
December 1979, with Mengistu as its chairman. At COPWE's second congress, in January 1983, it was
announced that COPWE would be replaced by a genuine communist party. Accordingly, the Workers'
Party of Ethiopia (WPE) was proclaimed on September 12, 1984.
The People's Democratic Republic of Ethiopia
On September 10, 1987, after thirteen years of military rule, the nation officially became the People's
Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (PDRE) under a new constitution providing for a civilian government.
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The PMAC was abolished, and in June of that year Ethiopians had elected the National Shengo (National
Assembly), a parliament.
Despite these changes, members of Darg were still controlling the government but with different titles.
For example, the National Shengo elected Mengistu to be the country's first civilian president; he
remained, however, the WPE's general secretary. Other high−ranking Darg and WPE members received
similar posts in the new government, including the Darg deputy chairman, Fikre Selassie Wogderes, who
became Ethiopia's prime minister, and Fisseha Desta, WPE deputy general secretary, who became the
country's vice president.
The change was partly the result of the new directions in Soviet foreign policy undertaken by Mikhail
Gorbachev. But other contributing factors were strong undercurrents of Soviet disapproval of Ethiopia's
conduct of its internal affairs and of Addis Ababa's inability to make effective use of the aid that Moscow
sent. The implications of this changed policy for Ethiopia were likely to be profound, as continued high
levels of military assistance were vital to the pursuit of Mengistu's military solution in Eritrea as well as
to the fight against other internal insurgencies.
Downfall of the Darg and the coming to power of EPRDF
Operation Tewodros
On February 23, 1991, the year of relative quiet came to an end, when the EPRDF announced
“Operation Tewodros," aimed at destroying the army in Gonder and Gojjam. The announcement
of the launch of the offensive, its aims and timetable, showed an increased confidence by the
EPRDF.
In late March, as the government attempted to counter-attack into Gojjam, the EPRDF launched
Operation Dula Billisuma Welkita (Oromo for “Equality and Freedom Campaign") into Wollega.
The Final Days of the Darg
One week later, the EPRDF launched “Operation Wallelign" on the Wollo front. Dessie and Kombolcha
were captured the following day. By May 20, southern Wollo and into northern Shewa had been overrun.
This coincided with a government defeat at Ambo, west of Addis Ababa and the city became undefended.
President Mengistu fled the country the next morning.
Tens of thousands of soldiers dispersed selling their weapons or use it to force the people give them
food and drink. Looting became common. Other soldiers took off their uniforms and went home. Some
senior officers in the army and air force fled abroad, mainly to Djibouti. Only a few elite units inside
Addis Ababa maintained loyalty to the acting head of state, General Tesfaye Gebre Kidan, but a mutiny
broke out on May 27 and there was fighting around the Presidential Palace. The final week of the war was
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accompanied by EPRDF advance to Addis Ababa. EPRDF forces surrounded the city, capturing the
crucial air force base at Debre Zeit.
During May, western diplomats and the UN repeatedly urged the EPRDF to refrain from attacking Addis
Ababa before the US-convened peace talks opened in London. They expressed fears for the safety of the
civilian population. The final assault on Addis Ababa took place on the morning of May 28. While
entering to Addis Ababa, the EPRDF prohibited all forms of public demonstration and tried to maintain
political settlement in the country.