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[Page i]

Introduction to Communication Studies

for Southern African Students

Second Edition

Editors:
Sheila Steinberg
George Angelopulo
[Page ii]

Introduction to Communication Studies for Southern African Students

First published 2007 as Introduction to Communication Studies

Second edition 2015

Juta and Company (Pty) Ltd

PO Box 14373, Lansdowne 7779, Cape Town, South Africa

© 2015 Juta & Company (Pty) Ltd

ISBN: 978 1 4851 0271 7 (Parent)

ISBN: 978 1 4851 1530 4 (ePub)
ISBN: 978 1 4851 0476 6 (Web PDF)

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any
means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage or retrieval
system, without prior permission in writing from the publisher. Subject to any applicable licensing terms
and conditions in the case of electronically supplied publications, a person may engage in fair dealing with
a copy of this publication for his or her personal or private use, or his or her research or private study. See
section 12(1)(a) of the Copyright Act 98 of 1978.

Project Managers: Karen Froneman and Seshni Kazadi

Editor: Rod Prodgers
Proofreader: Ethné Clarke
Cover designer: Monique Cleghorn
Indexer: Adami Geldenhuys

The author and the publisher believe on the strength of due diligence exercised that this work does not
contain any material that is the subject of copyright held by another person. In the alternative, they believe
that any protected pre-existing material that may be contained in it has been used with appropriate authority
or has been used in circumstances that make such use permissible under the law.
[Page iii]

Contents

Foreword
Preface
About the authors

Part 1: Foundations of communication studies

Chapter 1: A brief introduction to human communication – Colin Chasi
1.1 Uniqueness of human communication
1.2 Stages of human communication
1.3 Studying communication

Chapter 2: Conceptualising communication: theory and method – Mariekie

Burger
2.1 What is communication?
2.2 Perspectives and methods for studying communication phenomena
2.3 Contexts in which communication takes place

Chapter 3: Conceptualising communication: theory in practice – Elnerine Greeff

& viola c milton
3.1 Structuralist snapshots: getting the picture with Elnerine
3.2 Origins and tradition of the structuralist approach
3.3 A structuralist analysis of the Nando’s diversity advertisement
3.4 Critique
3.5 A familiar stranger … viola’s constructivist approach to the Nando’s
advertisement
3.6 My brother from another mother

Chapter 4: Sensing and sense making – Sonja Verwey

4.1 Sensation and perception
4.2 Types of perception
4.3 McLuhan’s ratio of the senses
4.4 Visual sense making
4.5 Perceptual inaccuracies
4.6 The perception process
4.7 Improving perceptual accuracy
4.8 Auditory perception
4.9 Hearing and listening
4.10 Types of listening
4.11 The listening process

Chapter 5: Nonverbal communication – Pieter Nagel & Elizabeth Lubinga

5.1 Functions of nonverbal communication
5.2 Aspects of nonverbal communication
5.3 Categories of nonverbal communication
5.4 Theoretical approaches to nonverbal communication
5.5 Politeness and nonverbal communication
5.6 Nonverbal skills
[Page iv]

Chapter 6: Language and communication – Sonja Narunsky-Laden

6.1 Language and social interaction
6.2 Signs and how they work
6.3 Jakobson’s speech act model of communication
6.4 Spoken versus written forms of language – conversation analysis
6.5 Language and gender: concerns and challenges
6.6 Intercultural communication in South Africa

Part 2: Contexts of communication studies

Chapter 7: Intrapersonal communication – Danie du Plessis
7.1 The self and identity
7.2 The self in the digital age
7.3 Intrapersonal variables
7.4 Cultural and gender differences
7.5 Perception of others

Chapter 8: Interpersonal communication – Lida Holtzhausen

8.1 Buber’s theory of interpersonal relationships
8.2 The social context
8.3 Defining personal relationships
8.4 Stages in the development of interpersonal relationships
8.5 Defensive and supportive climates (messages in interpersonal
relationships)
8.6 Conflict in relationships
8.7 Interpersonal communication and self-disclosure
8.8 Dominance, status and power
8.9 Gender and power
8.10 Interpersonal communication and needs
8.11 Interpersonal communication and assertiveness
8.12 The presentation of self in everyday life

Chapter 9: Small group communication – GP van Rheede van Oudtshoorn

9.1 Defining the small group communication context
9.2 Advantages and disadvantages of small group communication
9.3 Group characteristics
9.4 Challenges that become opportunities
9.5 Communication formats for small groups

Chapter 10: Mass communication – Ndirangu Wachanga

10.1 The concept of mass
10.2 The process of mass communication
10.3 The functions of mass communication
10.4 The mass communicator
10.5 The mass media
10.6 Audiences of mass communication
10.7 The social effects of mass communication

Chapter 11: Digital communication – Marla Koonin

11.1 A brief history of digital communication
11.2 Types of digital communication
11.3 The citizen as a digital participant
[Page v]

11.4 Application of digital communication: two South African icons digitised

for very different reasons

Part 3: So you want to work in the field of communication?

Chapter 12: Some specialisation areas in communication studies – Daleen Krige
12.1 Public speaking
12.2 Political communication
12.3 Organisational communication
12.4 Intercultural communication
12.5 Mass media specialisations
12.6 Development communication
12.7 Health communication

Bibliography
Index
[Page vi]

Foreword

When I was a boy I shared my mother, Sheila Steinberg, not just with my brother
and sister, but with my mother’s work. I am pleased that I had to share her thus,
because if I hadn’t, you would not be reading this book, and she would have
been a lesser human being.
My mother was born into a family that expected women to marry young and
bring up children. When she left school she wanted very much to enrol at
university, but her father thought that educating a young woman was a futile
investment and refused to pay for it. And so she married my father shortly after
her 21st birthday and before she turned 30 she was raising three children.
She loved my siblings and me very much. But, in truth, bringing up children
and running a household were not nearly enough to satisfy her. And so, while
raising us, she registered for a BA at Unisa and began studying by
correspondence.
To say that my mother flourished would be an understatement. The world of
ideas gave her life a purpose. I think I was five or six when she began studying.
By the time I was 15 she had a Masters degree and had been invited to join the
Department of Communication as a lecturer. Before I had finished my own
undergraduate studies she had been awarded a doctorate and was on her way to
being appointed a professor.
Growing up, I was a witness to her flourishing. She would take me to soccer
practice and sit in the car reading some of the classics of communication theory
– Martin Buber, for instance, and Hans-Georg Gadamar. Sitting with me in the
doctor’s waiting room, she would write her assignments on Unisa exam paper.
Looking back, I marvel at how she juggled the task of raising my siblings and
me and becoming a professor. She neglected neither. She threw her weight at
both. I think that she would have resented being a mother if she hadn’t had her
work. Carving out a career helped her to love me more.
I have no doubt that many of you who are opening this book have taken up
your studies in difficult circumstances. Some of you have families and are
working on your studies late at night. Some of you have scraped together the
finances to go to university and are facing large debts. Some of you have parents
who did not get a good education and you are feeling the pressure of
expectations. Getting through your degree must at times seem like climbing a
mountain too high.
I can only appeal to you to take inspiration from my mother. She used
education to reinvent herself. A lowly housewife, she dared not imagine herself a
professor, but that is what she became. That you are reading this book is
testimony to her strength. It is also testimony to the transformative power of
education for anyone who dares to rise to the challenge.

Jonny Steinberg
University of Oxford
September 2014
[Page vii]

Preface

When Sheila Steinberg wrote the first edition of Introduction to Communication

Studies in 2006 she did so with the intention of giving students new to
communication studies a thoroughly grounded introduction to the subject. This,
the second edition, continues with this objective. The new edition takes a fresh
look at a subject that is in many ways similar – but in many ways also very
different – from what it was in 2006. Many communication theories, approaches
and practices, and the economic, social and political environments in which they
flourish are little changed from what they were a decade ago, but many are
significantly different and challenging in new and exciting ways. This edition is
an introduction to communication studies that builds on the original work with
the most current perspectives on the subject.
The original book was one of the first comprehensive introductory-level texts
on communication that was written from a South African perspective.
Introduction to Communication Studies for Southern African Students takes a
broader African perspective on a set of theoretical disciplinary foundations that
are not bound by region.
The book is divided into three parts. The first explores the foundations of
communication study, the second reviews the contexts of communication and the
third considers the career opportunities for students of communication.
Part 1 examines the Foundations of communication study and begins with
three interlinked chapters. These look very broadly at the concept of
communication, its evolution, developments in the study of communication and
some of its dominant traditions. The first chapter is written by Colin Chasi, who
discusses human communication, its origins and special characteristics. He
explores the evolution of communication and its technology, the outcomes of
each stage of this evolution and the relevance of modern communication in our
lives. Mariekie Burger follows this with a chapter that builds on the first, looking
more closely at the way that we think of communication as a science, an
academic subject and a discipline with its own research traditions. She looks at a
number of approaches to the study of communication and points out how each
can provide answers to different questions that we may ask. She concludes her
chapter with a discussion of the places, settings and contexts in which
communication occurs, giving us a preview of topics that are considered in
greater detail in the later chapters of the book. Elnerine Greeff and viola c milton
then narrow their focus in Chapter 3 to two traditions in communication studies.
In a novel approach to their topic they illustrate theory in practice with personal
conversations on the same scenario, the one from a structuralist perspective and
the other from a constructivist perspective.
Chapters 4 to 6 consider particular elements that are central to any
understanding of communication. Sonja Verwey’s chapter focuses on two
dimensions that have always attracted the attention of communication scholars:
the creation and sending of messages or sense giving; and the receiving and
interpretation of messages or sense making. Her chapter considers the sensory
foundations of perception and understanding and ultimately, in their role in the
success or failure of communication.
It is true that sense making does not always have its origins in the spoken
word and in their chapter Pieter Nagel and Elizabeth Lubinga explore this
concept in detail. Beginning with the idea that actions often speak louder than
words, they explore nonverbal communication and its position in the broader
study of human communication, considering its functions, interpretation,
categories and cultural contexts.
In the final chapter of Part 1, Sonja Narunsky-Laden considers
communication from the alternative perspective of the chapter that precedes it –
from the perspective of language. Urging us to consider the centrality of
language in human life, she points to the role of language in describing,
evaluating, recording and sharing our lived experience. The chapter delves into a
number of theories that underpin
[Page viii]

our understanding of language and its centrality in communication,

contextualising these theories with a number of tangible applications in the
multicultural, multilingual landscapes of Africa and the world.
Part 2 focuses on a range of Communication contexts that were first
introduced in Chapter 2. Danie du Plessis begins the discussion of contexts with
the communication that starts within ourselves – the phenomenon that we term
intrapersonal communication. The concept of self and its importance in the
individual’s relationship with others continues with a discussion of the
formulation of personal identity, the role of subjectivity and intrapersonal
processing in personal identity, and their relationship to the self-concept. The
chapter concludes with an overview of the intrapersonal skills that determine the
nature and quality of the individual’s communication with broader society.
Lida Holtzhausen moves the discussion to interpersonal communication, the
communication that occurs between individuals. She begins Chapter 8 with a
discussion on the nature of interpersonal relationships, how they form and grow
apart. She considers conditions and dimensions of interpersonal communication
that include conflict, self-disclosure, dominance, status, power, assertiveness and
social exchange.
GP van Rheede van Oudtshoorn looks at communication in the more social
environment of small groups. He considers the characteristics of small groups
and how communication in these groups differs from communication in other
contexts. Group communication is assessed from the perspectives of group
cohesiveness, diversity and the influence of diversity on creativity, conflict and
its resolution, group leadership and goal attainment.
Ndirangu Wachanga’s chapter on mass communication follows, completing
the range of contexts in which communication has most commonly been studied.
Mass communication is compared to other forms of communication and its
processes, roles and constituents – the mass communicator, mass medium and
audience – are discussed. The chapter concludes with insight into a number of
the more prominent conceptualisations, perspectives and theories of mass
communication.
In an extension on the discussion of communication contexts we include a
chapter on a topic that was not separately addressed in the first edition. Some
attention was paid to digital communication in the original book, but its
significance in today’s world led to the inevitable conclusion that it requires a
separate chapter. Marla Koonin’s chapter on digital communication deals with a
topic that is perhaps the most transient in the book. She begins her discussion
with an overview of its history and lays out the variations that exist in the world
of digital communication. The chapter considers the contexts for the application
of particular types of digital communication, the concept of citizen journalism,
online reputation and the phenomenon of social commentary by the individual
citizen through the social media.
Part 3 of the book is titled So you want to work in the field of communication?
The entire topic is covered in Daleen Krige’s chapter, the final one of the book.
This chapter differs from the others in its focus, looking less at communication
as a field of study than it looks at communication as a range of professional
specialisations and careers. Acknowledging that the range is not exhaustive the
chapter discusses public speaking, political communication, organisational
communication, intercultural communication, mass media specialisation,
development communication and health communication. Its objective is to
indicate the range that exists in communication specialisation, to illustrate as a
point of departure the work undertaken by people in ‘communications’, and to
illustrate the linkages that exist between the areas of specialisation.
As an introductory text to the study of communication each chapter is
arranged with an overview of the chapter topic, a set of learning objectives,
identification of key concepts, illustrations, figures and tables, contextualisation
and real-life applications of the theory, case studies and Test Yourself sections.
The book incorporates within its pages a range of tuition materials, but some of
its most significant teaching and learning aids do not appear in the book itself.
The lecturers, tutors and students who utilise this book have online access to a
set of support material and test banks that give added depth to the chapter
contents. This material has been created by the chapter authors and rendered by
Juta’s online support team. The combined product offers a unique teaching aid to
both lecturers and students of communication.
[Page ix]

The publication of any book involves many individuals and this is also the case
with this book. The idea of a second edition originated with Corina Pelser at
Juta, who was most persuasive in bringing to fruition the final form of the book
as a hard copy packaged with a flexible range of free online tuition and support
material for the students and lecturers who use the book. Her ongoing support,
suggestions and ability to resolve problems throughout the project were
invaluable. The book’s original project manager, Karen Froneman, and Seshni
Kazadi who saw the book to completion, gave excellent guidance and ensured
that the whole process proceeded smoothly. Ethné Clarke’s proofreading resulted
in many improvements to the text and our editor, Rod Prodgers, gave the book
its consistency and flow. Others who contributed to the final product are
Monique Cleghorn (cover design), Adami Geldenhuys (indexer) and Clint
MacDonald of ANdtp Services (typesetting). I want to thank the anonymous
peer reviewers of this book for their first reading of the complete book. Their
incisive comments and suggestions resulted in many valuable changes and
strongly affected the final form of the text.
The most satisfying aspect of producing this book was the privilege of
working with the fourteen brilliant minds that created it. Colin, Mariekie,
Elnerine, viola, Sonja, Pieter, Elizabeth, Danie, Lida, Sonja, GP, Ndirangu,
Marla and Daleen formed a wonderfully diverse team of authors, each unique,
with vastly different backgrounds, personalities, temperaments and insights into
their discipline. The fact that these authors, spread around the globe, could
complete the range of tasks that authorship entailed in the limited time available,
speaks to their professionalism and dedication.
A final word of acknowledgement must go to the author of the first edition of
this book, the late Sheila Steinberg. I can recall the immense task that she
undertook in hewing away at a vast body of knowledge to produce an academic
text that was appropriate to a South African readership, retained an international
standard and ensured that it contained the elements of communication studies
that were most important to a first-time student of the subject. The fact that her
framework survived the scrupulous review of a large team of subject specialists
and peer reviewers in this edition is confirmation of the sound theoretical
grounding of her original work.
I do hope that Introduction to Communication Studies for Southern African
Students will be a welcome addition to the communication curriculum of
institutions of higher learning in southern Africa, building on the position
established by the first edition over the past decade. This edition addresses the
needs of both students and lecturers by offering a self-contained, comprehensive
resource for introductory courses in communication studies, while the addition
of its detailed online support material significantly expands the scope for tuition
of the book itself.

George Angelopulo
Pretoria
October 2014
[Page x]

About the authors

George Angelopulo
George Angelopulo is married and lives with his family in Pretoria, South
Africa. He initially participated in motor racing, where he developed an interest
in commercial sports communication, going on to study this at RAU – now the
University of Johannesburg. He joined the world of advertising and media,
eventually as commercial head of the Namibian Broadcasting Corporation and
then with his own company. After completing his doctorate he took up an
academic career with interests in marketing, methodology and communication.
George is a professor at the University of South Africa and at Peru’s CENTRUM
Católica. His other pursuits include academic and research publication, research
for academic, government and private institutions, and in applications of
corporate social responsibility. He has participated in the International Media
Concentration project with Columbia University’s Institute for Tele-Information
and is a member of the MasterCard Africa Knowledge Panel. George maintains
an interest in machines, but now of the unmotorised, two-wheeled variety,
regularly cycling to work and participating in races on- and off-road.

Mariekie Burger
Mariekie Burger is Senior Lecturer in the Department of Communication Studies
at the University of Johannesburg. Her research focuses on various aspects of the
culture of participation. For her formal studies towards a MA and PhD, she
investigated different aspects of participatory development communication: how
audiences make sense of development communication initiatives, as well as
exposing unequal power relations between the business world and the
communities they seek to help develop. Currently her research focuses on how
the culture of participation plays out in a globalised world through various
popular cultural practices, a trend she calls public self-expression. The emphasis
falls on how and why ordinary people express their views publicly through a
range of participatory communication practices found in audience-driven mass
media programming, new media, subcultures, music, visual communication and
new social movements. She is interested in how various groups of ordinary
people make sense of globalisation and their local circumstances by expressing
their views publicly in the many subfields of communication. She is furthermore
curious both about the ‘pleasure of expressing’ and the ‘importance of voice’,
and through investigating these she considers aspects of identity, meaning,
belonging, authenticity, affirmation, recognition and human rights in a
developing market-oriented setting.

Colin Chasi
Colin Chasi is Senior Lecturer and Head of Communication Studies at the
University of Johannesburg. He works in the philosophy of communication,
raising inconvenient questions about who Africans are and about what Africans
do.

Danie du Plessis
Danie du Plessis is a Professor and since 2004, Chair of the Department of
Communication Science at the University of South Africa. He joined Unisa in
1988 after three years as the Deputy Manager, Public Relations at what was then
Saambou National Building Society. Prof Danie du Plessis completed his
undergraduate and MA Communication Science studies at the Potchefstroom
University for Christian
[Page xi]

Higher Education and obtained his DLitt et Phil in Communication Science at

the University of South Africa. In 1987 he qualified and registered as an
Accredited Public Relations (APR) Practitioner with the Public Relations
Institute of Southern Africa (PRISA). He also served a term on the executive of
the South African Communication Association. He participated in international
research projects, delivered papers at various international and national
discipline-related conferences. He edited or co-authored eight books and
published numerous articles in scientific journals. He is also a dedicated teacher
and received Unisa’s excellence in tuition award in 2006. His research interests
focus on organisational communication, the Learning Organisation concept,
news values and public relations.

Elnerine Greeff
Subsequent to finishing her formative studies at the Potchefstroom Campus of
North-West University; her Communications degree (cum laude) in 2005, her
Honours in both Corporate Communication and Corporate Media (both cum
laude) in 2006, for which she received numerous awards, Elnerine lectured in
Corporate Media at the Vanderbijlpark Campus of the NWU and in Advertising
at the Potchefstroom Campus of the NWU in 2007. In 2008 Elnerine was
employed as a lecturer for Organisational Communication at Unisa’s Department
of Communication Science. In 2010 received her Master’s Degree in
Communication from the NWU followed by her DLitt et Phil in 2012 from
Unisa. She has a record as a published researcher and has delivered numerous
papers at both local and international conferences. Elnerine’s research focuses
mainly on internal organisational communication, specifically as it pertains to
diversity in employee populations and the interpretivistic paradigms that can be
used in its assessment.

Lida Holtzhausen
Lida Holtzhausen studied at the former PU for CHE from 1992 to 1997,
obtaining the degrees BCom (Comm) (1996) and MCom (1998). In 2000 she
started her academic career as Junior Lecturer in the School of Communication
Studies and is currently Senior Lecturer, specialising in communication
management. Lida obtained her PhD in 2008. She teaches marketing
management, marketing communication and speech communication. Her
research interest is communication management: reputation, corporate image
and identity, branding and stakeholder relationships in both the profit and non-
profit sectors. She is a member of the South African Communication Association
and the Academy of World Business, Marketing and Management Development.
She has published nationally and internationally and has presented numerous
academic papers at both national and international conferences.

Marla Koonin
Marla began her career working in the journalism and public relations industries
and for the last ten years has worked in public and private higher education. She
serves as a referee on academic journals, is an external examiner for various
institutions and serves as a programme evaluator and site panellist for the
Council on Higher Education (CHE). She has published articles for mainstream
media, public relations projects, academic journals and online platforms, as well
as contributed various chapters to textbooks. Marla is a registered Chartered
Public Relations Practitioner (CPRP), a member of the Golden Key Honours
Society and the managing editor of The Independent Journal of Teaching and
Learning. She currently holds the position of research and development manager
at the Independent Institute of Education (IIE) and is working on her doctorate in
Organisational Communication at Unisa.

Daleen Krige
As a born and bred Freestater, Daleen Krige has lectured on communication
theory, communication ethics, development communication and health
communication in the Department of Communication
[Page xii]

Science at the University of the Free State since 2004. She obtained her PhD in
2008 and in 2011 she was appointed visiting professor for health communication
at Aarhus University in Denmark. She publishes regularly in local and
international journals. She has a lively interest in languages, ballet and theatre.

Elizabeth Lubinga
Elizabeth Lubinga is a Lecturer at the University of Limpopo (Turfloop Campus)
in the School of Languages and Communication Studies. She has been lecturing
communication and media studies, at both undergraduate and postgraduate level
at this institution, since 2003. She holds a Master of Philosophy degree from
Stellenbosch University. She is currently conducting research into the use of
rhetorical messages as well as the role of interpersonal discussions in health
communication. Some of this research has been published in journals and has
also been presented at both local and international conferences.

viola c milton
I started my teaching career at the University of Pretoria (popularly known as
Tukkies), where I also completed my undergraduate degrees, as well as my
Master’s degree. I then moved to Bloomington, Indiana (USA), where I enrolled
for a doctorate in Communication and Culture. I completed my PhD dissertation
on representations of HIV/Aids and people living with Aids in South Africa at
Indiana University in 2005. At Indiana University, I taught Interpersonal
Communication to undergraduate students. Following my sojourn in the United
States, I returned to Tukkies, where I helped develop a degree in Media Studies.
In 2009 Unisa successfully recruited me and I now teach media studies at both
undergraduate and postgraduate level in the Department of Communication
Science at Unisa. My primary research focus centres on the politics of identity in
South African media. Recently, my research focus shifted to include the
negotiation of media policy in South Africa, as well as issues of media,
citizenship and identity. I am also the executive editor of Communicatio: South
African Journal for Communication Theory and Research, the oldest South
African journal in Communication Studies.

Pieter Nagel
Pieter Nagel is a graduate of the North-West University (University of
Potchefstroom) and holds a Master’s degree. He began his lecturing career at the
University of Potchefstroom (Vaal Triangle Campus) in 1989 and then relocated
to Polokwane, where he has been lecturing since 1990. In his career he has
lectured English Language and Literature at the then University of the North and
in 2002 he began, with the involvement of some of his colleagues in languages,
the Communication Studies Programme, which became a fully-fledged
department in 2006. As founding member of the programme he has overseen the
development of the programme from first-year level right up to the introduction
of an honours degree in 2013 and Master’s degree in 2015. As a member of the
School of Languages and Communication Studies at the University of Limpopo
he is involved in the re-alignment of the Programme Qualifications Mix (PQM)
of the School and is both a member of the Faculty Board and Faculty Academic
Representative on Senate. From time to time he is involved in school policy
development and management.

Sonja Narunsky-Laden
Dr Sonja Narunsky-Laden is a Senior Research Associate with the Dept of
Communication Studies, School of Communication, University of Johannesburg
and a Teaching Fellow in the Program of Cultural Studies at the Hebrew
University, Israel. Her research interests include how processes of self- and
social-identity are communicated and modified within contexts of socio-cultural
change. Her work on post-apartheid South Africa focuses on patterns of
consumption and lifestyle routines, and her work
[Page xiii]

is informed by socio-semiotic approaches to cultural change and social mobility.

She is particularly intrigued with new social configurations of cultural
consumption in the realms of fashion, music, art, craft and popular culture. She
is currently working on socio-cultural attitudes toward fashion in post-apartheid
South Africa and on aspects of social mobility among young Palestinians in
Israel. She has published in the fields of cultural economy, consumer culture,
magazine research, literacy and reading culture and New Historicism.

GP van Rheede van Oudtshoorn

GP van Rheede van Oudtshoorn is a lecturer at the North-West University since
2007. He holds two MA degrees (in Communication Science and in Higher
Education Studies) from the University of the Free State. After starting his
teaching career at the UFS, he spent five years at the University of Pretoria as a
lecturer. His research interests include Corporate Communication, Intercultural
Communication and Communication Theory, but he enjoys teaching
Communication Theory the most. GP loves music and jumps around while
performing jazz and swing standards when the occasion presents itself with his
small band of old toppies. He has a passion for boxing, rugby and cricket and
lives with his wife and two children in one of the ladies’ dormitories (Heide) of
the NWU’s Potchefstroom campus, where he is the housemaster. Those two
children are beautiful and talented – they get it from their mother. GP has always
had red hair and you can easily lure him into a trap with bananas, red wine and a
good movie.

Sonja Verwey
Sonja Verwey is Head of the Department of Strategic Communication at the
University of Johannesburg. She specialises in the field of organisational
communication/communication management and she obtained both her masters
and doctorate in this field. She consults on a part-time basis in several private
sector companies, mainly within the field of communication management. She
was responsible for managing the merger communication and re-branding
process of the University of Johannesburg in 2005, and as Executive Director:
Human Resources her responsibilities included professionalising the Human
Resources function and acting as key change navigator through the renewal and
re-design of the University of Johannesburg. She has taught across a broad range
of communication disciplines at both local and overseas universities. She is
Editor-in-Chief of Communicare, the official Journal for Communication, has
published various academic articles and is the author of several chapters and/or
academic textbooks. Her current research interests include digital brand
management in open source brand contexts.

Ndirangu Wachanga
Dr Ndirangu Wachanga holds a PhD in information science from the University
of North Texas. He is Associate Professor of media studies and information
science at the University of Wisconsin.
He has written for media in different continents. His academic work has
appeared in peer-reviewed journals such as the Journal of mass media ethics,
Journal of African media studies, South African journal for communication
theory and research and African communication research. His journalistic work
has appeared in the Daily Nation, East African Standard, Business Daily, North
Texas Daily and BBC.
Wachanga is the authorised documentary biographer of Professor Ali A
Mazrui, Professor Ngugi wa Thiong’o and Professor Micere Mugo. His
documentary projects seek to preserve East African memory by capturing raw
voices using visual and audio technology. By creating an open access repository
of the interviews, his project democratises production of and access to
knowledge. His work has been presented at Yale, Princeton, Rutgers, Cornell,
Witwatersrand, SUNY-Binghamton, University of North Texas and the
University of South Africa.
[Page xiv]

Wachanga’s expertise has been sought by the US State Department and he has
appeared on VOA and BBC to discuss media, ethics and technology.
Wachanga is an analyst for the Freedom House’s freedom of expression global
index. His research interests include global media and information ethics; the
intersections of media formations and social, political, economic and cultural
practices; communication technologies; and the contemporary digital Diaspora.
Wachanga is working on two monographs:

non-Western approaches for analysing ethical dilemmas in participatory

journalism, popular culture and social media; and
the role of clandestine media in Africa’s liberation struggle.
[Page 1]
Part 1:
Foundations of communication
studies
[Page 3]
Chapter 1
A brief introduction to human
communication
Colin Chasi

OVERVIEW
‘Hey Mom, I have a date tonight – can we be done with dinner by seven?’
‘Sure, Dawn, who’s the lucky guy?’
‘Uh, you don’t know him.’
‘So, someone new! What are you two going to do?’
‘Oh, we’re just going to talk. I can spend hours talking with him. It’s like
we’re real soul mates. He really seems to understand me.’
‘And what’s this fellow’s name?’
‘Well, I call him JT.’
‘What does the “J” stand for?’
‘What difference does it make?’
‘None, really. So is he picking you up at seven?’
‘No…’
‘So you’re meeting him somewhere?’
‘Yes, I guess that’s right – we’re “meeting” somewhere.’
‘And what time do you expect to be back?’
‘Back? Well, I won’t, because, you see, I’m not really going anywhere.’
‘Wait a minute – you have a date, your date is not coming to pick you up
and you’re not coming back, because you’re not really going anywhere. Can
you see why I’m a bit lost here?’
‘Oh, Mom, get with it. This is the 21st century. I have a Skype date with JT,
who lives in Sweden. I met him in a chat room the other day and we’re
 scheduled to “meet” at 7:15 tonight. So can you please get dinner ready?’
(adapted from Verderber & Verderber 2001: 398)

As a student at the beginning of the 21st century, you probably have no

problem identifying with Dawn in this scenario. However, like Dawn’s
mother, an older person would probably feel somewhat bewildered by the
concept of her daughter having a ‘Skype date’. The way in which we
communicate has undergone dramatic changes in the past century and even
more so in the last decade or two. The study of communication is of particular
interest today because of rapid developments in new technologies for
producing and transmitting (sending) information. But communication
scholars agree that, despite the proliferation of communication technologies,
the human communication problems we have today are basically no different
from those that people experienced hundreds of years ago. The consensus of
opinion is that we are not going to solve communication problems by teaching
people to master technology, but rather by helping them to gain insight into
the phenomenon of communication (Trenholm 1991).
We begin our exploration of communication by looking back and briefly
examining why people communicate. To do this we speak about the origins
and uniqueness of communication. In this way we present some insights into
how communication developed into its modern forms. We then discuss the
major stages in the history of human communication: the age of speech and

[Page 4]

language, the age of writing, the age of print and the age of electronic mass
media. To conclude the section on the history of communication we discuss
the new communication technologies. We end the chapter with a scenario
based on an issue of communication ethics in the modern organisation.
Our primary aim in this introductory text is to motivate you to learn about
communication and to become actively involved in developing your
communication competence. By the time you reach the end of this book we
want you, first, to have gained theoretical knowledge and understanding of
communication. Secondly, we want you to think about what you have learned
and relate your new knowledge to your own everyday experiences of
communication. Thirdly, we want you to demonstrate your competence, for
example, by improving your relationships with other people. In each of the 12
 chapters of the book we have designed a list of learning objectives to help you
to achieve these aims.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the end of this chapter you should be able to:
Discuss the origins and uniqueness of human communication.
List the five stages in the history of communication in chronological order.
Name the medium or technological development that characterised each
stage in the history of communication.
Describe the most important outcome of each new age.
Think about the relevance of modern means of communication in your
own life.
Answer the questions at the end of this chapter.

INTRODUCTION
Have you ever thought about what your life would be like if you were not able to
share your thoughts about the day’s events with your best friend, to chat online
on Facebook or another social network with a family member who lives far
away, WhatsApp a friend on her birthday, put your feet up and watch your
favourite television show, relax to soothing music on your iPod, share important
business documents with Dropbox, get onto the Internet to look for information
for an assignment or for the latest news concerning your favourite film star, with
reading a newspaper to find out what is going on in the world?
We take for granted our ability to communicate, to make contact and share
meaning with others. One of the contributions of this chapter is to discuss the
uniqueness of human communication and it also addresses the fact that we tend
to take for granted the technology that makes much of this communication
possible. Yet there was a time when we did not have television or newspapers
and computers and mobile phones existed only in science fiction. In fact, there
was a time when communication through speech was not possible at all because
our prehistoric ancestors did not have our well-developed language systems.
 To fully understand the nature of communication we need to have some idea
of how it has evolved and has been made possible by the techniques and
technologies that we refer to as ‘communication’
[Page 5]

today. The history of communication also gives us insight into the way it has
influenced the development of civilisation and still exerts an influence on
modern societies.

1.1 UNIQUENESS OF HUMAN COMMUNICATION

This section has online support material available

Michael Tomasello is a developmental psychologist at the Max Planck Institute

for Evolutionary Anthropology in Leipzig, Germany. Using experiments with
monkeys and human infants, he studies what makes human communication
unique. His key findings are really interesting. They show that human beings are
uniquely altruistic when compared with other animals. For Tomasello (2009;
2010), altruism involves three interrelated attributes that set human beings apart
from other animals:
Attributes of altruism:
Sharing
Giving
Informing

Sharing: Human beings are unique in the ways in which we share the
proceeds of co-operative action. Compared with other animals, we tend to
understand that if we do not share fairly, others will not co-operate with us.
We also often refuse to co-operate with those who refuse to share with us in a
fair way.
Giving: One of the most fascinating books written on the subject of giving is
The Gift by Marcel Mauss, which shows that even people who are given gifts
expect to be allowed to give something in return. When people are denied the
chance to give something back they feel rejected and they tend to avoid those
who snub their attempts to share (Douglas 1990; 1992; Mauss 1990).
Informing: Human beings point things out to one another. Experiments by
Tomasello and his associates show that even 18-month-old infants try to help
 others by pointing them towards things. Human infants uniquely do this even
where there is no personal gain for themselves. For example, they will point
out where a tool is that an adult has been using without expecting any
personal gain to result from this action. Other animals, even the apes, which
are genetically most related to humans, tend to engage in similar behaviours
only when they expect something in return.

What Tomasello finds is that these three attributes have enabled human beings to
communicate to an unparalleled extent using signs and symbols. These attributes
uniquely enable humans to give each other the trust required to create the
common ground required for communication to take place.
Human beings have therefore been able to teach one another how to do things.
Other animals do not teach their offspring to do things in the same way that
human beings teach their children: animals learn by imitation.
It is often said in African societies that it takes a village to educate a child,
implying that it is not the biological parents alone who teach a child the
important things of life. We learn from our friends how to play better as online
gamers, we have coaches who teach us to be better soccer players and we set up
schools and universities that
[Page 6]

enable us to learn the leading ideas of our age. Human beings are therefore able
to develop continuously.
Tomasello has a great phrase to describe the advantage that our unique ability
to teach one another gives us. He says human communication enables us to
establish a ‘culture ratchet’ by means of which we can continuously evolve much
faster than biological evolution allows. A ratchet is a mechanical device which
allows movement in only one direction and prevents movement in the opposite
direction. Tomasello speaks of a culture as a ratchet. A culture ratchet describes
how culture allows each succeeding generation of the human species to learn
from those who have come before them, thus moving the species forward
constantly. This learning, such as is happening through this textbook, becomes a
key means for human beings to outcompete other animals which may have
greater strength and speed, and even better memories, than we have.

SCENARIO 1.1
 HUMANS ARE UNIQUE IN THE WAYS WE ARE
ALTRUISTIC
Many people are either infected or affected by HIV and Aids. But some try
to say that it cannot happen to them, that it is someone else’s problem. One
of these people is Michael. He is a middle-aged man who lives in
Johannesburg. His wife left him after ten years of marriage because she felt
he did not care for her. He blames his wife for not forgiving him after he
cheated on her with another woman. He is now involved in several
relationships with much younger women, saying ‘this is the time of my life’.
He jokes about how some people have tried to tell him to avoid multiple
concurrent sex partnerships and to stop having indiscriminate sexual
relationships with younger women, who are lured into it for financial and
other rewards. He thinks the world is cruel and people must get as much out
of it as possible before others take it away from them. His ex-wife wonders
how the helpful, sharing and informative young man she first met became
this way. He seems to have lost something of his humanity. Even though she
has chosen to leave him, she thinks that he can become the generous man he
once was because she has seen many people change for the good.

This section has online support material available

Through the ages humans have used the ability to communicate in order to co-
operate in ways that are unmatched by other animals. Over time humans have
been able to develop ever more civilised societies. Jean-Jacques Rousseau
(1997) famously wrote of how people have emerged from ‘the state of nature’.
He meant that we do not live only according to laws of nature that give the
advantage to the fittest and doom the rest to death. By and large we do not fear
that we may be attacked or killed by other people. Rather, we have developed
systems of civilised living. This is to say that human beings have systems of
rules that we communicate and hence share; rules that help us to live together
and strive for greater happiness through succeeding generations. To be sure,
there are some unfortunate and unintended consequences associated with human
co-operation. For example, we have developed nationalism as a way for people
to imagine they belong to a collective, spawning the national socialism of Hitler
in Nazi Germany and apartheid in South Africa.
[Page 7]
In your history lessons at school you probably learned about the different stages
in the development of the human species, such as the Stone Age, the Bronze
Age, the Iron Age and so on. These names refer to periods thousands of years
ago during which people made tools from different materials and developed
ways to produce food or make weapons. Eventually human civilisation as we
know it would develop from these early inventions. We can trace some of these
developments by means of historical records that are available to us.
An example of how knowledge of the past has been acquired is the cave
paintings, dating from 25 000 to 10 000 years ago, that were discovered by
archaeologists in southern Africa, Spain and France. The paintings depict
animals, geometric signs and human figures that describe scenes of hunting and
rituals. We do not know exactly what purpose they served at the time, but their
importance to us is that they are the oldest surviving records of human
communication. Today we use electronic means to exchange, record, recover and
disseminate information.
What is of interest to communication scholars is how techniques and
technology that made modern communication possible developed over the ages.
We ask questions such as: How did people communicate before speech and
language? How did they record information? How did they share this
information? What changes have the mass media and technology made in
society and in the life of the individual?

Figure 1.1 Cave painting

[Page 8]
The next section, based on discussions in Schramm (1988), DeFleur and Ball-
Rokeach (1989), DeFleur (1994) and Fang (1997), discusses various stages in
the history of human communication. It shows that communication is a
fundamental part in the cultural evolution of humanity. Communication has
enabled the inventions and solutions that have marked the stages of human
civilisation to be shared and passed down to following generations (DeFleur &
Ball-Rokeach 1989).

1.2 STAGES OF HUMAN COMMUNICATION

This section has online support material available

The stages in human communication are associated with the development of

speaking, writing, printing and the mass media (newspapers, magazines, radio,
film and television). The most recent stage is the Information Age, the outcome
of the development of computer technology. As we discuss each of these stages
you should be aware that each successive communication development did not
replace the one that preceded it. Rather, it gradually built on what was already
there. Our ancestors first learned to communicate by means of signals, and we
still use them today (for example, waving your hand to greet someone). Then
speech and language were added, followed by writing and mass communication.
Today we use all of these means of communication in addition to the rapidly
spreading use of computers.

Successive communication developments did not replace the ones that

preceded it, but gradually built on what was already there.

Another point to bear in mind is that the developments we discuss cannot be

measured in terms of hundreds of years. They cover a period of more than 500
000 years. The time span between speech and the invention of writing, and
between writing and the invention of print, for example, was thousands of years,
a concept difficult to convey in a short account such as this. The consequence is
that there are necessarily many gaps in our ‘story’, but we have selected what we
consider to be the most significant highlights in the history of communication.
The story of human communication begins some half a million years ago with
small groups of prehistoric hunters who lived in caves. These human-like
creatures did not walk upright and were physically incapable of producing
speech. They could produce vocal sounds, but their voice boxes had not yet
developed sufficiently to generate and control the intricate sounds of speech.
Although we have no records, scientists assume that their communication was
similar to animal communication. That is, prehistoric people received and
exchanged information about the environment (for instance, the presence of
danger or food) through their senses: sight, smell, taste, touch and hearing. They
also communicated with each other through gestures, posture and facial
expressions, and expressed a limited number of sounds such as grunts and cries.
Over time they began to move out of the caves and settle in small communities.
The need to communicate played an increasingly important role in their ability
to participate in community life. The development of speech and language was
the first major revolution in the means of communication available to human
beings.
[Page 9]

1.2.1 The age of speech and language

Scientists estimate that speech and language originated some 40 000 years ago
among early humans who had evolved to physically resemble human beings of
today. Not much is known about the origins of speech. One view is that it was a
divine gift. Another view assumes that, as the human speech organs developed,
recognisable words gradually developed from the basic sounds emitted by
prehistoric people and speech and language evolved. What is important is that
speech gave people the ability to communicate their thoughts and plans, and
therefore to hunt and defend themselves more effectively, to invent ways of
preserving food and keeping warm in winter, and to learn to cultivate the land. It
was during this era also that people began expressing their creativity in the form
of art – the cave paintings that have been discovered in different parts of the
world. The development of speech and language therefore had consequences for
both individuals and society. While the ability to use language did not cause
great changes, it made possible the transition from a hunting way of life to an
agricultural way of life.
Some of the earliest agricultural communities settled along the fertile banks of
the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, the shores of the Mediterranean and the banks of
the River Nile. As these agricultural areas grew and developed over the
centuries, people needed to find ways to record such matters as boundaries and
land ownership. And, as their towns grew in size and commercial activities and
trading increased, they also needed to keep records of buying and selling and
other transactions. Needs such as these prompted the invention of writing in
about 3 500 BCE.

1.2.2 The age of writing

The cave paintings produced by prehistoric peoples are humans’ earliest attempts
to record ideas in graphic form (pictures). They clearly depict animals, people
and hunting scenes. However, we do not understand the purposes for which they
were used and the meanings they held for the people who made them. Only the
original artists could answer such questions accurately. What is important is that
cave paintings provided people with a way of recording customs, traditions,
events and ceremonies for succeeding generations that was more accurate than
using the spoken word alone. For this reason scientists regard cave paintings as
the precursor to writing. The significant point about writing is that it enabled
people to standardise and share the meanings of signs (words) because each
language system has its own set of rules (such as grammar) to which everyone
conforms.

Examples of Ancient Sumerian cuneiform writing.

The earliest forms of writing were cuneiform (an Ancient Sumerian system of
writing with wedge-shaped characters in clay tablets) and hieroglyphics (an
ancient Egyptian writing using picture symbols carved into stone). Although the
invention of writing allowed people to record and store information, the problem
with hieroglyphics and cuneiform was that clay tablets and stone slab
‘documents’ were

Examples of Ancient Egyptian hieroglyphics.

[Page 10]

difficult to transport. The first advances towards a more portable writing medium
were made by the Egyptians, who invented the papyrus-making process in about
2 500 BCE, using parts of the papyrus plant to make a paper-like material. Later,
parchment (a kind of writing surface made from animal skins) replaced papyrus
and paper made from wood pulp was finally invented by the Chinese in about CE
100.
The importance of a light and portable writing medium is that it provided a
means for far-reaching social and cultural changes. Of prime importance is that it
was no longer necessary to rely on human memory to retain information and to
pass the culture of a society (the language, traditions, art, rituals and lifestyles in
that particular society) to following generations by word of mouth. In Egypt, for
example, papyrus was used to record the affairs of government and to write
down legal, literary, scientific, medical and religious ideas. Libraries were
opened and schools were established to teach a class of clerks, known as scribes,
to write. It took many centuries, however, before large numbers of people could
read and write. In fact, it was not until the invention of printing in the 15th
century that literacy started to spread.

1.2.3 The age of print

The printing process is traditionally attributed to the invention of movable metal
type by Johannes Gutenberg of Mainz, Germany, in 1450. Prior to this
manuscripts and books were produced by craftsmen and monks who copied and
recopied them by hand – a slow, laborious and expensive process. Gutenberg’s
invention revolutionised book production. The printing press spread rapidly
throughout the world and by the beginning of the 16th century thousands of
books were being produced. The importance of Gutenberg’s invention is that it
permitted the storage of large amounts of information.
Printing is said to have marked the start of the modern world because it
changed the way information was conveyed and, for the first time, literacy came
within reach of the masses. DeFleur (1994) make the important point that the
new medium of communication did not displace earlier ways of communication.
Then – and now – spoken language remained the primary mode of
communication. Writing, and then printing, supplemented oral communication,
but never replaced it.
As techniques were developed for more rapid printing and improved road and
postal systems made distribution easier, news-sheets – an early form of
newspaper – began to flourish and their circulation increased rapidly. While the
early news-sheets of the 17th and 18th centuries were aimed at the educated
elite, the mass newspapers of the 19th and 20th centuries were designed to
appeal to the growing numbers of literate artisans and merchants in the rapidly
developing urban-industrial cities of Europe and America.
The social significance (how society was influenced or changed) of printing is
that, with the spread of books, information became available to a greater number
of people. For the first time in history they were able to access knowledge that
had previously been denied
[Page 11]

them. As more and more people learned to read and write, their thinking was
freed from the restrictions of church and government regulation. New political
and religious ideas began to circulate in society, and throughout Europe and
America revolutionary movements emerged, making use of print to disseminate
their ideas to increasingly receptive publics.
Particularly with the spread of newspapers, public opinion became something
that political leaders had to take into account. Although it came after book
production, the great success and wide distribution of the newspaper made it the
first true mass communication medium.
1.2.4 The age of electronic mass media
Scientific discoveries and technological inventions during the 19th century (such
as electricity and the telegraph) laid the foundations that would eventually lead
to mass electronic media. Towards the end of the 19th century people were able
to send telegrams and cables and talk to each other on the telephone. It is
important to note that the advent of electricity created the ‘wired world’ and, for
the first time in history, it became possible to separate communication and
transportation. Until then the medium that carried the information had to be
physically transported from one place to another. Books and newspapers had to
move from place to place in much the same way as clay tablets in ancient times.
Information travelled only as fast as the messenger who carried it. With the
invention of the telegraph and the telephone information could be transmitted
rather than transported. Communication over vast distances was no longer
dependent on the available means of transportation.
The electronic age is an era in which the global village arises. Marshall
McLuhan and Bruce Powers (1989) describe this as an era in which electronic
media brought people closer together, reducing the impact of distance between
each other. For example, when listening to a radio broadcast, people in very
different places can imagine and feel that they are part of the same community.
This reduction of distance that people experience can also be related to a
tendency, still felt today, where people find that privacy and solitude can no
longer be easily secured as one’s distance from community involvement is
difficult to maintain.

1.2.5 The age of digital media and the Internet

While the invention of the printing press made possible the sharing of large
amounts of information on a massive scale, computer technology has made this
process even more efficient. Computers are basically machines capable of
processing and storing information. Originally used in large organisations to
perform complicated mathematical calculations and aid administration, they are
used today in industry, medical research, the military and the exploration of
outer space, to name but a few examples. Computers are the basis of the Internet,
the worldwide network that carries information and entertainment along what
has become known as the Information Highway.
[Page 12]
SCENARIO 1.2
AN ISSUE OF COMMUNICATION ETHICS
The increasing use of new kinds of communication technologies has meant
that it is more difficult to draw the line between organisational time and
private time. Even on vacation many executives find that they are in constant
communication with their offices.
One Johannesburg executive suffered from stress related to his high-
pressure work environment. He regularly worked 12-hour days because his
demanding business clients operated from all around the world, in different
time zones. His family knew that when they were lucky enough to have him
at the dinner table, this was likely to be time shared with the mobile phone
and the emails and calls which kept streaming in. In any case, they were
pleased with the fact that he mainly worked from home as he could do much
of what his job required from anywhere. It seemed much better than his
previous job, which kept him away from home for long periods of time.
One day his mother-in-law arrived for a week-long visit. She could not
understand the way he seemed to never spend ‘quality time’ with his wife
and children. Frustrated, she demanded he switch his phone off during the
evenings. To keep the peace he decided to switch off his phone and
disconnect from the network, at least for one day. Everyone in his family
joined him in solidarity by also disconnecting from the network. It gave them
the best evening of family conversation they had experienced in a long time.
He was really grateful that his mother-in-law had insisted he devote ‘quality
time’ to his family.
Unfortunately, that day there was an emergency at work. His clients and
his boss tried to get hold of him without success. They felt that he was
deliberately avoiding them and that he did not care any more about the
negative impact his absence had for the business. The shared bonds of trust
he had formed with his boss and his clients were compromised.
Communication between him and the clients became impossible. As a result
the company lost a major contract and he nearly got fired. Fortunately, he
and his boss were able to create a new relationship of trust. These days they
negotiate how to enable him to take care of both his family obligations and
his work commitments.
Is it fair for his employer to expect him to be connected to the network
seven days a week, 24 hours a day?
 Having studied this scenario, think about the issue of communication
ethics discussed and then come to some conclusions about how you would
handle a situation in which you found yourself having to carry a pager or
keep your cellphone switched on seven days a week, 24 hours a day in order
to secure your job.

The Internet has revolutionised the computer and communications world like
nothing before. It is at once a worldwide broadcasting capability, a mechanism
for the dissemination of information and a medium for collaboration and
interaction between one individual and another, or between one organisation and
another, regardless of geographical location.
The Internet is an international ‘network of computer networks’. In simple
terms the Internet is a system that combines millions of computers from all over
the world into one big computer that you can access from your personal
computer at home. The idea of linking computers together began in the mid-
1960s, and by 1983 this network of computer networks became known
collectively as the Internet. Some computer networks are run by
[Page 13]

government agencies, others by universities, libraries, businesses and even

individuals. A person using a computer connected via a telephone line to another
computer anywhere in the world can send and receive large amounts of
information on almost any topic imaginable. Being connected to the Internet
allows you to find out, for instance, the latest score in a cricket match being
played in Australia, what courses are offered at Unisa, stock exchange prices in
New York or weather conditions in Paris. The stage for this unprecedented
integration of capabilities was set by the invention of the telegraph, telephone,
radio and computer.
Jurgenson (2012) makes the point that today online and offline realities impact
on one another, meaning that we cannot understand how digitally mediated
highly connected networks operate unless we take into account the social,
political and material realities in which these are used. He observes that mass
protest movements that make use of mobile and other computer-based network
technologies do this in geographical places which are influenced by offline
realities. At the same time the online images, games and other interactions that
people are involved in are themselves informed by people’s everyday
experiences in the ‘real world’.
 That part of the Internet in which information is presented in a multimedia
format is known as the World Wide Web (WWW). The WWW was created in
1989 by Tim Berners-Lee at the European Council for Nuclear Research
(CERN) Particle Physics Laboratory in Switzerland. Berners-Lee’s intention was
to create a system that could exchange papers and other scientific information
between CERN and the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center in California.
Because of the cost and slowness of using traditional media, computers
networked via the Internet provided the best means of publishing and delivering
this material. Since then, the WWW has become the most popular Internet
service, just behind e-mail.

This section has online support material available

The WWW combines words, graphics, video and sound, adds colours, and
includes advertising and downloadable text and programmes. It is possible to
search for information on almost any topic using a key word or phrase.
Information in the WWW is presented on ‘web pages’, rather like the pages in a
book. A collection of pages belonging to the same organisation or individual is
called a ‘website’. It is estimated that there are about 180 million websites in
operation. Each WWW site welcomes you with a ‘home page’ that includes a
table of content (see Figure 1.2 on the following page).
While the Internet undoubtedly provides for an unprecedented amount of
information exchange, an important question that has become the subject of
ongoing debate and research among communication scholars arises: is the
Internet isolating people or does it extend social contact and enhance
communication?
[Page 14]
 Figure 1.2 Juta’s home page

Early studies suggested that people who used the Internet at home showed higher
levels of loneliness and depression than people who did not. More recent studies
suggest a more positive view, in that Internet use actually enhances social and
family relationships. The Internet has given birth to social networking and online
gaming cultures which are establishing new forms of social relationship that are
rich and exciting. Henry Jenkins (2008) has done fascinating work on the ways
in which gamers are establishing deep and varied mediated identities and
relationships. His work suggests that people’s online involvements can be
productive ways for them to build community relations that help them critically
engage with the world. In a similar way Castells (2010), among others, argues
that the ‘hacker practices’ associated with Internet innovators are the basis for a
new economic and social culture. This new culture, they argue, recognises and
rewards human ability while allowing people to do what they enjoy as both
leisure and work. In other words, there is new evidence that the new society
which is arising with the emergence of digital and Internet technologies may be a
more suitable place for establishing what Putnam (2000) famously described as
rich and dense social networks in which individuals can be enabled to live
fulfilling lives.

Hacker practices broadly intend the ethical tinkering, configuring

bending and exploring of communication systems.
[Page 15]

Much has been written about how Internet communication and information
technology are bringing people together in new ways. Some of the most exciting
work on this has been done by scholars such as Manuel Castells (2001), who has
argued that we now find ourselves in network societies. His point is that
increasingly people are finding themselves in social arrangements which are
more flexible, more scalable or capable of growing without disruption, and more
capable of surviving by adapting more easily to change.

This section has online support material available

A negative view is that, with the growing use of the Internet, people are
spending more time at work and less time with their family and friends. The
concern is that the more flexible work arrangements that a network society
enables will diminish social contacts at work, resulting in further isolation. This
criticism rests on the view that there is no replacement for the immediacy and
warmth of face-to-face communication, which affects individual well-being and
our sense of connection with others. What is more, it has been noted that
increasingly people in the network society are unable to secure lifelong job
opportunities. The experience is that people take on many part-time jobs in order
to survive. So in some ways the flexible lifestyles of people in the network
society are based on how risk becomes increasingly an accepted part of life at
work. Anthony Giddens (2000) gives a fantastic overview of the way in which
people, in all spheres of their lives, live with uncertainty in this brave new world.
In the network society it turns out that an education in humanities fields, such
as those involving the study of communication, is particularly useful. This is
because these students are taught to think about things that others forget, to see
what others ignore and to creatively imagine new possibilities with which to
learn and adapt smartly in a future which requires lifelong learning (Weick
2001).
Now, access to information and communication technologies says a lot about
who can learn and adapt to the demands of the contemporary world. This raises
concerns about what has been called the ‘digital divide’ or the ‘technology gap’.
There is a growing concern that technology is creating a gap between those who
can use, afford and understand it and those who cannot. If only a select group of
people at the higher socio-economic levels have access to and understand how to
use state-of-the-art technology at work and in their homes, this can give them
massive advantages over others, who may never catch up.
Scholars have, for example, been noticing that developments in mobile
technologies are presenting opportunities for often under-privileged Africans to
‘leapfrog’ over the digital divide and technological gaps that stand in the way of
their development. Traditional healers, for example, now use mobile phones as a
central aspect of their business models (Van Beek 2009).

This section has online support material available

It also increasingly looks as though the future of the Internet and of the WWW
is linked with the development of mobile devices. As Goggin (2011: 116) notes,
this is a point that has been made since the mid-1990s, but things changed from
2006–2007, when in many countries mobile telephones became the dominant
means by which people access the Internet. The merging of telephony with
computing
[Page 16]

is a development that is expected to continue as part of a broader set of processes

associated with what has been called media convergence.

Convergence refers to the cultural, technological and social processes

that are increasingly blending together different content, produced by a
variety of industries, through different media.

The notion of convergence is very interesting. It speaks of cultural,

technological and social processes by which people are increasingly blending
together different content, produced by a variety of industries, through different
media. As Jenkins (2008) observes, the process associated with convergence is
also associated with how people are increasingly able to participate in social,
technological and other processes. This has great implications for how nations
may develop since it is well known that the more people can participate
democratically, the greater their chances of developing (Sen 2010).

This section has online support material available

Given the above, it is not surprising that digital and Internet technological
developments are popularly associated with democratic revolutions. The so-
called Arab Spring, starting in December 2010, during which masses of people
took to the streets to protest for the democratisation of their states, has been
called an Internet, Twitter and Facebook revolution because of the ways in which
these technologies were used to co-ordinate and drive the protests. However, it is
clear that processes that lead to the transition to democracy are also informed by
broad social and economic processes.

This section has online support material available

Significant changes associated with digital and Internet technologies are

taking place. Africans are in many instances leading innovators in the processes
of change that involve them. Africans are setting global trends in the use of
mobile phones for e-commerce. Great examples can be found in the ways in
which the mobile phone operator Econet Wireless of Zimbabwe is using what it
calls Ecocash to enable people to do financial transactions on their mobile
phones. In April 2013, just months after the service commenced, 31% of
Zimbabwean adults had opened accounts with Econet Wireless, outnumbering
the accounts Zimbabweans hold in traditional banks (Levin 2013). Using a
similar technology, the mobile phone operator Safaricom has made it easier to
pay for a taxi using a mobile phone in Kenya than in New York. These processes
of change are directly affecting how Africans live and do business in ways that
will surely give rise to societies in which more and more people are free from
poverty and have access to education.

SCENARIO 1.3
FROM INFORMAL THEORY TO SCHOLARLY THEORY AND
RESEARCH
Mosa really, really wants to tell Ashraf that she loves him. But they come
from different cultural backgrounds and she thinks this makes it difficult for
her to tell him what she feels for him. What makes things worse for her is
that she does not know how to meet him in a situation where she can share
her emotions with him. She has an informal theory about him that says the
two of them can overcome their cultural differences in order to form a good
relationship. However, she also has an informal theory about how differences
in culture can make it difficult to establish love relationships that work.
Mosa has taken interest in studying work conducted on cross-cultural love
 relationships. She is interested in conducting further research on this topic,
even though it may not assist her in her immediate situation.

[Page 17]

Everyone has informal theories such as those that guide Mosa’s behaviour.
Theory informs what we think about and how we think about those things. It
also informs how we act. This says that it is important to think about theory
with great care. Human communication theory is developed systematically
by scholars in their attempts to understand how people live with others in the
world. What makes the theories that scholars develop attractive are the ways
in which they are systematically constructed so that someone else can test
their validity.
Students who study communication can learn a great deal from theory that
others have developed and they can contribute to the development of new
understandings of how, where, what, when and why people communicate.
Together, scholars and students can engage in new research on
communication. Their scholarly research can produce new insights that
enrich theory.

1.3 STUDYING COMMUNICATION

This section has online support material available

The study of communication is not just about new technologies for producing,
transmitting and receiving information. It involves the broader challenge of
trying to understand what it is to be a human being, living in the world among
other people and other things that matter. The study of communication therefore
entails seeking and developing new theoretical insights through which to better
understand the practices by which people relate with others and with the world.
Theory seeks to describe, explain, predict or control phenomena. People
develop theories to make sense of the world in which they act. Much of this
sense-making is such a normal part of life that people do not question it. They
may not even consider it to be theory. Often this means that people do not think
systematically about the theory they make use of in these normal situations.
They do not take time to think systematically about this theory even though it is
the basis upon which they act. Theory and practice are interrelated. In different
contexts we act according to how we think; and how we think is informed by
how we act.
How people think and what they think about arise in the context in which they
find themselves. The tricky thing is that contexts may be defined in different
ways that may include references to physical, cultural and psychological factors.
People who are effective actors tend to be interested in systematic theories that
explain how contexts are described and explained, as well as how contexts relate
to past, present and future actions.
Changes in communication technologies impact upon contexts. At the same
time, as McLuhan (1974) famously argued, each major technological adoption
changes how we make sense of our world. These observations are significant in
light of the phenomenon that with each new generation of new communication
technologies our ways of interacting in the world are being transformed more
rapidly than ever before. Increasingly, there is less time for people to identify
and manage the flux of under-developed and complicated signals that everyday
life presents. Increasingly, people have larger amounts of information to process
in less time. There is more than ever before a
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need for people to be more capable readers of the world in which they live if
they wish to act effectively in it. In this context communication scholarship
offers a vital guide to interpreting the world in which we live. Communication
theories that are systematically developed, by academics whose ideas undergo
peer review, are very powerful tools for understanding and preparing for action
in this fast-changing world. These theories are produced by communities of
scholars who research the phenomenon of communication using scientific
approaches.
Scientific study involves a special way of acquiring knowledge, a way that
requires the use of the so-called scientific method. In contrast to the other ways
of gaining knowledge mentioned above, the scientific method follows a
systematic and disciplined approach. This type of study is carefully planned and
is conducted by generally accepted procedures and rules which guide the
investigator in observing people engaged in communication. The results of
scientific study, that is, the results of scientific research, are assessed with
reference to generally accepted standards applied by all investigators.
The results of communication research have provided knowledge and
understanding of what communication is, how it works and how it influences
people’s lives. Unless we understand why we and other people act in the way we
do, we will hardly be able to explain why communication sometimes goes
wrong, how communication problems may be solved and how communication
between people may be enhanced.
You might well ask how communication researchers begin their studies. The
simplest answer is that any scientific study begins with theory.
The theory that communication research produces is more systematic than the
everyday ordinary theories that people have about communication phenomena.
This theory is the basis of the scientific understanding of any phenomenon in
any discipline.
You theorise all the time. You decide to visit a friend and, hearing music
coming from her bedroom, you open the door and say, ‘Hi, Carol!’ She doesn’t
return your greeting. You might explain her apparent rudeness in one of the
following ways: perhaps Carol doesn’t want to see me today and I should come
back another time; perhaps I have offended her in some way and she is
deliberately ignoring me; or, because the music is rather loud, perhaps she did
not hear me. These are all theories that you have formed about the situation.
You think that your third theory is the most likely explanation so you test it by
repeating your greeting a little louder. She turns around, smiles and says, ‘Hi,
Nomsa, how nice to see you!’ You can now discard your other two theories in
the knowledge that you are welcome and that you have not offended her in any
way. Your prediction about her unusual behaviour has been proved correct.
Communication theorists also have ideas, or theories, about a situation and test
them in different ways to find out whether or not they are valid.
Bear the example about Carol and Nomsa in mind as you continue reading.
First, it is important to understand the difference between the concepts of
‘theory’ and ‘a theory’ (or theories). In the example above Nomsa was drawing
on her knowledge about her relationships
[Page 19]

with other people to arrive at three different ideas about the situation she found
herself in. The body of knowledge we have about a particular subject is called
theory. In our discipline, communication science, we need theory to help us to
understand, explain, predict and improve communication because
communication is vital in every aspect of our lives – as individuals and in the
groups and organisations that constitute our society.
When planning scientific research, the researcher first reviews existing
scientific knowledge (communication theory) about the matter or matters in
which she or he is interested. Such knowledge could direct the researcher’s
attention to a particular aspect of communication which she or he may be
interested in investigating. Communication is, however, a complex, multifaceted
and ever-changing phenomenon. Existing knowledge may therefore be
represented in different ways. Each of these different ways of looking at
communication is a theory of communication.
Theories suggest to us what real-life communication looks like. Each theory
describes an aspect or a number of aspects of communication. A theory is in fact
a way of making sense of a situation in order to explain how or why something
occurs. Theories have been described as maps of reality. Like a street map in an
unknown city, they guide us through unfamiliar territory because they are
designed to describe, explain and/or predict reality.
As in Nomsa’s experience, theories often represent tentative solutions to a
problem. But the view offered by any theory must be tested by research. The
research results may show that a particular theory does not offer a true
representation of those aspects of communication it describes (in which case the
theory is revised or a new theory is formulated) or that it does offer an accurate
picture of the matters studied. As you study the theories in this textbook,
remember that theories are not just abstract ideas. They provide a basis for
application in real situations. A theory about improving communication in
hospitals might suggest that nurses, for instance, require different types of
communication skill in order to perform their tasks more effectively. In practice
this theory could be used to train nurses to communicate in different ways with
patients, doctors, social workers, administrators and so on.

1.3.1 Concepts
Theories are made up of different concepts. Think of them as the building blocks
of a theory. A concept is a word to which all scientists in a field of study assign
the same meaning so that they can understand each other. We always formulate
our thoughts in concepts. We cannot think of an object (a motor car), an event (a
funeral) or a person (a well-known political leader) without forming a mental
image or concept of the object, event or person. Concepts are as indispensable to
scientific study as they are in our everyday conversations. In scientific study,
scientists deliberately try to avoid confusion by consistently using concepts with
the same meanings. At school, for example, the concepts or terms you learned in
order to
[Page 20]

make sense of mathematics were very different from the concepts you learned in
biology or history, but you all ascribed the same meanings to the words.
Scientists use communication concepts to explain their theories by arranging
them in a logical way to show the relationships between them.

1.3.2 Models
Scientific concepts are used not only to build theories. They also occur in
communication models. Models are usually presented in the form of diagrams.
Their basic purpose is to capture the essential features of a real situation in a
simplified form so that it can be described, explained and understood more
easily.

A model can explain the process of communication between two people by

showing the relationships between various concepts. In this way they help us
to visualise communication more clearly.
Models often fulfil a predictive function. They allow us to answer ‘if … then’
questions. For example, a model can simulate the expected growth projections
of an organisation. If we employ two additional telephonists, will we then
have eliminated delays in connecting clients to the relevant departments? In
this way models help us answer questions about the future.
Models can also fulfil a control function. They help us recognise and diagnose
problems by showing us how to control certain conditions that impede
effective communication. For instance, a model of intercultural
communication can help pinpoint at which stage of the process
misunderstanding occurs between employees of different cultural
backgrounds. Steps can then be taken to change the relevant conditions.

Although they can aid understanding, models also have drawbacks. Perhaps their
greatest limitation is that they are necessarily incomplete. Models simplify a
complex phenomenon such as communication by trying to capture its essence in
a one-dimensional diagram. As a result a model usually represents only the
aspect of communication a particular theorist wishes to emphasise and
eliminates other aspects. Nevertheless, while models cannot fully represent what
happens in reality, they serve a useful purpose in providing a simplified
representation of a complex process, thereby making it easier for us to
understand. Think about an architect’s plan for a house. It makes it easier for us
to picture what the house will look like and to visualise the relationship between
the different rooms in the house. But it cannot give us a complete picture of what
the house will look like when it has been built.

1.3.3 Communication research

We said earlier that theories often represent tentative solutions to a problem or a
communication issue. But the view offered by any theory must be tested by
research to establish the validity of the theory. Remember that Nomsa tested her
theory that Carol did not
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hear her greeting because the music was too loud by repeating her greeting.
Here’s a brief overview of five different research methods – historical research,
survey research, content analysis, field research, experimental research – used in
communication science (Du Plooy 2002):

Historical research is concerned with events and people of the past. But as
such information is no longer available to us for direct observation, we have
to read and interpret the written documents, records and artefacts people have
left behind. Thus historical research involves studying the messages and
interpreting the significant communication of people in past societies. A study
of the development of film production in South Africa from 1960 to 2000 to
discover how a particular genre changed in response to the needs of a
changing South African society is an example of historical research.
Survey research involves collecting information from a group of people to
describe their abilities, opinions, attitudes, beliefs or knowledge on a
particular topic or issue. A questionnaire sent by the South African
Broadcasting Corporation (SABC) to all its licence holders to find out
whether subscribers are satisfied with programming on SABC1, for instance,
is an example of survey research.
There are many definitions of content analysis as a research method in the
social sciences. In communication research, content analysis is a method
 whereby the researcher can measure the amount of something (for example
violence or racial discrimination) found in a representative sample of a mass
communication medium, such as newspapers or television. Content analysis is
the method chosen when the researcher wants to determine, for example,
whether the portrayal of women in soap operas is more stereotypical than the
portrayal of women in detective series.
Experimental research is a rigorous and highly controlled method of
research. It attempts to account for the influence of one factor or multiple
factors on a given situation. For instance, a researcher in communication
science might want to ascertain the impact of noise on the recall of radio
news. The researcher would select two similar groups of people and expose
them to the same radio broadcast. The only difference is that one group is
exposed to the broadcast in a quiet environment and the other in a noisy
environment. The two groups are then measured and compared for their recall
of the content of the news.
Field research is particularly suitable when the researcher wants to make
observations (for example of people, cultural groups, organisations, families)
in their natural settings and is conducted at the place where the phenomenon
occurs. Field research allows the researcher to understand the world from the
perspective of the people being studied and to learn about their attitudes and
behaviour and the meanings they attach to that behaviour. Field research can
be conducted in various ways. One of the methods
[Page 22]

is by means of focus groups. A focus group usually consists of six to 12

people who are interviewed simultaneously. A discussion leader guides the
participants in a relatively free discussion about a topic, such as consumers’
preferences about the packaging of a new product or the attitude of employees
in an organisation towards affirmative action.

Researching communication and learning or developing communication theory

gives you powerful systematic frameworks for interpreting the realities that you
meet. Having a wide and adaptable mental framework often makes educated
people more competent in identifying, interpreting and acting upon new
problems than others who rely on do-it-yourself methods of interpreting
situations. As noted earlier in this chapter, humans have a significant advantage
over other animals because we are able to adapt better by co-operating and
building on each other’s knowledge. Those who learn communication theories
systematically developed by others enable each other to do more than those who
rely on do-it-yourself methods.

CONCLUSION
The history of communication is the history of human development. The study
of communication reveals much about how people join together to make use of
resources in the world. We can therefore say that the history of human
communication is a story of how human beings co-operate in various ways, with
various successes and failures. The opportunity to study communication gives
each of us a window into how human beings can make more of who they are in
personal, group, organisational, community, national and other settings.

SUMMARY
This chapter has been largely concerned with the history of human
communication. It began by examining why people communicate and then
discussed major stages in the history of human communication: the age of
speech and language, the age of writing, the age of print, the age of electronic
mass media and the age of digital and Internet media. Thereafter the chapter
discussed the related ideas of communication theory and communication
research.
[Page 23]

TEST YOURSELF QUESTIONS

1. List the major stages of the development of human communication.

a. Write down the medium or technological development that
characterised each age.
b. Briefly describe the most important social outcome(s) of each new
development.
2. Write down how often you use a technology-driven communication
medium in the course of a typical weekday and over the weekend. For
what purpose do you use it? How different would your day be if you did
 not have access to one or more of these media?
3. How does the Internet and the opportunities it offers for information,
entertainment and communication have an impact on your life? For
instance, does the Internet make a difference in the way you research
material for assignments? If you are working, how does the Internet
influence your job?
4. Briefly describe Tomasello’s views on why human communication is
unique.
5. Describe the stages of human communication.
[Page 24]
Chapter 2
Conceptualising communication:
theory and method
Mariekie Burger

OVERVIEW
All of us communicate every day. We might not intend to, but we
communicate almost constantly. We communicate by sending messages to
others around us in various ways, for instance through words, sounds or visual
cues (body language, clothing, signs or smileys in a cell phone message). We
detect others’ communicative messages in the same way we send messages.
This describes a relatively simple communication incident. After many
repeats of the back-and-forth sending of messages we may establish a
communication relationship between ourselves and others we communicate
with, and eventually a relationship of understanding is established. For this
reason it is said that our view of the world (our reality and how we perceive
others) is created in relation to others.
Communication serves various functions. These may include: to transmit
information, to provide people with the opportunity to express themselves, to
find a sense of belonging in a group that understands us, to assist in reaching
consensus or in making a decision, to persuade, to exert power and many
more. One focus of this chapter is to examine two main approaches to
explaining communication, another is to help you understand how we study
communication phenomena so it provides a quick overview of some of the
many ways in which communication research can be undertaken. Here we
briefly look at different theoretical perspectives and research methods,
focusing on the fact that the different research traditions each provide answers
 to different questions. The chapter concludes by looking at the different
settings or contexts in which communication takes place (for instance in an
interpersonal communication context, in a mass media setting, in public
communication and so forth).

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the end of this chapter you should be able to:
Critically discuss the structuralist explanation of the process of
communication, drawing on both the transmission and transactional
models of communication, and illustrate your answer with an example.
Explain the constructivist meaning-centred model of communication and
illustrate your answer with an example.

[Page 25]

Explain the constructivist meaning-centred model of communication and

illustrate your answer with an example.
Contrast the constructivist meaning-centred model of communication with
a process-based conception of communication.
Explain the reasons why humans communicate.
Explain the different contexts in which communication takes place and
also how we differentiate between the contexts, illustrating your answers
with examples from your own communication experience.
Provide an overview of the different theory and research traditions in the
field of communication.
Answer the questions at the end of the chapter.

INTRODUCTION
What is communication? A quick answer may be to say that it occurs when we
talk to one another or when we ‘text’ one another or when we ‘talk’ through
gestures. Communication is not as simple as ‘sending’ a message to someone
and then ‘magically’ the other person understands your message.
Communication may be that too, but it is generally much more.
In this chapter it is argued that communication is, in most cases, much more
complex than only the transmission of information. An instance of the
transmission of information is in actual fact usually only a ‘snapshot’ of one
small part of communication. In fact, the more complex explanations of
communication argue that our reality (our view of the world, of ourselves – our
identity – and of others) is actually shaped (or constructed) whilst we
communicate with others. This is an ongoing process of shaping and
continuously reshaping our reality. For this reason it can be said that
communication is in actual fact the constitution of our whole being – it is
making me who I am.
In this chapter ‘what communication constitutes’ is explored from two broad
points of departure or approaches. These are unpacked and supplemented in the
later parts to indicate how we study communication phenomena. The chapter
concludes by introducing the different contexts in which communication takes
place and these contexts are explored in more detail in the second part of the
book.

2.1 WHAT IS COMMUNICATION?

We can explain how communication takes place and what communication is in
many different ways. We call these different ‘ways’ perspectives or approaches.
In this section we investigate two very distinct explanations of what
communication is and how it takes place: first, a structuralist approach and then
a constructivist approach.
[Page 26]

A communication phenomenon is the actual communication event, as well

as the relations of the communication event with the context in which it takes
place. This means the relationship between the interlocutors (the people who
communicate), as well as the relations between them and their histories, their
socio-economic environment, their gender, their age, their groups and so
forth.
2.1.1 A structuralist approach to understanding communication
During the middle of the previous century, when the field of communication
studies started evolving, structuralism was prominent in academia, especially in
the social sciences and humanities, the groups of ‘subjects’ where
communication studies emanated from (cf DeFleur & Ball-Rokeach 1989;
Littlejohn & Foss 2005). This led the early communication scholars to use a
structuralist approach to explain what communication is and how it takes place.

Structuralism
A structuralist approach is based on the assumption that all phenomena have an
anchor or authority – usually the natural way in which such phenomena have
come into being (cf Littlejohn & Foss 2005). This authority provides the
phenomenon with an underlying structure which, if studied, enables an
understanding of the phenomenon (cf Littlejohn & Foss 2005). A structuralist
approach to communication is based on the assumption that the whole process of
communication can be described almost from a bird’s-eye view. The scholarly
task is to find and describe that structure.
When this idea is applied to studying communication it means that we should
analyse a communication phenomenon by identifying its structure, or the
components of the process of communication, and explain how these structural
elements or components ‘work’ together (Littlejohn & Foss 2005). Such an
explanation came to be known as a process-based explanation of
communication. Models are often devised to explain process-based
communication.
Essentially process-based models analyse the workings of the different
components of communication (communicator, message, recipient, medium,
feedback, noise, context, encoding, decoding and meaning).
Two sets of models can be distinguished, namely communication as
information transmission, and communication as a transaction between
communicative participants.

Communication as linear transmission of information

The earliest models of communication were based on the concept of
communication as the linear transmission of information (cf Tubbs & Moss
2012).
The first known model explaining how communication ‘works’ was created in
1948 by Harold Lasswell, an American political scientist interested in
propaganda (see Figure 2.1).
[Page 27]

Figure 2.1 Lasswell’s model of communication (after Lasswell 1948)

In this model:

‘who’ refers to the communicator who formulates the message

‘what’ refers to the content or the message
‘channel’ indicates the medium of transmission
‘whom’ describes either an individual recipient or the audience of mass
communication
‘effect’ is the outcome of the message (eg the recipient will be persuaded to
adopt a particular point of view)
‘with what effect?’ implies that there could be a variety of outcomes or effects
of communication.

Components of the process of communication

Component 1: Communicator
The communicator is the person who initiates the communication process
and who formulates the message. The communication could be verbal or
non-verbal.
Component 2: Recipient
The person who receives the message is the recipient or receiver.
Component 3: Message
The message is what has been communicated (content). The message could
be verbal or non-verbal, it could be intentional or unintended, it could be oral
 or written, it could be formal or informal, and it usually uses different signs
that together make up a code.
Component 4: Medium
The medium can be voice, electronic devices, language, visual aspects and so
forth.
Component 5: Noise
Noise refers to any distraction or interference that prevents the message from
being successfully transmitted. When people share a culture, situation,
context, age group, gender, class group, income group, geographical space
and so forth, they are likely to experience less noise in the communication
process.
External noise exists outside the communicator/recipient, such as the bad
odour of a dumping site. Internal noise is inside the communicator/recipient,
such as mood, emotion and prejudices. Semantic noise occurs when people
attach different meanings to the same words.

Note that the model focuses on the individual components of the communication
process and emphasises that the components ‘work’ in a sequence that begins
with the communicator and ends with the recipient. In other words, Lasswell
considered communication a one-way (or one-directional or linear or
sequential) process in which the
[Page 28]

communicator transmits a message. The model therefore assumes that only the
communicator is an active participant in the process of communication and that
the recipient plays a relatively passive role. However, Lasswell did believe that
the message would have an effect on the recipient.
A year after the Lasswell model was published Claude Shannon and Walter
Weaver presented their model explaining the process of communication
(Shannon & Weaver 1949). Shannon worked for the Bell Telephone Laboratories
in the United States of America and was primarily interested in finding
engineering solutions to problems of telephone signal transmission. Weaver, an
academic in the field of applied mathematics and electronics, helped popularise
Shannon’s work. They concentrated on how the channels of ‘communication’
could be used most efficiently: how to transmit the maximum amount of
information along a given telephone cable (or channel) (see Figure 2.2).

Figure 2.2 The Shannon–Weaver model (after Shannon & Weaver 1949)

In order to understand the Shannon-Weaver model, think about how a telephone

message is transmitted. An information source (communicator) encodes a
message, which is converted by the transmitter (telephone) into a signal, which
is sent through a channel (telephone line) to the receiver. The telephone signal
(your voice) is received at the other end (telephone), which is heard by the
recipient (destination). With their technical background, Shannon and Weaver
concentrated on which kind of communication channel carries the maximum
amount of signals or sounds, how much of the signal is lost through noise (for
instance the static electricity of a telephone line) before it reaches its destination,
and how to eliminate distortion caused by such ‘noise’.
They did not theorise much about the content of the message or the meaning
conveyed and interpretation by the participants, making theirs a transmission or
linear model of communication. It simply depicts the relationship between the
communicator, message and recipient as a linear (one-way or one-directional)
process.
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Because of its linear or sequential nature the Shannon–Weaver model is useful to

describe mass communication. In radio broadcasting, for example, the announcer
(information source) utters words (the message) that are transmitted in the form
of a radio wave (signal) to a radio receiver (receiver), which in turn changes the
signal into an audible voice (the message) to be heard by the listener
(destination) at home (Bittner 1985).
The two models studied so far (Lasswell and Shannon-Weaver) are based on a
linear process of communication and they do not investigate the interaction
between the communicator and recipient in detail. However, all communication
is not necessarily interactive.
Consider for instance the request ‘Please pass me the salt’ at a dining room
table. The request for salt is not necessarily a part of a longer process of
communication, but could constitute a complete instance of communication. In
that case the linear transmission model of communication applies.
However, it could very well be that the request for salt forms part of a wider
conversation about the ingredients of the dish, with the conclusion that the dish
lacks salt. It could furthermore also be that the group around the dining room
table has been living together for a long time and that they have an ongoing
discussion about cooking and ingredients in various dishes. The request for salt
may simply be a ‘snapshot’, or one part of a longer process of communication –
then the transmission model will not be a full representation of the conversation
(cf Tubbs & Moss 2012). In cases like this the transactional model of
communication (discussed below) would explain this kind of communication
much more comfortably than the transmission model of communication.

Communication as a circular process of exchanging information

(transaction)
Wilbur Schramm was the scholar who first described communication as a
transaction or exchange (of information) between the communicator and the
recipient (cf Schramm 1954). He depicted communication as a circular process
that includes feedback.

Figure 2.3 Schramm’s model of communication (after Schramm 1954)

[Page 30]

Schramm was aware that for a message to be understood by the recipient in the
manner (more or less) intended by the communicator, the participants must have
a shared background – a common culture, circumstances or frame of reference –
also referred to as a shared context. If these aspects are not shared, noise (such as
prejudice) has a greater chance to cause misunderstanding or different
interpretations of the message. Schramm thought to indicate this in his model as
feedback, the first and most basic step to both interlocutors participating in the
communication process as this ‘tells us how our messages are being interpreted’
(Schramm 1954: 9). Feedback furthermore allows the communicator to adjust
the message or to provide additional information should the recipient not be
clear about the intended meaning.
Schramm’s model moves away from a technical approach as he focuses on the
content of messages and the meaning that is exchanged between the participants.
This allows for the fact that even if a message is transmitted and received clearly
and accurately, the meaning of the message may not be understood in the same
way by the participants because they may not share similar circumstances (cf
Ellis & McClintock 1994).
Unlike Shannon and Weaver, Schramm believed that there is more than one
correct interpretation of a message. The meaning is determined by the person
who is interpreting it, or the meaning is created between the two communicating
parties who are involved in the process of communication. This means that both
the communicator and the recipient are active in the process of communication
as they exchange information repeatedly in a dialogue, two-way or circular
fashion. The model therefore moves away from emphasising the message or the
channel through which messages are transmitted to the interpretation of meaning
by the people in the process.

Components of the communication process (continued)

Component 6: Encoding and decoding
These are remnants of the transmission model and describe how messages
are put into code (formulated) and deciphered (interpreted).
Component 7: Context
Context refers to aspects that are shared between the communicator and
 recipient, including culture, background, frame of reference, values, beliefs,
attitudes and value attached to social hierarchies, religion and time. It could
also refer to the environment, the situation, setting, place and social
conditions.
Component 8: Feedback
This term refers to any of the following:
1. providing feedback in response to a message;
2. active involvement of both participants (communicator and recipient) in
the communication process; and
3. participants exchanging roles or taking turns being the communicator
and being the recipient.

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Component 9: Meaning
The meaning of the message (or the whole process of communication) is
negotiated and created in the interaction between the communication
participants. It is a process that depends on the interplay of the context, noise
and the encoding and decoding processes. This is also referred to as mutual
understanding or shared meaning.

Based on the watershed communication model of Schramm at the time, various

transactional models of communication have been developed (see Figure 2.4 for
a generic version of a transactional model of communication).
Figure 2.4 A transactional model of communication (adapted from Verderber 1990; Verderber & Verderber
2002)

The transactional model of communication overcomes the major limitation in

Schramm’s model, as the communicator and recipient take turns to express and
interpret messages. In other words, the repeated back-and-forth sending of
messages is depicted in a transactional model (cf Tubbs & Moss 2012). It
illustrates that both communicating parties take turns to be communicator and
recipient, as there are multiple messages going back and forth between the two
interlocutors. They are both active in the process of communication, as two
communicating parties would be, for instance, during a financial transaction.
The transactional model differs from Schramm’s circular model of
communication in three ways:

First, it adds the repetitive nature of the process.

Secondly, communication is seen within the context of a relationship between
two communicative participants who are simultaneously involved in the
negotiation of meaning. ‘Simultaneously’ implies that, instead of simply
thinking about a two-way flow of information (back and forth), both people
are constantly interpreting and adapting
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their messages – they are constantly encoding and decoding messages (cf
Tubbs, Moss & Papastefanou 2012; Verderber & Verderber 2002).

For example, even as I talk to you I am watching your non-verbal reactions and
interpreting them so that there is, in fact, not a separation between you and me.
Thirdly, the transactional model highlights that the creation of meaning is
negotiated between the communicating parties.
The two circles in Figure 2.4 represent the communicator and the recipient. In
the centre of each circle is the message: the thought, idea or feeling that is
communicated using verbal and non-verbal signs. Surrounding the messages are
the participants’ values, culture, background, occupation, gender, values,
interests, knowledge and attitudes (Verderber & Verderber 2002). These factors
that determine the frame of reference of the communicating parties influence the
meaning that is expressed and the meaning that is interpreted.
The outcome of the encounter is determined by the mutual involvement of the
participants in negotiating the meaning of the messages.
The bar between the circles represents the medium of communication. Rather
than depicting transmission and feedback as two separate processes (compare
Schramm’s model), the transactional model indicates that messages are
continually passing between the participants (Verderber & Verderber 2002). The
area around the communicator and the recipient represents the context or
circumstances in which the process takes place. While it is taking place,
external, internal and semantic noise may be occurring at various places in the
model. This noise may affect the ability of communicator and recipient to share
meaning.

Structural components of the process of communication

To sum up: the structuralist process-based approach to what communication
entails and how the process ‘works’ was illustrated in the previous sections by
the transmission and transactional models of communication. These models
assume that the process of communication consists of the following components:

Communicator
Recipient
Message
Medium and channel
Noise
Encoding and decoding (formulating and interpreting)
Context
Feedback
Meaning
This structuralist process-based explanation of the process of communication is
based on analysing the structural components of the process of communication
and how those components ‘work’ together.
A structuralist approach is very useful in explaining different kinds of
communication situations. For instance, a person giving the
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command ‘Shoot!’ constitutes a basic communication incident. It is very easy to

explain this by referring to a transmission model depicting communication. A
more complex communication situation arises when the recipient of the message
‘Shoot!’ asks for an explanation why shooting takes place and would need a
circular transactional model to illustrate. The circular transactional model can
also explain the situation when two communicating people in a long-standing
relationship understand ‘shoot’ to mean either shooting a goal in soccer, shooting
the ball in a game of pool or downing a drink in a club. Here the contextual
factors are taken into account.

Why humans communicate

Structuralism also provides us with ideas about why humans communicate.
From a structuralist point of view, models, lists, hierarchies and structures can be
used to categorise the needs we want to satisfy during communication.
Probably the best known example is Maslow’s hierarchy of needs as it is
applied to communication. Within the structure of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
it can be said that we communicate to satisfy survival needs (food and water),
safety needs (shelter), social needs (friendship and social acceptance), self-
esteem needs (‘I’m okay’ or ‘I am great’) and self-actualisation needs (‘I am the
best me I can be’) (Steinberg 2007).
Maslow’s followers expanded his hierarchy of needs to add cognitive needs
(understanding, intellectual needs), aesthetic needs (beauty, balance, form) and
transcendence needs (spirituality or helping others to reach self-actualisation)
(Lowry 1973). These can also be used in communication studies to explain what
motivates us to communication.
 Figure 2.5 Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

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Another categorisation is found in the work of Packard (1957). He argued that

humans have eight hidden needs: for emotional security, assurance of worth, ego
gratification, creativity, love objects (that symbolise your love for others or
others’ love for you), sense of power, roots and immortality (Steinberg 2007). It
can also be argued that we communicate to satisfy this list of needs.
In conclusion, it can be said that structuralist-based thinking is immensely
helpful to understand certain aspects of communication. However, more recently
in history (around the 1960s) many scholars became convinced that there are
more questions to be answered than structuralist thinking is able to. Typical of
the social sciences and humanities, new ways of thinking emerged that looked at
the world from different perspectives. You could say that the scholars put on new
spectacles or new ‘lenses’ and developed new approaches to looking at
communication.
These are not ‘better’ than the structuralist assumptions, but they lead us
simply to look at a communication phenomenon from different vantage points.
They help us see different facets, explain different problems or even explain the
same problems differently. Of these new approaches, constructivism
dramatically influenced the way we regard communication.

A perspective is a theoretical point of departure, a vantage point, that one

 uses to ‘look from’. Perspective can be explained by another metaphor: try
peeping though one of the many small holes in the sides of a large box
containing plants. Each hole will give you a different view (vantage point or
perspective) on the plants in the box. Probably no single hole will help you
to understand everything there is to know about the plants in the box.
However, each hole will help a bit and when you combine what you have
seen from each hole, you will have a pretty good idea of the little garden in
the box.

2.1.2 A constructivist approach to understanding communication

A great impetus for the view that communication helps create meaning took root
in the 1960s, when a new wave of thinking, constructivism, became prominent
in academia. In this part of the chapter we explain constructivism and then
develop a constructionist-based or meaning-centred, approach to
communication.

Constructivism
Constructivists argue that our reality, our knowledge and our view of the world
are not given, predetermined, already existing and ‘out there’ (as structuralists
believe). On the contrary, our reality is constantly constructed and so is our view
of the world, our view of ourselves and others’ perceptions of us (cf DeFleur &
Ball-Rokeach 1989; Miller 2002; Griffin 2003; Littlejohn & Foss 2005). Human
thought is therefore not neutral: everything we think is constructed from a
particular point of view – whether we realise it or not. One can therefore not
divorce one’s thoughts from one’s age, spirituality,
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gender, country/region of birth, history, socio-economic situation, social group

and so forth. These aspects influence our view of the world and we cannot be
neutral – our view is always ‘tainted’, or influenced, by who we perceive
ourselves to be. What makes it even harder to find stability is that our identity
(our self-concept) is also constantly ‘in the making’ or ‘under construction’. This
view of an ongoing formation of identity is based on the early Enlightenment
understanding (circa mid-1700s) that humans can harness their own agency
(inner strength) to create and advance themselves in life: they are not entirely
dependent on other people, society or a higher force to help them. They have
their own free will and inner strength to rely on. In terms of this approach it is
argued that we construct our reality. Reality is not ‘out there’, but our reality is
created when we engage with others (Miller 2002; Littlejohn & Foss 2005). In
the same way that we construct our view of ourselves and our view of others, we
construct our view of the world and how others see us.

Communication as constructing meaning (making/creating

meaning)
The constructivist assumption holds that when we communicate, we do not
‘receive’ the meaning we attach to a communication message (Miller 2002;
Littlejohn & Foss 2005). On the contrary, the meaning we attach to a
communication message is created whilst we are busy communicating with one
another. We can therefore say that we make meaning in conversation, or
meaning is made in interaction with others. Together the communicating parties
determine the meaning attached to the communication conversation. When we
share meaning through conversation the communicating people’s views become
shared, their views converge. This convergence of our horizons is a concept
(borrowed from hermeneutics) meaning that communicating people share so
much and that they actually understand each other (Littlejohn & Foss 2005).
Another way of explaining the meaning-making approach to communication
is to draw on the thinking about how humans are interdependent and value
reciprocality (Calkins & Vézina 1996). This leads us to wanting to hear others’
views as much as wanting to express ourselves – we are curious about the other.
The implication is that communication is not a fixed, static or technical process,
but rather a dynamic, never-ending and ever-changing process. It does not follow
a fixed sequence of events (as early structuralist models indicate).
In communication we change others and are changed by them when we
communicate. All the communication encounters we have had in the past, as
well as all the information, ideas and opinions we have gathered, gradually
change us and our behaviour, the way we think about the world and
consequently the way we communicate with others (Barker & Gaut 1996; Craig
1999; Miller 2002; Littlejohn & Foss 2005). According to Dimbleby and Burton
(1985: 31),
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everything that we learn, every bit of information that we acquire, changes

our behaviour to some extent in the end. Every piece of communication which
 we experience may affect our attitudes and beliefs in some small way.

This means that communication changes us and, in actual fact, communication is

the constitutive force of human interaction and being human. This means that in
meaning-making interaction it is assumed that the people communicating are
mutually responsible for the outcome of the communicative encounter as they
transmit information, elicit responses and ultimately create meanings (Deetz
1995: 107; Miller 2002: 11–12; Littlejohn & Foss 2005).
The focus is therefore on the nature and quality of the relationship that
develops between them, as well as on the sending and interpretation and
resending of messages. From this perspective communication becomes a
reciprocal process in which meaning is negotiated through the exchange of
messages and in this way relationships are established and maintained; this
reciprocality has been called a gift – the gift of engaging with others (cf
Verderber 1990; Calkins & Vézina 1996; Hall 1996: 277; Morley 1996: 329;
Eagleton 2007).
With the linguistic turn (a development in linguistic philosophy of the early
20th century) it was realised that the words and language we use to express
ourselves are problematic. Using words to express abstract thoughts and feelings
often can be a limitation: we can’t express exactly what we mean (it sounds so
great in our minds, but when we say or write it, it comes out ‘wrong’). Think, for
instance, how often you need to express yourself in a second, third or fourth
language and somehow ‘the words just come out wrong’. This happens even in
our mother tongues. Words are always inadequate to capture the depth and
breadth of our emotions and thoughts. In actual fact, we do violence to our
thoughts and emotions to express them in words, but words are what we have to
express ourselves with (Miller 2002; Littlejohn & Foss 2005). Of course we
supplement our words with non-verbal communication, but those too are just
symbols that we use to try to somehow express ourselves and make the other
communicative party understand what we mean.
It would be naïve to think that all people who communicate (all of us almost
all the time) are curious to learn about other people’s views. Mainly through the
work done by the early critical theorists, we can accept that we are functioning
in a real world where communication situations are not devoid of (hidden and
overt) power play and conflict (Miller 2002; Littlejohn & Foss 2005). Thus we
can assume that all communication is a negotiation, a site of struggle, your views
versus my views (Miller 2002; Littlejohn & Foss 2005). This ‘tug of war’ means
that meanings are not coincidentally attached to communication messages; they
are negotiated.
A corollary of the meaning-making view of communication is that we assume
that communication is a process of reciprocal participation, where meanings to
communication instances are negotiated, and where fulfilling communicative
actions take place when communicating parties mutually create meanings that
are shared.
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To elaborate: with a meaning-centred approach to communication,

communication is regarded as repeated instances of exchanging individual
expressions up to the point when the two communicating parties reach shared
meaning (or mutual understanding). In fact, the longer the communicative
contact, the more the chance of increased meaningful interaction is enhanced,
and the more the two communicating parties share (the context) from the onset,
the more likely that they will ‘understand’ the other person sooner. A simple
example is two people in a close romantic relationship: the more they
communicate, the more they share meanings (or understandings). However, not
all people are communicating to understand the other person; many are using
communication to establish power relations that are beneficial only to
themselves or to a particular cause.

Meaning-centred approach is repeated instances of exchanging

individual expressions up to the point where the two communication
parties share meaning.

The implication of meaning-making communication is that if we do not

participate in communication, we do not get the chance to make meaning
(Burger 2012). Since meaning is made through conversation, the meaning-
making approach to communication is particularly interested in the reasons why
people communicate, which is the focus of the next section.

Why humans communicate

Probably the most important idea put forward by a constructionist approach to
communication is that humans are inherently social beings and we need to
communicate not only to satisfy our physical needs but also to satisfy our social
nature. This means we communicate not only to satisfy our social needs
(chatting) but also that we communicate to ensure social relations: to establish
good relations with others, living peacefully and fulfilled amongst other people,
to establish our position in society and to feel accepted in a group of people. This
influences our perception of ourselves (our self-concept or our identity),
confirmation of self-worth (‘I’m okay’; ‘I’m great’) and a feeling of acceptance
by others in our community – that we belong to a community and that they think
‘we are okay or even great’ (Barker 2012). This feeds our own feeling of worth
and we think life is worth living. Of course, these self-esteem confirmations are
not the only aspect that results in a feeling of self-actualisation: real
achievements confirm that (Littlejohn & Foss 2005).
To achieve in life we also need information to base our decisions on (Barker
2012). Exerting power and persuasion are further reasons why we communicate:
persuasion in the workplace, to confirm our buying behaviour and to position
ourselves for instance in an organisational power context (Deetz 1995; Steinberg
2007).
Another set of reasons why we communicate has to do with expressing
ourselves: to voice our opinions and to make it known to the world that ‘we are
here and we are alive’ (Barker 2012). Much of the new media accessed via the
Internet, smartphones, tablets and other electronic devices are geared towards
making the world know that ‘we are alive and well’. This ‘mass self-
communication’ (Van Dijk 2012) may be narcissistic, but it may also be just to
have fun or for other reasons (Van Dijk 2012). It could be especially fun and
exciting
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to figure out how a new smartphone app works and it could also be fun and
entertaining and exciting to watch, create and share YouTube videos.
Furthermore, individuals or groups of people who are discriminated against or
marginalised find it important to voice their opinions so that the rest of the world
can take notice of and be enriched by those who are usually overlooked by the
mass media (Barker 2012).
Communication can also simply be phatic, to keep in touch with people we
know, to pass time or for the sheer pleasure of having contact with another
person (Hébert 2011; Barker 2012; Tubbs, Moss & Papastefanou 2012).
Basing his arguments on the interactivity enabled by the Internet’s various
platforms, David Gauntlett (2011) argues that we create mass self-
communication-based social media interactions to literately ‘write ourselves’
(create our identities through online actions where we post information in blogs,
FaceBook, LinkedIn and so forth). He argues that such creativity is important not
only for expressing ideas but also because we are creating something (our
identities online), and that in itself is meaningful for us. This making is creating
and creating is meaningful theses of Gauntlett can be extended to include our
creating virtual communities via the various online platforms (Gauntlett 2011;
Barker 2012).
A large part of this kind of communication can be called participatory
communication (Burger 2012), which arises from the feeling that in global terms
the world seems to focus on the market and economic activity and forgets about
us as individuals and our ideas (Burger 2012; Willis 2012). We therefore need to
voice our ideas and our existence, leading people to want to actively carve out
their identities in public (Burger 2012). This seems to provide people with social
or cultural significance (Willis 2012). In other words, people generally want to
let the world know they exist and have an opinion as they otherwise feel left out.
This phenomenon is furthermore linked to the spirit of the times; to participate in
democratic expression where the biggest part of the world idealises democratic
conditions where we all have the opportunity to ‘have our say’ and to express
ourselves (Burger 2012; Willis 2012). In this vein Willis (2012: xxiv) argues:
At an everyday and human level, cultural interests, pursuits and identities
have never been more important. This has to be broadly considered, of
course, as individuals and groups bearing a felt responsibility for and
wanting a hand in the making of the self as something more than a passive or
unconscious acceptance of a historically/socially prescribed identity (simply
being working class, black or white, young or old, etc). Everyone wants to
have, or make, or be considered as possessing cultural significance. No one
knows what the social maps are any more, so it is more important not to be
left out, overlooked or misrepresented. Everyone wants a stake in the action,
though no one is quite sure where the party is.

In summary we can therefore say that, from a constructionist perspective

communication is the constitutive force that helps humans to situate themselves
in relation to other people within
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society. In order to do so we generally seek to express ourselves and listen to

others in the process.
Against this background, we are ready to do some research. If we want to
study a communication situation, we can do so from many perspectives and we
can use many methods in the study.

2.2 PERSPECTIVES AND METHODS FOR

STUDYING COMMUNICATION PHENOMENA
In the field of communication studies a variety of perspectives and methods
provide different views and answers about a particular phenomenon. A
perspective is not always linked to a method. There is no single ‘map’ of how the
various perspectives and methods ‘work’ together. Communication students
therefore simply have to study the different perspectives and methods one after
the other.
In this section your understanding of communication is guided by explaining
some of the perspectives and methods that are commonly used in studying
communication. Even though some scholars may prefer one perspective over
another, it is more productive to think of them not only as having evolved
historically at different times, but rather as different ‘tools of the trade’ that we
may use if they will help us explain a particular communication phenomenon.
In order to illustrate different perspectives and methods, let’s consider the
same example – the television programme The Big Bang Theory – and ‘read’ it
from different perspectives.
In the cybernetic research tradition, the most used theory is the systems
theory. A systems theory perspective looks at how the different main characters
of The Big Bang Theory (Sheldon, Raj, Leonard, Howard and Penny) are
functioning together to keep the programme going.

The systems theory explains that the components of a system are

interdependent and influence one another to reach an equilibrium.

It is assumed that a system consists of components (note the structuralist

origins of the theory), which are all linked to one another and are dependent on
one another for survival – they are therefore interdependent (Calkins & Vézina
1996). A change in one of the components impacts on the others and likewise a
change in the environment in which the system functions will result in changes
in the components of the system (Calkins & Vézina 1996). The system knows
about these demands of the environment through a process of feedback (Calkins
& Vézina 1996). The components adapt to change because they actively seek to
stay together as a unit and therefore want synergetic relationships (Merton in
DeFleur & Ball-Rokeach 1989; Calkins & Vézina 1996). Synergetic
relationships result in stability (equilibrium) in the system and that ensures the
survival of the system (Merton in DeFleur & Ball-Rokeach 1989; Calkins &
Vézina 1996).
The systems theory is often used as a framework for understanding the
relationship between an organisation and its environment (society). To take The
Big Bang Theory example, if there is a change in one of the characters, it
impacts on the others, makes them uncomfortable and then they adapt or change.
[Page 40]

Another research tradition in the study of communication phenomena, that

initially drew on structuralist notions, is semiotics. A semiotic analysis entails
investigating how people use signs and codes to communicate messages and
how recipients of those messages interpret the signs and codes (Griffin 2003;
Littlejohn & Foss 2012). In this sense signs and codes are the basis of the
language we use to communicate in our everyday life. We also use signs to
communicate non-verbally – we communicate without the use of words. There is
no one single way of performing a semiotic analysis, as the field is influenced by
a number of scholars (for example Ferdinand de Saussure, Charles Sanders
Peirce, Roland Barthes and Umberto Eco), each advocating a very different way
of how to perform a semiotic analysis.

Semiotics involves studying how signs and symbols function in the

communication process.

The practical art of discourse and how it is used for a particular end (not
necessarily to dominate) is the focus of rhetorical analysis, another perspective
for researching communication phenomena (Miller 2002; Littlejohn & Foss
2012). This perspective is often used to analyse political speeches. In The Big
Bang Theory Sheldon has used rhetorical analysis to analyse a learned senior
colleague’s academic paper presentation.

Rhetorical strategies are employed to inform, motivate and persuade an

audience.

Critical theory is another perspective often used in the field of

communication studies. Critical theory assumes constructionist principles as
critical theorists argue that our reality is shaped by communication and unjust
power relations have a negative impact on the way we perceive ourselves and
the way others think of us. This in turn impacts on behaviour towards people
thought less of: those in power often discriminate against people of lesser power.
In The Big Bang Theory critical theorists would investigate the power
relationships between the protagonists. Building on the ‘masters of suspicion’
Sigmund Freud and Karl Marx, critical theorists assume that something is hidden
below the surface level (what you see at a glance). We therefore need to be
suspicious of what lies below the surface: hidden power relationships that are at
work through various mechanisms (Miller 2002; Littlejohn & Foss 2012).

Critical theorists draw on the ideas of the ‘masters of suspicion’ (Freud

and Marx) that power relations ‘behind the surface level’ should be
investigated in order to understand communication.

Feminist theorists investigate power relations based on gender and

biological differences.

From a feminist perspective one could argue that Penny is depicted in The Big
Bang Theory as being shallow, unintelligent, emotional, fun, sexually very active
and not all that successful career-wise – for most, typical of the role that men in
a patriarchal society think women should play. The subjugation of Penny is
introduced and maintained through comedy.
The representation of gender and race in the media is often stereotypical.
Stereotyping takes place when a person is reduced to only one aspect,
such as physical appearance. Stereotyping usually negates the other
aspects of the person and is often dehumanising. ‘Othering’ takes place
when all nondesired characteristics of the self and otherwise, are
transposed on another human/group.

From a race perspective one could argue that Caucasian males are depicted as
intellectually superior and Rajesh (Indian) is used as ‘comic relief’ and ‘cultural
diversity’ – as Sheldon has often said. Furthering his difference to the Caucasian
Christian or atheist male, Raj (and the Jewish Howard) is often depicted as
having feminine mannerisms. When Raj is confronted with this kind of comment
he simply shrugs his shoulders and offers a shy smile.
Postcolonial scholars investigate the unequal power relations between
the coloniser and colonised and the continued effects after political
decolonisation. The double bind of the colonised is that s/he is in the
position of ‘living two lives’ simultaneously, that of the coloniser and
that of the colonised at the same time and the coloniser.
 From a postcolonial perspective, one could argue that Raj (originally from
India, formerly colonised by the British) wants to emulate Caucasian male
culture and behaviour, but simply can’t get away from the fact that he is Indian.
He is, for instance, Hindu and believes in karma, but dislikes India, Indian
culture and Indian music, and eats beef. This results in the colonised – in our
example, Raj – being in a double-bind: he wants to be like the ‘colonisers’, but
this distresses him
[Page 41]

as he must give up some of his own culture to be like the coloniser, and at the
same time he wants to retain his original identity (Littlejohn & Foss 2005;
Klages 2006).
As an example of this double bind, consider the fact that Raj loves the Indian
lullabies his mother used to sing to him. In the television show the double bind is
jokingly (the show is after all comedy) introduced by depicting him as not being
able to talk to women unless he has (or believes he has) enjoyed an alcoholic
beverage. It can also be said that he is not as verbally elegant as Caucasian
males.
From a critical political economy perspective one can investigate who the
owners of the television station that broadcasts The Big Bang Theory are
(Comedy Central) and who the producers of the show are and what their
ideologies are. Once these have been identified an analysis would look at their
depiction of people and their categorisations (for example of gender, race, class
and so forth) and how these influence the ideology portrayed in the show (cf
Barker 2012).
Critical discourse analysis is another form of critical theory that investigates
how a series of utterings (discourse) is formed and how that establishes unequal
power relationships (cf Barker 2012). In the case of The Big Bang Theory those
who cannot use scientific jargon, for instance, are not taken seriously.
As you can see from the above, critical theorists point out how power
relationships are established and maintained in communicative relationships.

Critical discourse analysis investigates how knowledge and power

influences each other.

Another research tradition that receives great attention in communication

studies, especially in South Africa, is investigating the nature of human
experiences. The central assumption of these theories is that people actively
interpret their experiences by assigning meaning to them. This categorises this
group of theoretical perspectives as constructivist. Think for instance about how
you experience The Big Bang Theory – experience is key in this group of
perspectives. Because each recipient in the communication process has a
personal frame of reference, any message – whether it is heard or read or
observed – can be interpreted in a variety of ways. Therefore the meaning in a
message can be different for different people – meaning can never be fixed. Such
theories emphasise the recipient’s subjective participation in interpreting and
understanding the world.
Two of the important approaches in this group of theories are hermeneutics
and phenomenology. Hermeneutics is mainly concerned with understanding how
individuals interpret written texts, such as mass media messages, interpersonal
communication texts and so forth (Miller 2002; Littlejohn & Foss 2012).
Phenomenology studies people’s highly personal subjective experiences,
perceptions and interpretations of communicative phenomena (Miller 2002;
Littlejohn & Foss 2012). The latter productively uses ethnographic research
methods, ranging from in-depth interviews to auto-ethnographic research. In the
example of The Big Bang Theory this kind of research would be used to
investigate how audiences interpret the programme.
It is important to remember that these are only some of the theoretical
perspectives employed in the field of communication studies. There are many
others that you will encounter through your further years of studying
communication.
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Case study: researching Mandoza

Mandoza (Mduduzi Tshabalala) is one of the best known kwaito musicians in
South Africa. If we want to do research about him, we can do it from many
perspectives and from different research approaches.
We may want to know why his fans enjoy his music. We then have the
option of using a quantitative or qualitative research approach, or to
combine these two approaches.
If we have absolutely no idea why they like his music, we would have to
interview them and ask them. We can’t simply interview the first 20 fans
we come across as they might all be friends and like his music for the
 same reasons. We would therefore have to find out first who his fans are
and ensure that we interview as many different ‘categories’ of fans as
possible (some young, some old, male and female, similar background to
his and those with different backgrounds, some living in rural areas and
some urban, different socio-economic groups and so forth).
If the type of information gained from interviews covers new ground
and provides new insights, it is called exploratory research. We cannot
generalise this data to the whole population (meaning that we cannot say
what percentage of the population likes his music for a particular reason
since we interviewed only 20 fans). In fact, the purpose of the research is
not to prove anything, but rather to identify as many different reasons why
his fans enjoy his music. This is qualitative research as we are looking for
in-depth (quality) information.
If we already have a pretty good idea of why they like his music, because
prior research or even popular documentation indicates this, we can test
how many of his fans enjoy his music for each of the reasons identified
through qualitative research. This we do through survey work, often
questionnaires. We would ensure again that we ask fans of different
categories (called ‘drawing a sample from the population’) to fill in the
questionnaire.
There are formulas available to guide researchers as to how many
people per category and how many people in total need to be sampled. If
these are observed, we can generalise and predict what percentage of the
population would like his music for each reason. This kind of research
approach is called quantitative research as we are able to deduce
quantities of people per category from the project.
The discussion above explains the methodology, but one needs to think about
the reasons why people enjoy his music. This is where the different
theoretical perspectives that were covered in this section come in. In actual
fact you would not do the above research before considering different
theoretical perspectives; the methods were simply discussed first in this
section to help you understand where perspectives come in.
One of the reasons why his fans enjoy his music may be that he is a
symbol of hope for many youngsters who think ‘he has made it big’ in a
country where, just two decades ago, black people could not be as
economically successful as he is. Then we would probably consider
 drawing on critical theory, especially postcolonial theory, to explain the
dynamics around power relationship between races in the apartheid era
and what the implications for oppressed groups were.
Another reason may be that his music celebrates African music all around
the world. In explaining this in more detail we could draw on
constructionist views of communication (making meaning, expressing the
self, expressing one’s identity) in the wake of not feeling oppressed. In
explaining oppression we may very well draw on some aspects of critical
theory.
If we find out in our research that women do not enjoy his music as much
as men, we can interpret female fans’ views from a feminist point of view
and from a postcolonial point of view (double bind).
If we are interested in finding out what the relationship between him, his
fans, the music company and a whole host of other groups of people are,
we can draw on systems thinking.
If we want to investigate the meaning of the signs, symbols and codes he
uses (his clothing, roots of this genre of music, his relationship with
money, his lyrics, etc), we would do a semiotic analysis.
As you can see, theoretical perspectives and research methods play an
important role in the research process.

[Page 43]

2.3 CONTEXTS IN WHICH COMMUNICATION

TAKES PLACE
So far in this chapter you have learned how and why we communicate and you
were introduced to doing research about communication phenomena. In the next
section the different communication contexts (or situations) in which
communication can take place are explored. Please note that this section also
serves as an introduction to the second part of this book.
In this section we introduce some of the contexts or kinds of situations,
depending mostly on the size of the group of communicating people (these are
discussed in more detail in the second part of the book).
 Think for a moment about your own experience of communication. For
example, in a single day you may have a conversation with a friend, engage in
deep thought, listen to the radio, read a newspaper, look at an illustrated
pamphlet, participate in a seminar, make a speech to a business or social group,
watch TV, surf the Internet or go to the cinema. Each of these communicative
experiences occurs in a different situation, involves different numbers of people,
uses different means of communication and creates different relationships.
Communication contexts are different types of communication situations
classified according to the number of people in the interaction and the degree to
which they are able to interact. In this section we discuss the intrapersonal,
interpersonal, small group, public speaking and mass communication contexts.
They are not mutually exclusive and the distinctions among them are not clear-
cut. Note that the degree to which people are able to interact refers to the
immediacy of feedback they are able to provide. In other words, is feedback
possible and, if so, is it immediately available or delayed?

2.3.1 The intrapersonal communication context

The term ‘intra’ means ‘within’ or ‘inside’. Intrapersonal communication occurs
when an individual converses (sends and receives messages) internally (with
him/herself). The distinguishing characteristic of intrapersonal communication is
that you are the only participant – you are the communicator-recipient (Tubbs &
Moss 2012). The message is made up of your thoughts and feelings which your
brain processes and interprets. Feedback occurs in the sense that, as you ‘talk’ to
yourself, you make decisions or discard some ideas and replace them with others
(cf Hybels & Weaver 1986).
Intrapersonal communication is an ongoing process that is taking place even
while you are communicating in all the other settings (Tubbs & Moss 2012). For
instance, you are probably doing it right now, since thinking about what you are
reading is a form of intrapersonal communication. Communication theorists
have investigated the way people make sense of the world through their
intrapersonal communication.
[Page 44]

2.3.2 The interpersonal communication context

The term ‘inter’ means ‘between’. Interpersonal communication occurs between
people in a face-to-face situation. They are able to see each other and observe
facial expressions and other non-verbal behaviour while they are exchanging
verbal messages. A characteristic of interpersonal communication is that the
participants continually provide feedback or respond to each other’s messages
(Tubbs & Moss 2012).
Conversing with your sister, discussing a movie with your friends or talking to
your lecturer are examples of interpersonal communication. Interpersonal
communication is usually between two people (called dyadic communication),
though it may include three people (triadic communication) (cf Tubbs & Moss
2012). It is in the interpersonal context that meaningful relationships are formed
and maintained in our daily interactions with others. Relationships are the focus
of study in the interpersonal context (Littlejohn & Foss 2005).

2.3.3 The small group communication context

Small group communication refers to communication within a group of between
three and 12 people (Steinberg 2007). The group is small enough so that each
member is able to interact with all the other members (Tubbs & Moss 2012). We
all belong to a number of groups: the family, work groups, social clubs, church
groups, study groups and so forth. People in groups usually share a common
purpose or goal which brings them together, such as the need to solve a problem
(Tubbs & Moss 2012). Small group communication is also interpersonal because
the members of the group are able to interact with each other by providing
feedback. However, small group communication is more complex than
communication between two people because groups have unique dynamics that
affect the way people interact.

2.3.4 The public communication context

When the group becomes too large for direct interaction between the members,
we talk about public communication. In public speaking, one person addresses
an audience in a public setting, such as a lecture hall or auditorium. Public
speaking is more formal than interpersonal or small group communication
(Steinberg 2007).
Usually the event is planned in advance and the speaker is introduced and
delivers a speech that has been prepared to meet the goals of the particular
situation. It could be a persuasive political speech, a presentation by a
salesperson to promote a company’s products, a lecture to students or a speech at
a wedding. Participants are still in a face-to-face setting, but the audience does
not usually participate directly until the end of the speech, when questions are
often invited (Tubbs & Moss 2012). However, they can send non-verbal
messages or feedback to the communicator. An audience that is not enjoying a
speech, for instance, often stops paying attention and becomes
[Page 45]

restless. They can also provide positive feedback in the form of laughter or
applause.
A debate in the public sphere is another example of communication in the
public context. The public sphere is the collection of all discussions that take
place in public (not in a private space where the general public do not have
access to the discussion) where citizens of a country are discussing matters of
public concern (Steinberg 2007; Barker 2012).

2.3.5 The mass communication context

Mass communication takes place when messages are communicated by owners
and producers of the mass media (radio, television, newspapers, magazines,
books, films and so forth) and sent to the public, that is to say, to large masses of
people who do not know each other and who are usually not in the same place. A
distinguishing characteristic of mass communication is that it takes place
through the mass media; it is mediated, meaning that the message reaches you
through a mechanical or electronic medium, such as print or television (Tubbs &
Moss 2012).
When you read a book, watch a movie or listen to the news on the radio, for
instance, you are part of a mass-communication audience.
Mass communication differs from interpersonal and group communication in
many ways. An important difference is that it provides little or no opportunity
for you to interact directly with the person or people conveying the message
because of the difficulty of providing feedback (Tubbs & Moss 2012). Areas of
study include the influence of mass communication on people’s behaviour and
the way exposure to the mass media shapes our perceptions of the world.
An interesting question is whether new media (digital or electronic
communication via the Internet and handheld electronic devices) can be
categorised as mass communication. The answer is actually not all that easy as it
depends on the number of people involved in communicating and the number of
people receiving messages.
As you know, the Internet allows for interactivity – in fact, that is one of the
most alluring aspects of the Internet. Internet sites that are specifically designed
for people to interact with one another via the Internet (and not read-only
information transmission websites) are called social media (Van Dijk 2012).
Examples of social media are weblogs (or blogs), microblogs (such as Twitter)
and other social networking and chatting sites (such as Facebook and LinkedIn).
Whether they can be classified as mass media depends on the number of
recipients who have access to the media.
Manuel Castells’s term mass self-communication can be used to describe the
communication of most social networking sites as the communicator (say the
owner of a private Facebook site) communicates information about him/herself
on that site (Van Dijk 2012). Here one can distinguish between a site or the part
of a site that is open to the public, which makes it mass communication, and a
part of the site visible only to invited ‘friends’ who are given access to the site,
when it could be interpersonal communication, small group
[Page 46]

communication or public communication, depending on the number of people

with access to the site (Van Dijk 2012).
In this context mass communication can be used to describe the
communication taking place when a single organisation (that owns a website)
posts information on its website and many Internet users simply read the website
(Van Dijk 2012). A social media site can be used to target a specific group of
consumers when marketing a product (for example Facebook). Another example
of mass communication could be what takes place on sites run by communities
of interest (such as a sports club), where many people can post information on
the website (many communicators) and many people can read the site (many
recipients). YouTube is another example of mass communication via the
Internet.
Interpersonal communication can also take place via the Internet in private
chat groups, video conferencing and private social networking sites, or profiles
(Van Dijk 2012).

CONCLUSION
As you can see after reading this chapter, communication is not necessarily a
process that can be captured in a model. However, this does not mean that the
structuralist process-based tradition should be discarded: a relatively simplistic
communication instance can be explained very productively by using a model.
Furthermore, the structuralist process-based tradition gave us terminology that
we still use, even though in a different framework.
You have learned in this chapter that communication is in actual fact not a
process that can be pinned down in a single model, but it is rather a constitutive
aspect of our daily lives. Communication enables us to engage with other beings,
and since humans are inherently social beings we constantly want to and have to
engage with others.
Communication furthermore enables us to function within the various
contexts where we negotiate power, where we make meaning, where we
influence and where we are influenced. In short, it enables us to live our daily
lives. It is cultural process that determines us, as we determine it.

SUMMARY
In this chapter we have investigated what constitutes communication, how and
why we communicate and how we study communication phenomena in the
various contexts in which we function.
In explaining how we communicate, two distinct traditions of communication
were investigated. From a structuralist perspective, structures and models are
used to conceptualise communication. The limitations of this perspective are that
it sees communication as something that has borders that can be demarcated and
classified. The beauty of this perspective is that it gives us a basic understanding
of what happens in a ‘snapshot’ of communication, in a single communication
event. As communication is seen as a process that can
[Page 47]

be captured in a model, the reasons why we communicate are easily

distinguishable and captured into lists and categories.
From a constructivist perspective, communication is seen as a constitutive
force which helps us to construct ourselves (to come into being) through
communicative relationships with other humans. It influences who we are, how
we see the world, how we steer others to see us, how we see others. As
communication is seen as a way to constitute ourselves, the reasons why we
communicate are not as easily discernible as in a structuralist explanation. The
reasons why we communicate, from a constructivist approach, all have to do
with constituting the self, others and our view of the world. For this reason it is
important to express the self in what can be called participatory or dialogical
communication.
When studying communication phenomena we can do so from various
perspectives (vantage points) and pair these up with different research methods
to help us to find answers to our research questions.
The perspectives introduced in this chapter are: cybernetics (for example
systems theory), semiotics, critical theory (for example feminism,
postcolonialism, critical political economy and critical discourse analysis) and
perspectives focusing on human experiences (for example hermeneutics and
phenomenology).
Communication can furthermore take place in various contexts or settings or
places, such as intrapersonal, interpersonal, small group, mass and public
communication settings. These contexts are further explored in the second part
of this book.

TEST YOURSELF QUESTIONS

1. Think about a serious conversation or an argument you had recently with

a friend or family member. Write down your experience using all the
components of communication (based on structuralist thinking) to
describe the interaction. Then answer the following questions:
a. Did you both participate actively in the encounter?
b. Did you both make yourselves understood?
c. Did your partner’s non-verbal communication help you to understand
him/her better?
d. Did your encounter have a satisfactory outcome? Why or why not?
e. Was it disturbed by any kind of noise? What kind of noise was present
and what effect did it have?
2. Recall a communicative encounter between you and a close friend.
Analyse the encounter by drawing on the meaning-making thinking about
communication. Identify the reasons motivating each person’s views and
thereafter consider the meaning that each of you got out of the
conversation.
3. Explain the different contexts in which communication takes place.
Explain the basis on which we differentiate between the contexts,
illustrating your answers with examples from your own experience of
 communication.
4. Using your favourite television programme as a case study, do the
following:
a. Using a systems framework, identify all the different parts of the
system. Describe how a change in one influences the other(s).
b. Draw on one of the critical theories and analyse the power
relationships between two of the characters.
c. Perform a semiotic analysis of the programme.
[Page 48]
Chapter 3
Conceptualising communication:
theory in practice
Elnerine Greeff & viola c milton

OVERVIEW
Communicative efforts occur for particular reasons, in relation to particular
contexts, with particular outcomes. To study communication is to examine the
actual social process wherein significant symbolic forms are created,
apprehended and used (Carey 1989).
Our central goal with this chapter is therefore to interrogate these
processes. We incorporate current approaches to communication studies and
contemporary issues into a conversation about the role and meaning of
communication in everyday life. Our hope is that this chapter contributes to
making the content of this introduction to communication studies more
relevant, timely and culturally significant.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the end of this chapter you should be able to:
Recognise that there are different approaches to the study of
communication.
Distinguish between the different approaches to the study of
communication.
Illustrate your understanding of the different approaches to the study of
 communication.
Compare and contrast the different approaches to the study of
communication.
Analyse a communicative event in terms of one or both of these
approaches.
Answer the questions at the end of the chapter.

[Page 49]

INTRODUCTION
The central thrust of this chapter is that we produce our world through
communication. Of course, one of the problems facing those of us who study
communication is that there is a lack of consensus about what communication is
and how to study it. Noted scholar Douglas Kellner (1995: 162) encapsulates this
sentiment when he notes that:
Somewhere between the liberal arts/humanities and the social sciences,
communications exist in a contested space where advocates of different
methods and positions have attempted to define the field and police intruders
and trespassers.

In the previous chapter you were introduced to several alternative approaches to

communication. The chapter unpacked the philosophies underpinning each
approach, as well as the theories that emerged from each. In this chapter we are
going to ask you to join us (Elnerine and viola) in an exploration of the
applicability of two of these approaches to contemporary communication
studies.
To illustrate the ways in which the structuralist approach and the constructivist
approach perceive communication each of us examines the same communicative
event – the Nando’s diversity advertisement, reproduced in Figures 3.1 and 3.2 –
and presents an analysis of the advertisement inspired by one of the above-
mentioned approaches. Following this, we unpack how and where each analysis
fits within the broader field of the study of communication.

This section has online support material available

 In reading through the different approaches we would like you to pay close
attention to the writing styles adopted in each. In particular, it is worth noting
that traditionally academic writing insisted on minimal reference to yourself as
an author. The reason for this lies in a tradition of needing to present your work
‘objectively’. This convention has changed and some academics now consider
the use of personal pronouns to be acceptable. They argue that using ‘I’ or ‘we’
still allows you to be objective, if you draw on a range of authors and their
arguments to support your position. What we try to illustrate in this chapter is
how different approaches also dictate different writing styles.
In this respect it is worth noting Kress’s (2010) argument that we do not yet
have a theory which allows us to understand and account for the world of
communication as it is now, hence we do not have an adequate set of categories
to describe what we need to describe. This is as true for the way in which we
approach a communicative event as the way in which we write about a
communicative event. In the absence of such an all-encompassing description or
style we need to be mindful of the philosophy that informs our approach to the
study of communication.
[Page 50]
 Figure 3.1 Nando’s diversity advertisement adapted from the Sunday Times (10 June 2012)

[Page 51]
 Figure 3.2 Nando’s diversity advertisement storyboard as it appeared in the Sunday Times (10 June 2012)

[Page 52]

3.1 STRUCTURALIST SNAPSHOTS: GETTING

THE PICTURE WITH ELNERINE
In the previous chapter the structuralist approach to communication was
described as focusing on the components of the communication process, offering
a bird’s-eye view or snapshot of how these different components work together
to constitute ‘communication’. This tendency to reduce communication to (only)
its most basic components stems from the scientific tradition, which works from
the assumption that phenomena are best understood by describing them in the
most straightforward and unproblematic way. Social scientists, therefore, started
their journey to understanding communication by also reducing communication
to its basic or bare components, isolating each of these, in order to see how they
operate alongside each other.
Because of its focus on ‘uncomplicated’ and basic components of
communication the structuralist approach is often dismissed as being outdated
and unsophisticated, based on traditions that are no longer applicable and
making use of metaphors that are no longer relevant.
The truth of the matter, however, is that the structuralist approach shaped the
way in which communication as a discipline developed, how it evolved and how
it is currently understood. Think about it: if we had not started out with a basic,
structuralist approach to communication, we would never have been able to form
a picture in our minds of the sequence of events that form its basis, or as
Burleson (1992) phrases it, the ‘systematic conception’ of what communication
is and how it functions.
Structuralism, in this way, gave us a ‘base’ on which we could build, and take
forward, our understanding of communication. We still see traces of the
structuralist-based approach in the language that we use to describe
communication: where we follow each other on Twitter, post content on
Facebook and send links via e-mail. A study of the structuralist approach to
communication therefore offers an overview not only of the communication
process itself – to such an extent that we can form a ‘picture’ or ‘snapshot’ of it
in our minds – but also of the progress we have made in understanding our
discipline as a whole.

3.2 ORIGINS AND TRADITION OF THE

STRUCTURALIST APPROACH
The true origin of the structuralist approach is an oft-debated point. Although
many theorists (for example, Carey 1989; Peters 2000) point to earlier notions
that helped develop this approach, it is widely agreed that the first major attempt
at giving ‘structure’ to the intangible phenomenon of communication was by
Lasswell (1948) and Shannon and Weaver (1949), as described in the previous
chapter. Lasswell (1948) and Shannon and Weaver’s (1949) models, in their
simplest forms, describe communication as a process whereby a sender encodes
a message from ideas into a signal, which is sent through a medium or media to
a receiver, who in turn decodes the message to achieve a
[Page 53]

specific or desired effect. This scientific reduction of communication to its basic

components, seen to operate and serve in a specific order to reach a foreseeable
outcome, establishes the mechanistic nature of the structuralist approach,
wherein the components of the communication process are seen to work like the
cogs of a machine, activating and operating on cue to fulfil their specific
functions in a scientifically precise manner.
Consequently, what we see from the structuralist approach of Lasswell (1948)
and Shannon and Weaver’s (1949) models is the idea that if communication
functions in a mechanistic manner, with a foreseeable outcome, the entire
process can be controlled (Carey 1989). Simply put, structuralists believe that if
we control and direct the components of the communication process, we can
ensure a controlled effect on the receiver of our message (Carey 1989; Hooper-
Greenhill 1999; Penman 1988).
The structuralist approach to communication therefore sees receivers as just
another component to the communication message – not as human beings but
merely as another cog in the ‘machine’ that is communication – one that can be
controlled just as readily as any other component. Apart from the mechanistic
nature evident here, we also see the functionalist and behaviourist tendencies of
the structuralist approach in this view of the receivers, as it seeks to direct and
control the functions of the communication process in order to reach a desired
effect on the behaviour and attitudes of receivers, therefore exercising control
over them in this way. True to its scientific tradition, this approach stresses the
practical and concerns itself with trying to improve communication effectiveness
through the control of components (rather than through the process as a whole).

Valuable information
The behaviourist and scientific nature of the structuralist approach means
that it focuses on practical observations and therefore favours empirical and
‘objective’ research.
3.3 A STRUCTURALIST ANALYSIS OF THE
NANDO’S DIVERSITY ADVERTISEMENT
The analysis of communication situations from a structuralist approach, by
virtue of its nature, focuses on practical observations of the mechanistic process
in a scientific manner. The components, how they operate and what their
purposes and consequences are constitute the main interests of the analysis. Very
important to the analysis, of course, is the underlying core assumption that the
consequence of the communicative event is a direct attitudinal and behavioural
effect on receivers or recipients. Taking these theoretical assumptions to the
Nando’s diversity advert will showcase the manner in which a structuralist
would analyse such a communicative event.
[Page 54]

What do we see in the case study (Figure 3.2)?

A heading labelling this a ‘pro-diversity’ advert.
A storyboard that illustrates different scenes from an advert wherein
people of various nationalities and cultures are addressed by a disembodied
voice, expressing his opinion that all of these people should ‘go back to
where they came from’. As the displayed persons of each nationality and/or
culture are addressed in turn, they disappear in a puff of smoke – all except
the Khoisan man.
In the storyboard the ‘voice of Nando’s states that ‘REAL SOUTH
AFRICANS LOVE DIVERSITY’, followed by screens showing products
that the organisation offers and, lastly, a screen of the organisation’s logo.
At the bottom the organisation’s name and logo are displayed once again
and below this four sentences that explain to the reader that the advert was
banned and that Nando’s, conversely, gives its customers the ‘right to
choose’.

A structuralist analysis of the Nando’s diversity advert reveals that the medium
that conveys the advert to its recipients is the instrument that disseminates the
information of the message. Immediately, the realisation strikes that, in reality,
the analysis of a communicative event is never as forthright or simple as it might
first seem from a reading of the theoretical principles of the approach alone. This
case study presents us with multiple mediums, all capable – in terms of the core
assumptions of the structuralist approach – of multiple effects on the recipients
of the message. We have television as the initial medium: the advertisement first
appeared on South African television, but was soon removed and ‘banned’ from
the SABC, DSTV, M-Net and e-tv channels. Consequently Nando’s, as the
senders of the message, posted it on the Internet and finally reworked it for
publication in print form, disseminating it through the medium of newspapers.
Questions now arise in the analysis about the effect of one medium as opposed
to another. Is the Internet as effective in reaching audiences when the
information is not pushed onto them – as would be the case if it was broadcast
on television – but needs to be pulled, for example by an Internet search? Does
the message intensity change when conveyed through the print version, as
opposed to its audiovisual counterparts? Do these variables change the intensity
of the effect on receivers’/audiences’ attitudes and behaviours? We could even
ask whether or not this interchanging of mediums constitutes message failure as
there was a malfunction in the process that led to the initially intended medium
no longer being employed to convey the message.
As the analysis progresses, interrogation of the message yields more questions
and areas for focus, one of the most important being ‘what really is the thrust or
purpose of this message’?
If the overt message is to sell chicken, then message failure because of the TV
ban may be the conclusion of the analysis. If the core message is considered to
be ‘highlighting diversity’ and ‘the right to choose’, then the clout of the print
version might be greater as it further accentuates this message, inadvertently
through its banning
[Page 55]

and opportunistically incorporated in the last three sentences, as seen in Figure

3.2.
A less explicit take on the possible core message results from analysis of the
idea that shaped, through the encoding process, the message as conveyed
through these mediums. A structuralist stance could argue that the organisation
tried to reinforce its reputation as an agitator and creator of provocative or
controversial advertisements through this communication, the analysis
highlighting the fact that the sender labelled the advert ‘The pro-diversity ad
broadcasters don’t want you to see’ rather than, for example, ‘delicious Peri-
crusted Wings’ and ‘mouthwatering Trinchado and chips’. In this case, the
effectiveness in conveying this message of the audio-visual versus the print
version features once again.
Focusing on the recipients in a structuralist analysis then examines the way
that the message (however defined) will be decoded. If the analysis proceeds
from the standpoint that the organisation was making use of the (then very
topical) issue of xenophobia to reinforce its reputation of agitator, in a tongue-in-
cheek way, careful analysis of the decoding process is required as the effect on
the attitudes and behaviours of disparate recipients could be very different.
Those who decode the message as light-hearted communication, for example,
that at least offered them a laugh, and at most got in the face of the limiting and
controlling broadcasting regulations, would doubtless have a resultantly positive
attitude. Conversely, however, recipients who decode the message in a negative
way, seeing it – presumably as the broadcasters did – as an unwarranted
exploitation of a serious issue, would react with a negative attitude and
behaviour towards the organisation.
Tracing the components of the communication process in this mechanistic
way explains the assumption of the structuralist approach that media messages
have direct attitudinal and behavioural effects on the audience or recipients of
the communication. With the desired effect of the communication in mind, the
sender can manipulate the foregoing components of the process for control over,
and the reaching of a desired outcome of, the decoding process and therefore the
effect on recipients.
What is clearly evident from the analysis, in the way that it is unpacked above,
is that, from a structuralist approach, distinct power relations are all too obvious,
as Hooper-Greenhill (1999) opines. The source of the information (and the
communication message) is the source of meaning and is the entity with power
over the attitude and behaviour of the recipient, who is viewed as merely a
passive receiver. The view of the recipient as a cog in the functional
communication mechanism is what elicits the most critique against the
structuralist approach and serves as a major impetus for further development in
our understanding of communication.

3.4 CRITIQUE
At the outset of this discussion it was noted that the structuralist perception of
communication is often viewed as dated and simplistic.
[Page 56]

One of the main reasons for this, as Calvert (1997) puts it, is that many today in
the communication study discipline no longer subscribe to the idea of powerful
and uniform effects on attitudes and behaviour, based on or caused solely by
communication messages. Rather, the study of communication is approached
with the view that it inherently entails a set of complex relationships and
mediating variables that influence the chain of causation set out in such a
mechanistically linear fashion in the structuralist-based approaches. It is believed
that receivers cannot be separated from the process of meaning generation – they
are not merely components in a functional process, but joint participants that co-
create meaning.
The linear nature of transmitting information through concrete co-ordinates
that occur one after the other, with no intersection or overlapping, and the
instrumental nature of communication being something that one person does to
another is rejected. People in the communication process are no longer viewed
as senders and receivers, but rather as ‘participants’ in a more encompassing
process.

Humpty Dumpty’s maxim: ‘And only one for birthday presents, you
know. There’s glory for you!’ ‘I don’t know what you mean by “glory”,’
Alice said. Humpty Dumpty smiled contemptuously. ‘Of course you
don’t – till I tell you. I meant “there’s a nice knock-down argument for
you!”‘
‘But “glory” doesn’t mean “a nice knock-down argument”,’ Alice
objected.
‘When I use a word,’ Humpty Dumpty said, in rather a scornful tone, ‘it
means just what I choose it to mean – neither more nor less.’ ‘The
question is,’ said Alice, ‘whether you can make words mean so many
different things.’ ‘The question is,’ said Humpty Dumpty, ‘which is to be
master – that’s all.’

3.5 A FAMILIAR STRANGER … VIOLA’S

CONSTRUCTIVIST APPROACH TO THE
NANDO’S ADVERTISEMENT
It will likely come as no surprise to you to hear that a society, its cultures and the
representation of their meanings are generally considered to form a tightly
integrated whole. You are also by now aware that differences between and within
societies and cultures result in differences in representation and meaning. We
understand that, contrary to Humpty Dumpty’s famous maxim that the words he
chooses mean exactly what he wants them to mean, such meanings are steeped
in histories and cultures, and therefore never self-evident. We create, express and
convey our knowledge of and attitudes toward reality through the construction of
a variety of symbol systems: literature, art, science, journalism, religion,
common sense, mythology (Carey 1989). To this end a constructivist approach
conceptualises communication as a process that enables and enacts societal
transformation (Carey 1989).

This section has online support material available

This approach to communication is therefore primarily concerned with how

meaning is generated and conveyed. For theorists operating in this school of
thought
… communication (particularly mass communication) is a primary process of
reality construction and maintenance whereby positions of inequality,
dominance and subservience are produced and reproduced in society and at
the same time made to appear natural (Chandler 2001).

It emphasises not so much what words/images mean, but how they mean
(Sturrock in Chandler 2001). Basic assumptions underlying this approach
include the notions that cultures are formed through communication and that
communication and meaning are formed by mediations, referred to as signs. In
what follows we unpack some of
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the basic assumptions of a constructivist approach to communication, using the

Nando’s diversity advert as our case study.

3.5.1 Conceptions of communication

You can look at communication either as a process whereby a sender sends a
message to a receiver or as an exchange of meaning.
In the storyboard for the Nando’s diversity advertisement in Figure 3.1,
communication is portrayed as a terrain in which competing and contested views
about values vie for prominence. In this situation what we see and what we ‘get’
(understand) is not necessarily the same thing. Let’s interrogate this statement.
 What do we see in the case study (Figure 3.1)?
A fenced open field; there is a hole in the fence.
A man climbs through the fence.
A puff of smoke appears and the man disappears.
We see a line of immigrants standing outside a building waiting to enter a
tent.
Smoke appears and they disappear, one by one.
This action is repeated several times with different groups and
nationalities, including Nigerians, Europeans, Afrikaners, Indians,
Chinese, Swazis, Sothos, Tswanas, Vendas and Zulus.
Throughout, there is a voice narrating who the people are and telling them
to ‘go back where they came from’, before the smoke appears and they
disappear.
The final sequence of pictures shows a Khoisan man, who states that he is
not going anywhere, in his words, ‘You … found us [his people] here.’
The narrator then says ‘REAL SOUTH AFRICANS LOVE DIVERSITY’
before two new Nando’s dishes are introduced, each disappearing in a
puff of smoke to make space for the Nando’s logo.

Looking at the advertisement from a constructivist approach necessitates a focus

on at least five aspects of communication as they relate to making meaning.
Each of these relates to the core assumption of a constructivist approach to
communication as highlighted in Chapter 2:
human thought is not neutral, but everything we think and communicate is
constructed from a particular point of view, whether we realise it or not.
(Chapter 2, Constructivism)

In what follows we examine and discuss this statement in relation to five key
arguments about human communication.

Communication is not innocent

It is not a straightforward transmission from my mouth to your ear. If it were, we
would all have understood this advertisement’s attempt to accomplish two
things: first, to sell their chicken and, secondly, to sensitise South Africans about
a social ill – xenophobia – and entice them to think differently about identity
(who we are) and belonging (who should be allowed to call South Africa home).
However, communication is rife with innuendo, ritual and sentiment and
therefore it needs to be interrogated. Let me explain. It would be fairly easy to
argue that the majority of people looking at the pictures in
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the storyboard and reading the accompanying words will view and read the same
thing. However, when you ask the same people to explain what they see and
what it means to them you will get several different responses. These responses
may be influenced by factors such as age, gender, race and even political
orientation. It is these differences in how people make meaning of a
communicative event that led to this advertisement being banned by South
African television broadcasters, all of whom cited as a reason their concerns that
their viewers might misconstrue the advertisement to be in favour of
xenophobia, with the SABC going as far as to assert that the advertisement
might incite violence against foreigners in South Africa. This prompted the
South African newspaper Sunday Times to side with Nando’s and court
controversy by publishing the storyboard of the advertisement with the
contextualising elements, as seen in Figure 3.2.

Communication is not devoid of context

Every communicative event, no matter how ‘innocent’, always prompts an
interrogation of the reasons for communicating and the possible outcomes it
might incur. Let’s look at the advertisement again, this time with the added
contextualisation provided by the advertising agency Black River FC, for the
benefit of the readers of the Sunday Times. This is an advertisement created by
Black River FC on behalf of their client, fast-food restaurant Nando’s, who sells
Portuguese-style grilled chicken. As with all advertisements, it is geared towards
existing and potentially new customers and the purpose is (amongst others) to
introduce customers to Nando’s (new) dishes and of course to persuade them to
go out and buy the dishes.
What confuses us about this advertisement is its refusal to ‘play by the rules’:
this is not ‘just’ an enticement to buy chicken, it is a call to arms. It invites South
Africans to take a stance in relation to a real and serious societal ill – the issue of
xenophobia. It engages South Africans to think about the meaning of their words
and actions; it forces South Africans to think of xenophobia not as ‘their’
problem but as ‘our’ problem. It disturbs our sense of place, belonging and
citizenship, and it does so by invoking different interpretations of the histories of
the people of South Africa. Through allowing different groups of South Africans
to think of themselves as ‘the other’ who does not belong, it attempts to show up
the fallacy of denying anybody a sense of belonging.
South Africa has always been a racially, ethnically and culturally diverse
society, but apartheid constructed South African national identity in ways that
imposed and made into policies hierarchies of difference which marginalised and
disadvantaged the majority of South African citizens. Advertisements such as
the one under discussion work alongside government policies, television
programmes such as 7de Laan, Isidingo and Generations and even water-cooler
conversations to communicate a particular vision of what it means to be a South
African in contemporary, post-apartheid South Africa.
In the case of the Nando’s diversity advert it could be argued that this vision is
linked closely to the national nation-building project in which multiculturalism
and its concomitant ‘unity in diversity’ takes
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precedence. As South Africans invested in everyday South African life, we are

of course familiar with these issues and therefore it is possible for us to
understand the meanings that this advertisement evokes. We do not necessarily
have to agree with the message, but it is more likely that we will ‘get’ the
message than someone from, for example, Uganda, who may not be familiar
with South African life and its malcontents and would not grasp the full extent of
the meanings underlying the advertisement.
Is it possible to define something as multifaceted as communication, and if we
do, how do we decide what it is for?

Communication is culture
To ensure that your message reaches its intended recipients and fulfils the
functions you envisioned and is understood by the recipient the way you
intended, you have to adopt an understanding of communication as culture. If,
like Fiske (2010), we assume that communication is central to the life of a
culture, then we must agree that the study of communication is inextricably tied
to the study of the culture with which it is integrated. What is at stake in
communication is our ability to function fully as members of a particular culture
and/or subculture. We study communication not necessarily because we do not
know how to speak, read or view images, but because we want what we have to
say to have impact, to change situations.
Surely most of you who saw the Nando’s advert already knew what it was
about and what it meant to convey, and you had an opinion on whether it did so
well or not. What you did not necessarily know is how words and images can be
packaged to have particular outcomes. We communicate not only because we
want to say something, but primarily because we want to exchange meaning. We
are all familiar with sayings such is ‘a picture paints a thousand words’, or the
nursery school taunt that ‘sticks and stones can break my bones, but words can
never hurt me’.
What the broadcasters’ reactions to the advertisement and the advertiser’s
response to the reactions reveal is that, contrary to the nursery-school taunt,
words can have very real effects, and can in fact hurt you. Not only emotionally
but also physically.

Communication is a site of struggle

Power emerges in and through communication. Scholars operating in a
constructivist approach to communication assume that meanings are shaped by
relations of power and that, as power shifts in a society/culture, our languages
and other systems of socially accepted meanings can and do change. They
assume that communication (both the production and the reception thereof) has
the power to shape individuals and societies. In this school of thought the social
power of texts depends on interpretation – message senders depend on the
recipients of their messages for the message to function as intended.
Furthermore, this approach assumes that the circulation of messages is vested
in relations of power: which messages/meanings
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are selected and privileged for circulation is a function of ideology (mediated

views of the worlds that circulate in a culture, providing self-replicating views of
power and inclusion and exclusion) and processes of hegemony (ways in which
everyone buys into a dominant view, those in power co-opting those with lesser
power). As Kress (2010) argues, when thinking, theorising and writing about
communication and meaning we would do well to remember that there are times
when communication isn’t really the issue – power is.
Communication is power
Its power manifests in the political, economic and cultural spheres. The
television broadcasters’ decision not to screen the Nando’s advert was politically
and culturally motivated (the South African public sphere has been inundated by
violent xenophobic attacks that made headlines globally), but it also had
economic, political and cultural consequences.
Our decisions about what to communicate and what not to communicate, be it
on television or in our personal lives, says something about how we see and
interpret the world in which we live. It allows us to circulate some
interpretations rather than others and to serve some social interest better than
others.
For example, to use a clichéd reference, if a newspaper article refers to
someone as a freedom fighter, you will think of that person differently as
opposed to the article referring to him/her as a terrorist. In fact, your
interpretation of the article will vary even if the wording is the same. People
from opposing political or social-moral viewpoints might for example disagree
with the label ‘freedom fighter’ for someone they deem an interruptive influence
and would interpret freedom fighter to mean ‘terrorist’ regardless of the
newspaper’s desire to paint the plight of the person and his/her cause differently.
Similarly, in the foregoing contextualised storyboard Nando’s attempt to
invoke at least two things. First, they invoke references to the South African
Constitution, which guarantees certain rights, among them the freedom of
expression:
Everyone has the right to freedom of expression, which includes freedom of
the press and other media; freedom to receive or impart information or ideas;
freedom of artistic creativity; and academic freedom and freedom of scientific
research. (section 16, subsection (1), South African Constitution)

In this case, Nando’s frame the broadcasters’ refusal to screen the advertisement
as an infringement upon our ‘right to see’ – receive ideas – and, by extension,
Nando’s right to communicate – impart ideas. Secondly, their insistence that this
is a ‘pro-diversity’ advertisement asks us, the recipients of their message, to
interpret the message not in accordance with how the television broadcasters
communicated the (un)intentional message (that is, one that might incite
violence), but rather according to the advertiser’s intended meaning, to foster
social change by inviting South Africans to ‘be their true selves’, in this case
pro-diversity instead of anti-foreigner. In the
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tussle for power we can also see how a decision to interpret the world in a
specific way can have cultural and economic consequences.
The broadcasters similarly invoke the Charter, focusing however on the
limitations to freedom of expression imposed by the Charter; most notably they
claim that the advertisement ‘might’ incite violence. Section 16 of the South
African Constitution clearly states that
[t]he right in subsection (1) does not extend to propaganda for war;
incitement of imminent violence; or advocacy of hatred that is based on race,
ethnicity, gender or religion, and that constitutes incitement to cause harm.

Meaning making clearly is not without complexities. How texts or messages are
understood is dependent on at least some shared understanding between the
producer of the message and the recipients thereof, all of whom bring their own
experiences and ‘baggage’ to bear on the text. Which meanings and
understandings are eventually circulated hinges not only on the strength of the
message but also on ability to exert power. In the case of this advertisement, for
example, the struggle over meaning resulted in the broadcasters asserting their
gatekeeping powers. The broadcasters, understanding that meaning does not
necessarily lie in the intent of the sender, but rather in the complex relationships
between the message and its recipients, had the power to refuse airtime, which
they did, but their refusal also possibly led to a loss of economic power – that is
to say, they might have lost out on advertising revenue.
If not for the fact that YouTube and Sunday Times opted to screen and place
the advert, its creators would have lost face (cultural power), as they created a
product that nobody wanted and the client (Nando’s) might have suffered
potential loss of income if people either did not see their adverts or if they
decided to take sides in the debate about whose interpretation of the meaning of
this communication act is correct. Communication is power precisely because
the decision about which meanings to circulate has a constitutive power – it
decides which aspects of a culture are legitimate and cause for celebration, and
which aspects thereof should be marginalised.

3.5.2 Meaning reigns supreme

From the foregoing discussion on the Nando’s advert two key aspects about a
constructivist approach to communication emerge.

It’s not about the sender

A constructivist approach to communication assumes that communication is less
about the sender as locus of meaning and more about the negotiation of meaning,
described by Fiske (2010) as the ‘production and exchange of meanings’.
Communication is about
… a sign-maker issu[ing] a ‘prompt’ (for example a gaze, a gesture, a spoken
sentence, a touch) to an addressee or audience; the latter will then start
interpreting the sign and respond to the prompt in accordance with their own
interest. (Fiske 2010: 35)
[Page 62]

In this approach meaning is not determined by the sender of the message, nor is
the receiver only a passive recipient of meaning. Communication is not innocent
and messages are therefore rarely transparent. The study of communication is
consequently the study of text (message) and culture. Hence, communication is
culture. The primary mode of study in this perception of communication is
semiotics, which you will learn later in this book, is the science of signs and
their meanings. This school of thought rarely speaks about communication
failure, but rather refers to cultural differences between sender and receiver that
come to bear on any text (message) that is circulated.

It is all about the text (the ‘message’)

A constructivist approach to communication considers the message to be a
construction of signs which produces meaning through interacting with the
receivers (Fiske 2010). In this approach the sender of a message declines in
importance as the emphasis shifts to the message (text) itself and how it is read.
‘Reading’ is seen as the process of discovering meanings that occurs when the
reader interacts or negotiates with the text.
This school of thought argues that cultural experience is key to understanding
how readers make sense of messages, because every time you ‘read’ a text you
bring all of your previous experiences as part of a culture and society to bear
upon the codes and signs which make up the text. In this approach ‘shared
understanding of the text’ is important for communication to be meaningful. In
fact it is this issue of ‘shared understanding’ that results in readers with different
social experiences or from different cultures finding different meanings in the
same text.
Stuart Hall (2006), one of the defining figures of a cultural approach to
communication, explained this with a model now commonly referred to as the
Encoding/Decoding model. He noted that producers of messages (which he
refers to as ‘encoders’) and the recipients thereof (the ‘decoders’) all bring their
own experiences to bear on a text (message). The meaning of a text is therefore
located between its producer (who encoded or framed the text in a particular
manner) and the reader (decoder) who decodes it according to her/his personal
background, the various different social situations and frames of interpretation.
It is important to note that this approach does not argue that intention is
unimportant; rather it assumes that if meaningful exchange is to occur, the
message must be decoded in alliance with its intention. This is why
misunderstanding occurs when the message is understood differently by the
recipient, who then responds contrary to the intention which framed the
message. Since we create messages out of signs, the more we share the same
codes and use the same sign systems, the closer the ‘meanings’ of messages will
be in relation to one another (Fiske 2010).
Unlike the linear models of communication discussed by Elnerine in the first
part of this chapter, the constructivist approach adopts transmission models
where the flow of communication makes way for relationships between elements
in the creation of meaning: the
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producer and sender (located in the same axis), the sign (or referent) and the
message/text (Figure 3.3).
 Figure 3.3 Messages and meanings (Fiske 2010:4)

3.6 MY BROTHER FROM ANOTHER MOTHER

In the previous sections we have attempted to illustrate how the same
communicative event can be interpreted by scholars from different
communicative backgrounds. The analysis by viola of the Nando’s
advertisement draws on the constructivist approach to communication, whereas
Elnerine’s explication of the structuralist approach takes a more mechanistic
stance in unpacking the advertisement.
We acknowledged from the outset that there are more than two approaches
from which to study communication. While focusing on only two approaches is
taking a very broad brush to communication studies, we opted for the two most
commonly cited in this field, to illustrate two important points. First, any
analysis of communication should be done with a critical awareness of the
approaches underpinning the analysis. Secondly, no one approach is completely
at odds with or removed from any other approach – they borrow from, modify
and feed off of one another, making no approach self-contained.

Your approach to communication impacts upon your understanding of the

functions of communication. While not necessarily mutually exclusive, your
view of the success of a communicative event depends on the approach that
you adopt.
Let’s test this against our case study: when the broadcasters anticipate that the
Nando’s advertisement may incite violence, their decision is
[Page 64]

influenced by both a structuralist and a constructivist approach to

communication. From a structuralist vantage point Nando’s as the sender wants
to affect the behaviour, state of mind or emotional responses of the receiver
(audiences who will view the advertisement). This is based in a commonsense
perception of communication.
From the perspective of a constructivist approach the broadcasters look at
social interaction as embedded within culture and society and which is therefore
constitutive of culture and society. They assume that responses to the
advertisement would be varied given that we live in a society defined by
diversity and one where, contrary to the popular ‘unity in diversity’ slogan
favoured by government and popular culture, different groups are often violently
at odds with one another. Thus members of this society will not necessarily
respond to the text in the same ways.

CONCLUSION
The question now arises: did Nando’s fail in their communication? Your
response to this question depends on the approach that you adopt.
Structuralist approach: This approach to communication places the sender
at the centre of communication acts, arguing that the creation of meaning and, by
proxy, control of the outcome resides with this person or entity. If the
communication process is not completed in the way that the sender intended it to
be, the structuralist approach suggests that some kind of failure in one or more of
the functions of the communication process is to blame. In the case of the
Nando’s diversity advertisement the communication could therefore very well be
seen as a failure.
Constructivist approach: When adopting this approach to communication
the assumption is that meaning making is at the heart of any communicative
event. Because the object of our study (communication) is the social world that
we ourselves inhabit – we are not dealing with an ‘exact science’ – any analysis
of a communicative event should therefore pay as much attention to potential
meanings (even when they are at cross-purposes) as it would to the search for
exact information (O’Sullivan et al 1994).
 Looking at the reactions to the Nando’s advertisement presented earlier in the
chapter, the constructivist approach would respond ‘it’s all good’, based on the
underlying assumption that the text (message) should take centre stage and that
meaning is not self-evident but rather negotiated. Audience members can
therefore respond to the Nando’s advertisement in diverse ways, regardless (or
even in spite) of the advertiser’s intentions, because we inevitably bring different
‘things’ to bear when we enter into a communication situation. Both senders and
receivers of messages have ‘baggage’ that they bring to bear on the message and
because of this, and without a ‘shared understanding’ of how the world works,
we will respond differently. This is not necessarily evidence of ‘message failure’,
but rather speaks to the fact that we live in a multifaceted and diverse world, one
in which some meanings and messages gain acceptance into mainstream culture,
while others only operate on the periphery.
[Page 65]

SUMMARY
This chapter explored the theoretical approaches unpacked in Chapter 2 in a
practical manner, utilising the Nando’s diversity advert as case study. We argued
that we produce our world through communication and we analysed the Nando’s
diversity advert in relation to two of the approaches set out in Chapter 2, the
structuralist and constructivist approaches.
In discussing the structuralist approach we argued that communication as an
‘uncomplicated’ mechanistic process involves recipients only as functional cogs.
A predictable and desired effect on the attitudes and behaviour of recipients can
be orchestrated as the sender controls and directs the components of the
communicative process.
In contrast, a constructivist approach argues that communication is less about
the sender as locus of meaning and more about the negotiation of meaning – that
the production and exchange of meaning takes precedence. In this approach the
sender therefore declines in importance as the emphasis shifts to the message
itself and how it is read.
Both the structuralist and constructivist approaches assume that power
emerges in and through communication. Whereas the structuralist approach seats
power in the sender of the message (responsible for the outcome, by directing
the communication components), the constructivist approach argues that
meanings are shaped by relations of power and that, as power shifts in a
society/culture, our languages and other systems of socially accepted meanings
can, and do, change. These points were unpacked in detail in Chapter 2. In this
chapter, we focussed on the Nando’s diversity advert to illustrate the theoretical
assertions within each approach, finally arguing that the approaches – while
different – are not necessarily mutually exclusive.

TEST YOURSELF QUESTIONS

1. Explain communication as a linear process and give examples from your

own life of the functions that would constitute or make up such a process.
2. Explain the process whereby two colleagues in an organisation exchange
e-mail messages to show your understanding of communication elements
happening by means of concrete co-ordinates, in other words one after the
other.
3. Do you think that the process of communication can be defined solely
mechanistically? Why or why not?
4. Explain the meaning of the terms ‘functionalist’ and ‘behaviourist’,
making use of your own examples to illustrate your answer.
5. Explain what is meant by the negotiation of meaning.
6. Culture and power emerges in communication. Discuss.
7. Contrast the structuralist and constructivist approaches to communication,
indicating which one of these approaches you are more inclined to.
[Page 66]
Chapter 4
Sensing and sense making
Sonja Verwey

OVERVIEW
By now you should understand that communication is a complex, interactive
process through which we interact with our world and others in it. We are
constantly engaged in attempts at creating or sharing meaning which have no
discernible beginning or end.
While many varying definitions of what communication is have been
proposed, there is general agreement that communication at least includes
activities such as managing the creation and sending of messages, or sense
giving, and receiving and interpreting messages, or sense making. Because
communication is such a part of who we are and what we do, we seldom stop
to think about it, except when our communication fails. Have you ever been
lost because you did not correctly follow the directions someone gave you?
Have you missed an appointment because you got there at the wrong time?
These are all examples of communication failure.
Although the general purpose of communication is to share meaning,
communication will always be imperfect to some extent. It is important to
understand that context influences communication because it shapes the
meaning of what is being communicated and that it influences meaning over
time because the outcomes of our interactions today become the context
within which communication events occur in future.
People are equipped with five senses through which they receive
information – sight, hearing, touch, smell and taste. We use these senses to
make sense of the world around us. That is, our understanding of our
circumstances and other people depends on the way we perceive the events
 that take place around us.
In this chapter we emphasise the importance of perception in the
communication process. We begin by explaining the process of perception:
the ways in which we select, organise and interpret the information that
reaches us through our senses. We offer suggestions on how to improve the
accuracy of our perceptions and, to illustrate how perception ‘works’ in our
lives, we discuss social sense making.
We then pay attention to the differences between hearing and listening and
explain the process of listening. We continue by describing the types of
listening that are appropriate in different situations. We point out some poor
listening habits and discuss the external and internal barriers that impede
efficient listening. After offering some suggestions for improving your
listening skills, we show the relationship between listening and feedback and
the importance of appropriate feedback in the process of communication.

[Page 67]

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the end of this chapter you should be able to:
Define ‘perception’.
Explain the process of perception by referring to selection, organisation
and interpretation.
Provide examples of how selective exposure and selective attention
influence your perceptions.
Distinguish between active and passive listening.
Name four types of listening and provide an example of the situation in
which each occurs.
Define internal and external barriers to listening and give two examples in
each category.
Identify at least three skills that must be developed to improve one’s
perception and three skills that must be developed to improve one’s
listening.
Explain the function of feedback in the listening process.
 Apply the knowledge you gain in this chapter to do the following: improve
your perception of events and people in the world around you, sharpen
your listening skills, avoid giving inefficient feedback to others and
improve your ability to offer appropriate feedback in your interpersonal
communication.
Answer the questions at the end of this chapter.

INTRODUCTION
In order to understand communication better we first need to understand the
process of perception and the role it plays in our understanding of the world.
When we look at another person we can see how the person acts and behaves,
but we cannot see the other person’s perceptions. That is because, even though
we experience the world through our senses, our perceptions are a private set of
neural signals inside of us that represent a world outside of us.
Powers (2009) suggests that whenever we watch another person behaving,
most of what the person is experiencing goes unobserved because we are
observing from the wrong point of view. He therefore regards perception as a
world of experience that is partly ‘outside’ and partly ‘inside’ us. Furthermore,
Powers (2009) suggests that if our perceptions were not private, we would never
disagree with each other about the world and its meanings, but because
perceptions are private we are faced with the problem of reaching agreement
with each other.
Agreement only becomes possible if we are able to bring our own experience
to the understanding of the other person’s experience. At the same time it
appears as though we are able to communicate and share meaning despite the
private nature of our perceptions – precisely because our perceptions are also to
some extent similar. Without this similarity no shared meaning would be
possible. On the other hand, communication is also imperfect because
perceptions are private and unique, therefore making perfect agreement
impossible.
Most of what we perceive through our senses is visual, but in this chapter we
also focus on our auditory senses because hearing is
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another very important way in which we are able to interact with our world and
with others.

4.1 SENSATION AND PERCEPTION

Perception is the process whereby we acquire information about our
environment through our five senses. We gain information about ourselves and
the world we live in through the interaction of these senses with the
environment. The first time you touched a hot stove you reacted instinctively by
withdrawing your hand (a physical response). The information that heat burns
the skin was processed by your brain and stored in your memory so that you
would not repeat the action in future. But how does perception differ from
sensation?

Sensation is the initial response of one of the five senses to a stimulus

from the environment.

Each process entails different stages of information processing. In simple

terms sensations are the initial response of the senses to stimuli from the
environment, while perception entails a higher level of information processing in
the brain through which events and objects in the world are interpreted.
Sensations result in physical responses, while perception requires cognitive
responses. Sensations require stimulation of the nervous system, or encoding,
while perception requires decoding of sensory information so that sensory
information can be interpreted and understood.

Perception is the interpretation and understanding of this sensory

information.

4.2 TYPES OF PERCEPTION

A distinction can be drawn between the perception of sensory stimuli, which
allows us to interact with the physical world and the perception of others with
whom we relate in our social world. While both processes entail information
processing, social perception requires a much more complex process of social
cognition, which helps us to understand how people usually behave across social
situations.
4.2.1 Sensory perception
Sensory perception entails the organisation, identification and interpretation of
sensory information in order to represent and understand the environment. All
perception involves signals in the nervous system, which in turn result from
physical or chemical stimulation of the sense organs.
Sensory perception: the organisation, identification and interpretation
of sensory information to represent and understand the environment.

For example, vision involves light striking the retina of the eye, smell is
mediated by odour molecules detected by the olfactory organ and hearing
involves pressure waves reaching the eardrum. The role of visual sensory
memory is, for instance, to encode visual information into the memory system so
that pattern recognition can take place. This is in many ways a problem-solving
process that allows us to carry out complex mental operations so that we can
respond appropriately to sensory information (Ashcraft & Radvansky 2010: 68–
81).
Although the senses were traditionally viewed as passive receptors, the study
of illusions and degraded images in psychology suggests that
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the brain’s perceptual systems actively attempt to make sense of their input
stimuli (Ashcraft & Radvansky 2010: 68–81).

4.2.2 Social perception

Social perceptions allow people to make judgements about other people in their
social world. It refers to the initial stages in which people process information in
order to determine another individual’s mindset and intentions. Social perception
is a key component of social interaction and social skills (Bar-On 2006).
Social perception: the initial stages of processing information in order
to determine another person’s mindset and intentions.

It is combined with the cognitive ability to pay attention to and interpret a

range of different social factors that may include: verbal messages, tone,
nonverbal behaviour, knowledge of social relationships and an understanding of
social goals.
In social situations we perceive through a frame of reference – a set of
interlocking facts, ideas, beliefs, values and attitudes. This frame of reference
provides the basis for our understanding of people, events and experiences
because it filters our perceptions. As we take in new information, we evaluate it
in terms of our frame of reference and we either reject it because it doesn’t fit
our frame of reference (our ideas, values, beliefs and attitudes) or make use of it
to support or expand our existing frame of reference.

4.3 MCLUHAN’S RATIO OF THE SENSES

McLuhan (1974) suggests that people adapt to their environments through a
balance or ratio of the senses and that the primary medium of communication in
a certain age affects perception through a particular ratio of preferred senses.
For instance, before the advent of the printing press communication was
predominantly auditory and personally and emotionally close. The rise of print
as a medium of communication forced people into a linear, logical and
categorical kind of perception in which vision dominated (Littlejohn 2002: 306).
However, this has shifted to aural perception, or listening, in the electronic age.
These shifts seem to indicate that as media dominance changes, so too do our
preferences for certain types of perception and information processing, This
emergence of the electronic age of communication has resulted in a shift from
linear and logical perception to social, aural and fleeting forms of perceiving that
extend beyond the here and now (Littlejohn 2002: 306).

4.4 VISUAL SENSE MAKING

A feature of perception is that it is a personal process which provides each of us
with a unique view of the world. There are a number of ways in which vision
parses the visual object to extract information on the number of objects that are
actually present and a number of principles that guide this process. Ashcraft and
Radvansky (2010: 81–83) identify the following Gestalt principles for visual
organization

This section has online support material available

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that help us to resolve ambiguities between stimuli by helping us to determine

which entities are present:

figure–ground principle, which segregates visual information in the

foreground from visual information in the background
closure, in which the person completes an incomplete image by filling the
perceptual gaps
proximity, in which elements that are near one another tend to be grouped
together in perception
similarity, in which elements that are similar in some way tend to be grouped
together
trajectory, which relies on good continuation so that interrupted edges are
perceived as continuous.

Figure 4.1 An illustration of Gestalt Grouping Principles

It does not, however, always provide us with an accurate representation of the

world. The result is that our understanding of many situations can be distorted.
Some people distort the information coming to them through their senses to such
an extent that their perception of themselves, others and the events around them
has little resemblance to reality.
The two major causes of perceptual distortions are perceptual inaccuracies and
the element of subjectivity in the perception process.
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4.5 PERCEPTUAL INACCURACIES
To illustrate that our sense organs can create perceptual inaccuracies, look at the
two figures below. Which appears longer?

Figure 4.2 The Müller-Lyer illusion

This is a well-known phenomenon called the Müller-Lyer illusion. If you’ve

never seen the figure before, you would probably trust the evidence of your eyes
that line B is longer than line A. Those who have seen it before will know that
the two lines are the same length. Measure them to make sure!
A similar effect can be seen in Figure 4.3.

Figure 4.3 Illusion of quantity related to space

At first glance it looks as though there are more dots on the right side than on the
left. In fact there is the same number on each side, but those on the right are
packed into a smaller space.
A second contributor to perceptual distortions is the element of subjectivity
in the process of perception. Perception is not merely a physical or mechanical
act.
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People play an active role in the process. As a result, the image they have of
themselves and others can be distorted. Let’s see how this happens by briefly
examining the perception process.

4.6 THE PERCEPTION PROCESS

Principal stages of perception process:

selection
organisation
interpretation

The process of perception occurs in three principal stages: selection, organisation

and interpretation. The three stages take place relatively unconsciously and
almost simultaneously.

4.6.1 Selection
There are sensory stimuli around you all the time – sights, sounds, smells,
textures, tastes – yet you focus your attention on very few of them. We select
only some aspects of information from the environment, those which attract our
attention at a given time. When you are deeply engrossed in a book, for example,
it is unlikely that you will hear the ticking of your alarm clock or the traffic
noises in the background. It is only when your attention lapses that you pay
attention to these sounds.
This phenomenon is often explained by comparing the sense organs to
receivers that are tuned to pick up all sorts of information and the brain to the
control mechanism that makes the information meaningful. The first stage in the
perception process is that, from the variety of information your senses receive,
your brain selects what is relevant in a particular situation.
Two factors that influence the selection process are selective exposure and
selective attention. A key factor in the way we view the world is the extent to
which we are open to stimuli and experiences. From all the sensory stimuli that
compete for our attention we tend to select only those that reaffirm our frame of
reference – our existing attitudes, values and beliefs. This is selective exposure.
We likewise tend to ignore those experiences that are incongruent with our
existing attitudes, values and beliefs.

Selective exposure: the tendency to select only those sensory stimuli

that reaffirm our frame of reference.

That is why, for example, most people buy newspapers whose editorial policy
confirms their existing political views. They expose themselves to information
with which they already agree and disregard information that contradicts their
political views. When we communicate with others we make a similar choice,
allowing ourselves to be open to some stimuli and excluding others. Limiting
our exposure to some messages or parts of messages may create inaccurate
perceptions of what is happening around us.
Selective attention is related to selective exposure. It describes how we see
what we want to see and hear what we want to hear. Apart from the physical
limitations of our senses (such as a hearing or sight impediment), factors that
influence selective attention are our interests and needs.

Selective attention: seeing only what you want to see; and hearing only
what you want to hear based on factors such as your interests and needs.

If you are interested in soccer, for example, you will hear all the statistics that
are presented during a radio sports broadcast, whereas someone who is not
interested may hear only the sound of the broadcaster’s voice. The driver of the
bus that you board needs to
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pay attention to traffic lights, pedestrians and other vehicles, whereas you, the
passenger, may be unaware of these sights as you have no need to notice them.
A similar process occurs during communication. In a meeting, for example,
you may selectively attend to only those points of discussion that directly
concern your work and lose concentration when matters that are less important
to you are discussed.

4.6.2 Organisation
Once the brain has selected the relevant material it arranges its selections into
meaningful patterns according to our frame of reference. This is known as
perceptual organisation. The organisation of what we perceive is largely
affected by our expectations and our desire to form a whole image (a
phenomenon called closure). The following two perception tests illustrate how
expectations and closure affect the organisation of information.

Perceptual organisation: the brain’s ability to arrange selected, relevant

material into meaningful patterns according to your frame of reference.

Read the three phrases in Figure 4.4.

Figure 4.4 Perceptual expectation

Did you notice that in each sentence the article (the, a) appears twice? If you did
not, your expectations may have affected the organisation of what you perceived
– you expected to see correct sentences and therefore read them ‘correctly’. Now
look at the shapes in Figure 4.5.

Figure 4.5 Perceptual closure

You probably had no difficulty in identifying the shapes because your mind
subconsciously completed or closed the incomplete shapes to provide you with a
whole image.
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4.6.3 Interpretation
After sensory stimuli have been selected and the information organised, we give
meaning to it by means of our frame of reference in what is called perceptual
interpretation. Interpretation is the process of explaining and evaluating what
has been selected and organised.

Perceptual interpretation: making meaning of information by

explaining or evaluating it according to your frame of reference.

Because people are individuals, they are unlikely all to select the same
sensory information or organise it in the same way. They are therefore unlikely
all to arrive at the same interpretation of events or other people. Even if they
attend to similar parts of the experience, they may still interpret it differently. For
example, you may believe that you see two friends arguing, whereas another
observer may see them as sharing a joke. You cannot know which perception is
correct without investigating further.
An oft-quoted example is of the three bystanders who witness the same road
accident, yet provide three different accounts of the sequence of events that led
to the accident. All three saw the same events, but interpreted them in terms of
the information they had selected and organised.
Consider the following example:

SCENARIO 4.1
You and a friend are watching the news on television while having a drink in
the local pub. The first item on the news shows members of the police
service armed with batons and rubber bullets breaking up a peaceful
demonstration. Your friend says, ‘Another example of police brutality!’ The
stranger sitting next to you says, ‘It’s good to see the police doing their job
so efficiently – demonstrations should be banned!’ What do you think
accounts for the difference in the two ways of interpreting the same event?

4.7 IMPROVING PERCEPTUAL ACCURACY

Although our perceptions influence our understanding of the world, we rarely
consider ways of improving our perceptual accuracy. The suggestions that follow
should help you improve your perceptual skills and provide you with a more
accurate interpretation of the events and people around you.
Throughout this chapter we emphasise that perception is a personal process.
Your perception of a person, object or event is different from the actual person,
object or event. In other words, you are the major actor in the perception
process. By recognising that you have biases and that you are not always open to
the information around you, you can increase the probability that your
perceptions will provide you with accurate information about the world around
you and the people in it.
Because of the subjective element in forming perceptions and the resulting
inaccuracies, you need some means to check or validate the accuracy of your
perceptions and to sharpen your ability to take in and interpret information from
your environment. Apart from
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making the conscious effort to pay attention and concentrate on what is

happening around you, Verderber, Verderber & Sellnow (2013) suggest two
methods that you should learn to use: multisensory cross-check and consensus.

4.7.1 Multisensory cross-check

Perceptions are often based on information that you receive through one sense
only – what you see or hear or feel or taste or smell. By cross-checking the
interpretation through another sense you can sometimes validate the accuracy of
your perceptions. For example, a rock in a friend’s nature collection may look
coarse and heavy, but proves to be soft and light when you touch it. In fact, it is
not a rock at all, but has been made from synthetic material to resemble a rock.
In this instance your perception has been influenced not only by what you saw
but also the environment, or context, in which you interpreted what you saw.
Similarly, you can cross-check your initial perception that the amber liquid in a
glass is apple juice and not beer by tasting and smelling it.

4.7.2 Consensus
This means that you validate a perception by comparing your interpretation with
those of others. You ask others what they think the liquid in the glass is or how
they interpreted an event or someone’s behaviour. In this way you become aware
of factors that you may have missed and which may have distorted your
interpretation.
 We discuss perception again in Chapters 7 and 8, which deal respectively with
intrapersonal and interpersonal communication, because our perception of
ourselves and of other people forms the basis of our interpersonal relationships.

4.8 AUDITORY PERCEPTION

The sensitivity of our sense of hearing is of particular importance because it
defines our auditory world. During a communication event it allows us to
convert continuous streams of sounds – known as speech – into messages with
meanings that are understood by us. Auditory stimuli consist of sound waves
moving through the air. These are then funnelled into the ear, causing the
eardrum to vibrate. The vibrations are then sent along the auditory nerve to the
cerebral cortex, resulting in our sense of hearing, or audition.
One of the most important perceptual processes in communication is no doubt
the ability to listen efficiently. We spend a great deal of our time listening. We
listen to the sounds of nature, to traffic noises and to people. Researchers report
that one of the major limitations in establishing and maintaining relationships is
the inability of the partners to listen efficiently. And it is not only in our
interpersonal interactions that we need listening skills. During the course of each
day we are constantly called upon to listen in a variety of situations. We use the
telephone, attend lectures and meetings, participate in
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arguments, give and receive instructions, listen to the news on the radio or
television and make all kinds of decisions based on aural information (cf Gamble
& Gamble 1987; 1998).
Studies show that we spend most of our communication time listening. Yet
research findings indicate that most of us do not listen actively. Certainly, we use
the communication skill of listening more than the skills of reading, writing and
speaking:
From 42 to 60 per cent or more of our communication time is spent listening,
depending on whether we are students, managerial trainees, doctors,
counsellors, lawyers, or nurses. (Purdy 1996: 4)

Although so much of our communication time is spent listening, studies also

reveal that the average adult listens at no better than 25 per cent efficiency.
Think about this statistic – it means that we often do not hear as much as 75 per
cent of a message! And after about 48 hours many people can remember only
about 25 per cent of what they heard. The reason is probably because most of us
take the ability to listen so much for granted and do not think about it as a skill
that we must learn.

4.9 HEARING AND LISTENING

Listening is often explained by distinguishing it from hearing. Hearing is a
passive process. Most of us are born with the ability to hear – hearing is the
physical act of receiving aural stimuli (sounds). When sound waves vibrate
against the eardrum and the brain registers these sounds, we hear. Listening, like
all acts of perception, is a dynamic, active process involving the communicator
and the recipient. Listening occurs when the signals or sounds sent to the brain
are processed and used – that is, when we attend to what is being said, select
what is relevant and then understand and interpret it for ourselves. Efficient
listening also requires that we remember what has been conveyed to us and that
we respond to the communicator.

Hearing is a passive process.

Listening is a dynamic, active process involving the communicator and

the recipient.

The listening process becomes even more complex when we communicate

with others. Interactive listening requires that we listen or pay attention to what
is said (the verbal or content level of the message) as well as the manner in
which it is conveyed (the nonverbal or relational level of the message). This
means we have to listen to the words that are being spoken and, at the same time,
‘listen’ to the nonverbal cues that accompany the words. The nonverbal part of
the message carries the feelings and emotions of the speaker and often ‘says’
more than the words that are used.

Note: Content and relational messages are discussed in section 3.3.6

Active, efficient listening therefore helps us interpret messages and responses

more accurately and thereby gain a better understanding of the people with
whom we come into contact. In fact, poor listening is one of the major causes of
misunderstanding in our personal and professional relationships.
4.10 TYPES OF LISTENING
The stages of the listening process follow one another whether you listen
actively or passively. Your degree of involvement in a
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given interaction and the amount of energy you expend in listening distinguishes
active from passive listening. You work harder to absorb the contents of the
news on the radio, for example, than listening to a DJ announcing the next piece
of music. You also work harder at listening to a friend sharing a problem than
listening politely to your grandmother telling you how different things were
when she was young. The following types of listening provide an idea of the
different levels at which we listen.

Types of listening:
Listening for enjoyment
Comprehensive/ discriminative listening
Critical listening
Conversational and reflective listening

Listening for enjoyment occupies a good deal of our listening time – we

listen to music, our favourite television programme, or a friend sharing an
interesting titbit of gossip or telling a humorous story. At such times we may
suspend our critical faculties, relax and enjoy the stimulation (DeVito 1989). At
other times, for example at a concert or the theatre, we may listen for enjoyment,
but we nevertheless respond intellectually or emotionally to the music or the
words of the play. The response is to ourselves rather than to the performers.
Comprehensive or discriminative listening is one of the primary means of
obtaining information. The more efficient our listening skills, the more accurate
will be the information we gather. Naturally, we listen for different sorts of
information. The student taking notes in a communication lecture or the worker
receiving instructions about how to perform a new task are both listening for
information – listening discriminatively. The purpose is to understand and
remember the information by following the logic of the lecture or message and
concentrating on identifying and separating the main ideas from the supporting
material that relates to them.
The business world also requires people to listen for information. The
assistant listening to his or her supervisor’s instructions, the customer listening
to the salesperson’s description of a new product and the shipping clerk listening
to an order to ship 100 containers to Cape Town are all listening for information.
Information is frequently also exchanged over the telephone in the business
world – appointments are scheduled and products are ordered. In the business
world listening is often seen in terms of rands and cents. Errors due to inefficient
listening cost money. Imagine what the total cost to the economy would be if
every worker in a company like Anglo American made a R10 listening error
every day for a month.
Critical listening is the type of listening that you engage in when you suspect
that the source of the information may be biased – for instance, an advertisement
on the radio or a friend telling you why your political beliefs are not sound.
Critical listening requires skills to analyse, evaluate and challenge the content of
the information. The field of persuasion offers you the greatest opportunity to
use critical listening skills. Advertisements, political slogans and persuasive
messages from friends and family should be critically analysed and evaluated
before you act on them.
Conversational and reflective listening implies a constant exchange between
the participants. You and your conversation partner are expected to concentrate
on each other’s messages and to provide appropriate feedback. In a close
relationship you engage in
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a different type of conversational listening by showing affection, caring and

warmth to your partner. This is called reflective or empathic listening.
Sometimes the situation arises where, for example, a friend in distress may need
to talk to someone and you provide the necessary support by listening. In such a
situation you are not usually required to listen for information or to be critical,
but to listen for feelings. And you know that some feelings are often expressed
nonverbally rather than verbally. Sharing feelings, whether they are of sorrow or
joy, enables people to cope with them better. You have probably noticed how
your distress over an incident is lessened after you have ‘poured your heart out’
to a sympathetic and understanding listener. Similarly, feelings of joy are often
increased when they are shared.

4.11 THE LISTENING PROCESS

We have said that listening is more complex than merely hearing. It is a process
that consists of four stages: sensing and attending, understanding and
interpreting, remembering, and responding (see Figure 4.6). These stages occur
in sequence, but we are generally unaware of them.

Figure 4.6 The listening process

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Stages of the listening process:

Sensing and attending
Understanding and interpreting
Remembering
Responding

Sensing and attending is the physical, or sensing, part of listening: sound

vibrations must reach the hearing part of the brain before you can complete the
listening process. You then attend to the sounds your brain has identified.
 You will remember from the discussion of perception in section 4.1 that you
do not pay the same amount of attention to all the stimuli you receive – you pay
attention selectively. In the listening process selective attention allows you to
concentrate on what the other person is saying or on the book you are reading
and to ignore background noises, such as passing traffic or the sound of the rain.
But selective hearing also has a negative consequence: we sometimes not only
ignore background sounds but we also block out or fail to attend to important
parts of the other person’s message – verbal information and nonverbal cues,
such as facial expressions. When this occurs selective attention contributes to
poor listening.
Understanding and interpreting is the next stage in the listening process: to
understand and interpret the meaning of the message. In the listening process
interpretation implies that you are able to assign the intended meaning to the
content or verbal part of the message. In the listening process interpretation
implies that you are able to ascertain the emotional meaning the speaker attaches
to the message by his or her use of nonverbal signs, such as tone of voice and
body movement. Understanding and interpreting a message is an important stage
in listening because it enables you to evaluate its meaning for correctness and
validity and to respond to the other person.
Remembering is the process of storing the meanings that have been received
so that they may be recalled later. Studies show that we tend to forget a great
deal of what we hear almost as soon as we hear it, which is a good reason for
taking notes in a lecture or meeting, for instance – it is easier to forget than to
remember! In the same way that you listen selectively you remember some
messages more easily than others, perhaps because some messages seem more
important to you than other messages. Selective remembering creates problems
when you forget a message or part of a message that later turns out to be
important.
Responding to the message is the fourth stage in the listening process. At this
stage you complete the process of listening by providing feedback to the speaker.
Feedback is a prerequisite for efficient listening. It consists of all the verbal and
nonverbal messages that you consciously or unconsciously send to the speaker in
response to the message. The importance of your feedback is that it is the way
the communicator knows you have sensed (heard) the message, understood,
interpreted and evaluated it – in other words, that you have been listening.

4.11.1 Ineffectual listening behaviour

The problem in all types of listening is that some of our listening behaviour
hampers our effectiveness as listeners. The following are some examples of
behaviour of which we may not be aware but which impede efficient listening.
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Fidgeting while someone is talking shows impatience, tells the communicator

that you are distracted or not interested in the conversation, and discourages him
or her from continuing. Think about the nonverbal messages you are conveying
to the speaker when you scratch your head, pull on your earlobe or swing your
feet while he or she is talking.
Lack of concentration is a prime cause of inefficient listening. If you allow
your mind to wander during a conversation and perhaps think about what you
are going to be doing later on, you are unlikely to pick up the ideas that are being
expressed or remember them. You are also unlikely to provide your partner with
the feedback that tells him or her that you are listening and are interested in what
is being said.
Inaccurate listening means that you either pay too much attention to the
communicator’s ideas and forget to interpret the emotions that are being
expressed or that you pay too much attention to emotional messages and neglect
the ideas that are being expressed. Every message has two parts that must be
listened to: the ideas that are spoken and the emotions that are conveyed through
body movements and tone of voice. The exception is that in reflective listening
we purposefully concentrate on feelings.

4.11.2 Barriers to listening

This section has online support material available

As well as poor listening behaviour, there are other barriers to listening that have
an equally negative effect on our ability to listen efficiently.
The general term used to describe anything that interferes with the
communication process is ‘noise’ (see discussion of noise on pp 28–32). With
respect to listening, noise refers not only to loud sounds but also to anything that
distracts us from listening. We call such interferences listening barriers. They
can be categorised as external barriers and internal barriers (Abrams 1986).
External barriers to listening are distractions in the listening environment.
They include background sounds, such as doors slamming, telephones ringing or
construction work in the street outside. The activities of people nearby,
interruptions from others and physical discomfort, such as an uncomfortable
chair or a hall with poor acoustics, are also external barriers to listening. If you
have ever tried to pay attention to instructions while your head of department
constantly stops speaking to answer the telephone, you will know the extent to
which environmental barriers can affect attention and remembering. We cannot
place all the blame for inefficient listening on external barriers, however. Some
of the difficulties we encounter stem from within ourselves. Distractions in the
listener’s mind are the personal prejudices that we call internal barriers to
listening.
Internal barriers are the physical and psychological conditions we bring to
the communication situation that may inhibit active listening. These include
feelings such as anger, anxiety and fatigue, as well as personal prejudices about
the communicator’s appearance, point of view, status, style of speaking and
subject-matter.
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Our attitudes often have detrimental effects on our communication. If, for
instance, you see yourself as cleverer than other people, with nothing to gain
from listening to them, you have created a psychological barrier. Similarly, if
you make judgements based on stereotypes – perhaps that a man wearing an
earring is a dropout, or that a woman knows nothing about economics – you will
evaluate people on the basis of preconceived ideas about their appearance
instead of listening to them.
Other internal barriers that impede active listening include jumping to
conclusions about what the communicator will say, the tendency to ignore topics
that are regarded as difficult, and the listener’s inability to understand some of
the words and ideas expressed by the communicator.

4.11.3 Ensuring effective listening

Active listening techniques:
Focus your attention
Show that you are listening
Listen to understand ideas
Listen to retain information
Listen to analyse and evaluate content
Listen reflectively
Active listening seems difficult to people who have never tried it. Because so
many of the problems associated with listening have negative consequences,
practise the techniques described below to listen more efficiently (cf Gamble &
Gamble 1987; Hybels & Weaver 1989; Rensburg & Bredenkamp 1991).
Focus your attention: The first step in learning to listen more efficiently is to
consciously make the effort to overcome your poor listening behaviour, as well
as the external and internal barriers that may be impeding your listening ability.
Being an effective listener requires that you put aside daydreams and distractions
and focus your attention on what the communicator is saying. Remember that
your feelings and attitudes are as much a drawback to effective listening as
distracting sounds.
Show that you are listening: It is important not only to pay attention to
others but also to show active signs of attentiveness. You can achieve this by
offering them verbal and nonverbal cues. Verbal cues can be comments such as
‘I see’, ‘Go on’ or ‘Tell me more’. Nonverbal cues also show that you are
listening, for example, by maintaining eye contact, smiling, frowning or nodding
appropriately. Such feedback encourages the other person to give you the details
necessary for better understanding and lets him or her know that you are
involved in the interaction. At the same time it is important to suppress what you
want to say until the communicator has finished talking and not to interrupt.
Listen to understand ideas: Since it is not possible to remember every word
of a complex message, work towards identifying only those concepts that are
most important – in other words, those ideas that comprise the main points of the
person’s message. When you listen to understand you actively concentrate on
identifying the key words and phrases that will help you accurately summarise
the concepts being discussed.
Listen to retain information: Listening to retain information also requires
attention and concentration. Some of the methods that help retention include the
following:

Anticipate what is coming: For example, if the speaker says, ‘The following
five points are important’, prepare yourself to listen to and remember five
points.
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Form associations: Some people remember names, places and numbers by

associating what was heard with something that is familiar or by associating it
 with a visual image.
Take notes: When messages are complex, and accurate retention of
information is important, note-taking is probably the most reliable method for
recalling information. In other words, paraphrase what has been said by
writing down the main ideas and points.
Construct mnemonics: ‘Mnemonics’ is a word used to describe any technique
that aids memory or helps you remember a list of items. One simple way of
forming a mnemonic is to take the first letters of a list of items to form a word
that you will easily remember; for example, ‘potjie’ will help you remember
to buy potatoes, onions, tomatoes, jam, ice cream and eggs. When you have to
remember items in a specific sequence you could try to create a sentence that
is easy to remember.

Listen to analyse and evaluate content: Listening critically calls for even
greater skill than identifying and remembering ideas. Try to establish the
communicator’s motives and credibility by challenging and questioning the ideas
expressed. To evaluate the validity of a message and then accept or reject it
involves being able to separate fact from opinion, determine if an argument is
based on logic or emotion and detect ambiguities in the argument (Barker 1984).
You also need to recognise your own biases and prejudices about the topic.
Hybels and Weaver (1989: 65) express evaluation as follows:
We must learn to suspend judgement – delay taking a position – until all the
facts and other evidence are in, we have had a chance to test the facts in the
marketplace of ideas, or they have been chewed over sufficiently for digestion.

Listen reflectively: The best way to listen reflectively is to try to understand

what other people are feeling from their point of view and reflect these feelings
back with empathy. It requires that you put aside your own feelings and opinions
and make the effort to recognise the emotions being expressed to encourage
other people to come to terms with their feelings. We do this by paraphrasing the
communicator’s statements and reinforcing those statements with nonverbal cues
– eye contact, touching and facial expressions.

SCENARIO 4.2
The following is an example of a reflective listening response in which the
 listener paraphrases the speaker’s words and feelings:
Thandi is confiding to Sipho about her studies.
Sipho replies: ‘You keep telling me how well everything is going and how
pleased you are that your assignments are up to date. But every time you
bring up the subject of credit marks for examination entrance your tone
changes and you sound less enthusiastic. Is something bothering you?’

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It is important to remember that it is not your task to judge the situation. You
help the other person reach a solution without offering advice in the form of:
‘You shouldn’t feel that way’; ‘Why don’t you look for another job?’; ‘You must
tell her you won’t tolerate such behaviour’. These are poor responses because
they do not help the other person to address the feelings that are the cause of the
problem.

4.11.4 Feedback and listening

In our introduction to this discussion of the listening process we said that the last
stage in the process is responding, or giving feedback, to the communicator. We
defined feedback earlier as the response of the participants to each other. Verbal
feedback (eg questions or comments) and nonverbal feedback (eg a puzzled look
or a nod of the head) by the partners in communication indicate the level of
understanding or agreement between two or more people in response to the
original message. Feedback tells us, for example, whether our message is being
understood, whether it is being received positively or negatively and whether we
should change our communication style altogether. The point we emphasise is
that, in order for successful communication to take place, the communicator and
the recipient must take mutual responsibility for giving and receiving feedback.
If the participants in communication are not aware of each other’s feedback or
do not pay attention to it, there is a strong possibility that their communication
will be ineffective. We therefore have to listen attentively to the verbal and
nonverbal elements of a message and respond to them. We need to remember
that even silence is a form of feedback. If a tutor asks a question and no one in
the class responds, she needs to consider whether the students have understood
the topic she was explaining or perhaps whether they are too afraid of possible
sarcasm or anger if they give the incorrect answer.
Inappropriate feedback
Types of inappropriate feedback:
Irrelevant responses
Interrupting responses
Tangential responses
Impervious responses

We can conclude from the few examples given above that feedback is an
essential element in the process of communication. A problem that arises in
connection with feedback is that, if we are not listening attentively, we often give
inappropriate feedback – responses which do not encourage effective
communication or show concern for the needs of the communicator. Some
examples of inappropriate feedback are the following:
Irrelevant responses do not apply to the situation that is being discussed
because the listener has not been paying attention or has heard only part of the
conversation. If you were telling a friend about your forthcoming holiday in
Europe and he replied that the local weather forecast for tomorrow is that it will
be extremely hot, the impression you would get is that he is not interested in
your conversation.
Interrupting responses occur when one of the participants breaks into the
conversation without allowing you, the communicator, to finishing speaking,
thereby interrupting your train of thought. The
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implication is that what he or she has to say is more important than what you
have to say. You start telling a friend that you heard on the radio that … and
before you can finish, she says, ‘Oh, yes – the Oscars will be screened live on
TV tonight’.
Tangential responses sidetrack the topic of a conversation. When one person
is talking about a burglary at her house and the other responds by talking about
his motor insurance policy, the interaction gets off track. The response indicates
that the recipient is not really listening to what the communicator is saying.
The impervious response occurs when a person fails to acknowledge your
attempt to communicate, even though you know that she has heard you. At best,
you may feel a sense of awkwardness or embarrassment or, at worst, such a
(non-)response may undermine your self-image and self-esteem.

Effective feedback
 Effective feedback techniques:
Focus on what you actually see and hear
Be descriptive rather than judgemental
Give immediate feedback
Limit your feedback

On the other hand, effective feedback improves the process of communication

and the understanding reached between the participants. When you give a
supportive response to someone who expresses her disappointment with a test
result, for example, or you compliment a friend on an award she has received,
you are not only showing that you have been listening – you are also confirming
the value or worth of the other person. There are many ways of giving effective
feedback in interpersonal communication, some of which we describe below.
Focus on what you actually see and hear and do not make inferences about
what someone has said or done. For instance, the reason someone does not greet
you as enthusiastically as you would like may not be that she is annoyed with
you, but that she is worried about a personal problem that has cropped up in her
life.
Be descriptive rather than judgemental. Because the purpose of
constructive criticism is to be helpful, it is appropriate to provide a suggestion
that can lead to a positive change in behaviour. A teacher who tells you, ‘I think
your marks would improve if you spent more time at home revising what we do
in class’ is being more constructive than one who says, ‘You are the laziest
person in the class’.
Give immediate feedback because it will be more specific and accurate than
feedback given at a later stage. Also, it is generally better to deal with negative
feelings immediately and discuss them with the other person rather than to allow
them to grow out of proportion. The exception is, of course, occasions when you
know that your feelings and emotions will result in your giving feedback that
you will later regret.
Limit your feedback. Particularly in two-way situations, if you constantly
smile and nod your head, your partner will not be sure whether you are really
listening or listening superficially. Similarly, if you continually interrupt the flow
of your partner’s conversation with comments, he or she may start feeling
uneasy because you seem to be trying to control the direction that his or her
thoughts are taking.
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Limited feedback is not, however, the same as no feedback! (Barker & Gaut
1996; Beebe & Masterson 2014)

CONCLUSION
In this chapter you have been introduced to the processes of sensing and sense
making. While it is true that we experience the world through our senses, it is the
process of sense making that allows us to respond appropriately to our world and
others in it. Sensing entails complex physiological reactions, but sense making
requires complex cognitive processes.
Perception is unique to each individual and involves sensing and attending,
understanding and interpreting, remembering and responding – all processes of
sense making. It forms the basis for our understanding of people, events and
experiences because it filters our perceptions of the world and our responses to
it.
One of the ways in which we respond to the world is through listening.
Listening, like all acts of perception, is a dynamic, active process involving the
communicator and the recipient. Interactive listening requires that we listen or
pay attention to what is said (the verbal or content level of the message) as well
as the manner in which it is conveyed (the nonverbal or relational level of the
message).
Unfortunately there are many barriers to effective listening which affect the
effectiveness of communication. Communication is also imperfect because
perceptions are private and unique. At the same time it appears as though we are
able to communicate and share meaning despite the private nature of our
perceptions, precisely because our perceptions are also to some extent similar.
Without this similarity no shared meaning is possible.

SUMMARY
This chapter discussed the importance of accurate perception and active listening
in the communication process. Our understanding of our circumstances and
those of other people depends on the way we perceive the events that take place
around us. The chapter began by explaining the process of perception: the ways
in which we select, organise and interpret the information that reaches us
through our senses. It offered suggestions on how to improve the accuracy of
perceptions and illustrated how perception ‘works’ in our lives. It then looked at
the differences between hearing and listening and explained the process of
listening. It continued by describing the types of listening appropriate in
different situations. It pointed out some poor listening habits and discussed the
external and internal barriers that impede efficient listening. The last part of the
chapter showed the relationship between listening and feedback and described
appropriate and ineffective types of feedback.
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TEST YOURSELF QUESTIONS

1. Briefly explain the process of perception by referring to selection,

organisation and interpretation.
2. Cut some pictures and scenes from a magazine and ask three of your
friends to write down their perceptions of what they see. Then compare
notes and discuss the differences between your perceptions. Can you
account for the differences?
4. Describe in your own words how we distinguish listening from hearing.
5. Think about some different situations in which you are involved in
listening. Identify the types of listening you are engaged in.
6. Think of a situation in which you let a personal prejudice interfere with
your listening. How did this prejudice interfere with your communication
encounter? Explain.
7. Watch yourself carefully in your next lecture. Take note of how many
times your attention wanders and for how long. How effective do you
think your listening was?
8. Explain the function of feedback in the listening process.
9. Explain the types of verbal and non-verbal feedback you can use as a
good listener.
10. Write down three examples of ineffective feedback and three examples of
appropriate feedback based on your own experiences of interpersonal
communication.
[Page 87]
Chapter 5
Nonverbal communication
Pieter Nagel & Elizabeth Lubinga

OVERVIEW
You probably know the old adage, ‘actions speak louder than words’. Have
you ever thought seriously about how this may relate to the way in which
human beings communicate with each other at different levels?
Consider and try to answer the following questions:
At a personal level, how and why do you dress the way you do when you
are going to attend a party, lecture, religious gathering or an interview?
Supposing you were standing outside a room at home, listening to your
parent or guardian scolding your younger brother or sister about a recent
wrongdoing, how would you know that he is angry, especially if you
cannot hear the actual words?
What can you tell about a person’s business success by looking at the car
that she drives?
How do we use our body language to pay our respects when important
members of the international community pass away?

These questions are meant to assist you to reflect on aspects of life that we
often consider routine, but, as Staley and Staley (1992) point out, your actions
reveal a great deal about yourself without a single word being uttered.
In this chapter we provide a framework for understanding the role and
impact of your own and other people’s nonverbal communication. After
defining the term ‘nonverbal communication’ we explain the functions of
nonverbal communication and then go on to discuss some of the factors that
 influence our understanding of our own and other people’s nonverbal
behaviour, such as the context of the communication encounter and the
culture of the participants.
We continue with a discussion of different categories of nonverbal
behaviour and then suggest how you can apply what you have learnt to your
own communication. We also elaborate on a few views of nonverbal
communication that can assist us to understand the role of nonverbal language
in human communication.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the end of this chapter you should be able to:
Describe what nonverbal communication is and explain why it is
important to understand its use in human communication.
Identify the five common functions of nonverbal communication using
everyday examples to show how they relate to verbal communication.
Explain why interpreting nonverbal cues and understanding their use is
dependent upon various aspects in communication.
Differentiate between the different categories of nonverbal
communication, with examples of how they are each often used across
different cultures.

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Demonstrate how written forms of communication (such as traditional and

digital) can be enhanced through the use of nonverbal communication.
Highlight how theory is used to enhance the understanding of nonverbal
communication by referring to the work of some theorists.
Discuss contextual and cultural differences in nonverbal politeness.
Improve personal skills in encoding and decoding nonverbal behaviour in
different situations more effectively.
INTRODUCTION
The term ‘nonverbal’ is commonly used to describe all intentional and
unintentional messages that are not written or spoken. But nonverbal
communication is not only concerned with the image that people present through
personal appearance or the make of the car that they drive, as was hinted at in
the chapter overview. It is also concerned with messages we send through our
body movements, gestures, facial expressions, tone of voice and eye movement,
as well as our use of space, time and touch. In fact, researchers report that in
face-to-face communication more than 65 per cent of the meaning in a message
is conveyed by nonverbal behaviour.
Mehrabian’s research indicates that our feelings and emotions, as well as
attempts to understand those of others, are mostly communicated through
nonverbal means: about 93 per cent of our emotional meaning is nonverbal and
only about 7 per cent is verbal (Mehrabian 1981; Stewart 1990).
Your own experience tells you that at times you are at a loss for words when
you need them to express feelings and emotions. When a person needs
comforting, a smile or hug is often more effective than words. Nonverbal
communication also has an effect even when the participants do not see each
other. The meaning of a message is carried by the speaker’s tone of voice. Very
often the success of your communication and relationships depends on how well
you ‘read’ these silent messages from others. To gain greater insight into the
complexities of nonverbal behaviour we begin by discussing the commonly
known functions that nonverbal communication serve.

5.1 FUNCTIONS OF NONVERBAL

COMMUNICATION
Functions of nonverbal communication:
Reinforces
Complements
Contradicts
Replaces
Regulates

Essentially a nonverbal message functions in one of five ways: it reinforces,

complements, contradicts, replaces or regulates a verbal message (Knapp 1990;
Verderber 1990).
 A nonverbal message reinforces or accents the verbal message when it
adds to its meaning. In the same way that punctuating written words emphasises
certain of them, pounding your hand on the table when saying ‘Listen to me!’
conveys a more effective message than the words alone. While your gesture may
be redundant, it adds emphasis to your statement and captures the listener’s
attention. Very often, reinforcing the message is not deliberate – it is done
involuntarily.
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A nonverbal message complements the verbal message when it conveys the

same meaning. If you tell someone, ‘I’m pleased to meet you’ and accompany
your words with a warm smile and a handshake, your tone of voice, gesture and
facial expression are complementing the verbal message. Think about the
opposite scenario, where the same words are said with no accompanying smile.
Would you still feel that the speaker is being sincere?
A nonverbal message may contradict the verbal message. People often say
one thing, but in their behaviour reveal something to the contrary. For example, a
student about to make an oral presentation to a class may say, ‘I’m not nervous’
despite his trembling hands, shaky voice, sweaty armpits and perspiring
forehead. Research has shown that in most cases people tend to believe the
nonverbal cues rather than the verbal, the words that are spoken. Nonverbal
messages are highly credible, perhaps because they often convey feelings and
emotions. The sound of the voice may also contradict the verbal message. A
change in pitch, for example, can tell us that someone is perhaps telling a lie or
being sarcastic or merely teasing. Research has shown that when we are
attempting to conceal the truth our pitch tends to change in an upwards direction
and lets others know we are contradicting the verbal message (Barker & Gaut
1996).

Nonverbal messages are highly credible, perhaps because they often

convey feelings and emotions.

A nonverbal message may replace the verbal message. Gestures, facial

expressions and other nonverbal cues generate meaning without the use of
words. You wave your hand to someone instead of saying hello – your message
is clear. Similarly, the expression on the face of a dejected person who comes
home after a hard day at work more than substitutes for the statement, ‘I’ve had
a rotten day’.
Nonverbal behaviour regulates the flow of verbal interaction. Your eye
contact, tone of voice, nodding of the head, slight hand movements and other
nonverbal behaviours tell your partner when to talk, to repeat a statement, to
hurry up, to finish the conversation or whether you are listening at all. Good
public speakers learn to adjust what they are saying and how they are saying it
on the basis of such cues from their audience.

5.2 ASPECTS OF NONVERBAL

COMMUNICATION
The potential for misunderstanding a nonverbal message is greater than of
failing to understand a verbal message, yet from time to time it is true that we
fail to correctly interpret the meaning of what people communicate verbally. You
may constantly wonder whether it is possible to correctly read other people’s
nonverbal cues.
To begin with, nonverbal communication is often beyond our control.
Whereas we can plan what we say very carefully and stop talking at will, we
cannot simply ‘switch off’ nonverbal behaviour. Even if we consciously control
our facial expressions and hand movements to hide the fact that we are nervous,
for example, our strained voice or trembling knees may give us away. We call
such nonverbal cues leakage because we are, in fact, leaking information about
ourselves
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that we cannot hide (Burton & Dimbleby 1995). Nonverbal behaviour confirms
the axiom (a generally accepted statement) that ‘one cannot not communicate’
(Watzlawick, Bavelas & Jackson 1968: 51). Even your silence communicates a
message.
Another factor that has to be taken into account is that nonverbal behaviour
is contextual. Verbal and nonverbal signs work together to convey the total
meaning of a message. Whereas verbal communication primarily conveys
content information, nonverbal communication primarily conveys relational
information (emotions and feelings), depending on the circumstances or context
in which it occurs. The tone of voice of the communicator, for example, can
convey sincerity or sarcasm depending on how the message is related to the
circumstances. ‘Nice work!’ is a compliment when you have completed a
difficult project, but a sarcastic reprimand when you submit a careless piece of
work. Smiles, nods and winks can also convey different meanings depending on
the context in which we find ourselves.

Contexts of nonverbal communication:

Formal/Informal
Culture
Gender and age
Digital

Whether the context is formal or informal also plays a role in determining

nonverbal behaviour. You might pick up some food from your plate with your
fingers at home, but are less likely to do so at a dinner party. We hope that some
of you reacted spontaneously to this example by saying, ‘That’s not a valid
statement. In my culture, it’s perfectly acceptable to eat with one’s fingers at a
dinner party’. One of the major causes of misunderstanding between people of
different cultures is the assumption that nonverbal cues have the same meaning
for all people.
We are often unaware that nonverbal communication is culture-specific. Each
culture provides its members with a code of behaviour that is acceptable in
different situations. Think, for example, about a situation when you visit a
lecturer’s office. On being invited in, most black South African students will
immediately take a seat without waiting for an invitation to sit down. Most
Africans in South Africa who still practise their cultural tradition in this regard
sit down before they engage in any form of conversation, as a form of politeness
(Ntuli 2012: 23). The lecturer, on the other hand, whose culture may differ in
practice, may consider it as overfamiliarity on the part of the student. In most
white cultures, for example, one has to be offered a seat before sitting down.
The use of gestures used to point out people is another culturally
misunderstood example (Dyers & Wankah 2010). Among most black southern
African cultures it is socially unacceptable to directly point at a person,
especially an adult, using an index finger with the other fingers fisted, either
when counting or identifying them. The Makonde from Mozambique, for
example, nod their head at someone in order to identify or to count them.
Gender and age also play a role in nonverbal behaviour. In most black
southern African cultures the practice of what is socially acceptable is often
gender specific. Females are generally expected to kneel in most of these
cultures or, among the Vhavenda in South Africa, to lie down facing the person,
with hands clasped together, while men squat, when greeting elder people. It is
also generally not acceptable for females to sit on the floor with crossed legs. In
many African
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cultures in southern Africa it is considered impolite and disrespectful for a

younger person to look an elder person in the eye during a conversation, or male
to female and vice versa. The opposite is often true among white cultures.
Research results suggest that some aspects of nonverbal communication seem
to be fairly consistent regardless of race or culture. For example, studies have
shown that facial expressions to convey emotions such as fear, surprise,
happiness or anger are relatively constant across cultures and are therefore fairly
easy to recognise and interpret. But more subtle facial expressions like disgust,
surprise or embarrassment may vary across cultures (Ellis & McClintock 1990).
Similarly, the signs given by clothing may be personal or influenced by the
culture of the individual. As a result there may be more variation in the way such
signs are interpreted. In some parts of southern Africa a woman dressed entirely
in black is signifying that she is a widow, whereas a woman wearing a black
pinafore is communicating the loss of a child. A woman of the Muslim faith may
be seen wearing a black unadorned dress, not because she is grieving, but
because she does not want to attract undue attention. Attaching fixed meanings
to nonverbal signs without taking the cultural context into account often results
in misunderstanding and the creation of stereotypes. It is important to be aware
that all nonverbal communication conveys information that must be evaluated or
interpreted within the context in which it occurs.

Attaching fixed meanings to nonverbal signs without taking the cultural

context into account often results in misunderstanding and the creation
of stereotypes.

The increase in the use of mobile phones and other computing technologies
has contributed to a new context, the digital context. While digital technologies
are a great aid in helping humans to communicate, they could also be very
intrusive signs of nonverbal communication practices. Many people use their
smartphones to listen to music or interact with others via social media while
going about other business or engaged in other activities. While queuing for
service or waiting at a counter or a desk while somebody is assisting them,
people check for, read or type messages on their cell phones, leading to a loss of
eye-contact and other important nonverbal communication that would normally
reinforce verbal messages.

Digital technology could be intrusive to nonverbal communication

because it may lead to loss of eye contact and other important nonverbal
communication that would normally reinforce verbal messages.

The digital context should not only be considered intrusive in nonverbal

communication, but it is also assistive. Emoticons (icons showing emotions)
within text messages and other written messages in various digital applications
on computers and cell phones are used to visually express emotion or to
reinforce the verbal message.

Nonverbal communication is more ambiguous than verbal messages.

5.3 CATEGORIES OF NONVERBAL

COMMUNICATION
Categories of nonverbal messages:
Kinesics
Proxemics
Haptics
Chronemics
Personal appearance
The environment
Paralanguage
Silence

It would be extremely misleading to make a list of nonverbal signs and try to

attach a single meaning to each, as many popular books on body language tend
to do. There is no dictionary for understanding nonverbal behaviour because
nonverbal messages are more ambiguous than verbal messages – they do not
always mean what people think they do. The culture-specific nature of nonverbal
signs makes them more difficult to decode.
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The discussion of the categories below of nonverbal communication will

incorporate some examples of nonverbal use by some cultures in southern
Africa. As a result of the diversity of groupings you may disagree with the
examples used here because the meaning attached to the category differs from
that of your own specific viewpoint.
5.3.1 Kinesics
Kinesics is the study of physical, body motion communication.

Kinesics categories:
Body movements
• Emblems
• Illustrators
• Regulators
• Affect displays
• Adoptions
Posture
Gesture
Eye contact

Body movements, gestures, posture, facial expressions and eye contact fall
within the broad field of nonverbal study called kinesics. The term was coined
by Ray Birdwhistell (1952; 1970), a pioneer in this field of study. He was among
the first theorists to suggest that communication is not restricted to verbal
language and that there is a significant connection between physical behaviour
and spoken language. Birdwhistell concluded that body movements could be
studied and understood like a language such as English or Shona (from
Zimbabwe) and he made an intensive study of how people infer or attribute
meaning to physical signs in their communication encounters.

Body movements. The way that your body moves is a strong indicator of how
you are feeling at a specific time – your emotional state. Have you ever
considered how much you communicate about yourself, for instance, simply
by the way you walk? All the parts of your body – your hands, the way you
position the body, your face and even your eyes – communicate! Researchers
Ekman and Friesen (1969) have categorised all body movements into five
classes: emblems, illustrators, regulators, affect displays and adaptors.
• Emblems are gestures that have specific and commonly understood
meanings, as well as a direct translation into words. Think, for example, of
the manual languages of the deaf or ‘sign language’, like using the two-
fingered peace symbol or the extended thumb of the hitchhiker. In South
Africa pointing the index finger up or down indicates to an oncoming taxi
where one wants to go. Unlike much of our nonverbal behaviour, emblems
are intentional and are most often used when verbal channels are blocked or
impractical, for example when people are too far apart to make themselves
 heard. In other words, they substitute for or replace the verbal message.
However, some emblems are not universal and their meanings have to be
learned within each culture. For example, an investigation which tested 20
emblems revealed that a gesture that was intended to signify good luck/be
well (sterkte/voorspoed) was interpreted differently by Afrikaans-,
seTswana- and Southern Sotho-speaking respondents (Terblanche 1994).
Emblems may not be universal because they can be context-bound. The
gesture used by commuters travelling to and from some hilly areas of
KwaZulu-Natal province in South Africa to stop a taxi, for instance, in
which the whole hand curves up and down or sideways, to mimic the road,
may not be understood by a person from a different province or one from
some of the southern African countries with different terrain.
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Figure 5.1 Can you understand these signs?

• Illustrators are the aptly named nonverbal sketches or pictures that accent,
emphasise, reinforce or even contradict words. They are used when one
talks and literally illustrates the words that are said. Examples are gestures
that illustrate the shape or size of an object, such as the large fish you
caught, as well as the hand movements that illustrate the directions you
might give someone about how to reach a particular destination. They are
usually intentional and are often used in situations where the verbal code
alone is unable to convey meaning accurately – they help to make
communication more exact. Because illustrators are more universal than
emblems, they are less likely to cause misunderstanding.
• Affect displays are facial expressions or movements of the face which
communicate emotion. The face is a constant source of information to those
 around us. Facial expressions such as smiling or frowning communicate
emotional states or reactions to a message and generally mirror the intensity
of people’s thoughts and feelings. Although it is not always possible to
interpret all facial expressions correctly, they can be a more accurate cue to
interpreting people’s emotions than the words they use. Apart from the
universal facial expressions of anger, fear and happiness discussed above, it
has been estimated that the face is capable of producing more than 20 000
expressions (Staley & Staley 1992). Combinations of emotions – anger plus
fear, for example – make matters even more complicated. Unlike emblems
and illustrators, affect displays are almost impossible to control, making
your face the primary means for communicating emotions.
• Regulators are the subtle behavioural signs that we use to control or
maintain a conversation between people. These signals are sent quickly and
almost unconsciously. They are an effective means of assisting the
exchange of listening and speaking roles in a communication encounter.
Regulators include head nods, puzzled looks and changes in posture. If
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you nod your head during a conversation, you tell the person speaking to
you to continue talking or indicate agreement.
Adaptors are nonverbal ways in which we adjust to or settle down into a
communication situation. They can also be described as movements designed
to meet physical or emotional needs. Have you noticed that when people feel
self-conscious they tend to straighten their clothes and pat their hair? It seems
to help relieve tension or reduce the stress experienced. Think about when
students are taking exams: have you noticed that they will fidget with or tap
pens on the table, flap the paper, constantly shift about on their chairs or twist
strands of hair, dreadlocks, braids or extensions to relieve their nerves?
Posture, another element of kinesics, also communicates a great deal of
information about you. The way you sit, stand, slump or slouch provides
information about your gender, status, self-image, attitudes and emotional
state. Slouching or sitting with your head in your hands often indicates that
you are feeling low, whereas sitting with your feet on the desk may be
interpreted by others as a sign of your feeling of superiority. Imagine, for
example, first-year students who have been seated in a lecture hall for a
lengthy double period, probably two hours, listening to a lecturer. Would they
 all be sitting up straight, heads up with hands held neatly on their laps? In
various southern African black cultures, posture – the way people sit and greet
– is influenced by age and gender as a sign of respect and for purposes of
propriety.
Look at Figure 5.2 and point out to your classmate which illustration of
typically black South African postures is used for greeting or sitting, for males
and females, in cultures that you may recognise or a posture that may be
similarly used in your own culture.

Figure 5.2 Examples of the use of posture by some South African cultures

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Gestures, which also fall under kinesics, are movements of the hands, legs,
arms and feet. People vary in the amount of gesturing they use. Hand gestures
are commonly used to describe or emphasise a verbal description or to
communicate attitudes. For example, in a conversation, crossing your arms
generally conveys a less aggressive attitude than putting your hands on your
hips. Similarly, leaning forwards usually conveys eagerness or a positive
attitude towards the other person, whereas leaning backwards could be
interpreted negatively.
Eye contact, also termed ‘oculesics’, is another aspect of kinesics in
nonverbal communication which helps us interpret meaning. Eye contact
 refers to the way we use our eyes to regulate and monitor the effects of
communication. For example, public speakers who never look up may convey
the impression that they are nervous, while those who do look at their
audience during a speech come across as confident and in control. However,
unlike some facial expressions, the use of eye contact is a less universal
convention.
In some traditional African cultures, for example, dropping your eyes in
conversation with a superior is regarded as a sign of respect, whereas in
Western cultures little or no eye contact is often interpreted as an indication of
boredom, a lack of concentration or a feeling of inferiority. In most of the
southern African black cultures the absence of eye contact may not only be
out of deference to superiors but is also age and gender related, with women
and children expected to have very little or no eye contact. Among the Tonga
in Zambia, for instance, a woman should look down in the presence of a man,
while among the Tswana in Botswana avoiding extended eye contact is
deemed to be a sign of respect. In contrast, among the Yao or Lomwe in
Malawi, one winks an eye in order to draw someone’s attention, although if a
man winks an eye at a woman, it is a sign of interest in her.
Therefore, even though conventions in eye contact may differ, it plays an
important part in nonverbal behaviour and is something we learn in childhood
as part of our cultural experience (Ellis & McClintock 1990).

Eye contact is also termed oculesics.

5.3.2 Proxemics
The study of how people’s perception of space communicates information is
known as proxemics. The term was invented by Edward Hall (1969) who
conducted cross-cultural studies on the use of space in personal and social
situations. Proxemics includes the messages people convey, for instance, by
choosing to sit at the front or back of a classroom, or whether they sit near to or
far from the head of the table in a meeting.

Proxemics is the study of how meaning can be inferred from the use of
space.

Most teachers will tell you that the mischief-makers dash to the back of the
classroom and the more serious students choose a front seat. The danger of such
fixed interpretations is that we often attribute the same generalisation to the
person who may simply be late and occupies the only remaining empty seat. It is
also important to note that other factors such as gender, age, context, status and
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even culture may have a bearing on the way that distance is used. For example,
in many of the southern African black cultures it is not socially acceptable for
people of different genders to stand close together in public unless they are
married or in a relationship.
Degrees of status are also communicated through the use of space. Heads of
companies, university principals and high government officials usually have
large, well-furnished offices, whereas subordinates occupy smaller, more
sparsely furnished spaces. In a household children have smaller bedrooms than
their parents and often have to share that space with other family members.
Hall (2006) identified four spatial zones of interpersonal communication:
intimate distance, personal distance, social distance and public distance. The
basic premise of his theory is that when we observe the distance that people
maintain between themselves and others in interpersonal communication we can
tell which people have close relationships and which have formal relationships.
Hall found that the use of space also depends on nationality and culture. The
findings below apply to the meanings that most Western cultures ascribe to
space.

Hall’s four spatial zones of interpersonal communication:

Intimate distance
Personal distance
Social distance
Public distance

In intimate distance people are in direct contact with each other or are no
more than 45 cm apart. It is the zone reserved for intimacy and only those who
are very close to you are allowed into it. Most people feel apprehensive when
those who have no right to be there intrude into it.
In personal distance people are between 45 and 120 cm from each other. This
is the distance most often reserved for interactions with friends or family
members. It is close enough to see each other’s reactions, but far enough away
not to encroach on their intimate zone. Note that professional vocations may
violate the classic interpretation of the intimate use of space. Your dentist or hair
stylist, for example, functions in your intimate zone, but is strictly formal in
behaviour.
 Figure 5.3 The four distance zones

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When people do not know each other very well they tend to maintain a social
distance of 120–360 cm. This is the distance most often used at social
gatherings, business meetings or interviews.
A distance of more than 360 cm, or public distance, is typically used in
public speaking situations. It indicates a formal occasion, such as a politician
addressing a gathering. At this distance there is little opportunity for mutual
involvement in the communication encounter.
Space influences what we talk about with others. In some cultures you would
be considered very rude if you entered someone’s intimate zone to ask the time.
Likewise, it would be difficult to have a conversation of a personal nature with
someone at a social distance. Apart from the fact that everyone else in the
vicinity would be able to overhear your conversation, the distance is too great to
provide a setting which is conducive to exchanging confidences (Hybels &
Weaver 1989).
While all individuals have spatial zones, Hall established that the distance of
the zones varies across cultures. People of different cultures have different
notions about, for example, what is considered an appropriate distance between
strangers. In South Africa black people in queues typically stand much closer to
the next person in the queue, whereas this measure of social distance might
offend a white person (Finlayson 1991). The way different cultures use space
could create problems if, for instance, you feel someone of another culture is too
close for comfort, whereas she might interpret your use of space as an indication
that you are cold and distant.
Within a culture as diverse as South Africa various subcultures may develop
their own proxemic norms. In research on intercultural communication a
distinction is often made between high-contact and low-contact cultures (Tubbs
& Moss 2003). Members of high-contact cultures touch each other more often,
sit or stand closer to each other, make more eye contact and speak louder.
Members of low-contact cultures touch each other less often, maintain more
interpersonal distance and are more indirect in facing each other and in their eye
contact. They also tend to use a lower, softer tone of voice.
French, Italian, Latin-American, Russian, Arab and African cultures are some
high-contact cultures, whereas German, Danish and East Asian cultures are
among those seen as low-contact. Moderate-contact cultures include the United
States, New Zealand, Australia and Canada (Ting-Toomey 1999; Tubbs & Moss
2003). You might like to observe people of different cultures in communication
encounters and draw your own conclusions.

5.3.3 Haptics
The field of study that examines messages that are conveyed by our use of touch
is called haptics. Physical contact with others is the most basic form of
communication and a lack of touch in certain situations often communicates that
there is a problem. Social workers, for instance, know that something is wrong in
a relationship when a mother avoids touching and hugging her child. Lack of
contact in childhood often may also contribute to physical and psychological
problems in adulthood.
Haptics is the study of meanings conveyed by the use of touch.

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As with distance, touch communicates information about the nature of the

relationship between people. Lovers usually touch each other more frequently in
conversation than do friends. People who have just been introduced shake hands
more formally than relatives. We may grab someone’s elbow to attract his or her
attention.
Before making inferences about other people’s use of touch you should bear in
mind that the kind of touching behaviour that is permissible in interpersonal
communication depends largely on the individual’s culture. Finlayson (1991)
notes that in South Africa white people generally prefer to maintain a social
distance and often tend to feel somewhat embarrassed when touched. However,
among black people touching is considered normal. Staley and Staley (1992)
point out that we need to be especially careful about how we use haptics in an
organisational environment. Aside from handshakes or the occasional pat on the
back, touching your colleagues – no matter how innocently – may be
misinterpreted and could result in a charge of sexual harassment.

5.3.4 Chronemics
Chronemics is the field of study concerned with the use of time. Should your
doorbell or cell phone ring at three o’clock in the morning, for instance, your
first thought is probably that something must be wrong. You have interpreted the
meaning of the ringing doorbell or cell phone in terms of time.

Chronemics is the study of how one interprets the use of time.

Time influences the way we interpret many messages and forms of behaviour.
Time is often a reflection of status: the higher our status, the more control we
have over time. Have you ever wondered why it is acceptable for a chief or a
king among most black cultures to arrive late at a gathering, but not for others?
Did you know that among most black South African cultures chiefs and kings
are buried at a different time from their subjects, for instance very early in the
morning, late in the evening or precisely at noon? Parents control when their
children eat, bath and go to bed. Consider this: why do young black urban South
Africans refer to their fathers as a ‘timer’? Professionals in our society often
control how long we wait for an appointment. As a student you have little
control over the date of an examination or the time of a particular class.
Misunderstandings can arise when people of different cultures conduct
business and do not understand one another’s assumptions about appropriate
timing. In the same way employers and employees of different cultures are often
confused by the other’s conception of punctuality.
Time may also operate differently within one country, for example within
South Africa, where people in metropolitan areas, such as Johannesburg, Pretoria
or Cape Town, are more restricted by time than people in small towns or rural
areas. People from small towns who come to the big city report that they
experience tension because city dwellers’ lives are dominated by the clock and
they cannot get used to the emphasis on punctuality in almost every aspect of
their lives.
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5.3.5 Personal appearance

Why do people spend large sums of money each year on beauty products,
weight-control pills, make-up, skin lighteners, new hairstyles and clothes? Why
do some even resort to cosmetic surgery to increase their physical attractiveness?
Why do most (Western) advertisements portray young, thin, attractive women
and well-built, handsome men? Simply because we are judged by the way
society has determined we should look. Physical appearance influences first
impressions, job interviews, consumer buying behaviour and even courtroom
decisions.
Although we may have little control over physical characteristics, such as
height or premature balding or the shape of our nose, elements over which we do
have some control include clothing, hairstyle, jewellery and so forth. Your
appearance provides visual clues to your age, gender, status, personality and
attitudes. For example, if you are inappropriately dressed at a job interview, the
interviewer may pay little attention to your qualifications because your
appearance conveys the wrong message: jeans and a T-shirt indicate that your
attitude is not right for the job! The interviewer, of course, is guilty of
stereotyping and may be entirely wrong, but the damage has been done. Keeping
in mind that what may be viewed as inappropriate today may become acceptable
in a few years, what does body tattoo art communicate? Do you think that the
meaning is also influenced by cultural and age differences?

Read about and discuss this real situation that happened in South Africa
in October 2013
An incident that occurred in 2013 at a session of Parliament in Cape Town
was widely reported in the media. When an organiser from the South African
National Defence Union (SANDU) attended the parliamentary session
dressed in shorts that revealed tattoos on his legs, it created a general uproar
 of protest by some members of the Portfolio Committee because his sense of
dress was considered inappropriate.

Appearance is considered so important in the business world that many large

organisations have a strict dress code that lays down rules for the style and
colour of clothing that may be worn, as well as the personal grooming of their
employees. Others require their employees to wear uniforms that communicate
to the public the image the organisation would like to portray.
Since your appearance conveys messages you need to be aware of what is
considered appropriate and what will be of most benefit to your image in both
work and social situations. However, ‘appropriately dressed’ in any situation
must be interpreted in its cultural context. At a social event, such as a wedding
reception, appropriate apparel for Western men may be a suit and tie, but at a
traditional African wedding this attire may appear to be inappropriate.

Culturally, hairstyles may communicate age, gender and marital status

and differences in subcultural groupings.

Artefacts are the personal items we wear or keep close to us and are another
important aspect of physical appearance. Your jewellery, car, watch and make-up
all communicate a message about who and what you are. In the work context it
has been suggested that, until you learn what is considered appropriate at your
place of employment,
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especially in more conservative organisations, you are well advised to avoid

potentially taboo styles, such as extravagant facial piercings and wearing what
could be considered provocative, revealing clothing. But, culturally, beads and
necklaces communicate age, gender and social status (Van Vuuren 2012; Riep
2013; James & Bansilal 2007) and therefore should be acceptable.

SCENARIO 5.1
Differing hairstyles among Sotho initiates communicate uniqueness of
subgroupings (Riep 2013). The Himba people in Namibia use hairstyles to
communicate age, gender and marital status. For example, a young boy
wears one braid facing backwards, as do unmarried men, while a married
 man covers his hair in a turban.
A young girl wears two braids forward. All married women wear many
braids, but a woman who has been married for more than a year also wears a
headdress. The form of the braids may differ slightly according to the
wearer’s clan.
The images in Figure 5.4 depict various Himba hairstyles. Identify the
messages communicated by each based on the description given earlier.

Figure 5.4 Hairstyles of the Himba people of Namibia

[Page 101]

5.3.6 The environment

The environment in which we communicate sends another powerful nonverbal
message because our surroundings influence how we feel and how we will react
to people and situations (Gibson & Hanna 1992). Attractive and pleasant
surroundings have been shown to play a part in effective communication. Most
people seem to feel better about themselves and others when they are in a bright,
sun-filled room and tend to communicate more easily. Many department stores
play soft background music to provide a positive atmosphere for their customers.
They report that people tend to stay in the store longer and spend more money
when they are in a pleasant environment. Think about Christmas time: how do
the music and decorations in retail stores influence your mood as a buyer?

The environment in which we communicate influences how we feel and

how we will react to people and situations.

Most people seem to feel better about themselves and others when they
are in a bright, sun-filled room and tend to communicate more easily.

The arrangement of objects in an environment also sends a message. A

disorganised and cluttered office of a lecturer may leave you wondering if her
communication and teaching are as disorganised as her professional space. You
might also have noticed that, in a business setting, some executives sit behind a
formal desk and offer you a stiff, upright chair on the other side of the desk.
Some more modern executives get up from behind their desks when you come in
and conduct you to a coffee table around which are comfortable armchairs.
The first arrangement conveys a message of formality and power
relationships, whereas the second suggests that conversation and an open
exchange of ideas will be welcomed. What does the arrangement of furniture in
your living area suggest to strangers? Would they feel like talking freely or have
you unintentionally created communication barriers by the location of objects in
your personal environment?
Three other elements in the environment that influence communication by
sending messages are temperature, lighting and colour. These elements mainly
influence the attention and mood of the participants in communication. Teachers
will tell you that it is difficult for children to concentrate in either a hot stuffy
classroom or a very cold classroom. The reason that a library is well lit and a
restaurant has dim lighting is precisely because bright light encourages good
listening and comfortable reading, whereas softer lighting creates an atmosphere
that encourages intimate conversation.
Colour may stimulate both physical and emotional responses. There are
interesting reports on research projects which shows how colours influence
mood (Verderber & Verderber 2002; Wood 2002).

red exciting, stimulating

blue secure, comfortable, soothing
orange distressed, upset, disturbed
brown dejected, unhappy, melancholy
green calm, serene, peaceful
black powerful, strong, defiant
yellow cheerful, joyful, jovial
purple dignified, stately

Do the colours signify the same meaning to you in your culture?

Colour also has cultural interpretations. For example, among the Zulus in South
Africa a married woman wears a black pleated skirt with beads of any colour,
while young girls wear red pleated skirts with white beads.
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Different colours of clay have often been applied on the body in African cultures
to signify cultural uniqueness and social status (Matike, Ekosse & Ngole 2010).
Colour represents religious affiliation as well as age and status among black
traditional religions in some of the southern African countries. This may not be
the case among most white traditional religions, with the exception of the clergy
and probably serving church members, such as the choir. Think about how
various colours are used among the religious denominations that you are familiar
with.

5.3.7 Paralanguage
The vocal signs that accompany spoken language are termed paralanguage. It is
concerned with the sound of the voice and the range of meanings that people
convey through their voices rather than the words they use. Paralanguage is not
about what people say (verbal), but how they say it. The two main categories of
paralanguage are vocal characteristics and vocal interferences.

Paralanguage is concerned with the sound of the voice and the range of
meanings that people convey through their voices rather than the words
they use.

Vocal characteristics are:

pitch (the highness or lowness of your voice),

volume (how loudly or softly you speak),
rate (the speed at which you speak) and
quality of the voice (how pleasant or unpleasant your voice sounds).

Each characteristic influences the impression others have of you. For example, a
loud voice is often associated with aggressiveness, whereas people who speak
quickly are said to be nervous.
Vocal interferences are the sounds and words we use when we hesitate or are
not sure of the right word. We all use the occasional ‘uh’, ‘um’, ‘er’, ‘well’,
‘actually’, ‘like’ and ‘you know’ to indicate that we are searching for the right
word. But such interferences become a problem when they are excessive and
interrupt your listeners’ concentration and comprehension. You may wonder why
interferences (sounds and words) are considered a paralinguistic feature of
nonverbal communication.
It depends on the context in which they are used. Have you ever heard a
person giving a public speech, or having a conversation, in which they use these
words several times in one sentence? In such cases it is how they are used as the
speaker searches for the right word that causes interference. Similarly, a person’s
first language may cause vocal interference when they pronounce words
differently (accent) to the way that you are accustomed to hearing it.
To express feelings or convey variations in tone and volume in written
communication people use capitals and lower-case letters differently,
exclamation and other punctuation marks, as well as emoticons (also called
‘smileys’) with their written messages. Many people add nonverbal cues to their
text messages when they are online (Provine, Spencer & Mandell 2007; Walther
& D’Addario 2001).
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5.3.8 Silence
Another type of nonverbal behaviour which communicates important and strong
meanings is silence. Silence can communicate at different levels: individually,
during social interaction and at a public level. The use of silent moments in one’s
communication can be quite useful and beneficial. Think of how we use a
commemorative moment of silence to remember an individual, tragic event or
casualties of wars and accidents. Here, to employ silence, means we are showing
respect for the deceased.

Silence can communicate important and strong meanings.

Another example could be to use silence as a way to reflect on what was said;
for example, in a religious sermon the spiritual leader might provide the
congregation a few minutes to reflect upon what was said. Conversely, in some
charismatic church groups one’s silence may mean that one is seen to be not
participating in the proceedings or, perhaps, that one does not share the opinion
of the pastor.
Silence can be used to regulate conversation, with pauses to create a space for
something to be said by the conversation partner.

Section 5.3 Categories of nonverbal communication has online

support material available

5.4 THEORETICAL APPROACHES TO

NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION
Researchers and scholars have generated so much knowledge that, when
combined, it helps us to gain a better understanding of the workings of nonverbal
communication. Looking back at section 5.3, you will realise that a lot of the
existing structure of meanings attributed to the categories was developed through
theories resulting from research. These approaches are highlighted here, but have
already been explained in detail.
The theory of proxemics on the four zones of space that was developed by
Edward Hall (1969), for example, is explained in section 5.3.2. Hall was the first
to recognise that our use of space is culturally bound.
Psychologists Paul Ekman and Wallace Friesen similarly developed a
classification system of five categories which helps us to understand the different
body movements according to their functions (see section 5.3.1).
 Ray Birdwhistell helped us to see the ‘language’ capabilities of our bodies,
resulting in the phrase ‘body language’.
Albert Mehrabian is generally credited with clarifying the importance of
nonverbal communication for communication scholars, specifically by putting
together a three-dimensional framework about improving one’s skills of
interpretation of nonverbal cues.
Most of the knowledge about this field is a result of accumulative studies by
various researchers, displaying an important link between research and the role
of theory in everyday life.

5.5 POLITENESS AND NONVERBAL

COMMUNICATION
Being polite is often expressed verbally. However, nonverbal behaviour can
sometimes be perceived as either polite or impolite. Considering
[Page 104]

that most of our communication is nonverbal, attention should be paid to the

degree of politeness of our silent language.
The contexts of communication often dictate what acceptable nonverbal
behaviour is. Note that culture has a lot of influence on what is deemed to be
socially acceptable (Ribbens 2007). For example, in an interpersonal setting it
would be considered rude to touch a person in a familiar way when one does not
have an existing relationship with that person. Still, in some cultures this would
not be impolite. Similarly, looking too intently into another person’s eyes could
cause that person to feel uncomfortable, simply because it is excessive. Also
note that gender and cultural differences may influence this behaviour.
Conversely, in a group setting a speaker is expected to maintain eye contact with
the audience, a lack of which may contribute to unconvincing delivery of the
message.
In a social gathering, for instance, one is expected to dress appropriately to
suit the nature of the occasion, depending on the culture, gender, age and social
status. Being over- or underdressed for the occasion may be considered impolite
and inconsiderate. This includes often ignored behaviour such as wearing a
strong perfume that may be pleasant for oneself, but could be considered a
breach of politeness.
Likewise, in a public setting, personal grooming such as picking your nose,
cleaning your ear with a match stick or combing your hair depicts a lack of
decorum. It is important to note, in all the contexts of communication, that
allowing cell phone distraction, such as answering a phone call or attending to
social media, is considered impolite and rude. Therefore, paying attention to our
nonverbal behaviour is crucial to ensuring a polite interaction with others.

5.6 NONVERBAL SKILLS

The greatest problem with nonverbal communication is that most of us don’t pay
sufficient attention to our own and other people’s use of it. The best way to
improve your understanding of the nonverbal cues you receive from others is to
make a conscious effort to interpret both their verbal and nonverbal
communication – what they say and how they say it.
We emphasise again that nonverbal messages cannot be viewed as fixed and
unchanging as they are influenced by more than just context and culture. People
who ascribe rigid meanings to nonverbal signs are prone to stereotyping. They
allow their personal biases and feelings to influence their communication
encounters. In the same way that different people ascribe different meanings to
words on the basis of their attitudes, background, feelings and beliefs, so too do
they attach different meanings to nonverbal cues.

How to improve your own nonverbal communication

The best way to improve your own nonverbal communication – the way you
send messages without the use of words – is to consider the effects created
by each of the categories we have discussed and relate them to your own
behaviour. The following four techniques may help:

[Page 105]

1. Pay careful attention to the feedback you get from others. If you find
that people regularly misunderstand your meanings and feelings, it could
be that your verbal and nonverbal messages are incongruous. Use their
feedback to try to improve your nonverbal communication.
2. Ask your friends and family to tell you about any distracting
 mannerisms of which you may not be aware and make a conscious effort
to avoid them. People often do not know that they are saying ‘OK’ or
‘you know …’ too often.
3. Observe the nonverbal communication of others. If you find some of
their nonverbal behaviour irritating or distracting, make sure that you are
not doing the same things!
4. Try to record yourself, on audio or video, and study the results critically
to identify some of the nonverbal habits of which you may not be aware.
You can then work on improving aspects such as the tone of your voice,
posture, appearance or hand gestures.

CONCLUSION
Communication is much more than an exchange of verbal messages. In
discussing the functions of nonverbal communication its complexity was
brought to the fore, specifically that there is no single way of understanding it.
Influential factors such as culture, context and the ever-growing new media
technologies further compound its comprehension.
The different categories underpinned by various theoretical perspectives
provide insight into the nature of this type of communication, which would
otherwise be difficult to peg. Still, there are categories such as smell, or olfactory
communication, that have not been addressed in this chapter. Suggestions were
made for improving nonverbal skills not only to assist us to understand our own
but also to better interpret this ‘silent’ language of others in our realm of
interaction.
The diversity of cultures in any organisation and society in general often
breeds misunderstanding and misinterpretation of nonverbal messages; we
should always bear in mind that politeness is not only a verbal skill, and that
nonverbal cues can also indicate polite or impolite behaviour.

SUMMARY
In this chapter we explored nonverbal communication by discussing the
following functions: to reinforce, complement, contradict, replace or regulate a
verbal message. We considered different aspects that often influence the
interpretation of nonverbal messages such as context, culture, gender and age, as
well as digital technologies. The chapter continued with a discussion of
categories of nonverbal behaviour: kinesics, proxemics, haptics, chronemics,
personal appearance, the environment, paralanguage and silence. Theoretical
perspectives from which these categories were generated were again highlighted.
Some hints were provided for improving our nonverbal skills in everyday
communication, including some observations on nonverbal politeness.
[Page 106]

TEST YOURSELF QUESTIONS

1. Describe the functions of nonverbal communication. Think about the

functions of nonverbal communication you have recently used and reflect
on how they enhance or counteract your verbal communication.
2. Explain why it is not possible to ignore nonverbal communication when
we use verbal communication.
3. Draw up a table in which you briefly explain the following categories of
nonverbal communication and illustrate each with an example from your
own experience: kinesics, proxemics, haptics, chronemics, personal
appearance, the environment and paralanguage.
4. Think about an everyday experience such as a consultation with a
medical practitioner, or a visit to the hair salon.
a. Which of the four zones of space do they use to interact with you when
doing their work?
b. In your view, would this experience be intimate or
professional/functional in nature? Explain why.
c. Generate similar examples for each of the four zones.
5. Why and how is paralanguage important to effective communication?
6. Discuss whether and how digital technology has affected our nonverbal
communication.
7. What effect does posture have on your perception of people that you meet
for the first time?
8. Study Figure 5.5 below, identify and explain the nonverbal codes that are
represented.
Figure 5.5 Bank scenario
[Page 107]
Chapter 6
Language and communication
Sonja Narunsky-Laden

If you talk to a man in a language he understands, that goes to his head.

If you talk to him in his language, that goes to his heart. (Nelson Mandela)

Multilingualism is a gift, a resource. No one knows this better than Africans

do. The uses of one’s own mother tongue are characterised by deep
understanding, richness of speech forms and metaphor, familiar concepts.
Uses of other languages permit communication with others, broadened access
to knowledge outside one’s own cultural milieu, and participation in civic
entities beyond one’s own community. Multilingualism contributes to the
reinforcement of one’s own, local identity in order to permit healthy
engagement with the rest of the world; in fact that is its primary advantage
relative to globalisation. (Trudell 2009)

OVERVIEW
The significance of language in our lives is something we take for granted, as
self-evident, and yet we clearly could not live life as we know it without
language or verbal communication. This chapter urges us to think somewhat
differently about our uses of language and the roles language play in our lives,
helping us to reflect on the centrality of language, for ourselves and others,
and in the world around us. Language is crucial to human life in several ways:
it facilitates everyday interaction, communication and co-operation in our
daily lives; it is also fundamental to how we describe and evaluate our
everyday life experiences and significant moments in the course of our
lifetime(s); through language we also record, share and produce knowledge
 about our past and about the world we live in.

INTRODUCTION
We begin by considering the role of language and communication in our
everyday lives, especially in multilingual settings where speakers of different
languages are in constant contact with one another and regularly use more than
one language. We then consider the links between language, thought and culture,
and how languages most centrally differ from one another. We move on to
consider signs as linguistic units of analysis, what semiotics is, key approaches
to how signs ‘work’ and how signs are fundamental to interpretation and the
dynamic, ongoing production of meaning. Jakobson’s speech act model is then
examined, since it reveals that language use entails far more than the
transmission of information.
Since we wish to make explicit certain aspects of language use we usually
take for granted, we describe some of the differences between
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written and spoken forms of language in English and allude to the ways in which
conversations are not disorganised and random, but rather are structured and
regulated. We also discuss interruption as a supportive rather than solely
disruptive intervention.
The chapter then moves on to discuss Western, South African and African
approaches to issues and problems relating to language and gender in terms of
different uses of language style by women and men. Given South Africa’s
cultural and linguistic diversity, it is crucial for us to increase our awareness of
the intercultural dimensions of communication. For, when people from different
cultures are involved, misunderstandings are bound to occur. We therefore end
the chapter by addressing the relevance and complexity of intercultural
communication in South Africa, considering case studies of cultural difference
and how solidarity and social cohesion can be constructed by and in the media,
and looking at different cultural manifestations of respect in South African
cultures.
It is important to clarify that throughout the chapter the term ‘Bantu’ is used as
a standard term referring to a group of languages and their speakers, not as an
ethnic or racial term. In other words, it is in no way related to the negative
connotations of the highly offensive term applied during the apartheid regime in
South Africa in reference to black South African individuals.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the end of this chapter you should be able to:
Describe South Africa as a multilingual setting in which people regularly
use more than one language.
Describe your own use(s) of more than one language in your everyday
interactions.
Explain the Sapir–Whorf hypothesis or principle of linguistic relativity.
Describe what is meant by differences among languages in terms of what
they ‘must’ convey. Clarify what signs are and how they work.
Describe the main differences between De Saussure’s and Peirce’s
approaches to the study of semiotics.
Demonstrate your understanding of Jakobson’s speech act model and
describe the six different functions the model specifies.
Identify the main differences between spoken and written forms of
language.
Describe what conversation analysis is and how it helps us understand and
explain our conversational interactions.
Identify and critique the primary Western approaches to issues of language
and gender.
Provide examples of women’s style of language use in Western
scholarship and in South Africa.
Provide examples of men’s style of language use in the West and in South
Africa.
Explain why sensitivity to intercultural communication is important in
post-apartheid South Africa.
Describe the differences between essentialist and non-essentialist
approaches to culture and give examples.
Describe cultural difference in terms of issues related to respect and
politeness.
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6.1 LANGUAGE AND SOCIAL INTERACTION

As you are probably aware, language is central to human life: through language
we establish verbal social interaction, which helps us maintain order in our
social and personal lives. As John Lucy (2004: 19) noted, ‘language influences
form part of the foundation of what it is to be human’, although language is not
the dominant factor in social interaction and co-operation. Nonverbal cues also
contribute significantly to human interaction, although our concern here lies with
verbal linguistic communication, even when other modes of communication are
possible.
Many linguists and other scholars agree that language is central to motivating
and facilitating human co-operation, enabling us to share assumptions, intentions
and communicative conventions, and in so doing to regulate social behaviour
and human relationships. Michael Tomasello (2010: 57–108), for example,
views linguistic competence as strongly linked to other social and cognitive
human capacities which children develop through regular interaction with adult
speakers.

Language is central to motivating and facilitating human co-operation. It

enables us to share assumptions, intentions and communicative
conventions that allow for regulated social behaviour and human
relationships.

Stephen Levinson (1995; 2003) holds that the core of human sociality lies ‘in
a special capacity for human interaction’ because we as humans possess an
‘interactional intelligence’ which is not always reliant only on language and
culture. For example, travellers to foreign countries often communicate quite
successfully without language; when people lose their capacity to speak they can
still interact (Enfield & Levinson 2006: 40); and deaf children born to hearing
parents often invent their own signing systems to make themselves understood
(Enfield & Levinson 2006: 44).
Nonetheless, as Nancy Bonvillain (2008: 1) observes:
Language is an integral part of human behaviour. It is the primary means of
interaction between people…. We learn about people through what they say
and how they say it; we learn about ourselves through the ways that other
people react to what we say; and we learn about our relationships with others
 through the give and take of communicative interactions.

6.1.1 Multilingual settings and language contact in Africa and

elsewhere
Links between language, culture and the production of communicative meaning
in Africa are underpinned by the increased contact, especially in urban settings,
between people from diverse backgrounds who speak many different languages
(Childs 2010: 695–713). Language scholar and activist Barbara Trudell reminds
us that ‘Africa is a language-rich continent’, where over 2 000 languages are
used for learning and communication; contact between language communities is
therefore inevitable (Trudell 2009). The situation in Africa is therefore one of
linguistic diversity, where many people are multilingual (speak more than one
language) and often choose to use languages that best advance their interests
rather than languages to which they are tied by birth or mother-tongue
proficiency. Thus it is important to consider how language is used in specific
social contexts.

Linguistic diversity: People who speak more than one language and
choose to use the languages that are best suited to their current needs.

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The scientific study of language (linguistics) was based on models of idealised,

monolingual categories which didn’t fully account for actual language practices
in diverse contexts of social interaction. This led to the emergence of the field of
study known as sociolinguistics (Mesthrie & Leap 2000), as scholars began to
acknowledge that our ‘communicative competence’ includes an ability to assess
how language should be used in various social situations and contexts (Hymes
1974).
A social approach to language is highly relevant in all societies and in Africa
especially (Makoni 2002; Bhatia & Ritchie 2008; Pennycook 2007; 2010;
Bekker 2012). In today’s climate of globalisation, migration and shifting notions
of identity formation, ‘fixed’ models of languages as separate categories are
rapidly changing, as scholars acknowledge the impact of linguistic heterogeneity,
language contact, lexical borrowing and the emergence of new varieties of
English (Pratt 1991; Rampton 1995; 2007; Mesthrie & Leap 2000; Canagarajah
& Wurr 2011). Subsequently, the field of African historical linguistics now
focuses on the study of processes of language change, especially those due to
language contact (Sands 2009).
Consider your own linguistic resources and practices. Since you are reading
this chapter, we presume you are reasonably fluent in English, although this may
not be your first language or ‘mother tongue’. Indeed, English may well be only
one of several languages you speak.
As you are probably aware, English is a primary international language,
widely used throughout the world in general and within Africa in particular.
Although there are eleven official languages in South Africa (according to the
2011 census English is the mother tongue of only 9,6 per cent of South Africans
(Statistics South Africa 2011)), English is nonetheless widely used in South
Africa by speakers whose first language may be a Bantu (Nguni or Sotho)
language or Afrikaans. English is currently used extensively in the public arena,
in print and broadcast media, in government and private corporate sectors, in
economic and academic circles and in a large number of educational institutions.
English is also often used as a means of interaction among mother-tongue
speakers of various African languages (see Mesthrie 2006; Cichocka 2006).

Lingua franca: a language used by non-native speakers to interact with

speakers from other linguistic groups.

Linguistic imperialism: the dominance of English as a result of

colonialism, which also led to ongoing social and linguistic inequality.

While English is a leading international language, it also fills key functions

for Africans within Africa and operates as an official language of the African
Union (Negash 2011). English is the lingua franca in former British colonies,
alongside French in Francophone countries and Swahili in large parts of East
Africa. A lingua franca is a language used by non-native speakers who wish to
interact with speakers from diverse linguistic groups. However, while English is
a useful language of communication in much of Africa (Graddol 1997; Bhatt
2001; Mesthrie & Leap 2000; Makoni & Kamwangamalu 2008), and is
considered a global linguistic resource throughout the rest of the world (Crystal
1998; cf Blommaert 2010), the dominance and widespread use of English as a
result of colonialism has also been criticised for perpetuating social and
linguistic inequality, leading to a type of linguistic imperialism (Phillipson 1992;
1996; Makoni & Pennycook 2007; Heller 2011). Nonetheless, the overall spread
of English internationally, and the emergence of what are known as
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new Englishes, is by now globally prevalent (see Crystal 1998; 2000; Mesthrie
& Leap 2000: 279–315).

6.1.2 On language, thought and culture

Given the fact that Africa in general, and South Africa in particular, are
multilingual and linguistically diverse, we must consider whether, and to what
extent, the various languages we speak shape the way(s) we interpret and
perceive the world and, if so, how this shaping, or influence, is regulated. This
would enable us to enrich our understanding of people from other ethnic
backgrounds and cultures and reduce instances of miscommunication stemming
from misinterpreted interactions.
For some time now researchers have been considering scientifically how
languages reflect or reinforce particular ways of looking at and experiencing the
world. Scholars have been concerned with whether the language we use to
describe how we perceive our experiences actually influences how we
formulate, classify and call to mind these experiences. Over the past six decades
many theories addressing the relationship between language and thought have
emerged and been contested. Those suggesting that the particular language we
speak influences how we reflect on, experience and describe our encounters with
reality have given rise to what is known as the linguistic relativity principle, or
the Sapir–Whorf hypothesis, which is centrally concerned with how language
affects the way we think (Gumperz & Levinson 1996; Lucy 1997; Lucy 2004:
1).

Sapir–Whorf hypothesis: Also known as the principle of linguistic

relativity, which explains how language influences the way we think
about the world and our experiences within it.

Since the 1930s the most well-known figures associated with the hypothesis
of linguistic relativity are Edward Sapir (1884–1939) and his student Benjamin
Whorf (1897–1941). Both were interested in the languages and cultures of
Native American peoples, such as Hopi, Nootka and Chippewa (Bonvillain
2008: 45–78). They were concerned with how languages vary and suggested
ways in which speakers of different languages might actually think differently
(Boroditsky 2011). However, the Sapir–Whorf hypothesis was problematic since
Sapir and Whorf (a) provided very little evidence to support their claims and (b)
suggested that if a language did not have a word/term for a particular concept, its
speakers would not be able to grasp this concept (Deutscher 2010).
At around the same time Soviet linguist Valentin N Volosinov advanced
similar views on language, thought and experience, arguing that ‘language and
speakers’ perceptions of experience are intertwined’ (Bonvillain 2008: 4–48).
Volosinov (1973: 84, 85) claimed that ‘it is not experience that organises
expression, but the other way around – expression organises experience’.

6.1.3 What languages must convey

Especially useful here is Czech linguist Roman Jakobson’s (1959) insight that
‘languages differ essentially in what they must convey and not in what they may
convey’. In exploring the linguistic constraints of translation Jakobson noted that
languages require different grammatical features and rules, obliging us to use
specific features which often diverge from required grammatical features in
other languages. For example, if someone says in English, ‘I spent yesterday
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afternoon with a neighbour’ (see Deutscher 2010), you will not know whether
the neighbour was male or female. This would not be the case in German or
French, where the speaker would have to mention the biological gender of the
neighbour since marking the gender of these nouns is a requirement of these
languages. In fact, German and French require the ‘grammatical gendering’ of
all nouns. Classifying nouns in different genders (male, female, neuter) is
referred to as ‘grammatical gendering’ and is not typically linked to biological
gender. This does not imply that English speakers are oblivious to the differences
between spending time with male or female neighbours, but it does mean that
English speakers do not have to specify the sex/gender of neighbours, friends or
teachers every time they are mentioned in conversation.
As Deutscher observes, the languages we speak oblige us to specify certain
types of information. In Bantu languages there is no requirement to mark gender,
but there is a requirement to mark noun classes, which convey information about
grammatical categories. These include, but are not limited to, belonging, ie set
membership in a particular class (of objects or categories); grammatical number,
such as singular/plural; and animacy, which pertains to whether the object
referred to is human, animal or inanimate.
George Lakoff (1987: 91–114) pointed out that
Classifier languages – languages where nouns are marked as being members
 of certain categories – are among the richest sources of data that we have
concerning the structure of conceptual categories as they are revealed
through language.

In some Bantu languages there are around 15 or 16 noun classes, and close to 20
in others. This suggests that Bantu languages can shed much light on the ways
conceptual categories are revealed and shaped through language. Think about
some of the conceptual categories required in your own mother tongue and
compare them to grammatical categories in other languages you speak.
Scholars have put the linguistic relativity hypothesis to the test by, among
other things, conducting empirical analyses of how particular languages are
used, for instance how time or numbers are signalled or how specific domains or
segments of reality are experienced. These domains include colour terms. For
example, all languages are held to distinguish at least two colours, black and
white (Berlin & Kay 1969); in English, green and blue are perceived as different
colours, but in other languages may be considered to be shades of the same
colour (Deutscher 2010).
Danie Prinsloo and Sonja Bosch point out that in Bantu languages kinship
terms are very different from and far more complex than kinship terms in Indo-
European languages such as English, German and French. In these languages a
cousin, for example, can be specified as a child of one’s aunt or uncle and
distinctions can also be made among first, second and third cousins. However, in
Bantu languages,
in addition to such generic descriptions, for example, cousin or first cousin,
specific and unique kinship terms exist for each of the relations, and that
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constitutes the core of the complexity of the Bantu system. (Prinsloo & Bosch
2012)

They add that the Northern Sotho kinship system has a total of 56 terms used by
a man and his wife to refer to their parents, grandparents and great-grandparents.
Distinctions in terminology must refer to the age of the person (e g in
Northern Sotho/Sepedi the father’s older brother is referred to as ramogolo and
his younger brother as rangwane). Distinctions must further account for the
gender of the speaker. For example, the father-in-law is called ubabezala by a
Zulu-speaking woman, while the father-in-law is called umukhwe or umkhwekazi
by a Zulu-speaking man, who also calls his mother-in-law umkhwekazi (Krige
1965: 367). Moreover, it is customary to use the same term for people who do
not belong to the same generation; for example, rakgadi is used in Northern
Sotho to refer to a father’s older sister, as well as to a father’s brother’s daughter.
There are also several instances where no distinction is made for gender, for
example ugogo (ancestor, great-grandparent) and ukhulukulwane (great-great-
grandparent). Consider the kinship terms required in your own mother tongue
and try to relate them, if at all possible, to equivalents in English or other
languages in which you are proficient.

6.2 SIGNS AND HOW THEY WORK

Our second section is less specifically African in orientation, but is intended to
introduce you to the workings of signs in general, and linguistic signs in
particular, as established in Anglo-American and European scholarship.
Following Webb and Kembo-Sure (2000), we believe it is crucial for students in
Africa to be familiar with approaches to language from elsewhere, even as they
must also bear in mind African-oriented approaches to language problems and
language situations.
In what follows we consider what signs are, how we identify signs, symbols
and conventions in cultural contexts and why it is important to be able to
recognise signs. We then address semiotics, the umbrella term for the study of
signs, introducing two key approaches put forward by the founding fathers of
semiotics: the semiotic system, generated by Charles Peirce (1839–1914) and the
semiological system, derived from the work of Swiss linguist Ferdinand de
Saussure (1857–1913). De Saussure was concerned primarily with linguistic
signs, while Peirce viewed language as only one component of a broader range
of sign systems.
We end this section with a discussion of the communicative competence of
language and linguistic signs in terms of the relationship between parts of
speech in an utterance or code, rather than in terms of any finite meaning
ascribed to a particular word or sign.

6.2.1 What is a sign?

We all recognise signs, which surround us in our everyday lives. Traffic lights
are signs: a red light tells us to stop, an amber light to wait and
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a green light announces that we can ‘go!’ Pedestrian crossings are signs telling
drivers to stop and allow those of us who are walking to cross the road; they also
indicate to pedestrians where it will be safe for them to cross the road. A
speedometer signals how fast a car is travelling, while a fuel gauge tells us when
we should fill up the fuel tank. These are clear, concrete signs.
We also encounter many abstract signs or symbols, such as restroom signs
indicating which toilets are for males, females and the disabled. A sign
indicating that something is prohibited usually consists of a red circle with a red
diagonal line running through it (from top left to bottom right) and will generally
include a visual sign or symbol representing the activity or object that is not
permitted, such as a lit cigarette indicating ‘no smoking’, a car indicating ‘cars
prohibited’, two figures walking indicating ‘no pedestrians’, or a mobile phone
indicating ‘use of mobile phones prohibited’ and many others. By now you
probably realise that we are all familiar with a whole array of signs which we
typically encounter routinely on a regular everyday basis.
Sensitivity to signs is important precisely because many signs appear to be
self-evident or even trivial, so we often heed them unconsciously. Our capacity
to interpret signs allows us to cope with changing situations and behaviours in
the world and enables us to become ‘active interpreters’ of these situations and
behaviours (see Danesi 2004: 21). In other words, besides enhancing our
communicative skills from a linguistic point of view, being able to identify signs
helps us to navigate our everyday lives more effectively and alerts us to
impending danger or changes in our surroundings or personal states of affairs.
One could describe a sign as ‘something that stands for, represents, or means,
something else, that is not itself’. Peirce observed that ‘A sign … is something
that stands to somebody for something in some respect or capacity’ (Peirce
1879–84: vol 4: 372). However, it is important to note that there are many
different types or classes of signs: linguistic, material, visual, aural (to do with
hearing), mathematical and gestural (to do with body movements), to mention
just some.
According to Danesi,
A sign is anything – a colour, a gesture, a wink, an object, a mathematical
equation, etc that stands for something other than itself. (Danesi 2004: 4)

However, signs have no intrinsic meaning in their own right and become signs
only when someone invests them with meaning. As Peirce stated: ‘Nothing is a
sign unless it is interpreted as a sign’ (Peirce 1931–58: vol 2: 172) by someone
perceiving it as ‘signifying’ something, standing for something other than itself.

6.2.2 Semiotics: the study of signs

Generally speaking, the study of signs is called semiotics. Semiotics is
concerned with ‘what messages mean, and … how they have been put together
with signs’ (Danesi 2004: 10). Daniel Chandler reminds us that ‘it is this
meaningful use of signs which is at the heart of the concerns of semiotics’
(Chandler 2006).

Semiotics is concerned with how signs are put together in ways that
render messages meaningful.

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The earliest known use of semiotics relates to symptoms in medical diagnoses,

when Hippocrates, founder of Western medical science (c 460–c 377 BCE),
defined a symptom as a sign (Danesi 2004: 16). Symptoms are physical, bodily
signs, such as a fever, an inflammation or a rash, that indicate changes in normal
bodily states or conditions and allow physicians to identify infections or diseases
(see Noth 1995: 13; Danesi 2004: 16, 30). On a different yet related level,
thunder and lightning are signs of an approaching storm, smoke may be a sign of
fire or of a car overheating and a sneeze may be a sign that someone has, or is
about to get, a cold.
Semiotics is closely linked to communication, for semiotic factors are central
in regulating how meanings are constructed and understood, enhancing the
effectiveness of our interactions. Jakobson’s grasp of communicative utterances
is helpful here since he notes that sign exchanges typically involve subjective
preferences and a desire to obtain certain objectives within social codes and
contexts (see Danesi 2004: 18). Accordingly, a semiotic approach to
communication is helpful in clarifying that messages do far more than transmit
information; semiotics allows us to decode messages in a broad range of ways
and contexts.
We select signs according to our personal preferences, according to the
meanings we wish to convey in particular social contexts.

Some years ago semioticians and scholars Tomaselli and Shepperson (1991:
1) noted that:
 … semiotics is a method which explains how meaning is produced in
individuals and societies, and how people construct and interpret what
meaning is. It is less concerned with what meaning is. Semiotics examines
how signs (words, pictures, gestures, sounds) come to mean and have
meaning.

This suggests that semiotics is less interested in what meaning is and is

concerned rather with how meanings are generated and how signs acquire
meaning(s) and come to be understood in particular ways. We might say that
semiotics is interested in exploring how it is possible for specific signs to mean
certain things to particular people at different points in time.
But how do we explain how signs come to produce meaning? How can we
make sense of signs so that they help us make sense of the world and everything
in it? For Peirce there are three components to a sign: the sign itself, what it
represents or stands for and what it means – all these are interrelated and
interdependent. We might then say that a sign is something that represents
something else in ways that are meaningful for others.

Peirce’s three interrelated and interdependent components to a sign:

the sign itself
what the sign represents or stands for
what the sign means

Peirce’s semiotic branch and De Saussure’s semiological branch of modern

semiotics both appeared at the same time during the 19th century, although the
authors were unaware of each other’s work. For our purposes the primary
difference between the two branches is best described by noting that De
Saussure’s approach is through the specific study of the linguistic sign, which is
but ‘one component of the study of the sign in general’ (Cobley 2001).
De Saussure’s perception of linguistics is anthroposemiotic (focuses on
human, language-based signs and messages) and, in this sense, it encompasses a
far narrower range of signs than does Peirce’s. In other words, De Saussure’s
approach does not consider non-verbal and visual signs, natural signs or
signalling behaviour among animals and plants across various
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living species and other organisms (Sebeok 1972; Krampen 1987). A more
complex, comprehensive approach is proposed by Peirce, for whom ‘the entire
universe is perfused with signs’ (1931–1958: vol 5: 448, fn).
6.2.3 Dyads and triads: different approaches to signs
In Peirce’s work the semiotic relationship is considered to be triadic (comprised
of three parts), so that a given phenomenon may be analysed in more nuanced
ways than is possible when applying a dyadic approach, according to which the
sign is made up of two units. For Peirce, signs are always iconic, indexical and
symbolic.
Peirce’s triadic units:
icon
index
symbol

An icon is a sign which represents an object primarily through its similarity to

or resemblance of something. Photographs of people are iconic in that sense –
they present an image that is similar to the person photographed. A map bears an
iconic relationship to the territory it maps out. A ‘no smoking’ sign may also be
viewed as iconic as it illustrates, through the image of a cigarette, that smoking
is prohibited.
An index is a sign that is directly linked to a particular object. Most traffic
signs are index signs as they represent information which relates to a specific
location (‘no cars allowed’ here). An index is linked to an object through a
concrete or imagined causal connection, as in the case of a weather vane which
turns according to the direction of the wind and how it affects the vane itself.
Smoke is an index of fire and a sneeze may be an index of a cold.
Symbols are signs which are linked to specific objects by social or cultural
convention – there is no necessary or inevitable link between the sign and its
represented object (as in the case of the index) or a link of similarity or
resemblance between a sign and its represented object (as in the case of the
icon). Think of the way young children typically draw a house: a more or less
square structure, often with a red roof, typically pointed, often with a chimney, a
front door and a window, framed by a blue sky and green grass with or without
trees or flowers. This is a conventional way of representing a house through a
particular kind of image, which young children from many different cultures
recognise and are able to reproduce, even though any resemblance to ‘real’
houses in their environments may be minimal or entirely imagined. Flags too are
symbols which represent countries: they are agreed-upon signs which bear no
necessary link or similarity to the represented country.
Producing meaning is made possible via the interpretant, which is the effect
produced by a sign in the interpreter. In order to ‘mean’ something there also has
to be somebody signifying and something that is signified. There is an aspect of
activity that accompanies a subject’s use of signs that makes the triple or triadic
link the minimum necessary for understanding. Everybody makes sense
differently. The triadic link therefore makes it possible to explain how a range of
interpretations is evoked and subjected to criticism.

The units of De Saussure’s dyadic approach:

signifier
signified

Favouring a ‘dyadic’, or two-part, model of the sign, De Saussure described

the sign as a single ‘whole’ in which a ‘signifier’ (the form of the sign or its
sound image) and the ‘signified’ (the concept represented by the sign) are
interlinked. De Saussure believed that both signifier and signified are in the mind
of the sign user (Cobley
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2001: 4). However, this dyadic approach was misinterpreted by some scholars
who viewed the ‘sound image’ or ‘signifier’ as a material or physical
phenomenon, rather than a mental one, as observed by De Saussure himself
(Cobley 2001: 4). Moreover, for De Saussure the sign is arbitrary, which means
that there is no necessary link between the two components of the sign, the
signifier and the signified. In this view the linguistic sign is only minimally
‘motivated’ or linked, to the content it is intended to represent. Yet it is only fair
to note that De Saussure himself acknowledged that arbitrariness is often limited
by the ways linguistic signs are combined and ordered (Hiraga 1994: 5).
De Saussure’s grasp of the linguistic sign as largely arbitrary has been
questioned by several scholars, most notably by Jakobson (Jakobson 1963;
1971a; see also Portis-Winner 1996). Wishing to integrate the field of linguistics
into Peirce’s theory of signs, Jakobson argued that language also has the non-
arbitrary property of association by similarity between form and meaning; this
association is called ‘iconicity’.

6.2.4 Motivated signs: toward iconicity

There are two ways in which De Saussure’s linguistic signs may be viewed as
less arbitrary and more motivated through their similarity to the content structure
they represent (Culler 1976: 20; Hiraga 1994: 5). The first refers to (rare)
instances of onomatopoeia in different languages, where the sound of a signifier
allegedly imitates or mimics the sound of the concept associated with it.
Interestingly, children will often learn the onomatopoeia for an animal sound
before the actual name of the animal. For example, a child may call a cat a
‘meow’ by way of associating a cat with the sound he/she has learned that cats
produce. Some animal sound onomatopoeias are similar in various languages. In
English a cat says ‘meow’, in German it says ‘miau’, in French ‘miaou’, in
Spanish ‘miau’ and in Chinese ‘miāo’. Also, ouch (English), aïe (French), aua or
autsch (German) and eina (South African derivation from Khoisan) are all
different ways to articulate pain. The sound of raindrops would be described in
English as ‘drip drop’, in French as ‘plic ploc’ and in German ‘plitsch platsch’.
Onomatopoeic words are exceptions, not the rule, and are still formed somewhat
differently across languages.
A second sense in which linguistic signs may be seen as partially motivated
relates to the way meanings of certain sound sequences are used to generate new
words, as in the case of typewriter, which combines the words type and writer.
Similar compounds, such as girlfriend, textbook, bittersweet, etc are facilitated
by the same process. Linda Waugh (1994) has conducted extensive work on
sound resemblances vis-à-vis the meanings of words in English and her
collaborative work with Jakobson has gone a long way to disputing De
Saussure’s claim regarding the arbitrariness of signs.
Importantly, since for De Saussure the relation between the signifier and the
signified is largely perceived as arbitrary, it is also viewed as relational and
differential. In other words, signs are not defined by their ‘essence’ or ‘true’
meaning, but are understood in terms of their relations to other linguistic signs,
since they are elements within a system. A helpful illustration here is that of
colour terms,
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whose meanings are determined by our ability to distinguish brown, for instance,
from red, black, grey, yellow or blue. That is to say,
brown is not an independent concept defined by certain essential properties,
but is rather one term in a system of colour terms, defined by its relations with
the other terms that delimit it. (Culler 1976: 25)

De Saussure described a language as a system of linguistic social conventions,

which are assigned meaning by virtue of how they are interrelated. This system
is acquired and conventional, not innate and natural (Culler 1976: 23). This
systemic approach, in which all linguistic elements are always perceived in
relation to other linguistic elements, and derive their value, function and/or
meaning from their position(s) within a broader system, also takes into account
that any system (language or other) and the relations amongst its components are
contingent on someone (e g a researcher) identifying it as a system in the first
place. Although he did not intend them to be understood as they have, the labels
De Saussure gave the two sides of the linguistic sign – signifier and signified –
seem to have stuck (Cobley 2001). As a result, all cultural phenomena have
(erroneously) come to be perceived as though they entailed this construction of
the linguistic sign (Cobley 2001: 4).
Significantly, we cannot assume that all words convey the same meaning for
all speakers. Although certain meanings of words are shared and mutually
understood, words often have more than one meaning. There is a difference, for
instance, between the denotative and connotative meanings of a word. The
denotative meaning refers to a direct, literal meaning of a word, such as that
found in a dictionary, which is accepted by most users of the word at a particular
point in time. Take, for example, the word ‘house’, which denotes a place in
which people live, the actual residence, structure or building. The word ‘home’,
on the other hand, evokes a sense of coziness, warmth, comfort and feelings for
close family members associated with our sense of ‘home’. The connotative
meaning of a word refers to subjective or culturally specific meanings of a word
to which speakers have access and are able to interpret.

Denotative meaning: literal meaning of a word.

Connotative meaning: subjective or culturally specific meaning

associated with a word.

Connotations include all the concepts, emotional associations and feelings a

word evokes in speakers’ minds, whether positive, negative or neutral. However,
meanings of words also change over time and this too should be factored into
our understanding of how meanings are produced and re-produced. (For a
comprehensive engagement with lexical and grammatical changes in African
languages, see Childs 2003; see also Chandler 2006).

6.3 JAKOBSON’S SPEECH ACT MODEL OF

 COMMUNICATION
This section examines Jakobson’s speech act model of communication, which
reveals that language use entails far more than the transmission of information.
Jakobson’s model refines Shannon and Weaver’s well-known model of
communication, which reductively equated meaning with content, to the
exclusion of social codes and contexts.
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In 1960 Jakobson suggested a model of interpersonal verbal communication

which moved beyond the basic transmission model of communication by
foregrounding the importance of the codes and social contexts entailed in verbal
speech events (Jakobson 1960). Broadly, Jakobson extended the study of signs
from linguistics to the fields of communication, signification, culture and
aesthetics (Jakobson 1971b). He also critically re-evaluated De Saussure’s view
of language, rejecting the idea of the arbitrariness of the sign and insisting that
historical change in language is central to linguistic analysis. Moreover, like
Peirce, who, among other things, believed that ‘a thing without oppositions ipso
facto does not exist’ (Peirce 1931: vol 1: 457), Jakobson maintained that
although a dyadic relationship is not central to signification, opposites are vital
to linguistic, social and cultural categorisation.
Most significant regarding the relations between semiotics and
communication is Jakobson’s speech act model which plays a leading role in
describing how human language is used. Jakobson’s model clarifies that the
transmission of information or content per se is not necessarily the dominant,
central factor of all verbal messages or speech acts. He demonstrates clearly that
an utterance or message doesn’t always have a single function, but rather brings
into play six interdependent features, or factors, of communication. Accordingly,
any act of verbal communication is composed of six factors, of which one or
more may be dominant:
1. the context (the co-text, ie the other verbal signs in the same message and
the world in which the message takes place)
2. an addresser (a sender or enunciator)
3. an addressee (a receiver or enunciatee)
4. a contact between the addresser and addressee
5. a common code
 6. a message.
Each factor is the focal point of an oriented relation, or function, that operates
between the message and the factor. This yields six functions, namely:
1. The referential function
2. The expressive/emotive function
3. The conative/vocative function
4. The phatic function
5. The metalingual code or function
6. The poetic function

Figure 6.1 Jakobson’s speech act model

This section has online support material available

[Page 120]

In any given situation one or more of these factors (the addressor, the addressee,
the context, the effect of the message on the addressee, the code, and/or the
contact) may be ‘dominant’.

6.3.1 The referential function

The referential function (or cognitive use of language) relates to the context in
which the speech event is taking place. This is the informative, content-related
function of a message – it is directed at imparting information and there is no
focus on the addresser or addressee. This function describes a given situation, an
object or a mental state of affairs.
For example:
 It’s raining.
She forgot her bus ticket.
Road closed.
Pedestrians have right of way.

6.3.2 The expressive/emotive function

This function expresses the speaker’s direct feelings, emotions or attitudes
toward the topic of discussion.
For example:

Yuck!
Wow, that was some night!
I can’t stand this heat!

6.3.3 The conative/vocative function

This centres on the addressee, typically in the second person (‘you’) and is
intended to elicit a response from the addressee, to influence the addressee’s
beliefs or behaviour or to change the nature of reality. These utterances cannot
be subjected to ‘truth tests’ or to the true/false criterion of most declarative
utterances or statements and often consist in conveying commands (imperatives).
For example:

Let there be light!

Wait here till it stops raining!
Come here!
Finish all the food on your plate!

6.3.4 The phatic function

The phatic function is intended to establish and maintain social relationships; not
to convey information. It often uses formulaic phrases – no real answer is
expected in response. It is also employed over the telephone and on the radio.
For example:

Can you hear me?

Lousy weather again, isn’t it?
[Page 121]

How are you?

What’s new, bru?
Well.

6.3.5 The metalingual code or function

This refers to the nature of the interaction, containing information about the kind
of linguistic code being used or the kind of message being conveyed – the genre.
For example:

This is the weather forecast.

Here is the news.
This is a very sad story.

6.3.6 The poetic function

The special features of the text or message are in the foreground – plays on
rhyme, repetition, alliteration (repeated consonants) or assonance (repeated
vowels).
For example:

It droppeth as the gentle rain from heaven.

I like Ike.
Horrible Harry.

This nuanced model of how language is used in various social contexts

demonstrates that meaning is not stable or predetermined, but is rather fluid and
ambiguous and may vary in different communication situations. Although
Jakobson’s model strongly suggests that communicative utterances may be
subjective and goal-oriented, it is also extremely mindful of the collaborative
aspects of meaning making.
As aptly noted by Jenny Thomas (1995: 22),
… meaning is not something which is inherent in the words alone, nor is it
produced by the speaker alone, nor by the hearer alone. Making meaning is a
dynamic process, involving the negotiation of meaning between the speaker
and the hearer, the context of utterance (physical, social and linguistic) and
 meaning potential of an utterance.

6.4 SPOKEN VERSUS WRITTEN FORMS OF

LANGUAGE – CONVERSATION ANALYSIS
We begin by describing some of the differences between spoken and written
forms of language in English. We then provide an overview of conversation
analysis, also in English, and conclude by addressing recent research on
conversation analysis protocols.

6.4.1 Speaking and writing: some basic distinctions

Following David Crystal (2005), speech and writing in English take place in
very different communication settings and are transmitted through different
channels: speech is transmitted by speakers in face-to-face
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situations through sound and discerned aurally, through hearing. Writing is

deployed when speakers are separated by time and distance; it is transmitted
visually, by way of graphic signs on a surface, and has a more material, tangible
dimension. There are differences in the vocabulary and grammar of each
discursive mode, with writing accorded a higher degree of respect, since it is
often enduring and widely circulated.
Crystal specifies seven differences between speech and writing:

Speech Writing
Speech occurs over time, is short-lived and fluid. Participants are
S1 typically present and a speaker will usually address a specific
recipient (or more than one).
Writing takes place in space, is fixed and relatively durable. It is used
W1 when a writer is distant from the intended reader and is unsure who
the reader might be.
Most speech exchanges are unplanned and rapid, entailing repetition,
rephrasing and comment clauses such as ‘mind you’, ‘you know’.
S2 Utterances are divided by pauses and intonation and sentence
 boundaries are not always clear.
Written forms are well organised and often more complex. Since they
W2 can be read over and over again, sentences and paragraphs are easily
identifiable through layout and punctuation.
Given the face-to-face situation of speech exchanges, participants
also rely on facial expressions and gestures to enrich the encounter.
S3
Vocabulary is often vague, referring to the situation at hand (‘this
here’, ‘that one’, ‘over there’).
No visual contact means that participants in written exchanges cannot
rely on context to clarify their meaning(s). Most writing is therefore
more explicit and direct. Writers must consider the lapse of time
W3
between production and reception of their written exchanges and the
fact that their writing may be read by many recipients in various
settings.
Speech involves nuances of rhythm, stress and intonation, volume,
S4
tempo and other tones of voice which cannot be expressed in writing.
Writing is characterised by pages, lines, capitalisation, spatial
organisation and punctuation. Some graphic signs relate to
W4 intonations (question marks), italics or underlining for stress. Some
written genres (i e timetables and graphs) cannot be read aloud and
must be interpreted visually.
Informal speech is characterised by a wide range of words and
S5 expressions. Long, complex sentences are often typical and
frequently include slang and obscenities.
Writing is characterised by particular words and constructions
W5
(multiple clauses, intricate syntax, long sentences).
Speech is suited to social or ‘phatic’ functions (see section 6.3.4),
where participants prefer casual exchanges. Speech also best conveys
S6
social relationships, personal beliefs and attitudes, since it is
interfused with non-verbal cues.
Writing is used for recording facts and communicating ideas and
W6
 lends itself to learning and memorising.
Utterances may be reviewed in progress: speakers may begin again
S7 and modify their exchanges, yet errors cannot be ‘unspoken’.
Overlaps, interruptions and silences are both audible and highlighted.
Errors and interventions in written drafts can be corrected without the
W7
reader being aware that they were ever there.

The boundaries between speech and writing are obscured and complicated in
new media formats such as texting and e-mail. For recent research on the
influence of mobile phone speech on Xhosa
[Page 123]

rules of communication, see Kaschula and Mostert 2009; for an early study on
the differences between written and oral language, see Schallert, Kleinman and
Rubin 1977.

6.4.2 Conversation analysis

Conversation analysis is a sociological approach to the analysis of spoken
discourse, which initially focused on ‘ordinary conversation’ (Heritage 1998).
Central to conversation analysis is the understanding that talk is a joint
enterprise, involving more than one person, in which people take turns at
interacting (Cameron 1999; 2001: 86; 2005). In this approach conversational talk
is not as disorganised or unplanned as we might believe, but is in fact highly
structured.
Integral to conversation analysis is the understanding that talk is a joint
enterprise, involving more than one person, in which people take turns at
interacting.

Our interest in conversation analysis lies in how turns are structured and
regulated and assigned from one speaker to another. As we have sparse
information on conversation analysis in African societies (see, however, Obeng
1989; Kimura 2001), we again draw on data assembled by American and British
scholars. Leading pioneers of conversation analysis were Erving Goffman,
Harold Garfinkel and Harvey Sacks (Pomerantz & Fehr 2011). Heritage (1998)
observes that conversation analysis focuses on linking issues of meaning and
context in interaction to the idea of sequence and turn-taking in conversation.
This means that the sequence of turns from which a conversational interaction
emerges actually constitutes the social context in which conversational talk takes
place (Heritage 1998).
The length and content of turns taken by speakers depend on specific
conversation situations and cultural conventions. For instance, some speech
communities tolerate longer silences than is the case in Western cultures. In
Argentina it is considered the norm to ‘grab the floor and talk until someone
interrupts you’. An Argentinian student in Sweden is reported to have found it
very difficult to grasp Swedish turn-taking rules, since the Swedes refused to
take the floor while she was still speaking (Cameron 1999; 2001: 94; 2005).

Specific conversation situations and cultural conventions determine the

length and content of turn-taking.

Although casual conversation may seem to be relatively unstructured,

speakers actually follow organisational rules in most conversational encounters.
In Western societies conversations are typically framed by a greeting and a
closing. Greetings have no ‘real’ content, but are intended to signal ‘a person’s
availability for talk’ (Bonvillain 2008: 116). In Anglo-American cultures
conversations are brought to a close through a gradual process – at the end of a
topic unit. Words such as ‘okay’, ‘all right’, ‘fine, then’, as well as ‘well’ and
‘so’, indicate the intended termination of an encounter. Bonvillain notes that the
native Cree people from Western Canada deliberately avoid indicators of closure
in order to emphasise the continuity of social bonds (Bonvillain 2008: 120).

6.4.3 Mechanisms for turn-taking in conversational practice

Speaker change occurs and recurs, so that no one gets the floor for the entire
duration of a conversation. Usually only one party talks
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at a time, although there are instances when more than one speaker will be
talking at the same time. The order of turns when there are several speakers, the
size of the turn and the length of conversation are usually based on the relative
status of participants (Bonvillain 2008: 115). Participants with higher status will
take more turns and these will be longer than turns taken by speakers with lower
status. Higher-status speakers will also tend to interrupt or complete their turns
when interrupted, while lower status speakers will usually allow themselves to
be successfully interrupted. Parties of higher status also tend to choose more
topics of conversation than those of lower status. When there is a long silence a
speaker will usually break in and claim the floor (ibid).
In interactions involving two speakers turns will alternate between them so
each will have the same number of turns (Sacks 1974: 700–701). In
conversations involving several parties distribution of turns will vary, following
two optional routes: current speaker selection, where a speaker will select the
next speaker directly (e g by posing questions or explicitly making a request)
and self-selection. When turns are automatically linked to specific types of
responses, such as question/answer (what time is it? Three o’clock),
request/grant or refusal (Can I see you? Yes), invitation acceptance or decline
(Will you come for dinner tonight? Sorry, I have a previous arrangement), we
call them adjacency pairs (Schegloff & Sacks 1973: 295).

Adjacency pairs: turns that are automatically linked to specific types of

responses.

When a current speaker completes a turn without choosing a next speaker,

participants may self-select, usually by starting first. Schegloff and Sacks (1973)
observe that self-selectors frequently begin by using words such as ‘well’, ‘but’,
‘and’ or ‘so’. These words are called turn-entry devices and signal a speaker’s
desire to take the floor next.

Turn-entry devices are used by speakers who wish to indicate their desire
to speak next.

6.4.4 Interruption as echo and active listenership

Interruption is not always a hostile intervention, as simultaneous speech which
appears to be interruptive may in fact have a supportive function. Speakers may
interrupt other speakers not because they disagree with them, or are not
interested in what they have said, nor because they wish to change the gist of the
conversation, but rather to echo the current speakers’ sentiments in agreement
(Cameron 1999; 2001: 93; 2005).
While speakers talk, listeners are expected to support the speaker by signalling
their interest. Listener responses, called backchannel cues, include words or
expressions such as ‘yes’, ‘right’, ‘uh-huh’, and ‘hmmm’.

Backchannel cues serve the function of active listening by indicating the

listener’s interest to the speaker.
 In South Africa today backchannel cues might consist of expressions such as
‘never’, ‘no way’, ‘you lie’, ‘awesome’, etc – these serve the same function of
active listenership. These utterances add no information but indicate that
attention is being paid to the speaker’s talk and that others approve of what is
being said. Too many interjections, or too few, may imply a lack of interest.
[Page 125]

6.5 LANGUAGE AND GENDER: CONCERNS AND

CHALLENGES
This section provides an overview of some of the leading concerns and
challenges in the field of inquiry known as ‘language and gender’. We begin by
introducing approaches to ‘language and gender’ established in Anglo-American
scholarship. Next we consider some of the similarities and differences between
language and gender issues in the broader Western context vis-à-vis the South
African environment. Finally, we allude to the limitations of Western approaches
to ‘language and gender’ issues within the sub-Saharan African context.

6.5.1 Western views of ‘language and gender’

The relationship between language and gender as a separate field of research
began in the late 1960s and early 1970s, following the rise of women’s
movements in the West. Issues of language and gender were foregrounded by
Anglo-American researchers with heightened feminist sensibilities. These
studies critiqued patriarchal and sexist language in various ways, especially
regarding the different styles of language use ascribed to women and men.
The approaches to women’s and men’s styles of language use, which followed
different phases of feminism, were labeled
the deficit approach, the dominance approach, the difference approach, and
the discursive, dynamic or social constructionist approach. (Coates 2014: 5–
6)

Although these approaches emerged in historical sequence, they also overlapped

and lived in tension with one another at certain times.
According to the deficit approach (Lakoff 1975), women’s language was
perceived as disadvantaged in relation to patriarchal male language, since it was
more hesitant, indirect, unassertive and less authoritative. Women’s language
was regarded as conveying tentativeness, often by using ‘hedges’ which suggest
that speakers are not fully committed to what they say, so that they do not
impose on people. Hedges include words and phrases such as ‘I think’, ‘sort of’,
‘you know’, ‘I mean’, ‘maybe’, ‘probably’, ‘may’, ‘might’, ‘perhaps’,
‘whatever’; insignificant adjectives such as ‘nice’, ‘divine’ and ‘awesome’; and
tag questions such as ‘We went to bed early, didn’t we?’, ‘We don’t usually stay
up so late, do we?’ (see Van Baalen 2001).

Deficit approach: women’s language is perceived as disadvantaged in

relation to patriarchal male language.

Dale Spender’s approach (1980) protested against male dominance in mixed-

sex conversations, where males tended to interrupt their female partners and
insisted on topics of their own interest being taken up. The dominance approach
was critical of the way language used by women appeared to manifest women’s
subordination to men, implying that women’s language use signals that women
‘lack’ confidence and conviction compared to men.

Dominance approach: criticises the way women’s language appears to

manifest their subordination to men.

The (cultural) difference approach was introduced by Maltz and Borker

(1982), who noted that men and women should be regarded as members of
different speech cultures, since girls and boys grow up in different
sociolinguistic communities. In 1986 Jennifer Coates argued

(Cultural) difference approach: evaluated women’s talk as positive, but

was ultimately critiqued for its concern with ‘essentialist’ differences in
female/male language use.

[Page 126]

that generalisations about women’s talk should not only be based on mixed-sex
interaction but also should focus on women’s language among all-female
participants (Coates 1986). Additional studies of (cultural) difference in women’s
language use include Coates and Cameron (1989), Tannen (1991), Holmes
(1995) and Coates (1996). The (cultural) difference approach evaluated women’s
talk as positive, intended to promote co-operativeness, solidarity and good social
relationships among female speakers (‘tell me about your day’, ‘oh, I know just
how you feel’, ‘you don’t say’, ‘that’s really interesting’), yet was ultimately
critiqued for being too concerned with fixed, unchanging ‘essentialist’
differences between men’s and women’s styles of language use.

Discursive/Dynamic approach: interrogates stereotypical versions of

gender.

From a feminist perspective the discursive or dynamic approach suggests that

stereotypical versions of gender must always be interrogated, since they are
always open to change over time, following shifts in perceptions of identity-
making and societal power structures. Recent language and gender scholarship
also acknowledges ways in which language is regarded as constitutive of gender,
that is, as constructing and performing gender, not simply as reflecting it as fixed
and unalterable. A leading proponent of the notion of gender as ‘performative’
and diverse is Judith Butler (1990), who presents the concept of gender not as
something one ‘is’, but rather something one ‘does’ through the repeated
stylisation of the body and of language use (see also Hall & Bucholtz 2012).
A vast body of scholarly research on various approaches to language and
gender is found in Coates and Cameron 1989; Hall 1995; Coates 2003; Cameron
2005; Sunderland 2006; Sunderland and Swann 2007; Bonvillain 2008: 186–
245; Holmes and Marra 2010; and Wood 2013: 68–160, to name but a handful.

6.5.2 Toward a South African perspective

A South African perspective on language and gender in post-apartheid South
Africa is beginning to question the received Western dichotomies of female and
male language use (Reddy & De Kadt 2006). Recent South African approaches
to language and gender are based on discursive and social constructionist
accounts which perceive gender not simply as a fixed category, but rather as a
term in process.
This suggests that patterns of language choice among young South Africans,
male and female, may be changing because of the impact of language choice on
identity construction among bilingual or multilingual speakers. However, not all
these patterns indicate shifts toward re-articulating gender through language –
some reinforce traditional senses of gendered identity.
De Kadt (Appalraju & De Kadt 2002) proposes that male proficiency in
English in a rural settlement indicates a new sense of public, market-related
masculine identity. Young female speakers are often excluded from this social
arena as they often choose to link themselves by speaking Zulu. De Kadt (2004)
further comments on the apparent tendency among female students at the
University of KwaZulu-Natal to choose English over Zulu in certain social
interactions with peers. Ige
[Page 127]

and De Kadt (2002) maintain that traditional notions of Zulu masculinity may be
shifting to less tradition-oriented practices, while young Zulu females may also
be showing signs of favouring more Western feminine identities.
Bagwasi (2012) points out that the performance of politeness in Setswana
culture is also contingent on age and gender, while Buthulezi (2006) shows that
gender stereotypes still prevail in African newspaper reports on the 16 Days of
Activism campaign.
Especially interesting here is the women’s linguistic register of respect
isihlonipha sabafazi (Finlayson 1978; 1995; 2002; Dowling 2013; Herbert
1990), which pertains to Zulu, Xhosa and Sotho speakers in South Africa.
Anthropologist Ellen Krige (1950) notes that the Zulu meaning of hlonipha is ‘to
have shame or to shun through bashfulness’ (Krige 1950: 30), while
sociolinguist Stephanie Rudwick (2008) points out that in Zulu hlonipa literally
means ‘respect’ (2008: 155). Socially, hlonipha spans nonverbal signs of respect
such as avoiding eye contact, covering one’s body, not eating in the presence of
relatives-in-law and more (Krige 1950: 30–31). The linguistic facet of
isiHlonipho is based on the verbal custom of avoidance, which forbids married
women to pronounce or use words that include principal syllables of the names
of their in-laws.
Although isihlonipha is still viewed as mark of patriarchy and female
subordination (following Tannen 1990; 1994; 1999), like all linguistic strategies
hlonipha too must be regarded as ‘potentially ambiguous’ (Rudwick & Shange
2006: 480). Tannen states that
all the linguistic strategies that have been taken by analysts as evidence of
subordination can in some circumstances be instruments of affiliation.
(Tannen 1999: 268)

As suggested in section 6.2, this is because all utterances are subject to

interpretation. In other words, while certain linguistic practices may indeed be
viewed as oppressive, they may at the same time be perceived as enhancing a
speaker’s sense of self and identity. Rudwick and Shange (2006: 477–480)
further maintain that
… many Zulu women are proud of their ability to speak isiHlonipho and
celebrate their Zuluness in this regard.
The custom of respect is so deeply engrained in the Zulu culture that to lose
the linguistic ingredients is synonymous with the collapse of the traditional
‘respect system’.

In other words, the custom (typically upheld more among rural than urban
women) is also regarded a source of cultural identity and ethnic pride or
‘Zuluness’ (Rudwick & Shange 2006). For critiques of the custom, see Ntuli
2000; Luthuli 2007; Zulu 2008; see also Fandrych 2012 for an overview of
recent research on the impact of hlonipha in the context of modern, urban life.

6.5.3 Thoughts on men’s language style

Stereotypically, men are believed to pursue a style of verbal interaction and
communication based on the pursuit of power, which seeks to establish control,
preserve independence and enhance prestige, rank
[Page 128]

and status. In this view, although men seem to be more talkative than women,
they are also regarded as being less prone to discussing their emotions and
generally using a less expressive, more impersonal tone that appears to assert
male autonomy and independence, since it conveys a sense of ‘unemotional
rationality’ (Sattel 1983). Sattel aptly points out (1983: 119–120) that
… [m]ale dominance takes shape in the positions of formal and informal
power men hold in the social division of labour…. What our culture embodies
is not simply two stereotypes – one masculine, one feminine – but a set of
power and prestige arrangements attached to gender.

For a range of studies on these issues, see Maltz and Borker (1982); Sattel
(1983); Tannen (1986; 1990); Davis (1996); Kiesling (1997); Cameron (1999;
2001); Eckert and McConnell-Ginet (2003); Bonvillain (2008: 186–218); Wood
(2013: 131–139) to name but a few.
However, this approach to men’s style of language use, like early approaches
to women’s use of language, runs the risk of being too reductively oppositional.
It overlooks ways in which both men’s and women’s language use are often far
more nuanced in real life situations. For instance, it is commonly believed that
men swear far more than women, yet while there are gender differences in the
use of profanities, they are not nearly as stereotypical as might seem to be the
case (De Klerk 1991; 1997; 2011; Hall & Bucholtz 1995; Eckert & McConnell-
Ginet 2003; Bernardi 2012; on the use of slang in South Africa, see Bembe &
Beukes 2007).
It has also been widely assumed that women gossip, that gossip is ‘bad’ and
that men never gossip. However, it has been convincingly argued that gossip is
not simply ‘idle talk’ but has an important social function maintaining ‘the unity,
morals, and values of social groups’ (Gluckman 1963; Jones 1990; Spacks 1986;
Coates & Cameron 1989). While female gossip is believed to be preoccupied
with the lives and personal experiences of other women, an interesting study
suggests a correspondence between men’s football talk and gossip, though men
seem to be concerned more with the professional, rather than the personal, lives
of footballers, referees and club owners (Johnson & Finlay 1997).

6.5.4 Men’s style in the South African context

Historically, Tsotsitaal has been perceived as an example of male linguistic style
in South Africa (see Makhudu 1995; 2002; Glaser 2000; Molamu 2003;
Rudwick 2005; Hurst 2011; Hurst & Mesthrie 2013), although this view is
gradually changing, as women too are beginning to use isiTsotsi (see Rudwick
2005). Tsotsitaal emerged in South Africa’s urban settings, initially in
Sophiatown in the 1950s and is also referred to as Flaaitaal (an earlier
derivation) and Iscamtho, although by now these are recognised as different
varieties.
Ntshangase (1995; 2002) points out that Tsotsitaal and Iscamtho are urban
varieties which emerged from different social communities, with Tsotsitaal rising
from the freehold townships of Soweto (Sophiatown, Martindale and Alexandra)
and Iscamtho from the squatter communities of Orlando, Pimville, the Eastern
Native Township and the Moroka
[Page 129]

Emergency Camp. Both emerged as ‘argots or criminal languages’. It is believed

that Tsotsitaal was spoken mainly, but not only, by black males between the ages
of 15 and 55 in urban centres and emerged as a language of resistance or
defiance. It constituted a way for black youth to prevent outsiders from
following their conversations.
 Mesthrie regards Tsotsitaal as a version of how other languages are spoken in
South Africa, ranging from Afrikaans to Zulu, Sotho, Venda, Xhosa, English and
other languages. He views Tsotsitaal as a register spoken in different versions,
depending on the language being used with it to establish a specific identity. He
further claims that ‘speaking’ Tsotsitaal necessarily extends to dress style,
nonverbal attitude and mode of speech (Mesthrie 2011). Other scholars such as
David Coplan (1985) and Rob Nixon (1994) note that Tsotsitaal also borrowed
from American style and slang, incorporating these into local South African
idiom.

6.5.5 Problematising feminism in the sub-Saharan African context

Issues relating to gender and language in sub-Saharan African contexts are
different to what they are in the West, often because Western feminist discourses
cannot straightforwardly be applied to ‘some of the unique gender relations in
many parts of the African continent’ (Atanga et al 2012: 7).
In a recent issue of the journal Gender and Language (2012) Atanga et al
point out that ‘Western’ feminist discourses are viewed suspiciously in many
African contexts, since they cannot account for matrilineal tendencies (descent
through the female line) in which women are not merely objects of unequal
power relations or instances in which women marry other women in order to
ensure access to land and other resources, as among the Nnobi in Nigeria
(Amadiume 1987).
Further, gender is only one factor which presents a challenge to African
women, who face a wide spectrum of social and political hardships ranging from
acute poverty, unequal job opportunities, lack of access to land, gender-based
violence and a lack of state-provided health care, crucial in relation to HIV. The
primacy of gender in the African cultural context has been critically discussed by
Oyeronke Oyewumi (1997; 2004; cf Bakare-Yusuf 2003).

6.6 INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION IN

SOUTH AFRICA
Given South Africa’s cultural and linguistic diversity, especially post-apartheid,
it is crucial for us to increase our awareness of, and sensitivity to, the
intercultural dimensions of communication. For when people from different
cultures are involved, misunderstandings are bound to occur. In what follows we
present three different examples illustrating the relevance and complexity of
intercultural communication in South Africa.
We begin by illustrating two cases of cultural difference, of which the second
is intended to caution against applying essentialistic views to people from other
cultures. We then consider, on a different level
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entirely, how the media can construct a sense of solidarity and social cohesion
even when this doesn’t already exist in ‘reality’.
We end with a brief discussion of recent research on different manifestations
of respect in South African cultures and how this is being taken up by educators
and journalists.

6.6.1 Culture and communication

Many South Africans are ‘products’ of more than one culture, so we need to
cultivate a heightened sensitivity to other cultures, especially if we would like to
ensure South Africa’s future as a culturally interconnected social entity. Culture
and communication are always interlinked and cultural norms, values and beliefs
determine what verbal and nonverbal behaviour is deemed appropriate in a
variety of circumstances. The study of intercultural communication has
increased since the 1980s and in the 21st century has become more urgent and
more complex. As noted in section 6.1, South Africa is a multilingual and
multicultural society, where there are 11 official languages; the African
languages themselves have a variety of regional dialects.
Culture and communication are always interlinked and cultural harms,
values and beliefs determine what verbal and non-verbal behaviour is
deemed appropriate in a variety of circumstances.

Note what Khona Dlamini (2003: 53) has to say about the importance for
speakers of English of being attentive and sensitive to African cultural norms:
In African culture, when a young person greets an elder, in for example,
isiZulu, they have to be mindful of their body language, how they ‘look’ at the
elder and also ensure that the vocabulary they use befits an older person.
Furthermore, the greeting is not simply a run of the mill one-minute courtesy
call. It can extend up to 30 minutes with the elder inquiring about your
isibongo (clan name) and isithakazelo (address name of every clan) in order
to establish your lineage, and going on to ask after the health of just about
 every member of your family.

This passage highlights various aspects of cultural difference between

Westerners and/or English speakers and speakers of Zulu. Striking here are the
significance accorded to age and the respect for seniority required from Zulu
speakers. Interaction is not expected to be brief and patience is at all times
required from younger speakers as a sign of respect and deference. Consider
how similar interactions might be played out in your own indigenous
language(s) or within the mix of your own cultural background(s).

6.6.2 Essentialism and non-essentialism

Social scientists often use the terms ‘essentialism’ and ‘non-essentialism’ when
describing how we tend to perceive people from other cultures (Keesing 1994;
Holliday, Hyde & Kullman 2004). This view of how we regard other people may
be too oppositional as, in actual fact, our views range between the two options.
To communicate with people from other cultures we must make an effort to
understand the nuanced complexities of their cultural affiliations. Indeed, often
people are quite different from what we initially expect them to be like.
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An essentialist view of culture would hold that ‘a culture’ has a physical entity
as though it were a place which people can actually visit. In this view a ‘culture’
is perceived as having particular traits and is associated with a specific country,
language, religion, ethnicity and/or race. People would talk about these ‘cultures’
in specific terms such as Japanese, Hindu, Black, Spanish, etc.

Essentialism is the view that, for any specific entity (such as a cultural
group), there is a set of attributes which are necessary to its identity and
function.

A non-essentialist view of culture would view culture as a social force

manifested in particular circumstances. It would acknowledge that society is
complex, with characteristics that are not always easy to pin down. People would
notice that there was something culturally different about particular countries or
societies.
Non-essentialism is the view that there are no specific traits or ground of
being which entities of that kind must possess in order to be considered
‘that entity’.
 In an essentialist view the world is divided into mutually exclusive national
cultures. People in one culture are regarded as fundamentally different from
people in other cultures; people are seen as belonging exclusively to one national
culture and to one language. In this view, to communicate with someone from
elsewhere means we must first understand the stereotypical details of their
culture.
In a non-essentialist view people are careful about making generalisations and
culture is associated with sets of values which can be related to various groups
for any length of time. Culture is characterised by ways of talking about things
(discourse), not only by language itself. In a non-essentialist view people may
belong to and move through a complex multiplicity of cultures, both within a
particular culture and across different societies. Cultures are seen to flow,
change, intermingle and cut across and through national borders – they do not
have clearly defined boundaries.

6.6.3 The understanding supervisor?

The example in scenario 6.1 illustrates the importance of not making
presumptions about people from other cultures (Holliday, Hyde & Kullman
2004: 30–35).

SCENARIO 6.1
An Australian university lecturer by the name of Jeremy was delighted when
asked to supervise Jabu, a black student from South Africa. Jeremy had spent
three years on a science education project in South Africa and felt he knew
far more than his Australian colleagues about the country. He was sure he
could contribute significantly to helping Jabu with her research project.
Jeremy was also convinced he knew quite a lot about cultural differences
since he had made a point of reading up on cultural difference, identity and
related theoretical issues.
Jabu and Jeremy first met during a class he taught on introducing science
research. She was the only ‘overseas’ student there and she became quite
angry when he announced to all the other students that he knew her ‘context’
very well. She couldn’t quite decide what annoyed her: his tone of voice – as
though he were speaking about someone who had a handicap of some sort;
or the way he spoke more slowly – as though she may not understand
 ‘normal’ English; or simply the fact that she was being singled out for
needing special attention. Jabu was very upset by Jeremy – she found his
behaviour most patronising, at all times making sure that she knew that he
‘understood her’ and was ‘on her side’. Jabu found his attitude towards her
condescending, even humiliating.

[Page 132]

From the outset it was clear to Jabu that Jeremy was ‘trying his best’ by
speaking to her slowly and clearly. Then he began to explain to her that he
understood something about black culture in South Africa and would
therefore be able to help her to meet deadlines and to understand concepts
that might be ‘alien’ to her. Here he was referring to the generalised
stereotypical belief that people from Africa could not meet deadlines. He
even told Jabu that he knew that she would find it hard to meet deadlines,
given the ‘history of black people’ in South Africa! He also observed that she
might feel that suddenly she had to ‘compete in every sphere’ – presuming, it
seemed to Jabu, that Jeremy thought she might not be able to ‘keep up’ with
the other ‘white’ students.
This patronising attitude continued throughout the term. Whenever Jabu
showed Jeremy her work he made a big fuss of her, telling how well she had
done, as though he was surprised she could do the work at all. Jeremy gave
her informal ‘friendly’ bits of advice, in which he always put on a very ‘kind’
face, about food, rituals, marriage practices and ceremonies ‘in black
culture’. Once he even asked Jabu if she was still in touch with ‘her tribe’.
One day Jabu heard Jeremy talking about her to one of the other lecturers.
He was saying that ‘she does find it difficult to meet deadlines, but that’s
something very deep in black African culture, isn’t it’? Jabu strongly
resented this, since she knew she wasn’t having any more difficulties than
were other students; anyway, she didn’t understand why Jeremy presumed
this might have anything to do with her being ‘black African’.

What was actually happening between Jabu and Jeremy? They each had very
different perceptions of how things were proceeding. Jeremy thought he was
being supportive, inclusive and understanding. Jabu felt that she was being
treated badly and that she was even a target of racist views. Jeremy thought he
was being empathetic and co-operative, but in fact was being patronising and
talking down to Jabu. Jeremy was basically imposing on Jabu an essentialist
view of her that he himself had constructed, not giving her a chance to present
her own view of herself to him. He used ‘culturalist’ language, talking about
marriage practices, ceremonies and tribes, which made Jabu feel alienated and
‘othered’, like an outsider who didn’t belong. Jeremy was rationalising Jabu’s
‘problems’ in terms of her culture, stereotyping her instead of listening to her
own perception of how things were progressing and how she felt about being in
a foreign country.

6.6.4 Forging a sense of ‘national’ identity through sport and the

South African media
We now turn to explore how solidarity, social membership and social cohesion
can be exercised, or ‘mediated’, through the way the media constructs our
perceptions of society and positions us within these. Here we must remember
that, even though we all ‘come from somewhere’, our sense of cultural identity
is not always inherent or inborn – it is often acquired or constructed in our
minds, especially when the media is involved. Affiliation with a particular group
can give people a new different sense of identity.
Let us recall two related instances in which the media contributed to
constructing a sense of ‘national’ identity, solidarity and cohesion in South
Africa:
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1. the 1995 Rugby World Cup and, in this context;

2. the strategic transformation of Shosholoza, the Zulu theme song unofficially
chosen and sung in unison by all South Africans in support of the national
rugby team, the Springboks.
Both instances represented, as it were, a new unified South Africa during the
1995 Rugby World Cup events. This tournament is particularly interesting
because rugby was for decades perceived as a leading disseminator of
‘indigenous’ Afrikaner nationalist sensibilities (Grundlingh, Odendaal & Spies
1995: 90–105, 106–131; Shepperson 1996) and integral to white popular culture.
As John Nauright pointed out, in 1995 the Rugby World Cup was an extremely
important international sporting event among television viewers, rated the
world’s fourth largest (Nauright 1997: 177). Hosting this series of events was
motivated by a strategic decision on behalf of the South African government and
media, public and private organisations, and individual South Africans, to
optimise capital gain and international prestige in the name of ‘the newly
emerging South African nation’, which Desmond Tutu had dubbed ‘the rainbow
nation’.
Moreover, it was genuinely hoped that the Rugby World Cup would signify
South Africa’s re-entry into the market of world sport and that this re-entry
would mark the start of a new era in marketing South African sport and
sportspeople throughout South Africa and abroad, and perhaps even usher in the
Olympic Games and the 2010 World Cup (the latter actually came to pass).
Before the event, then president, Mr Mandela,
pledged full support for the national team and the event, with the concession
that the Springbok team to play in the tournament would be the last nearly
all-white rugby team to represent the country in a World Cup. (Nauright 1997:
177)

as subsequently manifest in the 2007 and 2011 Rugby World Cup and all other
international games. The decision to market the new South Africa ‘globally’, as
it were, as ‘the nation and the world in union’ (Nauright 1997: 177), suggests not
so much a direct reflection of existing social co-operation in South Africa, but
rather a collective commitment toward motivating and activating such synergy.

Shosholoza – a sense of common ancestry?

Exemplifying how social conduct adopted by ‘South Africans’ is determined not
only by their memberships in particular racial or ethnic social groups, nor by the
nature of given social events or situations, is the ‘unofficial’ transformation of
Shosholoza into a national sporting anthem for the new South Africa (Laden
2001).
Originally a mineworkers’ song sung by miners on their way from Rhodesia
(today Zimbabwe) to work in South Africa’s gold mines, Shosholoza became a
religious anthem sung by black Lutheran students in the 1960s and 1970s and,
following South Africa’s victory against the New Zealand All Black team in the
1995 Rugby World Cup, assumed
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a new socio-semiotic role as the new South Africa’s main sporting anthem
(Nauright 1997: 174).
Recorded by radio celebrity Dan Moyane, Shosholoza was widely distributed
throughout South Africa and sung at various gatherings by South Africans of all
creeds and colours in celebration of the South African team’s victory (attested by
this author at the time). Finally, through the hordes of foreign spectators who
visited South Africa for the 1995 Rugby World Cup, Shosholoza was inscribed
in the ‘global imaginary’ as part of the conciliatory image of the new South
Africa. Shosholoza continues to be nationally and internationally representative
and was proclaimed a ‘traditional South African song’ by Joseph Shabalala,
leader of the established internationally acclaimed group of South African black
vocalists, Ladysmith Black Mambazo (Harmony 1999). Reconfirming
Shosholoza’s status as a ‘nationally representative’ anthem, the arrangement
featured in the 1999 album Harmony (Gallo Record Company, RSA) fuses the
song in a musical mix with Nkosi Sikelel’i Afrika, South Africa’s current national
anthem.

During the 1995 Rugby World Cup, Shosholoza was inscribed in the
‘global imaginary’ as part of the conciliatory image of the new South
Africa, and continues to be nationally and internationally representative
of South Africa as a ‘traditional South African song’.

These two instances are intended to exemplify how a collective or social

identity can effectively be ‘forged’ or ‘manufactured’ – it does not always have
to be reflected in reality itself, but can be constructed through language, images
and perceptions generated by the media. It is important to consider here that a
‘forged’ sense of solidarity and social cohesion does not detract from the weight
and forcefulness of our perceptions – often the contrary is the case.

6.6.5 Pardon my language

Polite behaviour in the eyes of one South African might strike another as
disrespectful, depending on their mother tongue, writes Buddy Naidu (The
Sunday Times 20 January 2008).
Whatever one’s take on the subject, there are intrinsic (essentialistic)
differences of politeness between those who speak English and those who speak
indigenous African languages. This is one of the findings of research conducted
by University of Johannesburg English academic Joy Lwanga-Lumu, who has
conducted ‘politeness research’ for several years (Kasanga & Lwanga-Lumu
2007) and was interviewed by Naidu.
 Lwanga-Lumu has examined speech patterns and ‘politeness realisation
patterns’ in English and six South African indigenous languages, including
Tswana, Xhosa and Zulu, using 1 200 respondents. Lwanga-Lumu recently
published her initial findings in the Journal of Politeness Research, where she
focused on the simple act of apologising.
In English, one just has to say one word, ‘sorry’, while in African languages
there are various intonations, body gestures such as eye contact and hand
movements, to indicate an apology,

says Lwanga-Lumu. She goes on to highlight how, in Western society, failure to

make eye contact while talking to someone is sometimes considered shifty, while
in African culture not looking another directly in the eye is typically an
indication of politeness and deference. Even the act of shaking hands sends out
different messages across various cultures. In Western culture the handshake is
firm, but performed
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only once; in African culture it’s a longer ritual which might result in two people
shaking one another’s hands twice or even three times – to establish warmth.
Lwanga-Lumu conducted interviews and analysed role-playing sessions and
concluded
that there are significant differences emanating from the notion of how people
view politeness in society. We can now deduce that politeness is culture
specific and dependent on cultural norms, therefore there is a need for more
research in order to understand more about the similarities and differences
between cultural and linguistic systems in South Africa.

Lwanga-Lumu said this would make South Africans more aware of different
cultural norms and encourage them to develop a greater respect and tolerance for
other cultures. She added that a deeper understanding of differences in politeness
through culture and language would make it easier for people to avoid
stereotypical attitudes and miscommunication, commonplace in a country with
11 official languages. This would also help educators to better understand the
linguistic conduct of their students. A deeper understanding of cultural
differences is also crucial for post-apartheid South Africa as a member of the
global arena.
CEO of the National House of Traditional Leaders, Abraham Sithole, said,
 indigenous languages possess cultural aspects based on respect…. The
languages we speak … have characters of respect in them. We say a child is
ill-mannered when his tone is different or his choice of words is different.
However, among English-speaking people, these could be construed as
perfectly acceptable.

In African culture it is considered rude to raise one’s voice or point a finger at a

person when speaking to an elder. It is impolite to stand in the middle of the
room in the presence of elders and children are expected to sit as a sign of
humility in the presence of older people – this is not the case in Western cultures.
Another polite expression of gratitude and respect is seen when an African
person accepts something from another person: with the head slightly bowed, he
or she taps the palms of the hands together briefly before accepting the object in
question. Taking an object from another person with one hand is considered rude
– the term for this is ukugxavula (snatching). Sithole said that African languages
are rich in terms of ‘teaching people behaviour’. ‘We tend to behave in the way
we speak and use gestures and signs to qualify what we say,’ he said.
Stand-up comedian David Kau pointed out that he adjusted his performances
depending on the racial profile of the audience, as their are different levels of
political correctness in language use between white and mixed-race South
Africans:
A mostly black crowd would complain if one were to swear profusely or talk
about sex, while such content is considered normal with white audiences.
[Page 136]

He too confirmed that body language was part of expressing oneself in an

African language. ‘Certain jokes delivered in an indigenous tongue would never
work if translated into English, and vice versa,’ he said. ‘Some jokes cannot be
translated and are only funny if delivered in English or an African language.’ He
said that, the world over, indigenous languages relied on nonverbal
communication. Protocols must also be observed, such as removing one’s cap as
a sign of respect before older black folk, but white people don’t do this. Kau
noted that such differences often made for great comedy:
We must accept that we are different. We are constantly forced to pretend
we’re all the same, but we’re not.

We must accept that we are all different from one another. We are
 constantly forced to pretend that we’re all the same, but we’re not. Most
importantly, we must at all times respect other people’s difference(s).

President of the SA Hindu Dharma Sabha and former school principal Ram
Maharaj, commented that, in his experience, African pupils were the most
respectful.
For example, African pupils at my school used to call us ‘baba’ (father), as
they regard all elders as uncles or fathers, and this is a mark of respect.
Similarly, Indian kids are taught to address elders as ‘uncle’ or ‘aunty’. White
kids, generally, are taught to use much more formal terms, like ‘sir’ or
‘mister’.

Maharaj pointed out that the ‘body language’ of African children is endearing
and humble.
Most indigenous languages, in fact, incorporate physical and verbal aspects.
When we greet in Hindi, for example, we say ‘namaste’ and we put our hands
together. This indicates that you are making an effort in saying good morning,
or saying sorry.

CONCLUSION
This chapter addressed the significance of language in our lives as something we
take for granted and compels us to think differently about various aspects of
language, especially regarding its uses, the roles language plays in our lives, and
the ways it enables us to reflect on the centrality of language for ourselves and
others and in the world around us.

SUMMARY
The chapter first discussed the centrality of language in facilitating everyday
interaction, communication and co-operation in our daily lives, enabling us to
describe and evaluate our everyday life experiences, and significant moments in
the course of our lifetime(s).
The chapter then clarified the role of language and communication in our
everyday lives, especially in multilingual settings where speakers of different
languages are in constant contact with one another and regularly use more than
one language. It describes the links between language, thought and culture and
how languages most centrally differ from one another. The chapter then focused
on signs as linguistic units of analysis, the field of semiotics, key approaches to
how signs ‘work’,
[Page 137]

and how signs are fundamental to interpretation and the dynamic, ongoing
production of meaning. Then Jakobson’s speech act model was examined, which
revealed that language use entails far more than the transmission of information.
As the chapter aimed to make explicit aspects of language use usually taken
for granted, it clarified some of the differences between written and spoken
forms of language in English, and alluded to the ways in which conversations are
not disorganised and random, but rather structured and regulated. It also
discussed interruption as a supportive rather than solely disruptive intervention
into speakers’ talk.
The chapter then engaged with Western, South African and African
approaches to issues and problems relating to language and gender in terms of
different uses of language style by women and men. The final section of the
chapter called attention to the fact that in light of South Africa’s cultural and
linguistic diversity it is crucial to increase our awareness of the intercultural
dimensions of communication. For when people from different cultures are
involved, misunderstandings are bound to occur. We therefore ended the chapter
by addressing the relevance and complexity of intercultural communication in
South Africa, considering scenarios of cultural difference, how solidarity and
social cohesion can be constructed by and in the media, and different cultural
manifestations of respect in South African cultures.

TEST YOURSELF QUESTIONS

1. Think about your everyday communication with friends and family. Do

you conduct many of these daily encounters through spoken language?
2. Outline in writing which of your daily interactions with people are
conducted verbally, and identify the kinds of issues you tend to discuss
verbally on a regular daily basis.
3. List some of the purposes you hope to achieve by using language in your
everyday spoken interactions.
4. How many languages do you speak? How many of these do you speak on
 an everyday basis?
5. Which of your everyday interactions at university or at work are
conducted in more than one language?
6. In situations where more than one language may be used, how do you
decide which language would best serve your interests in the specific
circumstances at hand.
7. Think about your use(s) of English – when do you speak to your peers in
English?
8. Do you ever use English when speaking to people who speak African
languages in which you are proficient (such as members of your family)?
9. What languages are more suitable in specific social or family situations?
Describe when you prefer using an African language to English.
10. How do you feel about having to study and write assignments in English
at university? In the business world? In your leisure pursuits?
11. Do you read for pleasure in English or in African languages?
12. Do you think using English influences your attitude to the social
setting(s) in which you find yourself? Explain in writing why this may be
so.
13. Write down some of the ways in which the languages you speak differ
from one another in terms of what they ‘must’ convey?
14. Explain what signs are and how they work, providing examples of
different kinds of signs in illustration.

[Page 138]

15. Write down the main differences between de Saussure and Peirce’s
approaches to signs.
16. Drawing on a newspaper article, a magazine feature, or a print/television
advertisement, provide two examples of each of Jakobson’s functions.
17. List in writing five differences between spoken versus written forms of
the English language.
18. Think about how you participate in conversations. Explain the order of
two conversations you have recently conducted.
19. Describe in writing how ‘turn taking’ and interruption feature in some of
the conversations you have recently conducted.
20. Provide at least three examples of interruption and backchannel cues as
 signaling support of the speaker.
21. Describe the four approaches to women’s styles of language use in
conversations you encounter. What do these styles of language use reveal
about how women tend to communicate?
22. Think about men’s style of language use in South Africa. Write down
three examples from everyday conversations you come across.
23. Why intercultural communication is important in post-apartheid South
Africa.
24. Provide two examples of occasions in which you have misunderstood
someone because you come from different cultural backgrounds.
25. Think about situations in which you are required to convey respect and
politeness. Write down some of the ways in which you do this in English
and in African languages. Provide two examples of ways to show respect
in different languages.
[Page 139]
Part 2:
Contexts of communication studies
[Page 141]
Chapter 7
Intrapersonal communication
Danie du Plessis

OVERVIEW
All communication starts within ourselves – we ‘talk’ to ourselves when we
organise our thoughts, silently respond to what we see and hear around us or
mentally plan how to achieve some goal. This phenomenon is known as
intrapersonal communication. We are not always conscious of the fact that
we are constantly engaged in ‘self-talk’, but communication scholars have
become increasingly aware of the important role intrapersonal communication
plays in the nature of our relationships and our communication with others. In
this chapter we discuss the most important ideas that have emerged from
research into intrapersonal communication.
We begin by examining the concept of ‘self’ and identity and its various
parts. Linked to the self is the concept of personal identity and the relationship
between personal identity and groups. We consider the way we perceive
ourselves with reference to two theories: the looking-glass self and social
comparison. Because the element of subjectivity in interpreting sensory
information can result in inaccurate perceptions of oneself, we examine the
role of self-fulfilling prophecies in the process and then suggest some
guidelines for improving one’s self-concept.
Intrapersonal processing is the basis of self-concept, so we discuss five
elements in intrapersonal processing: decoding, schemata or integration,
perceptual sets, memory and decoding.
Of course, the digital age also influences the way we perceive and present
the self and therefore digital identity and personal branding in the context of
the social media are briefly investigated. A scenario is included in which you
 are invited to look objectively at the Facebook page of a friend in light of the
discussion.
The next section deals with some of the intrapersonal variables that play a
role in how we see ourselves and others. These variables are mainly
concerned with values, attitudes and beliefs.
In the final part of the chapter we suggest some intrapersonal skills that
could lead to greater insight about yourself and your interpersonal
relationships. We end the chapter with a scenario which is based on the way
perception influences our concept of ourselves.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit you should be able to:
Describe the concept of ‘self’ and its various parts.
Explain how one’s self-concept and identity develop.
Explain how the concept you have of yourself influences your
communication with others.
Explain how digital platforms influence the process of identity
development.
Explain the potential impact of social media on personal branding.

[Page 142]

Apply the five elements in intrapersonal processing to a message that has

influenced your self-concept in a negative or positive way.
List four factors that influence our perception of others.
Apply what you have learned about intrapersonal communication to your
everyday communication experiences.
Answer the questions based on the scenario at the end of this chapter.
INTRODUCTION
‘Who … are … YOU?’ This is what the caterpillar asked Alice in Alice in
Wonderland, a question which became the start of a rather confusing
conversation. In a discussion about intrapersonal communication we need to
analyse the question and the response to ‘who are you?’

This section has online support material available

To ask yourself, ‘who are you?’ may be very simple, but there is much more to
that question than what seems to be obvious.
Let’s take your name, for example.
Where does your name come from? Much of what people understand about
themselves is linked to their names – which distinguishes them from others and
which forms an integral part of their identity.

Activity
What is your name, and where does it come from?
If you don’t know, ask one of your parents or an older family member to
explain where your name comes from.

In many African families a newborn is named after a significant event at the time
or the name signifies a wish or intention of the parents. Names are deliberately
chosen for specific reasons and most Africans are able to explain the meaning of
their names.
In traditional Afrikaner families a child is named according to a very specific
‘formula’. The firstborn boy is named after the father’s father and the firstborn
girl after the mother’s mother; and the other way round for the second-born boy
and the second-born girl. The ‘rules’ prescribe a specific order for the naming of
other children, a practice which emphasises the importance of lineage for this
cultural group.
There was a reason why your parents gave you a name (even if only because
they liked it), which became an ingrained part of your identity. Since your very
early childhood your name became you. If anyone asks you who you are, you
respond by introducing yourself, giving your name. By this symbolic act you tell
people, ‘this is me’.
In certain contexts people are deprived of their identity by deliberately not
being identified by name, but are given a number that will take away their
uniqueness – to become depersonalised. It is much easier to deal with numbers
than individuals with names that make them persons. The late President Nelson
Mandela was known as ‘prisoner 46664’ for
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the 27 years he was imprisoned (466th prisoner of the year 1964 on Robben
Island). Another example of how people were dehumanised can be found in
Victor Hugo’s epic novel Les Misérables, where the main character, Jean
Valjean, is a prisoner known by his number 24601. If you are a number, you
cease to be a person – an individual – and a human.
Because we are human we are constantly involved in planning, dreaming,
thinking and worrying about what is happening in the world around us. In other
words, we are constantly engaged in intrapersonal communication –
communication within the self to the self. Research conducted into intrapersonal
communication confirms the view that, ‘The first step towards effective
communication with others is successful communication with yourself’ (Barker
& Gaut 2002). But what is this ‘self’ with whom we communicate?

Intrapersonal communication is the communication within the self to the

self.

7.1 THE SELF AND IDENTITY

Stets and Burke (2000: 224) see the self as
reflexive in that it can take itself as an object and can categorise, classify or
name itself in particular ways in relation to other social categories or
classifications.

The self is therefore shaped in very much the same way as we form an opinion
about other people. Identity is a dynamic process that will keep on changing
until the end of our lives.
A baby exits the womb aching for human contact. This urge to attach or to be
attached is the first form of communication and forms the basis for identity and
the self (Macke 2008: 126). Communication is related to being in communion –
to have something in common. However, in forming identities it is not only the
positive ‘having something in common with others’ that assists in development
but also those things that we fear in ourselves because we know through
experience that others don’t like them.
The self therefore does not exist in itself – it has to be in relation to others, it
signifies a position, the self develops in interaction. As a child grows older its
self develops. Usually it is only during and after puberty that the individual will
reach outside the world of his/her close environment which is not dominated by
family and its discursive environment (Macke 2008: 128).
Rimskii (2011: 80) defined identity as:
the state of the individual’s consciousness in which, on the basis of the
aggregate set of personal characteristics, one knows oneself, one recognises
the stability of one’s own personality, one separates oneself from the
surrounding reality, and one determines one’s membership in a particular
social group and, conversely, acknowledges the impossibility of belonging to
other social groups….

If relations and interactions between a baby, its parents and closest family (and
caretakers) are well and properly established, it can be expected that the child
will develop a normal identity (Rimskii 2011: 81). An individual will develop an
identity in response to the way that individual has been treated by others from
the first moments of awareness.
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Identities are sometimes perceived as social roles in communicating with other

people. Specific social roles are learnt by an individual’s ability to form
appropriate responses to corresponding stereotypes of behaviour and assessment
of a situation. Therefore, for example, children play to assist them to become
aware of the nature of different social roles and to help them shape their
identities when they accept particular roles and reject others (Rimskii 2011: 81).

Through play, children become aware of the nature of different social

roles and this helps to shape their identities.

Macke (2008: 122) claims that communication on the intrapersonal level can
be seen as a ‘one-person communication system’ and the individual can also be
seen as a self-observer. Stewart (1990: 115) defines the self in two dimensions:
The self is an internal thing – a composite of personality characteristics,
 attitudes, values, beliefs and habits that make us unique.

It is also a social thing:

… [I]t grows out of contacts with others and functions primarily to guide our
communication….

Note that the self and communication are closely related – the self is shaped in
relationship with others and, in turn, the self guides our communication and
relationships with others.

Even without reading this chapter you already, intuitively, realise that you
have a private self and a public self (the way you project yourself to different
audiences). A well-known theorist, Erving Goffman (1975), maintains that
we are constantly engaged in playing roles or staging performances in order
to create the desired impression on other people. We learn to monitor the
private and public selves.
We can also distinguish between other forms of self, such as:
The physical self is the material body with its internal functions and
outward appearance. Included here is also the material self because many
people identify themselves in terms of what they have – their material
possessions, such as their cars, houses, clothes and so on.
Another self that you may have identified is the emotional self. Some
people are regarded as more emotional than others because they respond
to situations ‘from the heart’ (emotionally) rather than with detached
rationality. Our emotional responses to situations are often fleeting and
should not be the basis of stereotypical generalisations.
The intellectual self is associated with our mental processes and has to do
with problem-solving, reasoning, analysis and logical thinking. Our
education plays a role in how we view our intellectual self.
Finally, we have a moral self, consisting of our values, the principles we
uphold and our ethical beliefs.
There are two important features of the self. First, we cannot separate the
parts of the self – in reality they all work together. We see ourselves as a
whole and our communication reflects the whole self. Secondly, the self is
not inborn or static, but rather active and dynamic. It grows and changes
 throughout our lives.

7.1.1 Personal identity

Identity in context
Humans are hardwired to categorise. From very early we categorise all
information we access, at first in simple categories and later on in more
complicated sets of categories. Stets and Burke (2000: 226) explain that in social
identity theory the focus is on the way people see themselves
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as members of a group or category by comparing themselves and their group

with other groups (in the next section we deal with this). On the other hand,
identity theory emphasises that one has to fulfil expectations of a role and co-
ordinate and negotiate interaction with role partners – and control resources for
which the role has responsibility.
This means that one adopts certain roles such as being a parent, a member of a
family, a manager (or worker) in the workplace, a member of a church group or
simply being part of a circle of friends.
There are many identities relating to the contexts in which we find ourselves.
For example, the identities of teacher and student are defined in terms of the
school context. Various types of identities can be described.
Shin and Kelly (2013: 141–145) discuss, for example, vocational identity as a
crucial aspect of an individual’s vocational development. They link
psychological well-being with positive career goals, finding that those with a
high degree of purpose in their lives will also have clear and stable career goals.
The inhibition of vocational identity development may lead to ‘career indecision,
role confusion and negative mental health consequences such as depression,
anxiety and low self-esteem’. Vocational identity development is influenced by
intrapersonal characteristics (such as personality traits), relational influences
(specifically family relations) and a form of adaptation to the social context.
Another example is provided by Goode (2010), who investigated students’
‘technology identity’: how comfortable students are with technology and how
they utilise the tools and discourses relating to technology in the learning
environment. Technology identity is the basis of what we believe about our use
of technology and how skilled we are in using technology productively. To what
extent are individuals using technology to have a positive impact on their
studies? A new digital divide has arisen, indicating that those with sufficient
exposure to technology from an early age have a huge advantage over others
who didn’t have access or early exposure to technology.
Context is therefore an important issue in a discussion of identity. However,
identity is not only personal but also, as mentioned earlier, occurs in relation to
groups.

A new digital divide has arisen, indicating that those with sufficient
exposure to technology from an early age have a huge advantage over
those who don’t.

Identity and groups

The individual
has a sense of his own self by way of his social interactions with others; in a
sense, he is reflected in others and he understands himself in this way.
(Rimskii 2011: 82)

The newborn baby finds its identity in the relationships that surround it. Human
touch and close physical contact are the baby’s first experiences of itself and
form the basis of whether the baby feels comfortable, accepted, nurtured, etc.
With physical development come different skills, different ways of perception
and language skills to articulate (also intrapersonal) needs and experiences. The
circle of meaningful others increases within the family and extended family and
in other social contexts. The child’s world grows bigger and is
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extended, for example, to broader contexts of pre-primary school contact with

peers and other groups at school and other contexts. Most of these influence the
development of a personal identity. However, the role of groups and the
processes of categorisation become more dominant in the development of
identity formation the older the child gets. Having a particular social identity
means that one is similar to others in the group and mostly sees things from the
group’s perspective (Rimskii 2011).
There is general consensus that humans are social beings and that groups play
an important role in the formation of identity (both individual and as
collectives). However, there is also in this area a debate going on about genetics
versus environmental influences. Below are two arguments that highlight the
different approaches. Weber, Johnson and Arceneaux (2011) argue for a genetic
component, whereas the study by Wolff and Munley (2012) indicates that the
social environment (in this case specifically family) has a huge impact on how
people relate to groups.

The influence of genetics vs environmental influences on the formation

of identity is an ongoing debate.

Weber, Johnson and Arceneaux (2011: 1315) argue that belonging to groups is
important in structuring identity and has an impact on association, collective
action and sociability within and outside the group. How this is experienced is
different for individuals in their sense of belonging to and the way they identify
with groups. They need not only to belong but also have a strong need to be
unique individuals. People are seeking a balance between similarity to others and
being their distinct selves. This search causes humans to categorise and identify
‘in’ groups and ‘out’ groups which are often based on arbitrary criteria such as
race and religion. In their study they claim that personality has both a genetic
and an environmental basis, and prove that there is also a genetic component to
the way people interact with groups.
Wolff and Munley (2012) investigated the connections between different
aspects of identity development as a response to the studies which looked at
identity models that describe aspects of collective group identity such as race,
gender, college student development, sexual orientation and others. They
specifically looked at the ways in which white racial and feminist identity
development relate to each other at American institutions. They also investigated
the relationship of family environment to race and feminist identity
development. In their study they found (Wolff & Munley 2012: 302) those
students from more open-minded families, where the families promoted
engagement with a variety of perspectives, were associated with more active
anti-racist world views and well-developed feminist identities. Families which
allowed less exposure to opinions different from their own were related to more
prejudicial racial attitudes and less feminist identity development.

7.1.2 Self-concept
In the literature on intrapersonal communication you will come across the terms
‘self-concept’, ‘self-image’ and ‘self-esteem’. Although some theorists argue that
there are slight differences
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between each of these terms, in this chapter we use the terms synonymously.
Self-concept can be described as everything that people think and feel about
themselves. It includes appearance, physical and mental capabilities, attitudes
and beliefs, strengths and weaknesses – that is, it includes the whole self. It is
this mental image that is communicated to others through the way you behave in
a particular situation (Verderber 1990).
When we feel good about our achievements and our relationships we also tend
to value and feel good about ourselves. The more we value ourselves, the more
likely we are to meet the challenges that come our way and perform well in a
variety of situations. Success tends to breed success. People who think well of
themselves generally think well of others and are more successful in their private
and professional lives. When we perceive ourselves as failures we are more
likely to behave in ways that cause us to fail and our relationships often suffer as
a result. It is important to understand, however, that in building a positive self-
concept it does not help to merely praise yourself. A great deal depends on the
way others evaluate you and your achievements (Gamble & Gamble 1998: 52).

Self-concept is everything people think and feel about their whole self.

Developing a self-concept
How does a self-concept develop? We said earlier that our self-concept is shaped
by our relationships with others. The way we perceive ourselves depends to a
large extent on how we believe others see us. The link with others is
communication. From the moment we are born we become aware of how others
see us through their verbal and nonverbal communication. As we interact with
parents and siblings, and later with peers and teachers, employers and
colleagues, we internalise their views about us so that they become part of how
we see ourselves. Think about the effects the messages of others have on you,
especially those you respect. You will probably agree that positive messages
make you feel accepted, worthwhile, valued, lovable and significant, whereas
negative messages tend to make you feel inferior, worthless, left out, unloved or
insignificant. In general, the more positive you feel about factors such as your
physical appearance, capabilities and the impression others have of you, the
more positive your self-concept and your communication about yourself. The
more negative you feel about yourself and the impression others have of you, the
more negative your self-concept and the way you communicate about yourself
(Brewer, Gonsalkorale & Van Dommelen 2013).

Constant reception of negative relational messages undermines your self-

concept; while frequent positive relational messages reinforce your self-
concept.

If you constantly receive negative relational messages, the way you see
yourself will be undermined. On the other hand, frequent positive relational
messages will reinforce your self-concept.

Theories of self-concept

Looking-glass self
A theory about the development of self-concept that is based on the feedback
you receive from people around you is the looking-glass self.
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This theory maintains that we evaluate ourselves on the basis of how we think
others perceive and evaluate us. These reflected perceptions are formed during
our interactions with others and are combined to make up what can be called the
generalised other, a concept which Mead introduced already in 1934. The
generalised other is made up of impressions formed during our interpersonal
relationships and also from our interactions with society. The perspectives of the
generalised other reflect the values, experiences and understanding of a
particular society. Some of these perspectives are learned during interpersonal
communication, but others are communicated to us through the mass media and
other social institutions that reflect cultural values. For instance, when we read
popular magazines, watch TV or go to the movies we are inundated with
impressions of how we should look, behave and feel. It effectively constitutes
the ‘social norm’ (Tubbs & Moss 2003; Wood 2002).

Looking-glass self: we evaluate ourselves based on how we think others

perceive and evaluate us.

Social comparison
Whereas the looking-glass self is based on reflected appraisals from others or
how others view us, social comparison suggests that, in forming a self-concept,
we use others as a measuring stick to assess ourselves. In other words, we
compare ourselves with others, especially our peers, to form judgements of our
talents, abilities, qualities and so on. In this process we use social comparisons in
two ways. First, we make comparisons to decide whether we are like others or
different from them. Are we the same sex, age, colour, religion? Do we have
friends in common? Are our social and economic backgrounds similar? What
about political beliefs, values and ethics? Research has shown that people
generally feel more comfortable with others that are like them, so we prefer to
socialise with people who are similar to us.

Social comparison: developing our self-concept by using others as a

measuring stick to assess yourself.

The second way we use social comparison is to measure ourselves in relation

to others. You must know people who regard themselves as ‘superior’ and others
who have what is commonly called an ‘inferiority complex’ because they are
constantly underrating themselves and their abilities. We decide whether we are
superior or inferior by comparing ourselves with others. Am I as pretty as Alida?
Am I as clever as Thabo? Do I play chess or soccer as well as David or Loyiso?
By comparing ourselves with others we form an image or concept of ourselves
based on how we measure up on various criteria. Although this is a normal and
necessary process in forming a realistic self-concept, we should not undermine
ourselves with constant comparisons to fashion models or professional athletes,
for example, because then we are setting unreasonable standards and are bound
to underrate ourselves.
Table 7.1 summarises some important differences between people with
positive and negative perceptions of themselves (Adler, Rosenfeld & Proctor
2001: 73).
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Table 7.1 Characteristics of communicators with positive and negative self-esteem

Persons with positive self-esteem Persons with negative self-esteem

1. Are likely to think well of others 1. Are likely to disapprove of others
2. Expect to be accepted by others 2. Expect to be rejected by others
3. Evaluate their own performance 3. Evaluate their own performance
more favourably less favourably
 4. Perform well when being 4. Perform poorly when being
watched; are not afraid of others’ watched; are sensitive to possible
reactions negative reactions
5. Work harder for people who
5. Work harder for undemanding,
demand high standards of
less critical people
performance
6. Are inclined to feel comfortable
6. Feel threatened by people they
with others they view as superior
view as superior in some way
in some way
7. Have difficulty defending
7. Are able to defend themselves
themselves against others’
against negative comments of
negative comments; are more
others
easily influenced

An important characteristic of self-concept is that it is not a fixed entity, but

changes with your age and the situations you find yourself in. For example, do
your colleagues at work or at college see you in the same way as your family or
friends? Do you see yourself differently in different situations? The element of
subjectivity in interpreting sensory information can result in inaccurate
perceptions of yourself. A problem is that such inaccuracies often cause self-
fulfilling prophecies.

Self-fulfilling prophecies
Have you ever made assumptions about what sort of person a new
acquaintance is? And then found that he or she in fact behaves in the way
you predicted?
It is equally true that all of us also interpret messages in ways that confirm
what we already think of ourselves. What we believe about ourselves often
comes true because we expect it to come true. We refer to this as a self-
fulfilling prophecy. Self-fulfilling prophecies occur when our expectations of
an event help create the very conditions that allow the event to happen. If
you think that you will fail a science examination because you believe that
you are not good at science, then you will most likely begin to act the part.
 Poor study habits and low marks reinforce your negative feelings and a
vicious circle of events begins. Then you will have to overcome not only
your deficiency in science but also your low expectation of yourself.
On the other hand, if you expect to do well at something, you often do
well because – without being aware of it – you have prepared yourself for
success. People who consistently perform well in job interviews, for
example, report that they make the effort to keep their emotions under
control, dress appropriately and mentally rehearse the sort of questions they
expect to face and the answers they will give. As a result they are more
confident in the interview than people who tell themselves that they are
going to botch the interview – and usually do.
Google ‘placebo effect’ in the context of medical studies and see the
impact of suggestion on health.

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Because the self-concept reflects the image of who we think we are, not
necessarily who we really are, we are usually not very objective about ourselves.
In order to improve one’s self-concept it is important to develop a measure of
self-awareness.

Improving the self-concept

Even though it is more secure to maintain an established image of ourselves,
most people would like to improve their self-concept. However, too often people
decide they are going to change their behaviour overnight and are then
disappointed when they fail. Change is a gradual process and requires a great
deal of self-discipline. It is helpful to set realistic goals for yourself and
encourage someone close to you to monitor your efforts. Pick one area in which
you would like to improve yourself and see if you can work out why you have
had problems in this area.
Try to deliberately become aware of your communication behaviour to
determine how it has been influenced by other people’s messages. Do the people
in your environment support you in your endeavours or do they deliberately try
to hold you back?
Learn to monitor the positive and negative feedback that others send you and
adjust your behaviour accordingly. Some individuals who were raised by overly
critical parents, for example, find it difficult to accept the positive comments
about themselves that they receive from others. Others simply choose to ignore
the negative feedback they receive.
It is important to be aware of how accurately you perceive the context in
which you are communicating.

7.1.3 Self-concept and intrapersonal communication

Earlier in this chapter we said that people develop a concept of who they are by
internalising positive and negative messages from others. Internalising messages
is a complex process that involves taking in information and ‘shifting’ it around
to various parts of the brain to make sense of it and then either acting on it or
storing it for future use. There are five main elements in intrapersonal
processing, all of which overlap to some extent. These are decoding or
cognition, integration, memory, schemata or perceptual sets, and encoding
(Burton & Dimbleby 1995). As you study the five elements, remember that we
are describing the internal communication process through which we give
meaning to the positive and negative messages that influence our image of
ourselves.
Five main elements in intrapersonal processing:
Decoding/cognition
Integration
Memory
Schemata/perceptual sets
Encoding

Decoding is that part of the process through which messages (information)

are taken into the brain and made sense of.
Integration refers to that part of the process during which the various bits of
information are put together. We relate one piece of information to another,
make comparisons and analogies, draw distinctions and then categorise or
make a decision about which piece of information belongs with what.
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Memory is the storehouse of intrapersonal communication. In it are kept facts

and events, attitudes, previous judgements and beliefs.
Schemata or perceptual sets, describe structures of thinking or ways of
organising information. They provide us with frameworks we have built up
 over the years for making sense of what we have experienced. We might, for
instance, have one schema for organising how we perceive feminine and
masculine traits, another for evaluating beauty, another for assessing
friendship and so on.
Encoding is the final organising part of the process in which meaning has
been assembled and signs (words) arranged to produce meaningful
communication. In the intrapersonal process the encoded communication is to
ourselves. It is our internal response to the message we decoded in the first
stage of intrapersonal processing.

7.2 THE SELF IN THE DIGITAL AGE

The Internet – and specifically social media – has changed the way we deal with
traditional social interaction such as living, belonging and communicating. In the
previous section we established that our interaction with others plays a role in
the forming of identity. Next this process of engagement and interaction with
others is extended into the digital world. The question now is to what extent the
development of identity is influenced in and by a digital world.

The Internet has changed the way we deal with social interaction and we
need to establish the extent to which identity development is influenced
in and by a digital world.

7.2.1 Digital identity

In the previous section we saw that individuals in the real world play different
roles and that identity is related to those real-life roles. Social networking sites
make it more difficult to distinguish between real people and their online
presence. Social networks represent relationships, which then has an impact on
the processes of identity development.
Hongladarom (2011) argues that there seems to be an emergent new kind of
‘self’ that develops in the social media sphere. He claims that the line between
the offline self and the online self is becoming ‘blurred’. On Facebook and other
social networking sites the participants are open to all, except where privacy
settings are used to keep different audiences out. All of these are evidence of
connectedness and represent relationships that are now, in one space, mixing
groups that in an offline self would have been linked to different roles.
 Social media blurs the line between online and offline self. This is
evident in the online mixing of groups that would have been separated
by the different roles of the self offline.

Activity – discuss with your friends

‘Friends’ in a social network such as Facebook are from various contexts
(such as parents, siblings, other family, school friends, colleagues, church,
etc). Do you think that this results in a situation where you are represented as
more true to yourself? (You cannot play different roles for different
audiences.)

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Modern society is characterised by an environment in which identity is even

more complex and not tied to place or even groups, such as nation. Merchant
(2005) argues that identity is produced through action and performance. The
digital world provides a context for young people for identity play and
performance. He shows that children ‘coconstruct anchored and transient
identities in informal peer-to-peer communication’. Zhao, Grasmuck and Martin
(2008) studied online presentation and found that in anonymous online
environments people tend to engage in role-play and engage in anti-normative
behaviour. They then studied Facebook accounts (remember, this was in 2008)
and found that in this more personal environment, where their identities are
known, people claim their identities implicitly rather than explicitly, by showing
rather than telling and prefer to demonstrate group and consumer identities
instead of personally narrated identities.
Chittenden (2010) indicates that blogs (which resemble online diaries) provide
a space for teenagers to write about their experiences and publish their thoughts
on the Internet. She sees this as a resource for them in their formation and
enactment of social identities. Bronstein (2013) investigated the way in which
bloggers present themselves in their blogs, as well as the frequency and degree
of disclosure of personal information. She found that ‘bloggers created a virtual
presence in their blogs perceived as a “protected space” ‘. Bloggers in this study
described their blogs as being part of their selves.

7.2.2 Personal branding

Related to the idea of virtual identity, Groskop (2008) claims that personal
branding has become possible with social media and the Internet. The argument
is that no one can avoid the reality that individuals are also brands. She claims
that
[i]f we are mentioned online, we have a brand and a reputation…. Everyone
from a potential employer to a prospective blind date can check out our brand
online.

Personal branding is the ongoing process of establishing a specific

image or impression about your self in the minds of others.

If you have a Facebook profile, you are reachable through online search engines.
A search for any name will bring you to a Facebook page or another social
media platform where you can discover a large amount of personal information –
open to scrutiny by anyone. If this is not managed, it can be detrimental.
Van Dijck (2013) argues that social media are ‘popular stages for self-
expression, communication and self-promotion’. The questions he tries to
answer are how public identities are shaped through the different platforms and
how public and professional identities are enabled and constrained. He came to
the conclusion that users aim at consistency on different platforms and claims
that users became extremely skilled in self-presentation. Users have various
needs – such as to be expressive, communicative and promotional – and need to
shape a consistent picture across platforms. Users may employ different
strategies on different platforms, but they try to synchronise to ensure that they
present a coherent image in self-presentation. He came to the conclusion that
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… [a]fter all, social media are not neutral stages of self-performance – they
are the very tools for shaping identities.

Ultimately, they are also the tools that will project your brand – in answer to the
question, ‘Who are you?’

SCENARIO 7.1
OPEN A FRIEND’S FACEBOOK PAGE
Look carefully at the information you have access to: various likes – such as
 films, books, organisations, television programmes, personalities, music, etc;
profile information and pictures; and other personal details.
Read the past two months’ posts links and shares.
Read comments made by the person on other pages and post responses.

After studying the content, distance yourself from your relationship and try
to objectively summarise your opinion of your friend based on the readily
available information. Try to anticipate what a potential employer would
make of the information that you studied.

7.3 INTRAPERSONAL VARIABLES

Throughout this section we have emphasised that perception is a personal
process: you are the major actor in the perception process. By recognising that
you have biases and that you are not always open to the information around you,
you can increase the probability that your perceptions will provide you with
accurate information about the world around you and the people in it.
There are several other intrapersonal factors which also create biases in our
interpretation of ourselves, others and the events around us. Barker and Gaut
(1996: 123) refer to these as the ‘intrapersonal variables’ that influence
communication. Among others, they include your personality traits, past
experiences and the defence mechanisms you use to resolve conflicts and
anxiety. For example, the experiences of someone who has recently been
divorced will no doubt affect that person’s communication on the subject of
marriage. Similarly, some of us deal with our failures by repressing them – that
is, keeping certain thoughts and feelings below the conscious level so that we do
not have to think about them. Others deal with the same situation by attempting
to justify their failures, a process known as rationalisation. Some of these
variables assist communication and others create barriers to communication by
interfering in the transmission and interpretation of messages.
For the purpose of this book we have limited our discussion of intrapersonal
variables to values, attitudes, beliefs, opinions and prejudices.

Intrapersonal variables that influence communication:

Values
Attitudes
Beliefs
 Opinions
Prejudices

7.3.1 Values
Values are the moral and ethical judgements we make about things that are
important to us. ‘World peace ought to be our highest goal’

Values are the moral and ethical judgements we make about things that
are important to us.

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and ‘Cleanliness is next to godliness’ are examples of values. All of us learn a

value system as we develop from childhood to adulthood.
Our values are instilled in us from our earliest interpersonal relationships. For
most of us the most important influence is our parents. Because values are
enduring concepts of right and wrong, good and bad, we don’t give them up
easily. Values are central to our behaviour and our concept of who we are in that
they provide standards by which we may assess experience, including
communication from others.
The word ‘standards’ of course suggests that values are relative (Burton &
Dimbleby 1995). What people value in one culture may not be so valued in
another. What is valued at one time may not be valued at another. Differences in
values occur because we have different needs and our social and physical
circumstances change over time. For example, most Western cultures accept as
‘right’ that the elderly should go to retirement homes, whereas in most African
cultures, where family values include the belief that the elderly should be looked
after at home, this practice is considered ‘wrong’.
We also need to take into account that contradictory messages about values
may cause conflict in the development of self-concept in young people. A father
may instil in his children the value that honesty is always paramount, yet they
hear him smugly tell his wife how he cheated on his income tax declaration to
save a few rands.
Gamble and Gamble (1998: 265) sum up their discussion on values with the
following insightful comments:
Our values provide us with a relatively persistent framework for deciding
what we think is right or wrong, which goals to aspire to, whom to listen to,
and how to live. They provide us with criteria for evaluating people, ideas and
 actions. Our values indicate what we find desirable and to what extent, and,
consequently, what we are willing to strive for.

7.3.2 Attitudes
Related to values are attitudes. An attitude is a learned reaction to a person or
situation. It implies a positive or negative evaluation of someone or something.

An attitude is a learned reaction – either positive or negative – to a

person or a situation.

A person who believes that pornography is detrimental to society would have

a negative attitude towards any magazine or film, for instance, that depicts and
promotes pornography. In our relationships people come to expect a pattern of
behaviour from us based on what they have learned about our attitudes. Should
we behave differently, they might say that we are acting out of character and
they might also revise their opinion of our attitudes and values.
Where do we learn our attitudes? They develop mainly from our family,
religion, education, economic and social class and culture. We communicate our
attitudes in our verbal and nonverbal interactions. Every time we communicate
we display our attitudes. Facial expressions, postures and gestures often reveal
our attitudes more clearly than words, even when we remain silent because,
perhaps, we disapprove of someone’s views.
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7.3.3 Beliefs, opinions and prejudices

Beliefs are the building blocks of attitudes. They provide the basis or foundation
for the attitudes we hold. A belief is anything that is accepted as true without a
negative or positive judgement. For example, you might believe in life after
death, but your belief does not involve a positive or negative judgement of that
idea. However, should you say that, because you believe in life after death, it
would be in our best interests to prepare for a life hereafter, you would be
voicing an opinion on the subject.
A belief is anything that is accepted as true without a negative or positive
judgement.

Where do our beliefs come from? Sometimes we believe information because

it comes from a reliable source. For example, you believe that flossing your teeth
after each meal will prevent tooth decay because your dentist, a qualified
knowledgeable professional, told you so. He or she does not have to provide
proof. Sometimes we believe information because we read it or hear it on
television, without realising that the source of the information may be biased.
Because we don’t always require proof in order to believe the things we do, our
beliefs are often not necessarily logical. Instead, we often allow our beliefs to
influence our interpretations of events and people. We sometimes distort what
we see and hear and then behave in ways that are consistent with what we think
is true.

An opinion is a view or judgement that is not necessarily based on fact

or knowledge.

Some of our beliefs are about our selves and therefore influence our
relationships because the more positive our beliefs about our selves, the more
confident our communication becomes. If you believe that you have good
communication skills, for example, the more likely you are to communicate with
confidence and, in turn, the more strongly that belief will be reinforced.
Unfortunately, some people’s abilities do not match their beliefs and they may
fool themselves into believing that they are good communicators. Burton and
Dimbleby (1995: 16) point out that the correlation between beliefs and
behaviour is that ‘we try actively to get others to behave in ways which accord
with our main beliefs about ourselves’.
Some of our beliefs and opinions are based on preconceived ideas and not on
our own experiences. Such beliefs and opinions are the basis of the stereotypes,
or preformed judgements, about a person, group or thing. When stereotypes
become deeply entrenched we refer to them as prejudices. Prejudices are
extremely dangerous because they are very resistant to change and are
accompanied by strong emotional reactions (Ellis & McClintock 1994). Think
about people who have strong racial prejudices and the emotional reactions these
produce. While none of us is entirely free from prejudices, some are more
harmful to our communication and relationships than others.

Prejudices are deeply entrenched stereotypes.

7.4 CULTURAL AND GENDER DIFFERENCES

Verderber and Verderber (2001) refer to research that shows that culture
influences perception and one’s view of oneself. The Western view of self is that
the individual is an independent entity with distinct abilities, traits, motives and
values that cause
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behaviour. People with this view regard the individual as the most basic social
unit. This individual builds a positive self-concept by being independent from
others and discovering and expressing individual uniqueness.
Other cultures, mainly African and Eastern, have a different set of values
regarding self-concept. They see the family, not the individual, as the basic
social unit. These cultures value interdependence among individuals, so that
someone from an African or Eastern culture would view the characteristics that
Westerners value so highly as shortcomings. Whereas Western children are
taught the values of independence and develop high self-esteem from them, in
other cultures children are socialised towards greater interdependency and
develop higher self-esteem when they perceive themselves to be co-operative,
helpful and self-effacing.
Similarly, one’s culture creates perceptions of men’s and women’s roles in
society. If women are expected to be homemakers and nurturing mothers rather
than to pursue careers, then women who perceive themselves to have the skills to
attend to family life feel good about themselves. Women who do not have these
attributes are likely to be less confident about their role in society and are likely
to have a more negative self-concept.

7.5 PERCEPTION OF OTHERS

The interaction between the senses and the environment not only provides us
with information about ourselves but also about the people with whom we come
into contact. When two people meet they form initial impressions of each other,
which will be reinforced or changed as they continue to interact.
You are introduced to Nikiwe at a conference, for example, and would like to
find out which company she represents. Before you even start a conversation
you form an impression of her. This impression influences your reactions to her
and determines what you will say and how you will say it. If you perceive her as
arrogant and self-centred, your communication will be different than if you
perceive her as friendly and outgoing. It is difficult to explain how such
impressions are formed, but they are certainly related to your perception of her.
Nonverbal behaviour plays the most important role in the way first
impressions are formed. Of all the nonverbal codes you studied in Chapter 5, the
most relevant in this respect are, in this order: race, gender, age, appearance,
facial expressions, eye contact, movement, personal space and touch (Verderber
& Verderber 2001). These characteristics help us to categorise people as friendly,
intelligent, laid-back and so on, or their opposites. We could say that we perceive
others in order to make sense of their social behaviour.
We can conclude that verbal and nonverbal communication are extremely
important in the process of perceiving others because we obtain information
about their attitudes, personality and emotional state. We need this information
to make sense of their behaviour and to deduce meaning about what they may be
thinking and feeling.
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This information, in turn, helps us to plan our own communication behaviour.

There are so many factors influencing perception that we cannot take the
accuracy of our perceptions for granted. We have to consider whether they are
correct. At times our impressions are so inaccurate that our understanding of
people and situations is distorted. An awareness of how inaccuracies in our
perception of others occur can help to improve our relationships.

Factors influencing perception:

Emotional state
Selective perception
Fundamental attribution error
False consensus
False consistency
Primacy effect
Halo effect
Stereotyping

Emotional state: The feelings people experience at a particular time affect

the nature of perception. First impressions are especially vulnerable to
fluctuations in mood.
Selective perception: Selective perception means that people choose
information according to their existing attitudes, values and beliefs. In plain
language, it means that people see what they want to see and hear what they
want to hear.
Fundamental attribution error: Fundamental attribution error is the term for
 the practice of sometimes attributing cause and blame to people rather than to
circumstances. We tend to assume that someone who says or does something
we do not like has negative feelings about us instead of taking into account
the external causes that might have prompted their behaviour.
False consensus: Most of us tend to believe that other people agree with the
views we express and, as a result, we mistakenly project our own values and
beliefs onto them.
False consistency: False consistency refers to the fact that we prefer people to
be predictable. We therefore tend to believe that their behaviour is more
consistent than it really is.
The primacy effect: This is the tendency to fix first impressions in one’s
mind and to build on these rather than to be open to changing our views of
others. The recency effect refers to the alternative tendency for people to
perceive others in terms of the last thing they said or did.
Halo effect: The halo effect occurs when we form perceptions of people
based on the observation of a single characteristic which they display. We
allow that characteristic to influence our impressions of that person without
first verifying them.
Stereotyping: As we form impressions of other people we tend to classify
them into categories on the basis of their characteristics. We put them into
groups based on their race, religion, occupation, age, gender, physical
disabilities, accent or socio-economic level. Thus when we think about a
teenager, a foreigner, a lawyer, a trouble-maker or the elderly we assume that
they will display all the characteristics we have come to associate with that
type.
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SCENARIO 7.2
After you have studied this scenario and thought about the situation, write
down your own views about how the case relates to what you have studied in
this chapter, for example perception of self and others, the development of
self-concept, self-fulfilling prophecies and self-disclosure. Then suggest
ways in which Lerato could create better relationships with her work
colleagues and her superiors.
Lerato was sitting in the cafeteria at work, drinking a cup of coffee and
wondering why she had not got the promotion she had applied for. She was
disappointed and surprised because she had been so confident that by the
following month she would be a supervisor in her department. She had
already planned on moving to a new apartment because the increase in salary
would have covered the higher rent. When Peter sat down next to her she
mumbled a greeting and hardly smiled at him. In reply to his question about
what was bothering her, she started telling him about the interview with the
management committee.
When she had finished Peter said: ‘You know, I’m a friend as well as a
work mate and that’s why I’m going to tread on your toes and perhaps sound
unkind. But maybe you should think again about how you come across –
how other people see you.’
‘What do you mean? I made sure that I answered all their questions
positively and emphasised my abilities and strong points – I even told them
about the changes I would implement immediately.’
‘Yes, but maybe they thought you were just too domineering.’
‘Domineering! I’m not domineering. Anyway, how can you be a
supervisor unless you can show that you are in control of every situation?’
‘Being in control doesn’t mean that you always have to get your own way.
I’ve seen you badger people until they agree with you – and they often don’t
like it.’
Seeing the look of amazement on Lerato’s face, Peter quickly said: ‘Don’t
get me wrong. I like you. But you really tend to overpower people who don’t
go along with how you want to do things. You don’t give them the
opportunity to put across their own ideas. You even have to be in charge of
our entertainment committee. What I’m trying to tell you is that management
might have turned you down if that is how you came across at the interview.’
Lerato was silent for a while and then said, ‘Funny, isn’t it? I don’t see
myself like that at all. I thought I was always positive and helpful – actually
a reasonable sort of person. I know that I am not as pretty as most of the
other girls in our department, and I don’t have a good figure either, so I
thought that coming across as strong and helpful would make other people
like me. Strange how wrong you can be about yourself.’
‘I’m not saying you’re wrong,’ said Peter. ‘I’m only saying that other
people don’t see you quite the way you do.’
(Based on Burton & Dimbleby 1995.)
CONCLUSION
Intrapersonal communication is the origin of communication with others and the
relationships we enter into. This is based on the way our ‘self’ and our identity
developed and is, with the digital revolution, also influenced by our use of social
media. A number of variables impact on our development as individuals, making
each of us uniquely different. Our perception of others is based on how we see
ourselves. We can also learn to communicate better with ourselves and others by
having an understanding of the processes involved in intrapersonal
communication.
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SUMMARY
In this chapter we introduced and examined the concept of ‘self’ and identity and
its various parts, linking to the self the concept of personal identity, and
discussed the link between identity and groups. We also considered two theories
for the way we perceive ourselves, the looking-glass self and social comparison,
discussed the role of self-fulfilling prophecies in the process, and then suggested
some guidelines for improving one’s self-concept. We distinguished five
elements in intrapersonal processing: decoding, schemata or integration,
perceptual sets, memory and decoding. Next we briefly investigated identity and
personal branding in the context of social media. We also identified some of the
intrapersonal variables that play a role in how we see ourselves and others, such
as values, attitudes and beliefs, and suggested some intrapersonal skills that
could lead to greater insight about ourselves and our interpersonal relationships.
The chapter ended with a scenario based on the way perception influences our
concept of ourselves.

TEST YOURSELF QUESTIONS

1. Explain how self-concept develops. Then briefly explain how the concept
you have of your self influences your communication with others.
2. Which past relationships most affected the development of your self?
 Which present relationships now have the biggest influence on the current
development of your self?
3. Think about a negative or positive comment that someone has recently
made about you. Work through the five elements in intrapersonal
processing showing how you internalised the message and the influence it
had on your image of your self.
4. Identify an instance when a comment of yours influenced someone else’s
self-concept. Was your comment deliberate or unintentional? How were
you able to determine the impact of your communication?
5. Identify a problem you have with your self-concept. Were you made to
feel inadequate by a particular person? Are you living a self-fulfilling
prophecy? What do you think you should do to change this behaviour?
6. Describe three different situations in which you think you have fallen into
one or more of the errors of perception about other people you have
studied in this chapter.
7. Study your Facebook profile and identify those items that you really
don’t want a prospective employer to see before you go for an interview.
8. Identify the difference in your openness in two relationships that are
important to you.
9. Job applications often ask prospective candidates to describe themselves
using 10 adjectives. How would you describe yourself? Then think about
five different people who know you fairly well. How do you think each
one would describe you?
[Page 160]
Chapter 8
Interpersonal communication
Lida Holtzhausen

OVERVIEW
We spend a great deal of our time interacting with other people – at home, at
school, at work or in social situations. If you think back over the last few
days, can you remember how many of your waking hours you spent
completely alone? In this chapter we are mostly concerned with one-to-one
relationships. While you study this chapter it is important to remember that
everything you have learned about communication so far is pertinent to
interpersonal communication.
We examine communication between two people more closely by focusing
on the relationships we develop and maintain in our everyday lives. We begin
with a brief discussion of Martin Buber’s description of two types of
communication relationships, I–you and I–it relationships, and the
consequences of each for the life of the individual. We then discuss the social
context within which relationships take place and the manner in which our
relationships are guided by norms and rules.
The next important aspect of interpersonal communication is the essence of
the relationship, so we define personal relationships by looking at different
characteristics which make human relationships so unique. We then go on to
discuss a model that describes the interaction stages of a relationship – the
stages of coming together and the stages of coming apart. We briefly examine
defensive and supportive climates (to messages) in interpersonal relationships
and look at interesting facts regarding the concept of conflict, which is
characteristic of any relationship.
We also consider the interconnectivity between interpersonal
 communication and self-disclosure, referring to amongst others the Johari
window, trust and reciprocity, risks of self-disclosure and attachment styles.
We look at dominance, status and power and how these affect our day-to-day
relationships.
We examine the significance of gender and power and the obstacles that
surround these difficult concepts. We conclude with interpersonal
communication and needs, interpersonal communication and assertiveness,
and we use Erving Goffman’s theory of self-presentation to illustrate
communication behaviour in social, rather than intimate, relationships.
Throughout the chapter we provide guidelines for improving your own
interpersonal relationships.

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LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit you should be able to:
Briefly discuss the characteristics of the I–you and I–it relationships.
Discuss the way in which norms and roles govern interpersonal
relationships.
Define personal relationships based on the unique characteristics identified
in literature.
Discuss how relationships are formed and also grow apart by using Knapp
and Vangelisti’s (1996) model, including examples.
Distinguish between the different relationship climates identified in the
literature and relate a personal experience to illustrate.
Explain the different responses for handling conflict in interpersonal
relationships and give descriptive examples.
Identify communication skills that will enable you to handle conflict
productively.
Provide your critical opinion on the following statement: The importance
of self-disclosure is that it encourages the building of relationships.
Briefly discuss the significance of dominance, status and power in
interpersonal relationships.
 Discuss Schutz’s (1958) interpersonal needs theory and Homans’s (1951)
social exchange theory as theories that deal specifically with needs that
are satisfied in interpersonal relationships, and discuss how these theories
apply to your own interpersonal relationships.
Define and discuss assertiveness and indicate how you can develop your
own assertiveness skills.
Discuss Goffman’s theory on presenting the self in everyday life and
indicate how this theory is applicable to your current interpersonal
communication relationships.

INTRODUCTION
Sociologists have noted that, as modern society becomes increasingly
technological and impersonal, people seem to place a greater value than ever on
meaningful relationships in their everyday lives. Research results demonstrate
that the most important contributor to personal happiness – outranking money,
job and sex – is a close relationship with another person (DeVito 1998; Tubbs,
Moss & Papastefanou 2012). Communication scientists make the point that a
great deal of time is spent in teaching children to read and write, to pronounce
words and to use them correctly. But very little time at school, college or
university is spent in teaching people how to communicate effectively (Pease &
Garner 1989; Wood 2009).
Communication is the foundation for all our interpersonal relationships.
Through communication we establish, develop and maintain relationships, and
through communication we also withdraw from and terminate relationships. The
link between communication, interpersonal relationships and the quality of life is
the theme underlying the work of the philosopher Martin Buber.
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8.1 BUBER’S THEORY OF INTERPERSONAL

RELATIONSHIPS
Please note that references to ‘he’ and she’ in the following discussion refer to
Buber’s (1964; 1970) intention to identify the communicator as ‘he’ and the
receiver as ‘she’. It is in no way intended to be sexist.

Burber states that the basis of human existence is that people are
communicating beings.

According to Buber (1964; 1970), the basis of human existence is that people
are communicating beings. Each of us is always in the process of
communicating with the world (our circumstances), thereby making sense of the
situation in which we find ourselves (intrapersonal communication). Other
people are part of our circumstances and we enter into relationships with them as
well. In Buber’s view the meaning that life holds for each of us arises from the
type of relationships we create with other people.
Buber describes two types of interpersonal relationships: I–you relationships
and I–it relationships. The difference lies in the nature of the communication that
takes place between the participants. To understand the difference between the
two relationships we have to explain the concepts of dialogue and monologue in
interpersonal communication. A dialogue is a conversation between two people
in which both participants have the opportunity to express themselves and to
interpret each other’s messages. An exchange of thoughts, feelings and meaning
takes place between them. In a monologue the communicator is in a sense the
only participant. He or she expresses his or her point of view without taking into
account the needs of the recipient or giving him or her the opportunity to
respond meaningfully. It is a one-sided conversation in which no exchange of
meaning between the participants is possible (Johannesen 1971; Jansen &
Steinberg 1991).

A dialogue is a conversation between two people.

A monologue has the communicator as its single participant.

8.1.1 The I–you relationship

In the I–you relationship the partners approach each other with mutual respect,
sincerity and honesty, and the intention to become subjectively involved in a
reciprocal relationship. Buber says that the ‘I’ (communicator) reaches out to the
‘you’ (recipient) with his whole being and the ‘you’ responds with her whole
being. The ‘I’ does not attempt to impose views on the ‘you’ or to bolster an own
self-image by giving off false impressions. Both reveal the persons that they
really are and not the image of themselves they would like others to have. Both
communicate their own feelings, thoughts and beliefs, and not opinions they
have heard from others.

I-you relationship partners approach each other with mutual respect,

sincerity and honesty, with the intention to become subjectively involved
in an equal relationship.

In addition to revealing himself as he is the ‘I’ also accepts the other as the
unique individual that she is. He is present to the other in the sense that he listens
attentively to what she wishes to express and tries to understand her point of
view. In such a relationship a space opens up between people – Buber calls it the
inter-human domain – and it is here that dialogue unfolds and ‘you’ and ‘I’
become ‘we’. The ‘we’ means the participants acknowledge the differences
between them while striving to come to an understanding of each other. In the
‘we’ relationship neither partner is taken over by the other.
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Although the ‘we’ relationship is characterised by involvement, equally

important in the relationship is the idea of distance – even in the closest
relationships both partners retain their individuality.

8.1.2 The I–it relationship

In the I–it relationship the attitude of the ‘I’ is that his partner in communication
is not an equal subject in the relationship, but an object to be manipulated for
personal gain. Although there are two participants, the I–it relationship is not a
dialogical relationship because the distinguishing features of the I–you
relationship are not present. The intention of the ‘I’ is to persuade the other to his
way of thinking without taking into account the views and needs of the other, as
in dialogue. The communicator is conducting a monologue, a conversation in
which only his point of view and needs are considered.
This is not a relationship of mutual trust, openness and reciprocity, but one in
which the communicator uses the recipient to achieve his own ends. There is no
understanding of one another because the I–it relationship does not include the
option of agreement to differ and the recipient must always agree with the
communicator’s views. Buber acknowledges that in order to survive in the
modern world I–it relationships are unavoidable. What he emphasises, however,
is that I–it should not be allowed to overtake one’s life: I–it should always
remain subordinate to I–you. Ultimately, the type of relationship that
predominates in each person’s life remains the choice and responsibility of the
individuals themselves.

I-it relationship is unequal with the ‘I’ perceiving him/herself as the

superior partner.

8.2 THE SOCIAL CONTEXT

Every interpersonal communication relationship, no matter how loving and
intimate or what the nature of the relationship is, is characterised by norms and
rules that govern the individuals’ behaviours within the context of the
relationship (Wood 2011; Tubbs, Moss & Papastefanou 2012). We will briefly
discuss both these aspects.

Every interpersonal relationship is characterised by norms and roles that

govern the individuals’ behaviours within the context of the relationship.

8.2.1 Norms
Norms can be defined as the rules that ‘regulate’ our behaviour. Norms play a
significant role in any relationship irrespective of whether it’s a romantic
relationship, a relationship between colleagues at work or between individuals
who meet each other for the very first time.

Norms are the rules that ‘regulate’ our behaviour.

There are guidelines (rules) for just about everything, from how to address
each other, appropriate behaviour in restaurants and other public places, to rules
for intimate relationships (what is acceptable and what not). We also expect
certain behaviours from each other when we meet (even for the first time). If we
as individuals do not adhere to these norms, we often find ourselves in situations
where we feel offended, hurt, shocked, surprised, ignored or startled.
The positive aspect about norms is that they set the stage, which assists us in
predicting others’ behaviour in certain contexts; they
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assist us to adhere to certain decorum when engaging with other individuals in

different communication contexts.

8.2.2 Roles
Rules, on the other hand, are a set of norms that apply to specific individuals in a
given society. Within our society there are different subsets, for example,
husband–wife in marriage, teacher–child at school, lecturer–student at university,
manager–employee at work, each with its own unique set of rules to govern the
communication context. From theory we can identify three important
subcategories of rules.

Rules are a set of norms that apply to specific individuals in a given

society.

Subcategories of rules:
Expected vs enacted roles
Inter-role conflict
Intra-role conflict

Expected versus enacted roles: Expected roles often refer to more basic
principles: for example, a lecturer is expected to facilitate the learning process
for students. The enacted role might be different where the lecturer becomes a
mentor for a specific student due to the trusting nature of their relationship.
Enacted roles are also more intense in nature than expected roles and when
the enacted roles are ignored or overstepped we often react quite harshly.
Inter-role conflict: We experience inter-role conflict when a role has
contradictory results: for example, you see a friend cheating in the final exam.
You know it is wrong and unfair, but you also understand your friend’s
circumstances. Do you tell on him or her or do you keep quiet?
Intra-role conflict: Intra-role conflict arises when a single role has
contradictory expectations: for example, you have a friend (with very
conservative parents) who fell pregnant after a one-night stand. You know that
she cannot take care of the baby, but you are also against her having an
abortion. How do you support her?

The important aspect to keep in mind is that we often experience different levels
of role conflict due to our changing society and experiences that shape our
existence.

8.3 DEFINING PERSONAL RELATIONSHIPS

Personal relationships are distinctly different and uniquely designed
commitments between individuals. These commitments are characterised by the
individuals’ uniqueness, commitment, relationship rules, effects of contexts and
relational dialectics (Tubbs & Moss 2008; DeVito, 2007; Knapp & Vangelisti,
2005; DeVito, 2004). Let’s explore this in more detail.

Characteristics of personal relationships:

Uniqueness
Commitment
Relationship rules
Effect of context
Relational dialectics

8.3.1 Uniqueness
No two individuals are the same, and so our relationships with each other will
differ, bringing about many intricacies and sometimes even challenges. We are
also involved in numerous relationships, ranging from social (where our
behaviour is governed by societal rules and norms) to romantic, where the nature
of the relationship is designed by the roles and norms decided between the two
individuals
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involved in the relationship, and where the relationship is about the individuals.
For example, with a friend you might discuss the result of the Wimbledon tennis
final and with colleagues in a management meeting at work you’ll discuss the
latest fuel price hike and the effect of e-tolling on monthly budgets.
In much the same way our relationships with significant others, such as our
marriage partners, life partners or intimate partners, are very distinctive in that
they are created and established through the intimate (often unspoken) bond
between those involved in the relationship. If the relationship were to dissolve
because of death or separation, the relationship will often continue in memory.
Even though an individual might, for example, remarry, the memory of the
previous partner will still exist because partners are unique and irreplaceable.

8.3.2 Commitment
We are all too familiar with the feeling of overwhelming happiness or
cheerfulness when we become involved in a new romantic relationship. That
feeling of sublime joy (and in some cases uncontrollable giggling even when the
jokes shared between a couple aren’t that funny). These feelings are typical of
the first emotion one experiences when entering into a new romantic
relationship.

Commitment is the decision to remain in a relationship and to have some

common goal in mind.

This refers to the level of passion we experience. Passion basically involves

‘intensely positive feelings’ and ‘desires’ for another individual (Wood 2009).
Passion is not the only requirement for a long-lasting relationship, however.
Cultivating a relationship that will stand the test of time requires a deep-rooted
commitment.
Commitment can be defined as the decision to remain in a relationship and to
have some common goal in mind. Individuals who find themselves in truly
committed relationships expect the relationship to continue forever irrespective
of what the future might hold. There is an investment of time, energy, money and
even the individuals themselves. Characteristic thereof is the age-old saying, ‘at
least we have each other’. Commitment is the mould that keeps the relationship
intact, ready to withstand even the worst of circumstances.

8.3.3 Relationship rules

Within relationships individuals have a certain understanding between
themselves about what to say, how to react, what not to do, when to do what.
This understanding stems from the rules that govern the relationships and they
can be divided into constructive and regulative rules.

Relationship rules can be divided into:

constructive rules, and
regulative rules

Constructive rules refer to the nature of the communication within a

relationship. Even between men and women we find vast differences. Women
might expect a shoulder to cry on as evidence of a caring relationship, whereas
men might feel that playing a round of golf for example is evident of connecting
with their friends.
Regulative rules are aimed at the interaction involved in communication. A
couple might feel that holding hands is appropriate behaviour for a couple in
public places, but other public displays of
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affection might not be acceptable. Relationship rules guide and govern our
interpersonal relationships and set out the boundaries of what we acknowledge
as acceptable or unacceptable behaviour within the interpersonal communication
context.

8.3.4 The effect of context

The relationships we find ourselves in are not isolated from the rest of society.
As a matter of fact, we all, in some way or another, belong to various groups,
sub-societies or clubs which have an influence on our relationships with other
individuals. We as human beings are in fact formed by our experiences of
ourselves, others, the world and the media, as well as how other people
experience us. Furthermore, the challenges we face in everyday life also mould
who we are. For example, a married, stay-at-home mother with two children
might have to face her husband cheating on her with her best friend. Suddenly
the support, love, stability, loyalty, acceptance, trust and security she has always
experienced is non-existent and she faces the reality of now having to find work
and create a new life for herself and her children. These circumstances might
appear harsh, but all too often they become a reality some have to face. These
challenges will without a doubt influence her future relationships, as well as the
relationships she has already built.

8.3.5 Relational dialectics

Relational dialectics refer to the tensions and stresses we experience during our
personal relationships. They can be divided into three categories:
Relational dialect:
Autonomy/connection
Novelty/predictability
Openness/closedness

Autonomy/connection: Any individual who has ever been in a relationship

has experienced this kind of stress: the feeling of wanting to connect and
spend as much time with the other individual in the relationship (connection)
versus the urge for some ‘me’ time (autonomy). This can be confusing at
times, but don’t fret – it’s a normal reaction. Although we have an inherent
need to feel part of someone’s life and experience that sense of sharing, we
also need space to develop ourselves and continue growing. The challenge is
to establish a mutually satisfactory balance: being involved and committed,
 building a relationship that is worthwhile, but also allowing oneself to
experience life in an individualistic and unique way.
Novelty/predictability: Another sort of continuum we find in relationships
extends from the need for stability and knowing what to expect next
(predictability) to, the flip side of the coin, having the need for some
excitement (novelty). A typical example would be two friends with a regular
coffee date on a specific day and time (predictability), but sometimes wanting
to change the venue and trying a new coffee shop (novelty).
Openness/closedness: We often have a perception that relationships should
be completely open, with nothing hidden, a typical sense of ‘we talk about
everything’. The truth is that in
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all relationships we find a need for some closedness, where we do not have
the desire to talk about everything. Sometimes we have the urge to keep our
thoughts private and ponder our own opinions. The golden rule to apply in
any relationship is to have respect for the other individual and to understand
that sometimes we need some private reflection time.

The important aspect to keep in mind when trying to understand relational

dialectics is that the key is to respect each other as individuals in the
relationship, creating areas to grow together and also space to reinvent and
reinvest in ourselves. Doing so will allow a relationship much more space to
develop.

8.4 STAGES IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF

INTERPERSONAL RELATIONSHIPS
Knapp and Vangelisti (1996; 2005) present a model that illustrates the central
role of communication in all stages of a relationship. Their model, as well as
their interpretation thereof is acknowledged and provided in the following
section. Keep in mind this model simplifies a complex process. The stages are
not as clear cut as depicted in the model – one stage merges into the next and
each stage may contain behaviour from other stages. Furthermore it is not
always ‘bad’ to terminate a relationship and not always ‘good’ to become more
intimate with someone. In addition, this model applies to mixed-gender pairs as
well as same-gender pairs.

8.4.1 Interaction stages in coming together

Knapp’s Interaction stages in coming together:
Initiating
Experimenting
Intensifying
Integration
Bonding

Initiating: The initiation stage includes all the processes we go through when
we first come together with other people, strangers or friends, either formally
or informally. Perception comes into play as we consider our own stereotypes,
expectations for this situation and any prior knowledge we might have about
this person and previous interactions with them. We are mentally asking
ourselves whether this is the sort of person we want to get to know better and
whether the timing is appropriate – is the person perhaps busy, in a hurry or
surrounded by others? The setting also plays a role, for instance whether we
meet at the beach or in a library, as well as how much time is available. We
generally exercise a good deal of caution at this stage and communicate
according to conventional formulas. An example of this stage could be: ‘Hi,
how are you?’ ‘Fine, thanks, and you?’
Experimenting: Next we try to discover something about the other person.
Often this stage begins with the exchange of demographic information, like
where one lives or works. The response from the other person shows the
degree of interest in continuing the interaction and willingness to pursue a
relationship. Small talk is the basis of experimenting – while we discuss the
weather, music we enjoy, food that we like or movies we have seen, we are
setting the scene for discovering more important
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topics of mutual interest and paving the way for future friendship. Many of
our relationships remain at this stage – they are generally pleasant, relaxed
and uncritical and entail limited commitments. Some of our relationships
progress to the next stage. An example might be: ‘I didn’t know you liked
mountain biking … perhaps we should do a race together.’ ‘Yes, that’s a great
idea!’
 Intensifying: When people achieve a relationship state known as ‘close
friends’ the indicators of their relationship are intensified, albeit that they
proceed with caution at the outset. For instance, holding hands or sitting close
may precede hugging. The amount of personal disclosure increases and we
may reveal some previously withheld information. These disclosures make
the speaker vulnerable because the other person may decide to back off and
end the relationship. During this stage the nature of verbal communication
changes: forms of address become more informal (first name, nickname or
endearments are used) and the first person plural is used more often (‘we’
rather than ‘I’). Words begin to take on private meanings and verbal shortcuts
may replace longer sentences because the pair share assumptions, knowledge,
interests, experiences and expectations. Increasingly, direct verbal
commitments are voiced and the pair help each other to express thoughts and
feelings. Sophistication in nonverbal communication also increases – a glance
or a touch may replace the verbal message and one often notices some co-
ordination in their clothing styles. As the relationship intensifies, each person
is revealing his or her uniqueness while at the same time binding his or
personality with the other’s: for example, ‘I think I’ve fallen in love with
you.’ ‘I feel the same way.’
Integrating: The relationship has now reached a point where the two
individual personalities almost seem to fuse. Often one partner will change
political or religious beliefs to create unity. Verbal and nonverbal
manifestations of integrating may take many forms. These include, amongst
others, the following:
• Attitudes, opinions, interests and tastes that clearly distinguish the pair
from others are vigorously cultivated – ‘We have something special; we are
unique.’
• Social circles merge and others begin to treat the two individuals as a
common package – one present, one letter, one invitation.
• Intimacy ‘trophies’ are exchanged so that each can ‘wear’ the other’s
identity – pictures, pins, rings.
• Similarities in manner, dress and verbal behaviour may also accentuate the
oneness.
• Actual physical penetration of various body parts contributes to the
perceived unification.
• Sometimes common property is designated – ‘our song’, a joint bank
 account or a co-authored book.
• Empathic processes seem to peak so that explanation and prediction of
behaviour are much easier (Knapp & Vangelesti 1996: 39).
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Integration should not mean complete togetherness or complete loss of

individuality. On the contrary even in the closest relationship both partners
retain their individuality. A typical example of this stage is: ‘I don’t know
what I did before you came into my life, you are so much a part of who I am.’
‘Yes, you complete me too.’
Bonding: This is the institutionalisation of the relationship. At this stage a
public ritual, such as engagement or marriage, announces that commitments
have been formally contracted, for example: ‘Will you marry me?’ ‘Of course
I will, yes, I’ll marry you.’ The act of bonding sometimes changes the nature
of the relationship for ‘better or for worse’. Because it implies a commitment
to a common future the contract makes it more difficult to break out of the
relationship. The contract often becomes a frequent topic of conversation
between the participants and provides guidance for the relationship through
specified rules and regulations. Bonding is also a way of gaining social
support for the relationship by enabling the couple to rely on law or policy or
precedent.

8.4.2 Interaction stages in coming apart

Knapp’s Interaction stages in coming apart:
Differentiating
Circumscribing
Stagnating
Avoiding
Termination

Differentiating: Differentiating is mainly a process of disengaging or coming

apart. Although individual differences may previously have been set aside,
they now play a major role in creating interpersonal distance. The couple
discovers how different they really are. ‘We’ and ‘our’ again become ‘I’ and
‘my’. What causes the differences? They may be related to attitudes, interests,
personality, relatives, friends or to a specific behaviour such as emotional
needs or an irritating habit. The most visible communication form of
 differentiating is conflict, which is generally expressed verbally. A typical
differentiating conversation might be something like: ‘I don’t understand why
you always need to invite guests over for dinner – we are so different in that
way.’ ‘Well, you never want to engage with friends.’
Circumscribing: Here the conversation is restricted to safe topics.
Communication is superficial because the number of ‘touchy’ topics increases
and almost anything one partner says can be interpreted by the other as being
antagonistic. There is generally a decrease in expressions of commitment and
less conversation about the relationship. Typical phrases as this stage are:
‘How was your meeting?’ ‘Let’s not discuss that.’ Often it is only in public
that communication increases because the couple does not want others to see
that their relationship is coming apart.
Stagnating: During this stage participants often conduct internal dialogues
and conclude that, since they ‘know’ how the conversation will go, there is
little point in initiating it in the first place. ‘Why are we discussing this?’ ‘We
both know what we’re about to say.’ Sometimes the relationship is marked by
nonverbal behaviour that more clearly indicates the unpleasant feelings of the
participants than verbal interchange. Extended stagnating means
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that very few areas of conversation remain open. The situation can be seen in
many relationships: between parent and child; just prior to divorce or the
termination of a friendship; or following unproductive small talk. Why do
people persist in a relationship that brings so little reward? Many don’t, but
others are afraid that they may find it painful to terminate the relationship.
Some persist because they are finding rewards outside the relationship, for
example devoting more time to work and being promoted, or developing other
relationships. Still others may obtain perverse satisfaction in ‘punishing’ the
other person by not terminating the relationship.
Avoiding: Implies that one or both participants no longer wish to engage in
face-to-face or voice-to-voice interaction. Avoiding suggests that a permanent
state of separation would be desirable. When communicating avoidance,
messages may contain overtones of antagonism or unfriendliness. For
example, ‘Please don’t call me again – I do not want to see or speak to you
any longer.’ A more subtle version of avoidance is to be consistently late for
appointments or saying, ‘I can’t stay long – I am very busy.’ or, ‘I can’t see
you on Monday because…’; ‘I can’t see you on Tuesday because…’; ‘I can’t
 see you on Wednesday because…’. When physical separation is not possible a
situation may arise where the participants simply ignore each other, almost as
if the other person did not exist. They share the same living space, but
communicate only essential messages.
Terminating: Relationships can terminate after one encounter or after many
years of intimacy. Apart from the fact that one partner may die, termination
may occur because people find themselves separated by great distances or
because they have grown socially and psychologically apart, for example:
‘The relationship is over.’ ‘Please don’t stop me.’ ‘Don’t worry, I won’t.’ The
nature of the termination dialogue varies depending on the circumstances, but
generally it is characterised by messages of distance and disassociation.
Distance is the attempt to create physical and psychological barriers between
the participants. This can be achieved through actual physical separation, or
psychological barriers can be embedded in other verbal and nonverbal
messages.

8.5 DEFENSIVE AND SUPPORTIVE CLIMATES

(MESSAGES IN INTERPERSONAL
RELATIONSHIPS)
Communication researcher Jack Gibb (1961; 1964; 1970) identified six types of
communication that each represent a relationship ‘climate’.

Communication types representing relationship climates:

Evaluation vs description
Certainty vs provisionalism
Strategy vs spontaneity
Control vs problem orientation
Neutrality vs empathy
Superiority vs equality

8.5.1 Evaluation versus description

Examples of typical evaluative statements include: ‘I can’t believe you did that,
you should know much better!’; ‘That was childish!’; ‘Why
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don’t you think before you act?’ When we feel we are being evaluated we often
resort to a defensive communicative style. The problem which arises from this is
that even when we receive positive feedback we tend to misinterpret it as
incorporating some kind of underlying negativity. In much the same way we tend
to think that positive feedback will be followed by negative accusations.
The flip side to evaluation is description. Descriptive communication
messages usually start with ‘I’; for example, ‘I am sad because of your
behaviour.’ Saying something like ‘Your behaviour is inexcusable’ tends to be
evaluative in nature. Descriptive behaviour therefore describes the situation from
the ‘I’ person and does not evaluate.

8.5.2 Certainty versus provisionalism

‘I am not interested in discussing this issue again, I have made up my mind and
that is final. I am not interested in what you have to say any further.’
This statement is typical of an attitude of certainty, of an absolute, final
judgement on whatever has happened and does not allow any further
deliberation on the matter. It is one-sided and does not create a sense of balance
or equality in the communication scenario. One form of communication that is
characterised by certainty is ethnocentrism – the viewpoint that only one culture
sets the standard and that no other culture can be right.
In contrast to certainty stands provisionalism. By applying the principle of
provisionalism we communicate to others that, although we have an opinion
regarding a certain aspect or topic, we are open for discussion and we respect
differing opinions and statements even though they might be contradictory to
ours. An example might be, ‘Let’s take a look at this problem from all angles.’
Provisionalism invites everyone to the table and celebrates different viewpoints.

8.5.3 Strategy versus spontaneity

‘I’ll help you with this assignment, but then I need something from you in
return.’ This sounds like an ultimatum or some sort of attempted bribe. What is
characteristic of this example is the underlying message which is not being
communicated aloud. Immediately the receiver feels uneasy and does not know
what to expect from the sender. What is the sender’s unspoken strategy or
hidden agenda? Such a statement will create a feeling of being manipulated into
some kind of action for the sender’s own interest. It might also create a feeling
of mistrust of the sender by the receiver because the sender is not being upfront
about what is expected from the receiver.
On the other side of the coin we have spontaneity: ‘I really need your help
with this maths problem, I don’t understand the formula at all.’ This statement is
clearly an open, honest, trustworthy communication and the receiver of such a
message will understand exactly what is expected without feeling he or she
should be prepared for the worst. The golden rule is therefore to be upfront and
detailed about what you want or need from another individual in interpersonal
communication.
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8.5.4 Control versus problem orientation

When we force our fellow communicators into doing or saying something we’ll
set the foundation for defensive behaviour. For example, saying ‘I have a
solution for the problem. So let’s do this my way and we’ll get results’,
immediately sweeps all other ideas off the table. The receiver of such a message
will feel less capable of contributing anything worthwhile because of a lack of
respect. There is no sense of confidence in others’ ability to address and solve
the problem. The same happens in relationships where, for example, the husband
works and the mother is a stay-at-home mom: ‘Seeing that I’m the one who
brings home the bacon, I’ll choose where we’ll go on holiday.’ This message
communicates that the wife does not have any credibility in the household and
that she is subordinate to the husband. He lays down the law and disregards her
worth.
Problem orientation communication aims at establishing the best alternative,
at addressing and solving the problem or issue in the best way, acceptable to all
involved. Such communication may go like this: ‘Let’s look at our vacation
budget and come up with some ideas about what we as a family can do for this
year’s holiday season.’ Now, everyone in the family has the opportunity to
contribute to a solution that will include everyone and create a sense of being
part of a loving family unit. Problem orientation communication is an open road
and conflict is either dealt with sufficiently or reduced significantly. A problem
orientation emphasises the importance of the relationship.

8.5.5 Neutrality versus empathy

‘I am so worried about tomorrow’s meeting’. ‘Oh, well, good luck for
tomorrow.’ This is typically the response of someone who is neutral and totally
uninvolved in the matter. There is no support expressed in the response to the
first comment. Such a neutral comment could create in the receiver a feeling of
being unattached and isolated with no support or understanding.
‘I am so worried about tomorrow’s meeting.’ ‘Why are you worried? How can
I help you?’ This response to the statement is the exact opposite to being neutral
and communicates empathy, understanding, support and care for the receiver.
Being empathetic implies not necessarily agreeing with what has been said, but
attempting to understand what the other person is going though by ‘putting
oneself in their shoes’. Empathy means really being interested in the other
party’s well-being.

8.5.6 Superiority versus equality

There is very little worse than feeling that another person disregards your
opinions, ideas or actions because he or she has taken the position of the
superior. For example, the statement, ‘I think I should chair the meeting seeing
that I’ve done this many times before and I do not feel that you are quite ready
for such a responsibility’ communicates the underlying message that the one
individual is not as competent,
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as prepared, as worthy as the other. A further downside to a sender displaying

such a superiority perception is that the receiver will adopt defensive behaviour,
therefore obstructing opportunities for networking and collaboration.
A sense of equality, on the other hand, promotes an open communication
channel between all the parties involved. There is mutual respect, understanding
and commitment, no judgement, and togetherness, as is evident in the following
example: ‘You be the chair for this meeting. You’ve done most of the
preparation and you understand the project very well, so you’ll do a great job.’
The important thing to remember is that effective communication asks for
mutual understanding, openness, inclusivity, equality and support to lay the
foundation for any kind of interpersonal interaction.

8.6 CONFLICT IN RELATIONSHIPS

Conflict is a natural phenomenon in life, especially when you find yourself in a
relationship, not just romantic relationships, but normal everyday run-of-the-mill
relationships with friends, colleagues, co-workers, acquaintances and even
strangers (think road rage!). Fortunately conflict need not be destructive. When
dealt with appropriately it can bring interesting facets into any relationship. Here
are a few principles of conflict to keep in mind (Wood 2009, 2010; Tubbs, Moss
& Papastefanou 2012).

8.6.1 Conflict may be overt or covert

Overt conflict is upfront and very easy to identify because it is out in the open.
Grievances are spoken aloud, different arguments are identified and often there
is a verbal debate going on. Nothing is left unsaid.

Overt conflict is upfront and easy to identify because it is out in the

open.

Covert conflict is not so easily identifiable because the individuals involved

do not necessarily voice their grievances. Instead they look for alternative ways
of communicating their frustrations. For example, a husband might leave his wet
towel on the bathroom floor, knowing his wife hates it when he does that,
because he is mad at her for not doing something he asked her to do. The
problem with such behaviour is that the real issue is not dealt with and the
communication is steered away from what lies at the heart of the conflict.

Covert conflict isn’t easily identifiable, because the individuals involved

do not necessarily voice their grievances.

8.6.2 Conflict may be managed well or poorly

We know that conflict is a reality in every relationship, but the way in which we
deal with it can make the world of difference. Much research has been done on
the responses we have to conflict and from this a model has been developed that
not only can assist us in understanding how conflict can be dealt with but also
can steer us in the right direction.

The way in which we deal with conflict can make the world of difference
in every relationship.

[Page 174]
 Figure 8.1 The Exit-Voice-Loyalty-Neglect Model (adapted from Wood 2009)

The Exit response is an active step where one party leaves the room, for
example, slamming the door, and giving the other party the cold shoulder
(perhaps for a limited period only), therefore withdrawing from the
relationship in a destructive manner.
The Neglect response is also destructive, but passive, because one individual
in the relationship ignores or pretends that a problem exists. In such a
response there is no resolution of the conflict because it is simply not
addressed. Because the conflict is ignored by one individual, the other’s
opinions and feelings are not respected and addressed.
The Loyalty response looks promising, but, although constructive, it is also
passive. This means the individuals stay committed to the relationship, but do
not address and deal with the conflict issues immediately. There is the
possibility that they will be addressed at a later stage.
The Voice response is both constructive and active in that it addresses the
issues at hand, therefore resolving the conflict situation. All issues are dealt
with as they occur so that the relationship stays intact and plans to address
future conflict issues can be resolved much more easily.

The most important thing to remember in conflict resolution is to address the

issues honestly, but in a manner which will constructively build the relationship
and create an in-depth understanding between the parties involved.

8.6.3 Conflict and culture

How we view and experience conflict is influenced by our cultural heritage. Our
culture defines our whole being and prescribes how we interact with each other
as well as individuals from other cultures. Some cultures, such as Italians,
consider an open display of emotion a part of who they are, whilst others, such
as Japanese and Chinese do not accept any form of expressing conflict in public.

Culture, gender and ethnicity influence the way we view and experience
conflict.

[Page 175]

Equally, even our gender classifications as men and women have an impact on
the way in which we deal with conflict. Men and women differ significantly in
that women tend to want to talk openly about the issues, while men would much
rather keep quiet or deal with issues privately. But there are also differences in
same-sex conflict situations, such as between two female co-workers or between
two male acquaintances. Women often snarl at each other, whilst men sometimes
use alternative methods such as physical contact.
Another important factor which influences the way in which we address
conflict is our ethnicity. Every ethnic grouping has a very individualistic way of
handling conflict scenarios. That is why it is so necessary to be familiar with
intercultural communication styles to assist in understanding how different
cultures might interact with one another.

8.6.4 Effective communication skills for managing conflict

This section has online support material available

Here are some pointers that may assist in communicating more effectively in
order to resolve conflict productively:

Attend to the relationship-level meaning of the conflict situation. Keep the

relationship in mind when dealing with conflict and decide what is best for the
relationship.
Communicate supportively, therefore providing each of the individuals an
opportunity to really voice their opinions.
You have to have perfect timing for resolving conflict. Decide on a time of
day when both parties involved are relaxed so that the conversation is not only
a heated debate but a time for calm reflection and constructive thinking.
Listen mindfully and focus on the issues at hand. Do not listen only to defend
your own opinions or criticise those of the other individual.
 Own up to your feelings, thoughts and issues and be aware of how you truly
feel about the situation.
Check that your perceptions are intact and true. Be aware of your own
predispositions when entering into the conflict situation.
Accept each other for who you are and do not try and change people to best
suit your own agenda. Accept the fact that people are different and that no two
individuals think and react the same.
Both parties are equally important during a conflict situation and both have
significant truths to contribute to the situation as well as the relationship.
Look for points of agreement that will work towards resolving irritating
issues. Hopefully both parties will realise that they have the same objectives
in mind for the goodwill of the relationship.
Keep to the issues and do not offend each others’ integrity.
Try and imagine what the future will be between the parties involved and
imagine how you will be able to address and resolve similar issues more
easily in future.
[Page 176]

SCENARIO 8.1
ASSERTIVE BEHAVIOUR
What is assertiveness?
Assertiveness is the ability to express one’s feelings and assert one’s rights
while respecting the feelings and rights of others. Assertive communication
is appropriately direct, open and honest, and clarifies one’s needs to the other
person. Assertiveness comes naturally to some, but is a skill that can be
learned. People who have mastered the skill of assertiveness are able to
greatly reduce the level of interpersonal conflict in their lives, thereby
reducing a major source of stress.

How does assertiveness compare with other behaviour?

Sometimes people confuse aggressiveness with assertiveness, seeing that
both types of behaviour involve standing up for one’s rights and expressing
one’s needs. The key difference between the two styles is that individuals
behaving assertively will express themselves in ways that respect the other
person. They assume the best about people, respect themselves, and think
‘win-win’ and try to compromise. In contrast, individuals behaving
aggressively will tend to employ tactics that are disrespectful, manipulative,
demeaning, or abusive. They make negative assumptions about the motives
of others and think in retaliatory terms, or they don’t think of the other
person’s point of view at all. They win at the expense of others, and create
unnecessary conflict.
Passive individuals don’t know how to adequately communicate their
feelings and needs to others. They tend to fear conflict so much that they let
their needs go unmet and keep their feelings secret in order to ‘keep the
peace’. They let others win while they lose out; the problem with this (which
I’ll go into in more detail momentarily) is that everybody involved loses, at
least to an extent.

What does assertiveness look like?

Here are some common scenarios, with examples of each style of behaviour:

Scenario A: Someone cuts in front of you at the supermarket.

An aggressive response would be to assume they did it on purpose and
angrily say, ‘Hey, jackass, no cuts!’
A passive response would be to just let the person stay in front of you.
An assertive response would be to assume that they may not have seen
you in line, and politely say, ‘Excuse me, but I was in line.’
Scenario B: Your friend, who can be quite verbose, calls to vent about her
bad day. Unfortunately, you have a lot of work to do and don’t have time to
talk.
An aggressive response would be to become angry that she obviously
doesn’t respect your time, cut her off, and sarcastically say, ‘Oh, get over it! I
have my own problems!’
A passive response would be to let her talk for as long as she needs, and
figure that your deadline can suffer; she needs your help.
An assertive response would be to listen for a minute or two, then
compassionately say, ‘Wow, it sounds like you’re having a tough day! I’d
love to talk to you about it, but I don’t have the time right now. Can we talk
later tonight?’

What are the benefits of assertiveness?

 Assertiveness affects many areas of life. Assertive people tend to have fewer
conflicts in their dealings with others, which translates into much less stress
in their lives. They get their needs met (which also means less stressing over
unmet needs), and help others get their needs met, too. Having stronger,
more supportive relationships virtually guarantees that, in a bind, they have
people they can count on, which also helps with stress management, and
even leads to a healthier body.
Contrasting with this, aggressiveness tends to alienate others and create
unnecessary stress. Those on the receiving end of aggressive behaviour tend
to feel attacked and often avoid the aggressive individual, understandably.
Over time, people who behave aggressively

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tend to have a string of failed relationships and little social support, and they
don’t always understand that this is related to their own behaviour. Ironically,
they often feel like victims, too.
Passive people aim to avoid conflict by avoiding communication about
their needs and feelings, but this behaviour damages relationships in the long
run. They may feel like victims, but continue to avoid confrontation,
becoming increasingly angry until, when they finally do say something, it
comes out aggressively. The other party doesn’t even know there’s a problem
until the formerly passive individual virtually explodes! This leads to hard
feelings, weaker relationships, and more passivity.

How does one become more assertive?

The first step in becoming more assertive is to take an honest look at yourself
and your responses, to see where you currently stand. The answers to the
following questions will help clue you in:
• Do you have difficulty accepting constructive criticism?
• Do you find yourself saying ‘yes’ to requests that you should really say
‘no’ to, just to avoid disappointing people?
• Do you have trouble voicing a difference of opinion with others?
• Do people tend to feel alienated by your communication style when you
do disagree with them?
 • Do you feel attacked when someone has an opinion different from your
own?
If you answered yes to several of these, you may benefit from learning
assertiveness skills. Knowing where you stand on the assertiveness spectrum,
and knowing where you want to be, you can read more on assertiveness
training, develop a win-win mentality, and begin becoming more assertive
today!
Elizabeth Scott MS. 2104. Reduce stress with increased assertiveness.
http://stress.about.com/od/relationships/p/profileassertiv.htm printed with
permission from the author.

8.7 INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION AND

SELF-DISCLOSURE
Theorists have proposed a variety of factors that need to be taken into account in
understanding the development and breakdown of interpersonal relationships.
The first is your ability to reveal or disclose information about yourself to the
person with whom you want to form a close interpersonal relationship.

8.7.1 Self-disclosure
Self-disclosure is defined as ‘revealing one’s thinking, feelings, and beliefs to
another’ (Gibson & Hanna 1992: 129), that is, revealing information about the
private self to other people. While it is in intrapersonal communication that we
decide how much information about the private self we are willing to reveal to
others, it is via interpersonal communication that we actually disclose this
information. Telling someone something about yourself that he or she already
knows would be sharing or disclosing information, but would not be regarded as
self-disclosure.

Self-disclosure: revealing one’s thinking, feelings and beliefs to other

people.

To qualify as self-disclosure the information must be something that is

normally kept hidden from most people, such as your deepest feelings or
intimate thoughts (DeVito 1998). Willingness to disclose information about the
private self depends on a number of factors,
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including your image of yourself. People with a positive self-concept are more
likely to disclose information about themselves than those with a negative self-
concept.
People of higher status are usually unwilling to reveal information about
themselves to people of lesser status. Generally, men are less inclined to make
self-disclosures than women. And the values of your culture also play a part.
Some cultures firmly discourage conversation about one’s intimate feelings and
personal beliefs. However, research has shown that some degree of self-
disclosure not only benefits relationships but also leads to a greater degree of
self-esteem (Burton & Dimbleby 1995).
The importance of self-disclosure is that it encourages the building of
relationships. All of us have some relationships in which we reveal or disclose
more about ourselves than in others. There are some topics we would not even
think about discussing with particular people. Self-disclosure depends a great
deal on trust. We are more likely to talk openly to people whom we have learned
to trust and, at the same time, making disclosures invites trust in return and can
bond relationships. People who disclose to each other should be aware that a
lack of sensitivity about certain information that is intimate and highly personal
could upset the other person if a confidence is betrayed by failing to treat a
disclosure appropriately.

8.7.2 A model of self-disclosure

This section has online support material available

A model that helps us to assess the amount of information we disclose is the

Johari window (see Figure 8.2). The window is divided into four panes or
quadrants. The panes represent four areas of the self which depict what a person
does and does not know about him/herself, and what others do or do not know
about that person.

The four panes of the Johari window:

Open
Hidden
Blind
Unknown
 The Open pane is the most public area and reflects your openness to the
world and your willingness to be known. It comprises all aspects of yourself that
are known to you and to others, such as your name, your job or a club to which
you belong.
The Hidden pane contains all the information you know about yourself that
you prefer not to disclose to someone else. This area may include information
about your salary, your marital problems, your failures and successes, your
secret fears and so on.
The other two panes are areas where you don’t know yourself. The Blind pane
represents all the things that others know about you, but which you are not aware
of. This may vary from the way you twitch your nose when speaking to the way
you tend to monopolise a conversation or react aggressively when people do not
agree with your views, or you may be unaware of the high regard colleagues in
your organisation have for the work you do.
The Unknown pane is the mystery area, known to no one. It represents
information about yourself which neither you nor others have explored. It
contains qualities waiting to be discovered – untapped talents or your potential
for personal growth. You can only infer that it exists or perhaps confirm its
existence in retrospect.
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Figure 8.2 The Johari window

The four panes of the Johari window are interdependent; therefore a change in
one pane will affect the others. If you are open to feedback, for example, you
may discover things you did not know about yourself from others and move
them into the Open area. As you disclose something from the Hidden area it
becomes part of the Open area – the Open pane enlarges and the Hidden pane is
reduced. Luft (1970) proposed that it is rewarding and satisfying not only to
learn more about yourself, and therefore gain self-insight, but also to reveal
enough about yourself to enable others to get to know you better. Self-disclosure,
however, also carries a degree of risk.

8.7.3 To reveal or not to reveal

We often choose to reveal personal (sometimes even intimate) information about
ourselves to other individuals for various reasons. Examples may include
wanting to share very positive experiences with others (‘I just got engaged!’) or
even the exact opposite (‘I’m getting a divorce.’). Sometimes we share
information because we’re trying to make sense of something that just happened
to us (‘I don’t understand why he acts in such a way – what can I do to change
the situation?’). There are even instances where we share information because
we’re trying to get someone else to disclose some information about themselves.
By volunteering information about ourselves we might create a sense of security
and then the other individual might ‘open up’. With loved ones we want to keep
them informed about what is going on in our lives, keep them involved. We can
even manipulate situations and individuals by choosing to reveal or not to reveal
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information about ourselves. In much the same way we can control situations by
revealing or withholding information.

8.7.4 Self-disclosure guidelines

Self-disclosure can be a two-edged sword. In some circumstances it helps other
individuals to get to know us; in others it defeats the purpose and creates
situations where we are rejected, where we might lose control over a situation or
where the wrong image is projected (Postman 1990: 32). In the face of the
contradictions presented between self-disclosing and withholding personal
information, how are we to know how much about ourselves to reveal in a
relationship? The consensus of opinion is that we have to take some risks if
relationships are to grow. However, research results suggest that self-disclosure
should occur only in relationships that are important to you; in other words,
effective self-disclosure is disclosure that is appropriate to the situation and to
the relationship between the people communicating. Thus a successful
relationship is often marked by a balance of disclosure and feedback (disclosure
from the other) – that is, self-disclosure is reciprocal (DeVito 1998; Verderber &
Verderber 2002).

Effective self-disclosure is disclosure that is appropriate to the situation

and to the relationship between the people communicating.

8.7.5 Attachment styles

Attachment styles refer to a person’s ability to form and maintain intimate
relationships, shaped by the quality of the emotional bond between mother and
child or the child’s first caregiver. There are different attachment styles, each
differing in terms of our beliefs and attitudes towards intimate (or close)
relationships. The attachment styles we’re focusing on are based on work done
by Bowlby (1973); Hazan and Shaney (1987; 1994); and Feeney et al (2000):

Relationship attachment styles:

Secure
Avoidant
Anxious-ambivalent

Secure: These individuals are very comfortable and content with intimacy
and being dependent on another individual. They usually have very high self-
esteem and are easy-going, and their relationships are characterised by trust,
love and being happy and full of life.
Avoidant: Being close to someone makes these individuals feel very
uncomfortable. They often tend to look for a hidden agenda in the relationship
(‘The relationship cannot be this fulfilling!’). They fear growing intimate with
someone else and shy away from being dependent on anyone else except
themselves. Soon after entering into a relationship they often find the
relationship deteriorating in affection. This attachment style can furthermore
be characterised by severe instances of denying the need for being in a close
relationship or steering themselves away from any intimate relationship
because of existing fear of rejection or being ignored by significant others.
Anxious-ambivalent: These individuals literally crave a close or intimate
 relationship, but their fear of being rejected or not loved by someone they
love dearly is overwhelming. This causes
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them to shy away from other individuals. They often feel others do not
understand them.

Keep in mind that individuals in a secure relationship are much more open to
communication and easy to converse with, whereas those with an anxious
attachment style tend to keep their distance in conversations. They also seem
less fluent in their conversations with others.

8.8 DOMINANCE, STATUS AND POWER

Deciding who has the power or who is the dominant partner in a relationship is
an interesting aspect in interpersonal communication. Let’s discuss each of the
aspects of dominance, status and power briefly in order to understand their
significance in interpersonal communication contexts.

8.8.1 Dominance
The degree of dominance is illustrated in Figure 8.3. On the one side we find the
person who wants absolute control in the relationship or over the situation and
on the other we find the person who is totally submissive.

Figure 8.3 Level of dominance in interpersonal relationships

Individuals who have a strong need for dominance in a relationship tend to have
stronger self-concepts, whereas those who are more submissive tend to have
lesser self-concepts.
Let’s take a closer look at an example: a couple has been married for ten
years. The husband is furious because he feels his wife is an absolute control
freak and never acknowledges his thoughts, ideas or decisions. The wife, on the
other hand, feels that if she does not make the decisions, nothing will get done or
be resolved. After closer inspection we find that the husband accepts all of the
wife’s decisions and does not contribute at all. This leads to a context where the
wife does what she feels must be done. But the husband feels rejected,
unimportant in the relationship and resentful of his wife, who is obviously the
one making all the decisions. The wife, on the other hand, feels her husband
does not contribute and she feels drained in the relationship. The husband’s as
well as the wife’s
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needs for dominance will influence their communicative behaviour and

ultimately their marriage. The important thing is that they will have to decide on
the rules that govern their relationship.

Relationship structures:
Complementary
Symmetrical
Parallel

The following relationship structures have been identified (Tubbs & Moss
2008):

Complementary structures are based on differences: one individual is

dominant and the other is submissive.
Symmetrical structures are based on similarities: both individuals are
dominant or both are submissive.
Parallel structures are based on a combination of complementary and
symmetrical structures. Referring to our example above, the husband might be
dominant with regard to the finances of the relationship and the wife may be
dominant with regard to the general household, but both are dominant – and
therefore symmetrical – when the children’s discipline comes into play. This
structure is much more forgiving, allowing individuals to adapt to different
situations and respecting each others’ roles in different contexts.

8.8.2 Status
Status is the position of an individual in relation to others or another individual,
for example a lecturer versus a student or a police officer versus a citizen. Status
influences many aspects of interpersonal communication, amongst others the
content of the communication and the communication style. A person with
‘higher’ status will usually decide the topic of discussion; for example, a lecturer
might schedule an appointment with a student to discuss his final module mark,
the possibility that he might not pass the subject and how this affects his future
academic career. Staying with this example, the way in which the individuals
greet each other will also explain the status difference between them. The
lecturer might greet the student by name, but the student will address the lecturer
by title, such as Professor.

Status influences, among others, the content and style of communication.

8.8.3 Power
Power is the capacity to influence the behaviour of others or another individual,
but to resist others’ attempts to influence oneself. There is a huge difference
between dominance and power. Power needs to be accepted. If not accepted, the
other individual cannot be dominated. Power can be given to an individual, for
example when an employee is promoted to manager. If the employee accepts the
promotion, she accepts the power basis and then has the power to dominate
situations. If she doesn’t accept, she cannot dominate the context nor the
individuals involved in the situation.

Power is the capacity to influence the behaviour of others.

8.9 GENDER AND POWER

South Africa has made remarkable progress in promoting women to powerful
positions in the country. According to Tubbs and Moss (2008) only three ‘bases
of gendered power’ can be identified:
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Bases of gendered power:

Control of resources
Control of ideology
Unequal social obligations

Control of resources: It is very interesting to note that with social roles and
 classes also come the financial resources gained from the social roles. A
typical example of this would be the salary discrepancies often experienced
by women who hold the same powerful positions as their male counterparts,
but are paid much less. Many women in powerful positions feel they are not
treated the same as their male colleagues.
Control of ideology: We often find that women are discriminated against
when they are ordained as preachers or priests in religious dominations. Often
men in a congregation would walk out the door when a woman preacher gets
up to deliver the sermon. This is a severe case of discrimination against
women based on predispositions and prejudices held by men. Unfortunately
there are still many cases in South Africa where men are regarded as the only
decision makers.
Unequal social obligations: Unfortunately we find that women are
discriminated against, for example not being interviewed for very important
high-ranking positions in society because they are expected to stay at home
and look after the children. This obviously detrimentally affects their chances
to become financially independent and to utilise opportunities for which they
are qualified.

Even though there has been much debate on this issue, it is still true that women
often find themselves in conflicting situations where they have to fulfil the role
of primary caretaker, as well as in some cases also the role of primary
breadwinner, but then find that their spouses do not assist by taking on more of
the responsibilities of care-giving. This results in women leaving the workforce
because of the imposed gender-related roles of the mother being the care-giver
and the father being the breadwinner. Fortunately there are also some positive
shifts in this regard where many women receive the necessary support from their
spouses.

8.10 INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION AND

NEEDS
Theories that have been developed about interpersonal needs provide a way of
understanding why we behave as we do in our relationships. By understanding
other people’s needs and motivations we are more likely to identify their
communication priorities, learn how to attract and hold their attention, and
express ourselves in ways that they understand. As the relationship between two
people grows and they learn more about the needs that motivate them, it
becomes easier to express themselves in ways that the other will understand.
Two theories that deal specifically with needs that are satisfied in interpersonal
relationships are Schutz’s (1958) interpersonal needs theory and Homans’ (1951)
social exchange theory. These theories will be discussed very briefly.

By understanding other people’s needs and motivations we are more

likely to:
identify their communication priorities
learn how to attract and hold their attention and
express ourselves in ways that they understand

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8.10.1 Schutz’s interpersonal needs theory

The major premise of Schutz’s theory is that people need people. He contends
that the drive to develop interpersonal relationships with others is to satisfy three
basic human needs: inclusion, affection and control. We all have these needs in
varying degrees and express them in different ways:

The three basic human needs satisfied, according to Schutz’s

interpersonal needs theory:
Need for inclusion
Need for affection
Need for control

Need for inclusion: The need for inclusion reflects a desire for social contact.
When the need for inclusion is met we tend to feel accepted, understood and
worthwhile. When this need is not met we tend to feel lonely and unwanted.
We all differ in the amount of interaction with others that will satisfy this
need. In reality, most people are socially adaptable and are able to balance
their needs for inclusion and privacy.
Need for affection: This need is reflected in the development of emotionally
close relationships in which affection is shown and expressed verbally and
nonverbally. At one extreme are the underpersonal individuals who value
privacy and seem to have little need for affection. They avoid close ties, keep
their feelings to themselves and even respond with hostility to those who want
to display affection. Overpersonal people have a high need for close
relationships with others. They tend to confide in all the people they meet,
 express their feelings openly and freely and expect others to respond in the
same way. Between these extremes are the personal people, who are able to
express and receive affection when desirable, but can also maintain a distance
when necessary.
Need for control: The need for control is the desire to successfully manage
and influence the events and people around you and, at other times, to allow
others to establish that control. Schutz coined the term ‘abdicrats’ for people
with a strong need to be controlled. They regularly assume a submissive or
subordinate role in a relationship. They prefer not to make decisions or accept
responsibility, but abdicate all power to their partner in the relationship. At the
other extreme are autocrats who dominate others and feel that they must
always be in charge. They become anxious if they cannot control a
relationship and make every decision. The democrats fall somewhere between
the two extremes. Such people know when it is appropriate to control and are
able to do so, but they can also be comfortable submitting to others when
necessary.

Abdicrats are people with a strong need to be controlled.

8.10.2 Homans’ social exchange theory

According to Homans (1951), all social interactions involve some sort of
exchange or barter. For example, we may offer someone help in exchange for
gratitude, talk in exchange for friendship or love in exchange for security. In
making this kind of bargain we tend to calculate the rewards we are likely to
receive and the costs we will incur on our investment. A reward or profit is any
positive outcome resulting from a relationship. Rewards are basically the things
that fulfil our needs for security, social contact, sex, financial gain, status
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and so forth. Rewards, however, always involve some cost or payback. The
payback for the promotion could be that your social activities are curtailed and
your relationships with others consequently deteriorate. The cost of maintaining
one relationship might be that you have to give up the other. We calculate the
costs incurred in maintaining our relationships and tend to terminate those that
have a negative outcome: they create unhappiness, dissatisfaction and problems
rather than happiness, satisfaction and pleasure.
8.11 INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION AND
ASSERTIVENESS
The way in which we express ourselves to others, especially in the sensitive
areas of feelings, needs and opinions, can have a positive or negative effect on
the quality of our interpersonal relationships. Emotions such as anger, fear,
happiness or sadness, as well as the feelings that arise when confronted with
adversity and conflict, are all part of meaningful relationships. To build trust,
engage in self-disclosure, resolve conflicts, express our needs and influence
others we need to be able to communicate such feelings. Often it is not the
emotion itself that threatens (or enhances) the relationship, but rather how you
deal with the emotion and the effect that it has on you and those who are
important to you (Gamble & Gamble 1998).

8.11.1 Defining assertiveness

Assertiveness involves the ability to express feelings and opinions openly and
honestly, to give good reasons for a belief or feeling and to offer suggestions
without attacking the other person verbally. The specific goal is to express
yourself in such a way that you hurt neither yourself nor others.

Assertiveness is the ability to express yourself without harming yourself

or others.

8.11.2 Assertiveness styles

An understanding of the different ways or communication styles of coping with
different situations will automatically make the choice of words much easier.
The three possible communication styles in which you may express yourself are:
passively (or non-assertively), aggressively and assertively (Dickson, Hargie &
Morrow 1989; Verderber 1990; Gamble & Gamble 1998).
Three assertiveness styles:
Passive
Aggressive
Assertive

The passive or non-assertive style: People who behave passively suppress

their feelings to avoid conflict or rejection, or are afraid to let others know
how they are feeling, even when they are being treated unfairly. They are
 generally reluctant to state opinions, share feelings or assume responsibility
for their actions. They often submit to the demands of others even when it not
in their best interests. When people behave passively they force themselves to
keep their real feelings inside and frequently end up in relationships that they
do not really want. You may have noticed that people who respond in a non-
assertive style often
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hesitate, avoid eye contact, appease others, avoid contentious issues, accept
blame needlessly and generally lack confidence.
The aggressive style: People who behave aggressively lash out at the source
of their discomfort with little concern for the situation or the feelings of those
concerned. They insist on standing up for their own rights while ignoring or
violating the rights of others. Their only concern is to dominate and ‘win’ in a
relationship. Aggressive behaviour is judgemental, dogmatic, fault finding
and coercive. The individual who responds in an aggressive style is often
overbearing and self-opinionated, speaks loudly and abusively, interrupts
others and expresses opinions vehemently. This behaviour precipitates
conflict rather than resolves it. People can also be indirectly aggressive by
subtly manipulating others. They very often display behaviour such as
sulking, banging doors or drawers shut, or making the other person feel guilty.
The assertive style: The goal of assertive behaviour is neither to avoid
conflict nor to dominate a relationship, but to communicate feelings and
opinions honestly and clearly without hurting yourself or others. If passive
and aggressive behaviour are partly due to inappropriate communication
behaviour, we should be able to improve our interpersonal relationships by
learning about assertive styles of behaviour. People who behave assertively
take responsibility for their actions and feelings without personal attacks on
others or exaggerating for dramatic effect. They use a firm but conversational
tone to express their feelings, to state what they believe to be true, to make
suggestions about the behaviour or attitudes of others, and to give good
reasons for their opinions and feelings. Their verbal and nonverbal messages
are congruent. Thus, tone of voice, eye contact and posture match the words
that are spoken. The individual who responds in an assertive style addresses
contentious issues, is self-respecting, protects the rights of others, allows
room for negotiation or compromise and generally conveys confidence.
Being assertive may not always achieve the desired goal, but it is more likely to
be successful than passive or aggressive behaviour. People who constantly
display direct or indirect aggressive behaviour in interpersonal (or social)
situations may initially get their own way, but they are generally disliked and
their behaviour has a negative result on their relationships. On the other hand,
people who constantly fail to assert themselves encourage others to manipulate
them because they are perceived as weak and incompetent. Assertive people are
generally respected and seen as competent, strong, fair and confident.

8.11.3 Developing assertive behaviour

Training yourself to improve assertive behaviour is not easy. As expressed by
Briggs (1986: 24),
assertion training is about improving personal, and thereby professional,
effectiveness. It is concerned with the building of self-confidence and
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esteem, and the ability to translate this into improving communications and
relationships.

Knowledge is a primary prerequisite for improving effective assertiveness in

relationships. Understanding the nature of assertiveness, the different types of
possible responses to adversity, and the reasons for not asserting ourselves will
go a long way to help us to understand our particular problems in this regard.
Self-knowledge is also required. People may be unassertive because of
mistaken perceptions of others, such as perceiving a tyrant as being a ‘strong
leader’. One way of understanding yourself with regard to assertive behaviour is
to write down several situations in the past where you were non-assertive or
aggressive. Try to determine the reasons for the behaviour and then substitute an
assertive response for the non-assertive or aggressive behaviour in each case.
Finally, try to transfer what you have learned to situations in everyday social
(and work) situations.

SCENARIO 8.2:
INTERPERSONAL RELATIONSHIPS
 Interpersonal relationships at work
Read the following case studies involving relationships between co-workers.
Read each case study carefully. Then answer the questions that follow it.

Case 1: Ted is enrolled in a work-education programme. Each morning he

attends a work-related class, and in the afternoon he works in a clothing
store. One day last week, Ted learned how to install the tape in the cash
register. The next day he heard one of the salesclerks say that the cash
register was not working properly. Another salesclerk attempted to fix the
machine but was unsuccessful. Ted approached the two clerks and said, ‘I
think I can fix it.’ One of them remarked, ‘What do you know about cash
registers?’ Annoyed by the remark and feeling confident of his ability to fix
the machine, Ted said, ‘I’ll show you how to fix it!’ He pushed his way in
front of the sales clerks, opened the cash register side panel, rethreaded the
machine, and punched the ‘no sale’ key. The machine operated properly, and
the receipt came out. Ted, feeling he had proven a point, walked back to his
own work area without saying a word.
Did Ted prove a point? How will this situation affect his future relations
with co-workers?

Case 2: Kayla, who just recently graduated from high school, works for a
magazine publisher. She has been working at her new job as a data-entry
clerk for only two weeks. On her coffee breaks, Kayla likes to go down to
the composition department and watch Juan and Carin use the computers to
make up magazine pages. Juan has even volunteered explanations on how
the programs work. Carin has never offered to explain anything to Kayla.
Yesterday Carin told Juan that she had to take special classes to learn the
software programs, so she didn’t think it was right for Juan to teach Kayla
how to use the software. ‘Besides,’ Carin said, ‘she might get so good that
she’ll take over one of our jobs!’
If you were Juan, how would you answer Carin?

Case 3: Janine began her first job as an assembler in a large manufacturing

firm. Lois, one of the other assemblers, was especially friendly to Janine.
They began to spend all

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their coffee breaks together. Lois was a gossip, and everyone knew it.
Although Janine did not gossip, she listened to Lois talk about everyone else
in the department. Janine soon noticed that many of the workers were
beginning to be very cool and distant toward her, which was exactly the way
they treated Lois.
If you were Janine, how would you have handled your relationship with
Lois and with the other workers in the department?

Case 4: Like most people, Walter likes to receive a pat on the back for a job
well-done. But his supervisor seldom makes favourable remarks about
Walter’s work. Carlos is very careful about his work, and he receives many
compliments from the supervisor. Carlos takes the compliments well and is
not resented by other employees, except Walter. After watching the
supervisor compliment Carlos for doing a fine job on a difficult project,
Walter said to Carlos, ‘I suppose you think all that butter will get you a
raise.’ Carlos looked up, said nothing, and continued his work. Walter went
on, ‘Too good to talk with me, huh? Now that you and the boss are so buddy-
buddy, I guess you can’t associate with the rest of us.’
What is the reason for Walter’s behaviour?
If you were Carlos, what would you do or say?
How can you accept compliments on your work and still maintain good
relationships with your co-workers?

Case 5: Mario is a sales representative who sells building materials for

Green’s Construction Company. He loves the contact with other people and
the challenge of his sales job. Mario’s boss, Mr Green, is a temperamental
man. Mario, however, is always able to present his thoughts or problems to
Mr Green with positive results. This morning Mario had a problem involving
a lumber shipment to a construction site. He walked into the Green
Construction Company office and noticed that Mr Green was standing by
himself. Mr Green’s shoulders were slouched forward, and his hands were on
his hips. Mario did not present his problem. Instead he decided to postpone it
until after lunch.
Why did Mario decide to wait to inform Mr Green of his problem?
When would be a good time to approach Mr Green? Why?
 http://alex.state.al.us/uploads/7167/Interpersonal%20Relationships%20at%20Work%20Han

8.12 THE PRESENTATION OF SELF IN

EVERYDAY LIFE
According to Erving Goffman, people who meet in social situations play roles
that involve socially established patterns of behaviour. In his book, The
Presentation of Self in Everyday Life, Goffman investigates these roles and
describes and illustrates them in a variety of social situations. The following is
based mainly on Jansen and Steinberg (1991) and Steinberg (2000).

Dramaturgical metaphor: Communication is the performance of a

‘script’ by a ‘team’ during which we act out roles which are defined
according to shared social meaning.

8.12.1 The dramaturgical metaphor

Goffman calls the way we behave in front of others a dramaturgical
performance. He uses metaphors from the theatre to describe everyday
communication encounters because he maintains that real life actors and stage
actors use the same techniques to present themselves to other people. That is,
communication is the performance of a ‘script’ by a ‘team’ during which we act
out roles which are defined according to shared social meanings. For each role
that we play during the day
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we put on a front, or mask, which hides our real identity (or inner self). These
masks represent the image of ourselves that we want others to know and believe
in. We behave in accordance with the role we are playing at a particular time,
that is, we suit our personal appearance and manner to the requirements of the
role or character we have chosen. What happens, in fact, is that we create a
public self. It is as public selves that we learn to know each other.
If you think about a typical day in your own life, you will realise that you play
a number of different roles and for each role you wear a different mask. You
have your student mask, your best friend mask, your employee mask, your
sibling mask and so on.
In order to ensure the success of a particular performance the people with
whom you are communicating must believe that you are the character that you
are playing, or the performance may fail to achieve its purpose. For example, a
surgeon who is not feeling very well would not usually relate this information to
the patient on whom he or she is about to perform an operation – such
disclosures simply do not fit in with the behaviour prescribed by society (the
ritual code) for the role of surgeon. For the same reason the surgeon would make
sure that his reception rooms are appropriately furnished to create the correct
impression on his patients.
Because we act in various contexts and play various characters, our masks or
fronts must constantly be changed and we need to prepare for the next
performance. Backstage is where the preparation takes place. It is where the
principal’s mask is taken off at the end of the school day and he puts on his
husband’s mask before he goes home. Even during school time, the principal
needs to switch roles – he wears a different mask in front of a pupil, or in front
of the pupil’s parents, or in front of a teacher. As they act out different roles in
different social encounters and settings, performers continually move from front
to backstage and vice versa.
Goffman’s theory is therefore concerned with the social or public self – the
predictable attributes and behaviour associated with a particular role. His interest
was in social identity rather than the inner self. Goffman therefore does not
identify participants in communication as unique individuals. He describes types
of people rather than individual persons.

CONCLUSION
Why do we communicate? Well, it’s who we are as living human beings.
Interpersonal communication is in many ways the primary centre for all forms of
communication and especially relationships. We are dependent on others to help
us cope with life’s challenges. To assist us in making sense of all that happens
around us. To connect and feel connected. Interpersonal communication assists
us in our place of work, our social settings and our personal surroundings. It is
the glue that keeps everything together. As human beings we need to interact,
develop relationships and feel part of something bigger. More importantly,
interpersonal communication creates a sense of
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harmony. In this chapter we focused on the many aspects that play a role in the
dynamics of personal relationships.

SUMMARY
Interpersonal communication is communication between two (or more) people in
a face-to-face encounter. This chapter examined communication between two
people by focusing on the relationships that we develop and maintain in our
everyday lives. The link between interpersonal communication and our mode of
existence was discussed by examining Martin Buber’s I–you and I–it
relationships. The chapter then went on to discuss the social context of
interpersonal communication, referring to norms and roles. Personal
relationships were defined by referring to various characteristics. The forming
and deterioration of relationships were discussed in terms of Knapp and
Vangelesti’s (1996; 2005) framework. It also considered defensive and
supportive climates in interpersonal relationships, as well as conflict
management. Self-disclosure as a factor that influences the development and
nature of interpersonal relationships was discussed, as well as the importance of
dominance, status and power. The chapter concluded with a discussion of the
theories of Schutz (1958) and Homans (1951) to explain the role of needs in
interpersonal relationships, as well as the aspect of being assertive. Lastly, the
chapter used Erving Goffman’s theory of self-presentation to illustrate
communication behaviour in social, rather than intimate, relationships.

TEST YOURSELF QUESTIONS

1. Define the following terms in your own words with reference to

interpersonal communication. Compare your definitions of these terms
with the literature of chapter 8:
a. I–it and I–you relationships
b. Norms and roles
c. Interpersonal communication
d. Self-disclosure
e. Loyalty response to conflict
f. Schutz’s interpersonal needs theory
g. The dramaturgical metaphor of Goffman
 2. According to Buber’s theory of interpersonal relationships, the basis of
human existence is that people are communicating beings. What do you
think? Write a short summary of about 700 words in which you provide
your opinion of Buber’s statement.
3. What are the characteristics of interpersonal relationships? Discuss each
of the characteristics and use practical examples to illustrate and support
your discussion.
4. How would you describe the stages of interpersonal relationships? Are
the stages presented in this chapter an adequate way to describe most
interpersonal relationships as you understand and experience them? Give
reasons for your answer.
5. Explain the characteristics of the typical communication patterns during
the deterioration stages of interpersonal relationships. Identify each
‘coming apart’ stage and the characteristics of the communication during
that particular stage.

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6. Communication researcher Jack Gibb felt a need to understand the

extremes of supportive and defensive climates in relationships. Identify
the different types of communication that represent each kind of
relationship climate and indicate how you would go about creating
supportive climates in your relationships with significant others.
7. Think about an interpersonal relationship where you recently experienced
conflict between you and the other individual. How did you experience
the conflict? How did you handle the conflict situation? What would you
do differently in future?
8. Conduct an interview with someone from another culture in order to
determine how they handle/manage conflict? How does it differ from
your culture?
9. We live in an era where social media is a part of everyday life and in
many cases substitutes for face-to-face interpersonal encounters. In what
way do you find that social media such as Facebook, Twitter or e-mail can
escalate interpersonal conflict? In what ways might it help to alleviate
interpersonal conflict?
10. Briefly discuss the importance of dominance, status and power in
 interpersonal relationships. Why should we study these concepts and
understand their workings within the context of interpersonal
relationships?
11. Assess your own assertive behaviour in interpersonal communication
contexts. How assertive is your behaviour? Respond instinctively rather
than in the way you feel you should respond. What have significant others
said about your level of assertiveness?
12. Your colleague at work reveals too much private information for your
liking. You’re not interested in this person’s financial difficulties and
medical problems. What can you do to eliminate this too-personal self-
disclosure?
13. Imagine you have just met someone you are very interested in. To what
extent are you willing to alter or manipulate the image of yourself that
you present to other people in order to get ‘closer’ to this person you have
an interest in? Is it ethical for you to present an image of yourself that you
feel the other person might want to see?
14. You are dating a person you really like, but you have very different views
on politics and religion. It’s like being exact opposites, but you do enjoy
each other’s company. What can you do to encourage more similarity
between yourselves without losing the excitement of the relationship and
changing yourselves to suit the other person?
15. In the mall you see a mother scolding her child for being naughty. Your
first reaction is to speak up and try and resolve the situation, but, on the
other hand, it is not your place to interfere in a mother’s upbringing of her
child. What is your ethical obligation in this case, given the norms and
roles of our South African society? What would you do in this situation?
[Page 192]
Chapter 9
Small group communication
GP van Rheede van Oudtshoorn

OVERVIEW
Staff singing for transformation (meaningful change) and
teambuilding in a South African bank
Dr Steve Booysen, Group Chief Executive of the Absa Group in 2005,
initiated a platform for social interaction and teambuilding for staff across
all cultures, age groups and post levels by means of initiating the Absa
Internal Choir Competition (AICC) as a means of moral support during the
Absa-Barclays merger. Empathy with Absa staff was a motivating factor for
launching the AICC. This was an opportunity for Absa employees to
participate collectively in a stress-releasing, bonding enterprise. The Absa
choirs consisted of employees of one or more branches, business units,
towns or regions. Every choir prepared for the semi-finals, where the best
choir in the province was selected to represent their province at the
national AICC. The competition comprised two categories: A prescribed
Absa song and an item of own choice with a prescribed time limit of three
minutes. In both categories choirs were assessed on the quality of their
singing, as well as the enjoyment value of the performance for both choir
and audience. It was expected that for staff to win it would require co-
operation, trust, preparation time, sharing of norms, values and
perspectives, mutual understanding and to generate a sense of community-
belonging amongst one another. (Van As 2012)

Think for a moment about the different groups to which you belong. As a
 child a large part of your socialisation process occurred in your family and
school groups. As an adult you probably belong to a religious group, study
group or work group. These examples tell us that some groups are socially
oriented (they stem from the human need for social contact) and some are task
oriented (the group works towards achieving a specific aim such as solving a
problem or arriving at a decision). Of course, the categories often overlap. A
social group such as a dance performance group may have to solve the
problem of raising funds to go on tour, for example, while many
organisational task groups arrange social events for their members, such as a
team building excursion. Nowadays socialisation between individuals or even
groups is supported by technology through social media networking such as
belonging to a group on Facebook or WhatsApp, communication via video
conferencing such as Skype and web discussion forums such as MySpace, to
mention but a few.
In this chapter, we focus primarily on task groups. After defining a small
group we point out the advantages and disadvantages of small groups. We
then consider the characteristics of effective groups and the types of roles that
group members play. Our next topic covers the stages in the formation of
small groups. Then we deal with different challenges in small groups, such as
diversity and leadership, and make suggestions as to how to turn them into
opportunities. This is followed by an examination of the ways groups discuss
the problems they have to address and the decisions that are made. Because
conflict is inevitable in small groups we describe different communication
strategies for resolving conflict situations. The final section of the chapter
explains different formats for small groups that will help you in deciding on
the most appropriate small group format for specific challenges.

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LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the end of this chapter you should be able to:
Explain the difference between small group communication and other
communication contexts.
Offer recommendations on when small group communication is ideal as a
 communication context.
Describe and make suggestions regarding the characteristics of small
groups.
Apply communication tactics that address group cohesiveness.
Manage diversity in a small group towards creative outputs.
Give various perspectives on leadership in small groups.
Take active steps towards solving problems and resolving conflict in small
groups.
Select formats for reaching specific communicative goals through
facilitated small group communication.

INTRODUCTION
We live in a society where being part of a group, or several groups, is not a
matter of choice – it is inescapable. We choose to belong to some groups (eg a
sports club) and have others assigned to us by birth (eg family, gender). Our
choice of groups and the way we behave in them depends on several factors. You
may fulfil personal needs, for example, by joining a church group, but the way
you participate in the group is shaped to a large extent not only by the
conventions of the group but also by your culture. Your culture may for instance
have conventions that assign very specific roles to male and female members of
your church.

Groups are essential in helping society to function efficiently.

Groups are essential in helping society to function efficiently. For example,

the government achieves many of its goals by appointing groups or task teams to
investigate opportunities for community development. On a personal level there
are also many benefits to be gained from participation in groups. Belonging to a
support group such as Alcoholics Anonymous or Weigh-Less™, for instance, in
which members of the group share experiences and offer one another support,
has helped many people overcome undesirable drinking and eating habits,
respectively. Professional success is often measured by how effectively a person
contributes to task groups, especially in a leadership capacity.
The main form of communication in a small group is discussion. Group
members in an organisation, for instance, meet to exchange information about a
situation, make a decision about an issue or solve a problem. Discussion is
important because it is a way for everyone to participate and voice an opinion.
However, people are often reluctant to attend group discussions or participate in
them. Often the ineffectiveness of the group is blamed on the leader, but, as
Verderber and Verderber (2002) point out, the responsibility for the ‘waste of
time’ in fact lies with the individual members.
Studying group processes, that is, how group members communicate and
interact with one another, can help you make better use of the
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time you spend in groups and can also help you to participate more effectively in
the different groups to which you belong.

9.1 DEFINING THE SMALL GROUP

COMMUNICATION CONTEXT
Arriving at a scientific definition of a group is not easy. A group is not merely a
random collection of individuals who happen to occupy a particular space at the
same time. Thus, six people waiting for a taxi are not considered a group.
Neither are 50 people watching a film together in a cinema. A group is a
collection of individuals who see themselves as belonging to the group, who
interact verbally and nonverbally, who occupy certain roles with respect to one
another (and, as Van As (2012: 7) points out, these roles allow for mutual respect
that permits disclosure of one’s self to the other) and who co-operate to
accomplish a definite goal. More concisely put, a small group is a group of at
least three people that is small enough for individual members to perceive one
another as individuals during interaction (Adams & Galanes 2003: 11) and these
individuals are involved in a transactional process of influence (Harris &
Sherblom 2005: 4; Tubbs, Moss & Papastefanou 2012: 17).

A group is a collection of individuals who see themselves as belonging

to the group, who interact verbally and nonverbally, who occupy certain
roles with respect to one another and who co-operate to accomplish a
definite goal.

Let’s consider the example of people waiting for a taxi. Certainly, they have a
common goal – they are all waiting for a taxi. But there is no need to interact
with one another to accomplish this goal. Should an accident occur in the street
where they are waiting, however, and they begin discussing how to obtain help
for the accident victims, they would become a group rather than a random
collection of people. During their interaction they would decide such matters as
who should call for an ambulance, who should fetch blankets to cover the
victims and who should try to keep them calm until help arrives. Their unified
effort would make them a small group for the duration of their interaction.
The specific goals for which a small group strives may vary. For instance, a
student house committee meets to plan a strategy for improving hostel
conditions; a study group meets to assist its members to understand course work;
or a board of directors meets to plan corporate policy for the coming year.
Although their goals vary, for each of these groups to succeed its members must
work and communicate together effectively. Their understanding of group
dynamics, as well as the way the members communicate with one another, will
to a large extent determine the effectiveness of the group. Beebe and Masterson
(2003: 37) maintain that a group cannot function without words and that
communication is the vehicle that allows a group to move toward its goals.

The understanding of group dynamics, as well as the way the members

communicate with one another, will to a large extent determine the
effectiveness of the group.

Because small group communication is more complex than two-person

communication, communicators in small groups have to exert more effort to
ensure effectiveness in their communication at both task and relational levels.
Dyadic and small group communication differ from each other for mainly four
reasons. First, the potential for information sharing and interaction in
interpersonal (dyadic) communication and small group communication differs.
When group
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members are added, as in the case of small group communication, information

sharing increases and with it the potential for ideas and problem-solving
solutions. Secondly, the small group differs from the dyad in that an observer or
an audience is present. In a dyad there is usually a speaker and a listener and no
one else; in a small group there is at least a third person listening or observing
while two others are interacting. This observer may influence the interaction
positively or negatively, depending on the topic and composition of the group.
Thirdly, another critical difference between a small group and a dyad is the
potential of a majority. In the dyad no majority of views can form if participants
have differing views. In a small group a majority coalition can form (Barker,
Wahlers & Watson 1995: 5–6). Dyads do not form networks or leadership
hierarchies. Lastly, groups have continuity and dyads do not: if one member
leaves a dyad, the dyad disbands, but members often leave small groups in order
to be replaced by new members and the group itself continues (Adams &
Galanes 2003: 12).
Public communication, on the other hand, differs from small group
communication in that it is directed towards a larger audience than the typical
one we find in small group communication. Because of the larger number of
people, the potential number of interactions and a significant difference in the
transactional nature of communication exchanges, public communication is
governed by different guidelines and rules (Harris & Sherblom 2005: 13). Small
group members have more intimate interactions than what we typically find in
public communication.
Even in a virtual environment the basic characteristics of small groups remain
constant. Virtual teams are groups of people who work interdependently with
shared purpose across space, time and organisational boundaries using
technology to communicate and collaborate (Kirkman et al 2002: 67).

9.2 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF

SMALL GROUP COMMUNICATION
Groups that meet to solve problems and reach decisions have both advantages
and disadvantages. Knowledge of these aids understanding and managing small
group communication.

9.2.1 What are the strengths of small group communication?

The advantages of small group communication include the following:

People who work in groups usually accomplish more than people who work
alone because of the increased opportunities for interaction. The members of
the group can pool resources and information to achieve goals and reach
decisions. If a lecturer gives you a huge assignment to complete, working in a
group can help you to get it done on time and to perform well as long as your
 group works together well.
Working in a group rather than alone usually results in an increase in
individual motivation to find a solution to a problem, as well as
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greater commitment to the task on hand. There seems to be a desire not to let
the group down.
Superior decisions and solutions are often reached because groups are
generally better equipped than individuals to foresee difficulties, detect
weaknesses, visualise consequences and explore possibilities. Often the group
can pinpoint errors in an individual member’s thinking and discuss them.
Baron and Byrne (2000) hold that groups are far less likely than individuals to
make serious errors.
The decisions or solutions arrived at by a group tend to be better received by
others than those made by an individual. The fact that a number of people
came to one conclusion appears to command respect from those to whom the
group reports. In the AICC case study described at the beginning of the
chapter, results indicate that prolonged exposure to others in the choir
impacted positively on the nurturing of respect for others and their culture
(Van As 2012: 7).
Many people find that working in a group is more pleasant and fulfilling than
working alone. The knowledge that others are willing to confirm one’s ideas
provides a feeling of personal satisfaction.
Virtual groups can be formed to save time and energy through the effective
use of available social media tools such as video conferencing, e-mail, voice
mail, web discussion forums, shared databases and so on.

9.2.2 When is the small group not the most appropriate context of
communication?
Despite the strong points of using groups to solve problems and make decisions,
certain drawbacks have also been identified. These include:

There is a temptation for some people to sit back and allow others to do all the
work. Such people seem to have a knack for avoiding duties and
responsibilities, yet still take credit for the group’s achievements.
On the other hand, there is a temptation for forceful people to take over and
 dominate the group. Such people often refuse to make compromises or allow
others to be heard.
The personal goals of group members sometimes conflict with group goals to
the extent that they interfere with group objectives. An individual member
who is seeking promotion, for example, might use the group to further his
own ends.
It generally takes longer for a group to reach a decision than an individual
working alone. In business and industry, where time is money, the group
process can be a disadvantage (Gamble & Gamble 1987).

The consensus of opinion is that when the problem to be solved is simple it is

more efficient for one person to work alone because small group communication
takes up more time, but in a more challenging situation there are advantages to
having people talk things through and pool their resources, knowledge and
insight.
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9.3 GROUP CHARACTERISTICS

What makes an effective group? Research shows that effective small groups
generally have an optimum number of members, have a good working
environment, show cohesiveness, have a commitment to the task, respect norms
and meet key role requirements (Gamble & Gamble 1987; Hamilton & Parker
1990; Verderber & Verderber 2002; Tubbs & Moss 2003).

Group characteristics:
Optimum number of members
Climate
Goals and norms
Member roles
Stages of group formation

9.3.1 Optimum number of members

Our definition of a small group makes it clear that the interactions of individual
members are important for the group to function efficiently. That is why a small
group is limited to about 12 people. If the group becomes too large, the members
cannot fully participate in the discussion. Although optimum size depends on the
nature of the task, five to seven people is the most productive size. Such a group
is large enough to supply information and share the work load, but small enough
to give each member the opportunity for maximum participation. An odd
number is preferable in a group of any size because the odd number will prevent
tied votes.

A small group is limited to about 12 people. The most productive size is

five to seven people.

9.3.2 Group climate

A good working environment is one that promotes interaction among its
members. Apart from a pleasant physical environment, such as a room with
adequate heating in winter, an important consideration is seating. Seating that is
too formal or too informal inhibits free discussion. The leader who sits at the
head of a long table, for example, may be perceived as the ‘boss’ in charge of
proceedings and often inhibits participation from the group. On the other hand,
when the seating is too informal subgroups of two or three people may form
within the group and also not participate fully. The ideal arrangement is to have a
circular or rectangular arrangement of tables so that everyone can see everyone
else. Seating positions should accord everyone equal status to establish a climate
in which all members have equal opportunity to participate (see Figure 9.1).

Equal status establishes a climate in which all members have equal

opportunity to participate.

Figure 9.1 Different seating positions

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The group climate, or atmosphere, created in the group is largely dependent on

the communication styles of the members. It has been found that members tend
to act in a way that reinforces the prevailing group climate. Redding (1972)
suggests that an effective group climate has the following ingredients:
1. supportiveness
2. participative decision-making
3. trust among group members (in the example of the AICC choir (Van As
2012: 6) learning to trust fellow choir members enabled participants to trust
members of the broader society)
4. openness and honesty
5. high performance goals.
According to Beebe and Masterson (2003: 125), the following factors are
observed in a positive group climate:
1. personal commitment to the group (when Absa employees became members
of the AICC choir they committed personally to a challenging and at times
cumbersome process (Van As 2012: 5))
2. personal dependence on the group
3. group power over individuals within the group.
Small groups should create an environment and use a format for their
discussions that are strategically aligned with the climate and environment of the
parent organisation. For example, small groups in a formal organisation (high on
bureaucracy and positional authority) will use a different format to generate
ideas than an informal organisation (low power distance and participatory
communication approaches) would. Once the climate of the small group is
aligned with the climate of the organisation the small group must identify its
norms and goals, which should also be aligned with the broader organisational
strategic intent.

9.3.3 Group goals and norms

Norms are the explicit and implicit rules for behaviour that are established to
enable the group to operate effectively and to develop cohesiveness. Some
norms are formal or written, such as a code of conduct. Other norms are informal
and are established early on in the group’s meetings. Two important areas of
norm development are group interaction and group procedure. As an example of
different styles of group interaction, you may belong to one group in which it is
acceptable to interrupt the speaker to ask questions or openly express support or
disagreement with another member; you may belong to another group in which
members are expected to be quiet until discussion is invited. Similarly, in one
group the group procedure may be that business is not discussed unless everyone
is present, while in another it is acceptable that some people come late or leave
early. Once established and reinforced, some norms can be very difficult to
change and may be detrimental to the group (such as being unpunctual, using
expletives and interrupting the speaker).

Group norms are the explicit and implicit rules of behaviour that are
established to enable the group to operate effectively and to develop
cohesiveness.

Two important areas of norm development:

Group interaction
Group procedure

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9.3.4 Group member roles

The concept of a role is borrowed from the stage, where it refers to the character
played by an actor in a play. In the social sciences a role is defined as a pattern of
behaviour that is appropriate for a person’s position in a group. In most groups,
for instance, there is a leader, who is responsible for the functioning of the
group. In effective groups the members understand and fill the various roles that
enable the group to function. These roles are not necessarily assigned to group
members and most of them are taken up naturally. When dysfunctional groups
attempt to become functional, roles may provide options and guidelines. Placing
more emphasis on certain roles can shift focus or empathy in the right direction.
Members’ roles in small groups:
task role
maintenance role
individual role

In this section we highlight a classification first suggested by Benne and

Sheats (1948). Members’ roles in small groups are categorised according to what
they do for the group: task, maintenance and individual. The first two roles can
contribute to the group, but not the third (Adams & Galanes 2003: 174–175).

Task roles reflect the work a group must do to accomplish its goals. People
 who fulfil task roles initiate ideas, seek and provide information, define
problems, clarify and summarise suggestions and proposals, and record the
group’s key decisions. Task roles are usually interchanged among the
members.
Maintenance roles reflect behaviour that keeps the group working together
smoothly. People who perform maintenance roles fulfil the emotional needs of
the group. They support and encourage others by offering praise or
agreement, relieve tension by helping group members to reconcile differences,
control conflict and act as gatekeeper by keeping lines of communication
open and seeing that everyone has a chance to participate.
Individual roles give rise to problems in small group communication when
members deliberately play self-centred roles – roles that accomplish
egocentric or self-serving functions. They achieve this by being aggressive,
seeking attention, promoting personal interests or not contributing at all.
People who adopt such roles dominate the discussion, verbally attack others,
clown around, block suggestions and engage in criticising everything the
group attempts.

People who play task and maintenance roles are aware of the importance of
participation in small groups and the need to interact with other members of the
group in a constructive manner. Self-centred members need first of all to be
made aware of their detrimental actions (which can range between the leader or a
friend tactfully having a talk with them, or more formal disciplinary action) and
then to act in a more positive manner.

9.3.5 Stages of group formation

When groups form they also establish an identity. There are five developmental
stages in group formation (Tuckman 1965; Wheelan
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1994; Verderber & Verderber 2002). Each of these stages provides group
members with an opportunity to either establish, maintain or modify a group’s
identity.

Stages of group formation:

Forming
Storming
Norming
Performing and co-operation
 Adjourning

Forming: When individuals enter a group situation there is often a degree of

tension and anxiety because of uncertainty about the new situation. Members
experience anxiety and dependence on the designated leader while they find
out about the task, group norms and the nature of the situation. Think of the
first group assignment you had to participate in as a student – you probably
had an initial period of awkwardness where you waited for someone to take
the lead, or just took the lead yourself.
Storming: This is a natural stage in group development marked by conflict
between individual members or between a member and the leader. There can
also be resistance to group norms and the demands of the task. However,
conflict has been identified as essential to the process of cohesion because it
assists in the establishment of shared norms and values. In that first student
work group you belonged to, group members most probably had different
opinions as to how the assignment should be done.
Norming: This is the stage where conflicts are resolved and cohesiveness
develops. At this stage a degree of trust exists between group members. The
group can begin to negotiate about group goals, procedures, rules and division
of labour, as well as standards of behaviour to which the members are
expected to conform. In this stage your student group most probably reached
agreement on how the assignment should be done, with some members
deciding to collaborate with each other either face-to-face or by setting up a
virtual group. It is apparent in the AICC case study that however conflict
arose, the commitment to the choirs’ achievement in the final competition and
the members’ love of singing always aided choirs to manoeuvre their teams
through storming to norming and finally to performing (Van As 2012: 5).
Performing and co-operating: In this stage work begins to lead to
observable performance. Members co-operate to solve interpersonal problems
and reach agreed goals. If the group struggles to deliver at this stage, engaging
in metacommunication (communicating about how the group communicates)
may help to address obstacles.
Adjourning: It is at this stage that the group terminates its work and members
reflect on their achievements and assign meaning to their shared experiences.
They also have to decide how to end or maintain the interpersonal
relationships that may have formed. If your group did well in that first
assignment and you enjoyed working with your fellow students, chances are
 that you will most probably work together again on another assignment. In the
AICC case study members expressed a sense of loss and sadness because the
time with their ‘choir family’ had come to an end (Van As 2012: 5), which is
typical of the adjourning phase.
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9.4 CHALLENGES THAT BECOME

OPPORTUNITIES
Some of the difficulties in small group communication can be quite daunting.
However, if you are able to address those obstacles with the appropriate
communication approach or intervention, those challenges can be met head on
with success. Those successes breed more success and can be a great team-
building factor.

Small group challenges:

Groupthink
Diversity
Team leadership
Problem solving
Conflict

9.4.1 ‘Groupthink’: making sure cohesiveness works

Commitment describes the willingness of individual members to work together
to complete the group’s task. Groups that succeed in achieving their goals have
members who are committed to the group: they attend meetings, do what is
expected of them and strive to meet the group’s goals. Without sufficient
commitment there is little cohesiveness and little chance of success.

Groupthink minimises conflict and preserves harmony at the expense of

critical examination of ideas.

There is, however, the danger of too much cohesion within a group, which can
lead group members to be so concerned with maintaining good relationships
within the group that they neglect the purpose for which they came together. The
result is that the group is not open to new ideas and may not allow new members
to join. Such groups suffer from ‘groupthink’, a condition in which minimising
conflict and preserving harmony are more important goals than the critical
examination of ideas.
When groupthink predominates the group as a whole tends to discount
negative information and may even ignore ethical considerations to preserve
cohesiveness. Since non-conformity might damage cohesion, members who
privately disagree with the views expressed by the majority may be unwilling to
risk conflict by publicly admitting that they disagree. Groups that do not
command external respect within their organisation may feel threatened and
become vulnerable to the concurrence-seeking that characterises groupthink
(Steyn, De Vries & Meyer 2004: 5). Groupthink results in an ineffective
consensus – too little conflict often lowers the quality of group decisions (Beebe
& Masterson 2003: 275). According to Adams and Galanes (2003: 232), the
group is then deprived of the full benefit of members’ opinions and reasoning.
An example of groupthink is the decision of top management in the South
African Police Service in April 2001 to withhold information from the media
about a hostage exercise at the Wonderboom Air Force base in Pretoria (Carstens
& Louw 2001). This decision not only had negative consequences for the image
of the South African Police Service but also for the organisation’s decision-
making abilities. The decision was not made in a consultative manner, which
fuelled the perception that decision-makers were not open and receptive to a
more critical examination of ideas. The media believed that the exercise was a
real hostage situation, and were misled until management realised too late that
the decisions it took boomeranged. A high-level meeting between the media and
top police management was needed to save future liaison (Steyn, De Vries &
Meyer 2004: 2).
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A homogeneous group is generally more cohesive than a heterogeneous group. A

homogeneous group is one in which the members have a great deal in common
and pursue similar needs and purposes. A heterogeneous group is one in which
different ages, backgrounds and interests are represented. One simple way to
address groupthink is to ensure heterogeneity and diversity in the group. For
example, a local business that plans to expand into new markets will find it
beneficial to include business strategists and marketers in its team who know the
markets it hopes to penetrate. The addition of such new team members will bring
the much needed diversity of opinions, ideas and voices one needs to propel a
team towards decisions of higher quality.

Homogeneous group: members have a great deal in common with

 similar needs and purposes.

Heterogeneous group: members represent different ages, backgrounds

and interests.

9.4.2 Diversity: an ally in creative thinking

If we work in an organisation or with other students on a group assignment, we
will encounter issues surrounding diversity. Diversity refers to differences
among members that may provide challenges or opportunities because of the
different learning styles, personalities, opinions, etc of members (Adams &
Galanes 2003: 194). An example of differences in the AICC case study are the
differences coming to light in age, gender, race, language, province and the
positions held by the employees in the bank (Van As 2012).

Diversity: the differences among members that may provide challenges

or opportunities.

The strength of diversity lies in its potential to aid in effectively addressing

difficult or complex problems through different creative perspectives (such as
perspectives from different social and cultural backgrounds, as seen in the AICC
case study, where the choirs where open to all employees in the bank). Different
points of view tend to produce innovative solutions to difficult problems.
Interaction between different people can lead to new and creative solutions
(Harris & Sherblom 2005: 97).
For diverse groups to generate innovative ideas it is important for that group
to consist of open-minded individuals who believe that there is more than one
way to achieve a goal. Narrow-mindedness will inhibit the creativity that should
be generated by diverse group membership (Harris & Sherblom 2005: 98). When
group members bring different viewpoints to the decision-making process they
achieve an advantage over organisations and groups that may be culturally
homogeneous or fail to utilise their diversity (Harris & Sherblom 2005: 98).
The implementation of virtual teams could provide organisations with a
strategic approach to alter their orientation to change in order to remain
competitive by using technology to facilitate greater organisational flexibility
and learning (Vorster 2003: 64). International companies such as IBM have
shown cost reduction owing to the adoption of virtual teams (Bergiel, Bergiel &
Balsmeier 2008), which allows diverse groups to communicate at a lower cost to
company.
9.4.3 Team leadership: influencing the group towards its goal
This section has online support material available

Most groups, especially those engaged in problem-solving, need effective

leadership to achieve their goals. Leadership is defined as
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any behaviour that facilitates group task accomplishment and a leader is any
person with the ability to influence others. Influence means bringing about
changes in the attitudes and actions of others. It differs from the exercise of raw
power in that a good leader does not force people to submit to a particular point
of view. A skilful leader guides the group through a discussion, pointing out the
advantages and limitations of all the ideas suggested by the members so that the
best outcome can be reached.

Leadership is defined as any behaviour that facilitates group task

accomplishment by a person who has the ability to influence others.

Leaders are either designated by the group or achieve leadership status

because they exhibit leadership behaviour. They take responsibility for group
communication, they ask relevant questions, offer summaries as the discussion
proceeds and encourage the group to continually evaluate and improve its
performance (Gamble & Gamble 1992; Hamilton & Parker 1990; Verderber &
Verderber 2002).
From the many theories that have been developed about leadership we have
selected two for discussion: leadership traits and leadership styles (Barker 1984;
Barker, Wahlers & Watson 2001: 143; Verderber & Verderber 2002).
Early researchers assumed that leaders are born, not made, and looked for
personality traits that distinguish leaders from non-leaders. One such study
revealed that effective leaders display consistent leadership traits which relate to
ability, sociability, motivation and communication skills. With regard to their
abilities, leaders generally exceed average group members in intelligence,
scholarship, insight and verbal facility. Sociability traits include dependability,
activeness, co-operation and popularity. In the area of motivation leaders
generally exceed non-leaders in initiative, persistence and enthusiasm. Leaders
also reveal a high level of competency in a variety of communication skills. If
you have ever had the opportunity to work with such a leader, you will be able to
recognise most of these traits in him or her.
Regarding traits as indicators of good leadership, the prevailing view is that
most people can be trained to be good leaders.
Very often the quality of work produced by groups depends on the behaviour
or style of leadership of the group leader. The assumptions we make about how
people work together will influence the type of leadership styles we adopt. Some
leaders assume that the average group member is inherently lazy, prefers to
avoid responsibility and must be closely supervised. Others assume that the
average group member enjoys work, is self-directed and willingly assumes
responsibility (McGregor 1960). These assumptions have resulted in the
identification of three different leadership styles: authoritarian, democratic and
laissez-faire.

Leadership styles:
Authoritarian
Democratic
Laissez-faire

Authoritarian leaders are strongly task-oriented

Authoritarian leaders are strongly task-oriented and have firm opinions on

how to achieve the group’s goals. They exercise direct control over the group
by determining policy and procedure, assigning tasks and roles to members
and deciding who may talk and who may not. An authoritarian leader often
makes decisions without consulting the group. Although such an approach
may be effective during crisis situations because it produces fast
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decisions, the usual outcome of this style is that it causes conflict within the
group and group satisfaction is low.
Democratic leaders are people-oriented. They guide rather than direct a
group by involving all members in discussion and debate and letting
everyone’s points of view be heard. While such a leader may suggest
alternatives, it is left to the group to decide on specific policy, procedure and
the tasks and roles of members. Democratic leadership has been proven to
produce high-quality results as it provides opportunities for originality and
creativity and stimulates group cohesiveness, motivation to work and achieve
goals and the desire to communicate. In the AICC case study choir conductors
 were democratically elected by choir members (Van As 2012: 5).
Laissez-faire leaders generally adopt a ‘let them do their own thing’ attitude
and try not to direct the group at all. They supply information, advice and
material when asked, but do not actively participate in group decisions. The
group has complete freedom in determining policy, procedure, tasks and roles.
While members of a laissez-faire group feel free to progress and develop on
their own, they may often be distracted from the task at hand and suffer loss
of direction. Support groups, such as groups for the terminally ill, seem to
work well under this type of leadership because the members come together
for the purpose for helping each other and prefer not be tied to a particular
procedure or structure.

Democratic leaders are people-oriented.

Laissez-faire leaders have a ‘let them do their own thing’ attitude.

9.4.4 Problem-solving: a process geared towards solutions

Group members meet to exchange information and ideas in order to solve
problems and make decisions. For instance, a security group meets to discuss
safety arrangements for political leaders, or a student association meets to plan
ways to generate funds for a year-end function. It is communication that enables
groups to engage in problem-solving.

Problem-solving is the process by which people generate and evaluate

the solutions to an identified problem in order to choose and implement
the best one.

Problem-solving and decision-making are joint activities. In order to make a

decision about an issue the problem has to be investigated. Problem-solving is
the process by which people generate and evaluate the solutions to an identified
problem so that the best one can be chosen and implemented (Brilhart 1989).
Problem-solving involves everything you need to do to move from your present
undesirable situation to what you want, including creating solutions and
choosing among them (Adams & Galanes 2003: 129). According to Berko,
Wolvin and Curtis (1986), a good decision is one that the group perceives to be
the best possible one for the existing problem. In other words, the group reaches
consensus. Consensus is good, unless it is achieved too easily, in which case it
becomes suspect (Buchanan & O’Connell 2006: 36). Consensus means all
understand the decision, accept it, and will carry out their part in implementing
it. Although there are different approaches to problem-solving, researchers
suggest that groups reach consensus more efficiently if they understand and
follow a systematic procedure designed to lead them through the problem-
solving

Consensus: understanding and accepting a decision and carrying out

your part in its implementation.

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process to a specific choice. The structure or sequence in Table 9.1 has been
shown to work well in many problem-solving situations (Fisher 1981; Hybels &
Weaver 1989; Tubbs & Moss 2003).
Table 9.1 The problem-solving sequence

1. Identify and define the problem.

2. Analyse and research the problem.
3. Decide what the solution should accomplish.
4. Find and evaluate solutions.
5. Implement the solution.

There are five steps in the problem-solving process, described below.

Identifying and defining the problem

The first step is to recognise that a problem indeed exists and for the group as a
whole to agree that it is a problem. Obvious problems, such as not having
enough money, are easy to identify and agree on; others may be more
challenging, such as an unproductive organisational culture. Members must
understand the specific goal of the group and how it relates to the greater
organisational strategy so as to describe the problem within that train of thought.
It may be necessary to discover facts and to clarify values before the group can
decide on an action, but knowing the overall purpose helps to keep members on
track in their discussion and guides them in the search for relevant information.
 Five steps of the problem-solving process:
1. Identify and define the problem
2. Analyse and research the problem
3. Decide what the solution should accomplish
4. Find and evaluate solutions
5. Implement the solution

Analysing and researching the problem

Defining words and phrases: Before a group can discuss a problem or find a
solution all members must ascribe the same meaning to any word or phrase
that may be ambiguous.
Seeking out information: The information groups need to discuss the problem
will vary. In the case of what a lecturer expects of a group to complete an
assignment, studying documents such as study letters will yield the necessary
information.

Deciding what the solution should accomplish

Most problems do not have only one solution. There are usually a number of
alternatives. Before a group can arrive at a decision it must establish realistic and
acceptable criteria for what the solution should accomplish. Solutions must meet
all minimum criteria (such as an assignment that needs to be a specific number
of words in length) and strive towards desirables, or maximum criteria (such as
esoteric analysis of sources for an assignment).
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Finding and evaluating solutions

Often a group can find many alternatives that may lead to a decision. Some ways
of generating and evaluating solutions are to encourage the free flow of ideas by
brainstorming or to employ some other creative thinking technique. These ideas
need to be measured against the criteria that have been decided upon.

Implementing the solution

The final step in a discussion is to offer suggestions about how the solution can
be implemented. If the group finds that a plan is not working, it will have to
meet again to consider different solutions.
9.4.5 Conflict: moving from destructive to constructive
It is inevitable that a certain degree of conflict arises in decision-making groups,
as seen in the AICC case study where 40 choir members of different religions,
races, cultures, beliefs, languages and age groups had to debate the desirability
or suitability of songs, dance movements and costume design (Van As 2012: 5).
Usually, when we think about group conflict, we assume that one party wins and
the other loses, leading to a great deal of frustration. However, when handled
skilfully conflict can be constructive and lead to new ideas and innovations that
are beneficial to the group. Conflict is constructive when it results in an
improvement in the quality of decisions that are made or when it stimulates
involvement from group members who are inclined to remain passive. Conflict
can be destructive when contentious issues are not discussed and remain
unresolved, creating feelings of resentment among members of the group.

When we think of conflict we usually assume that one party wins and the
other loses which leads to frustration.

Conflict occurs when discordant ideas or feelings are expressed or

experienced (Adams & Galanes 2003: 228). Conflict exists in a relationship
when parties believe that their aspirations cannot be achieved simultaneously or
perceive a divergence in their values, needs or interests and purposefully employ
their power in an effort to eliminate, defeat, neutralise or change each other to
protect or further their interest in the interaction (Anstey 2006: 6).
Different strategies for resolving conflict exist and the strategy selected
depends on the nature of the conflict and on the group’s characteristics. The
communication styles required for each strategy differ and the facilitator of the
conflict resolution process needs to select the most appropriate way of dealing
with the conflict.

Conflict resolution strategies:

Collaboration
Negotiation
Accommodation
Compromise
Avoidance

Collaboration is the ideal conflict resolution strategy for any group conflict
and is one in which all parties feel satisfied with the outcome. To achieve this
win-win situation requires collaboration, which is achieved either through
 consensus or negotiation. Both methods take time, energy and commitment.
Collaborative communication requires the participation of all members, and
that takes time. Each is given the opportunity to state his or her point of view
as clearly and concisely as possible. At the
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same time each is required to listen attentively to the views of others, without
interruption or comment. Collaboration is not appropriate, however, for trivial
decisions or emergency issues (Wood 2000).
Negotiation is frequently the method of choice in a more formal bargaining
situation, such as between a labour union and an employer. It is used when
arguments seem unresolvable and neither side seems willing to make
sufficient concessions to reach a satisfactory outcome. As a conflict resolution
strategy negotiation ‘involves forging a resolution between opposing points of
view, assuring that each side “wins” and gets the benefits most important to
its overall goals’ (Harris & Sherblom 1999: 201). Principled negotiation is
one way of dealing with conflict that promotes finding ways to meet the needs
of the conflicting parties and respecting their relationship (Adams & Galanes
2003: 248).
Accommodation is a win-lose strategy because it means giving up all or most
of one’s own views and benefits for the sake of others. If the issue is a
relatively minor point, for example one person in the group wants to meet
after lunch and the others prefer an early start, giving in to the majority is
unlikely to create feelings of resentment. But if this person consistently has to
concede on major issues merely to ensure group harmony, he or she may end
up feeling so resentful and angry that he or she withdraws altogether from the
group discussion process.
Compromise means ‘splitting the difference’. Like accommodation, as a
conflict-resolution strategy compromise can be constructive or destructive.
Compromise is appropriate when the issue is not of major importance and the
members agree that it would be a waste of time and energy to try to reach
consensus. However, compromise is destructive when, for example, someone
of status in the group exercises seniority to force the issue. Should the ‘loser’
feel disempowered, that member may later withhold co-operation on a more
important issue.
Avoidance occurs when a group member chooses not to disagree or bring up a
conflicting point, therefore downplaying her or his own needs and the needs
 of others (Adams & Galanes 2003: 240). Avoidance leads to a win-lose
situation when the member who withdraws from the conflict does so because
he or she feels threatened or disempowered. Apart from impoverishing the
decision-making process because opinions are withheld, the avoiding member
and other group members often feel resentment and dissatisfaction (Harris &
Sherblom 1999).

9.5 COMMUNICATION FORMATS FOR SMALL

GROUPS
The next section introduces a few platforms available to small groups that offer
specific formats of small group communication to achieve a variety of
communication goals.

Small group communication platforms:

1. Team meetings
2. Discussion panels
3. Quality circles
4. Buzz sessions (Phillips 66)
5. Nominal group technique
6. Brainstorming

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9.5.1 Team meetings

Meetings are a structured and focused communication format where group
members or team leaders primarily share information and solve problems. As the
scenario discussed in section 9.4.1 shows, a meeting such as between the media
and top police management to ensure future liaison (Steyn, De Vries & Meyer
2004: 2) can be a useful and beneficial communication platform for all involved.
Team meetings focus on three activities: reporting, discussing and co-ordinating.
The type of meeting will determine the number of participants, the leadership
style used in the meeting, what information should be discussed or disseminated,
what decisions should be made or discussed and so on. Before scheduling a
meeting it is important to identify what you want to accomplish through the
meeting and even if a meeting is necessary (Barker, Wahlers & Watson 1995:
234; Hoover 2002: 119).
 Barker, Wahlers and Watson (1995: 235–243) state that the short- and long-
term objectives of the meeting should be discussed or written down. Short-term
objectives refer to the outcomes of the actual meeting, while long-term
objectives refer to overall goals or objectives that the group or organisation may
have. This will also aid in strategic alignment. As a rule employees have a
negative perception about meetings. This negative perception tends to have a
negative influence on the outcome and participation within a team meeting.
Planning the meeting is just as important as having the meeting, as a lack of
planning will only compound negative predispositions. It is important to take the
environment in which the meeting takes place into account so that the
environment reflects the type of meeting that is being held. An overly formal
environment will not be conducive to creative, out-of-the-box thinking.
Simply put, communicate in such a way that group members look forward to
team meetings.

9.5.2 Panel discussions in front of an audience

A panel is a form of discussion consisting of a group of four to eight members,
including a leader. It can also be seen as a public presentation in which a small
group of people (usually experts or knowledgeable panellists) represent varying
perspectives and debate relevant issues or problems in front of a listening
audience. This debate (or even discussion) often follows a logical problem-
solving format, but can use an informal style of interaction to keep the
audience’s attention. The panel discussion has two simultaneous levels of
purpose: first, to attempt to solve problems and, secondly, to inform the audience
(Barker, Wahlers & Watson 1995: 199–200; Harris & Sherblom 2005: 236;
Galanes & Adams 2007: 431).
Purposes of panel discussions:
Problem-solving
Informing an audience

Groups have to prepare well for group panel discussions as the entire group
should research and be prepared to present fairly all relevant points of view on
an issue. Within the group different panellists may represent different points of
views. These points of views are discussed by the group, characterised by
interruptions and substantial give and take under the leadership of a moderator or
a chairperson (Barker,
[Page 209]

Wählers & Watson 1995: 199–200; Galanes & Adams 2007: 431). The panel
format provides no direct interaction between the panel and the audience, but the
discussion may be followed by a moderated question-and-answer session (Harris
& Sherblom 2005: 236).

9.5.3 Quality circles

A quality circle is a group of five to seven workers within an organisation who
meet voluntarily on a regular basis on company time. Quality circles usually
discuss work-related problems or generate ideas. Using problem-solving
techniques, quality circle groups present ideas and solutions to management.
Quality circles usually focus on the idea that groups usually make better and
more readily accepted decisions about complex problems than individuals do.
Although quality circles do have advantages, they serve only an advisory role
because they have limited or no authority to use organisational resources.
Quality circles also have no control over the acceptance and implementation of
the solutions they come up with. Therefore most quality circles are limited to
making an analysis and providing recommendations for improvement to
management (Barker, Wahlers & Watson 1995: 211; Harris & Sherblom 2005:
158; Galanes & Adams 2007: 14).

Quality circles serve only an advisory role – they have limited or no

authority to use organisational resources.

9.5.4 The buzz session (Phillips 66)

The buzz session or Phillips 66 is a technique that bridges the gap between
public and private discussions. This procedure is designed to maximise
participation and input of a large group by dividing the large group into smaller
groups consisting of six members. The members then buzz (discuss) for about
six minutes on a specific issue or problem. Groups not only discuss aspects of a
problem or issue but also may formulate questions or brainstorm ideas. Each
buzz group appoints a leader that reports the ideas/findings of the group to the
larger group. The ideas/findings of the groups are then summarised or even
combined on a master list. After the key issues are identified the problem can
once again be discussed by the larger group (Barker, Wahlers & Watson 1995:
220; Cragan & Wright 1999: 90; Harris & Sherblom 2005: 226). If an
organisation is structured in a way that makes it challenging for buzz groups to
assemble in a room, virtual meeting platforms that enable group members to
interact online can be a solution. Lipnack and Stamps (2000: 4) state that
human beings have always worked and socialised in face-to-face groups. Now
people no longer must be in the same building – never mind on the same
continent – to work together.

Buzz groups are designed to maximise participation and input of a large

group.

The buzz group gives an opportunity to all participants to be actively involved in

meetings. Buzz groups break the larger group up into smaller groups of four to
six that may be less intimidating for some. When using the buzz group technique
it is important to determine what you will expect from the groups (problem-
solving, brainstorming, etc), what size the buzz groups should be, instructions
that may have to be followed during the buzz group and adequate time
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for reporting back to the larger group (Barker, Wahlers & Watson 1995: 221;
Barker, Wahlers & Watson 2001: 206).

9.5.5 The nominal group technique

Working in groups is excellent for creative problem-solving and idea generation,
but some people tend to talk more than others, while some are more quiet and
reserved. The nominal group technique addresses the problem that not everyone
gets an equal opportunity to participate when working in groups. It is a
structured meeting agenda that can be used to identify problems, create solutions
and determine plans for implementation. When used effectively this technique
saves time, encourages participation from all group members and potentially
increases agreement and consensus (Barker, Wahlers & Watson 1995: 224;
Harris & Sherblom 2005: 222).

Nominal group technique addresses the problem that not everyone gets
an equal opportunity to participate when working in groups.

The nominal group technique typically includes four steps (Barker, Wahlers &
Watson 1995: 224; Cragan & Wright 1999: 86; Harris & Sherblom 2005: 222):
 Four steps of the nominal group technique:
1. Idea formation
2. Idea documentation
3. Idea discussion
4. Idea ranking

1. Idea formation: Group members work silently alone for a limited period of
time and come up with ideas or concerns about a problem.
2. Idea documentation or round-robin recording: When the time is up or
everyone has exhausted their repertoire of ideas each member reads out a
single idea, without criticism or discussion from anyone in the group, to
create a master list of ideas. All the ideas are listed on a flip-chart so that all
are recorded.
3. Idea discussion: During this step members are allowed to discuss or to
clarify the meaning of ideas on the master list. Because of the number of
ideas it is important to remember to only clarify the ideas in this step and
not to evaluate the ideas. As the facilitator runs through the master list, ideas
that are more or less the same should be combined to save time.
4. Idea ranking: Members then rank the ideas according to what they think
are the best and most practicable.

9.5.6 Brainstorming
Brainstorming encourages creative thinking because it requires all participants to
state ideas as they come to mind, in random order, until a long list has been
compiled. In 10 to 15 minutes of intensive concentration you may think of
several solutions to a problem yourself, but a group may come up with 20, 30 or
more possible solutions in the same time. A brainstorming session should ideally
last five to seven minutes. The optimum number of participants in brainstorming
groups is four to five, with one or more participants serving as recorder(s) as
well as contributor(s) (Barker, Wahlers & Watson 1995: 123; Harris & Sherblom
2005: 220).
Brainstorming encourages creative thinking because it requires all
participants to state ideas as they come to mind.

Brainstorming means that everyone temporarily suspends criticism of ideas. If

people feel free to make suggestions – even if they seem impractical or even
ridiculous at the time – they tend to think more creatively than if each idea is
criticised as it is presented. Only after
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the brainstorming session is finished is each solution evaluated to determine the

degree to which it meets set criteria.
In addition to the above, these guidelines for using the brainstorming
technique (Rothwell 2001: 217–218) are useful:

Don’t clarify or seek clarification of an idea while brainstorming.

Encourage zany ideas.
Expand on ideas of other group members.
Record all ideas without reference to who contributed the idea.
Encourage participation of all group members.

CONCLUSION
Small group communication is a rich communication context which can be both
challenging and rewarding. Communication experts should attempt to get groups
to function optimally by managing the communication variables in the small
group. This chapter contains a number of proposals on how to achieve success in
small group communication, but it will always take great skill and good
judgement to decide which solution works well for which specific group. Small
groups that function well contribute significantly to the overall success of
organisations and the general harmony in communities.

SUMMARY
This chapter began by defining a small group and pointing out the advantages
and disadvantages of working in small groups. It then explained that the
characteristics of effective groups include having an optimum number of
members, a good working environment, cohesiveness and commitment to the
task and a respect for group norms. It identified the types of roles that group
members play. After describing the stages in the formation of small groups it
discussed challenges in small groups that can be turned into opportunities. The
chapter also pointed out some formats that can be useful in achieving specific
communication or organisational goals.
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TEST YOURSELF QUESTIONS

1. Select two groups to which you belong that you feel have an effective and
an ineffective group climate. For each group identify the types of
behaviour exhibited by members. How did each climate affect your own
participation in the group?
2. Choose a group you belong to and try to identify three group norms.
Check yourself by asking other group members if they agree.
3. List three positive and three negative qualities you bring to groups. How
could you overcome the negative qualities? Is your productivity in the
group affected by your behaviour?
4. Analyse a group based on which of the following had the greatest effect
on group interaction: group size; group climate; presence or lack of
cohesiveness; commitment to the task; adherence to norms.
5. Describe the stages in the formation of a group with reference to a group
of which you have been a member. How has the group’s identity been
rooted or altered in each stage?
6. Observe the leaders of the small groups to which you belong and classify
each leadership style. Under which leadership style do you work best?
Why?
7. Use the following list of questions to judge the success of the last
discussion group of which you were a member:
a. Did you feel comfortable in the group?
b. Did everyone participate and interact?
c. Were the group sessions enjoyable?
d. Did you find the task of the group enjoyable?
e. Was the topic adequately and efficiently covered? (Hybels & Weaver
1989: 228)
8. Think about a conflict situation you have recently encountered in one of
the groups to which you belong. Which resolution strategies would you
see as effective and which as ineffective? Why?
9. How would you arrange a room for a meeting in which there is likely to
be conflict? For example, which arrangement might minimise status
differences?
10. Which one of the communication formats for small groups mentioned in
this chapter triggers your interest the most? Why?
[Page 213]
Chapter 10
Mass communication
Ndirangu Wachanga

OVERVIEW
You switch on the television to watch one of your favourite sports only to find
out that the match is on half time. The half time commentary is under way and
it is accompanied by an advertisement for a beautiful resort. For a moment
you forget about your familiar sitting room as you daydream about the
luxurious décor in the resort. After the game you open a newspaper and your
eye catches a full-colour photograph of a smart hotel on a beautiful sunny
beach. Your attention is captured and you spend some time admiring the
picture and reading the information. The next thing you know you are
fantasising about how wonderful it would be to go on holiday to an exotic
destination like Mauritius – a place you have often heard about, but never
visited. The idea of visiting such a place is made more appealing by the fact
that you have never been out of your own country.
But thousands of other readers and viewers also received these
advertisements. It is possible that many of them had a similar response to
yours. That is exactly why the hotel group chose to place these advertisements
in a mass communication medium.
Mass communication continues to be an integral part of life in modern
societies. We are able to watch news from far-flung places, learn about
cultures of communities living across the globe, and hear voices of joy and
suffering from cultures whose language we may not speak. We can
vicariously experience what is happening across the globe from the comfort of
our sitting rooms. Communication media and the technology associated with
them have become central to nearly all that we do.
 New communication technologies are also changing the media landscape.
Many people can now access the Internet from their mobile devices. Social
networking sites such as Facebook and Twitter have revolutionised the way
news is gathered, disseminated, shared and consumed. How would you feel
spending a day in your professional or social lives without the mass media
and mass communication?

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the end of this chapter you should be able to:
Define the terms ‘mass’, ‘mass communication’ and ‘mass media’.
Describe the process of mass communication by contrasting interpersonal
and mass communication.
Explain four functions of mass communication and illustrate each with an
appropriate example.
Describe the role of the gatekeeper in mass communication and list some
of the factors that influence the gatekeeper’s choices.

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Describe the effects of the mass media on public opinion with reference to
the agenda-setting theory and the spiral of silence theory.
Describe how the magic-bullet theory, two-step flow theory and uses and
gratifications theory differ in explaining the influence of mass media on
their audiences.
Discuss the assumptions of media determinism.
Explain the following concepts in McLuhan’s theory:
a. the medium is the message
b. hot and cool media
c. ratio of the senses
d. the Gutenberg Galaxy
e. ‘an eye for an ear’
 f. the global village
After considering the positive and negative consequences of media
revolutions, give your own opinion about McLuhan’s view that ‘the
medium is the message’.

INTRODUCTION
In this chapter we concentrate on the nature of mass communication and its
effects on society. We discuss the mass communication context by first defining
the term ‘mass’ and by providing the distinction between ‘mass communication’
and ‘mass media’. We then discuss the process of mass communication and
contrast it with interpersonal communication. Also, we discuss the functions of
mass communication in our society. In the remainder of the chapter we broaden
your understanding of mass communication and its influence on society by
examining in greater detail the following components of the mass
communication process:

mass communicator
mass medium
audiences of mass communication.

Throughout this chapter we make reference to some of the research studies and
theories that contribute to our understanding of mass communication. These
theories include gatekeeping, agenda-setting, spiral of silence, magic-bullet, two-
step flow and uses and gratifications theory.
To show you how a theory can be applied in practice we use a scenario to
illustrate uses and gratifications theory. To conclude, we discuss the social
effects of mass communication with particular reference to technological or
media determinism. Technological determinism sees social change as a direct
result of fundamental technological development and innovation. To illustrate
this approach we examine Marshall McLuhan’s views – the power of the
medium to change people’s lives and the nature of society. The discussion
revolves around the main concepts in his theory: the medium is the message, the
global village, the ratio of the senses, hot and cool media, an eye for an ear and
the Gutenberg Galaxy. We conclude with the views of two theorists who are
critical of McLuhan’s belief in the power of the media to bring about cultural
and social changes. We end the chapter with a case study based on a commentary
on McLuhan’s views by Baran and Davis (2003).
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10.1 THE CONCEPT OF MASS

The word ‘mass’ has acquired positive and negative connotations in society. It
therefore influences the way people define and think about mass communication
and the mass media. For example, mass can be used negatively to describe a
mob of unruly people. Therefore, it is not uncommon for people who think of
mass in such derogatory terms to regard the mass media as being corruptive. In a
more positive sense mass is used to describe the strength and solidarity of
ordinary people. It appears, for example, in terms such as ‘mass movement’,
‘mass action’ and ‘mass support’ (McQuail 1987). From such a perspective the
mass media are considered to be instruments of enlightenment for large numbers
of people. For our purposes we pay attention to the neutral and descriptive
meanings of the term as follows:

the multiple or mass production of messages

the large size of the audiences that are reached by the mass media
an amorphous group, the individual components of which are difficult to
distinguish from each other (McQuail 1987).

Mass communication is a process of delivering information, ideas and attitudes

to a sizeable and diversified audience through a medium developed for that
purpose (Agee et al 1988). Mass media enable communication to be sent from a
single source and be disseminated and received by a large, mixed audience. A
newspaper published by a single media company in Johannesburg, for example,
is sold to a diverse and mixed group of readers across South Africa. South
African Broadcasting Corporation (SABC) TV programmes are produced at a
central location, but are watched by a large audience of viewers across the
country. The mass media, therefore, are the technologies and social institutions
(such as newspapers, radio and TV) involved in the gathering, production and
distribution of messages to large audiences. It is important that we understand
how mass media operate and how audiences respond to media messages because
the media affect our social, political, economic and cultural systems. These
effects could be immediate or long term, useful or detrimental, deliberate or
unintended. Media effects have an impact on audiences’ behaviour, emotions and
attitudes, as well as their cognition.

Mass communication is a process of delivering information, ideas and

attitudes to a sizeable and diversified audience through a medium
developed for that purpose.

Mass media enable communication to be sent from a single source and

be disseminated and received by a large, mixed audience.

10.2 THE PROCESS OF MASS COMMUNICATION

It is perhaps easier to understand the process of mass communication by first
contrasting it with interpersonal communication and then illustrating its complex
nature with the help of a model. Interpersonal communication is a transactional
process between two (or more) people in a face-to-face encounter. Interpersonal
communication usually involves the exchange of messages between a single
source (the communicator) and a receiver (the recipient), who are known to one
another. In interpersonal communication participants continually
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provide feedback or respond to each other’s verbal and nonverbal messages.

Unlike interpersonal communication, mass communication is mediated – it
involves the use of complex technology to multiply messages and transmit them
to large numbers of recipients simultaneously. The term used to describe the
recipients of mass communication is the mass audience.

Mass communication is mediated: it involves the use of complex

technology to multiply messages and transmit them to large numbers of
recipients simultaneously.

The communicator in mass communication is not a single individual, but a

member of a team within an organisation (such as a newspaper or television
station) involved in the production and distribution of messages. Producing a
television programme, for example, involves reporters, editors, photographers,
graphic designers, camera persons, producers and technicians. Similarly, the
recipients of mass communication are not single individuals but consist of large
audiences who are not personally known to the communicator, or even to each
other. The audience is too large for the communicator to be able to interact with
individuals personally. This does not mean that individual recipients of mass
communication messages are isolated from one another. We regularly experience
mass communication in dyads, small groups or organisations: for example, you
most often visit the cinema with a friend; a group of students in a residence
watch a TV programme together in the communal lounge.
Because the demographic characteristics of audience members are diverse,
messages are not personally addressed to particular individuals, but are directed
at groups of people, who may not have very much in common. There is also
little feedback from the audience back to the communicator because the
audience members’ access to the mass media is restricted by the media
organisation. The recipients may still provide feedback by, for example,
telephoning, writing a letter to the media organisation or sending e-mails, but
such feedback is not immediate – it is delayed and is not face-to-face. Because
of the time lapse the free passage of messages that characterises face-to-face
communication is lacking in mass communication. The Internet, however, has
allowed members of the audience to participate more actively in interacting with
producers of mass media. Mass communication has been described as an
encounter with a medium and a message rather than a relationship with another
person, as in interpersonal communication.

10.2.1 A model of mass communication

The following model (Figure 10.1) highlights this difference in its depiction of
the process of mass communication.

Mass communication can be described as an encounter with a medium

and message rather than a relationship with another person (interpersonal
communication).

The model illustrates and helps to explain the sequence of events in mass
communication, as well as the relationship between the basic components of the
process: communicator, medium, message, audience and feedback. The model
clearly shows that the media organisation occupies an intermediary position
between the communicator, on the one hand, and the audience on the other
(McQuail & Windahl 1981).
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In the model, A is the communicator (such as a politician or an advertiser) who

would like to transmit a message (represented as Xn) to a mass audience (B)
about a certain thing or event in the social environment (represented as X1, X2,
X3, X4). If A is a politician, for example, he or she might want to tell the
audience to vote for him or her. If A is an advertiser, she or he might want to
persuade the audience to buy a new brand of toothpaste. But A cannot reach the
audience (B) directly. He or she must first address the message to the individuals
in the mass media organisation (C), who select those messages that they think
will be of interest to their audiences. They encode and transmit the message (Xii)
to the audience. Message Xn and message Xii are not always identical.
The media organisation may, for example, decide that the politician’s message
is too long and they edit it to fit their schedule. A, the original source of the
message, loses his or her position as the communicator. The media organisation
takes over the communicative function. The audience encounters the messages
of the media and not the original source of the message.
A similar process occurs should members of the audience want to provide
feedback (fBA) to the original communicator. Because they cannot reach A
directly the recipients may telephone or write to the media organisation (fBC)
and the organisation relays the feedback (fCA) to the communicator. Note that
the model also depicts a feedback loop from the audience to the original
communicator (fBA). This might take the form of a vote for the politician or the
purchase of the toothpaste. The model is useful in that it draws our attention to
some of the characteristics and complexities of mass communication.

This section has online support material available

 Figure 10.1 A model of mass communication (adapted from Westley & MacLean 1957 by McQuail &
Windahl 1981)

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The ability of mass communication to multiply messages and transmit them

rapidly to large audiences has stimulated a considerable amount of investigation
by communication researchers into the functions that mass communication
perform in society.

10.3 THE FUNCTIONS OF MASS

COMMUNICATION
The functions and effects of mass communication became an important field of
research during the 1940s and 1950s, a period of rapid and extensive
development in the mass media. This was also a time when struggling
economies and consequences of the Second World War were causing disruptions
in society. Some of these consequences included population explosion, migration
towards sprawling suburbia, nuclear threats, counter-culture revolution, the Civil
Rights Movement in the US, women’s rights groups, and increased East-West
tensions because of the Cold War, amongst others.
Researchers, particularly in the US, became interested in studying the effects
of mass media messages on people and society. This kind of effects approach to
the study of mass communication is called functionalism. Functionalism
provides researchers with a theoretical framework for investigating the social
consequences of mass communication and the mass media.

Functionalism studies the effects of mass media messages on people and

society.

Two theorists, Lasswell (1948) and Wright (1960), identified four basic
functions of mass communication: surveillance of the environment, correlation,
cultural transmission and entertainment. The following discussion of the four
functions is based mainly on insights provided by Infante, Rancer and Womack
(2003).

Four basic functions of communication:

1. Surveillance of the environment
2. Correlation
3. Cultural transmission
4. Entertainment

10.3.1 Surveillance of the environment

Much of what we know about our world is through the media’s function of
surveillance. It is through this function of the media that we get to know about
local, national, continental and international news. By surveillance of the
environment the media provide information that is diverse in content from
various geographical regions. The news may range from stock-market prices in
New York City and revolutionary uprisings in North Africa to local traffic
conditions in Johannesburg and weather conditions in Nairobi. In times of crisis,
for example an earthquake, one of the surveillance functions of the media is to
inform people what is expected of them, thereby minimising confusion and
contributing to social order. The surveillance function also has to do with the
transmission of information that is useful and helpful in everyday life, for
example, news about the latest movies, new recipes, emerging health issues,
fashion ideas and so on.

10.3.2 Correlation of diverse societal elements

Correlation refers to the selection, assessment and interpretation of events that
impose structure on the news. It is because of this process that media consumers
are able to make sense of the news supplied through surveillance. The mass
media do not only supply

Correlation refers to the selection, assessment and interpretation of

events that impose structure on the news.

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facts and figures when they provide news and information but they also provide
information about the meaning of many of those news items. The correlation
function deals with how the mass media interpret information about the
environment, linking this function to the surveillance function. Correlation is
achieved through persuasive and informative forms of communication such as
through newspaper and magazine editorials, and radio and television
commentaries.
Articles in newspapers or discussions on radio and television about political,
economic or social events, for example, have been selected and interpreted by
the mass media, and have consequences for the way we understand and respond
to these events. Our attitudes and opinions about political figures, for instance,
are often influenced by the impressions we receive from the mass media. A
negative impression of the African National Congress (ANC), for instance, was
reinforced for many years by the SABC, which continually portrayed it as a
terrorist movement. On the other hand, the SABC in post-apartheid South Africa
makes a point of highlighting the positive contributions of the ANC government
departments and commercial institutions.
Interpretation can take many forms. The editorial pages of a newspaper
provide comment and opinion on news stories carried on other pages. Television
and radio perform a similar function in documentary and discussion
programmes. The mass media also discuss and analyse issues such as the rising
petrol price, the effect of drought on food prices, the Department of Health’s
approach to the HIV/Aids problem, the rising crime rate and so on. Editorial
cartoons, movie, book and restaurant reviews, motor and sports programmes, all
form part of the correlation function.
There are two main advantages of the mass media performing this function.
First, mass audiences are exposed to a larger number of different points of view
about an issue than would be possible in interpersonal communication alone.
Also, the mass media make available a wide range of expertise that individuals
might not otherwise have access to. The downside to the correlation function is
that there is no guarantee that interpretations by media commentators are
accurate and valid. There is also the danger that an individual may come to rely
too heavily on the views carried by the media and become a passive and
uncritical recipient of mass messages.

Main advantages of correlation:

1. Mass audiences are exposed to many points of view
2. Mass media make a wide range of expertise accessible

Downside of correlation: no guarantee of accuracy and validity.

10.3.3 Socialisation and cultural transmission

The third function, socialisation and cultural transmission, refers to the media’s
ability to communicate the shared norms, rules and values of a society. This
media function helps us to learn how we are supposed to act and what values are
important. Socialisation is the process of integrating people within society
through the transmission of values, social norms and knowledge to new
members of the group. It is through the media – along with our friends, family,
schools and religious affiliations – that we learn the values of our society.

Socialisation is the process of integrating people within a society.

Cultural transmission is a teaching function of mass communication and tries

to create common bonds among members of society. The next time you watch
television or read a magazine take note, for

Cultural transmission is a teaching function of mass communication

which attempts to create common bonds between society members.

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example, of how motherhood is generally portrayed in advertisements and

sitcoms. We learn that motherhood and child-rearing are activities that have a
positive value for society and it is assumed that mass audiences will accept this
value. There are also children’s programmes which encourage appropriate
behaviour in a given society.
According to Hanson (2011: 58), the media socialise and transmit culture
through:

role models in entertainment programming

 goals and desires as presented in media context
the citizenship values portrayed in the news
advertisements for products that may be useful to us in different stages of our
lives.

10.3.4 Entertainment
The fourth function of the mass media, entertainment, refers to the media’s
ability to present messages which provide amusement, relaxation and escapism.
Even though most newspaper content concentrates on news items, newspapers
also contain puzzles, comics, jokes, bridge and chess problems, horoscopes and
so on for readers’ amusement. Generally, most of the radio and television
programmes that are designed to entertain also help viewers to better understand
certain social and political ills in their society. The entertainment function of the
media has frequently been criticised because of the low-quality content of some
programmes. However, many current theorists recognise its positive
consequences and point out that mass communication provides relief from
boredom, stimulates our emotions, helps fill our leisure time, keeps us company
and exposes us to experiences and events that we could not attend in person. One
of the significant roles of media entertainment programming is to allow audience
members to discover other lifestyles, experiences and world views.
Entertainment: the media’s ability to present messages which provide
amusement, relaxation and escapism.

The functionalist approach is still used today to study the relationship between
mass communication and society. It offers researchers a theoretical framework
for examining the social consequences of mass communication, especially its
contribution to the maintenance of social order. With regard to changes in
society, however, functionalism can only accommodate slow-moving,
evolutionary changes. It is incapable of accounting for sudden and fundamental
change. Its application is therefore limited to areas such as policy research,
planning and evaluation. Functionalism has also been criticised by many
theorists because it concentrates more on the functions that mass communication
perform for society and tends to overlook the human nature of communication
and the fact that people construct meaning from messages.
As the mass media grew in popularity during the 20th century, researchers
began to show an interest in how these new forms of communication were
influencing their audiences. Until the 1950s research was concentrated on
newspapers, film and radio. By the end of 1950s, when television became widely
available, people grew increasingly alarmed about what this new medium was
doing to them and their society, and especially what it was doing to their
children.
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In order to understand the social effects of mass communication we discuss in

detail the following: the mass communicator, the mass medium and mass
audiences.

10.4 THE MASS COMMUNICATOR

The mass communicator is usually a member of a team within an organisation
involved in the production and distribution of messages. It has been suggested
that one of the primary functions of the mass communicator is that of
gatekeeping. A ‘gatekeeper’ is an individual within an organisation who has the
power to select and reject messages, and even to interpret and change them,
thereby influencing the information received by a recipient or group of
recipients.

Gatekeeper: an individual within an organisation with the power to

select and reject messages, and interpret and change them, thereby
influencing the information received.

To understand the definition as well as the role of the gatekeeper, think about
a newspaper you read. All major newspaper organisations are flooded with news
stories that reach them daily from sources all over the world. The items that you
read have been selected and put together by editors – the gatekeepers – who
decide which items are the most relevant and will therefore be included in each
edition. The control exercised by such editors in their gatekeeping role means
that what has been left out may be as important to some readers as what has been
included.

What has been left out may be as important to some readers as what has
been included.

Gatekeeping is a necessary aspect of mass communication and is not limited

to newspapers. Gatekeepers exist in all mass media organisations, including
radio, television and film. For example, the producer of a half-hour television
documentary can include only a limited amount of the many hours of material
that may have been filmed for the programme. Similarly, the compiler of a
women’s weekly radio magazine programme will have to discard some of the
items that were gathered in the course of the week because of the limitations of
time. The choices made by the gatekeeper concerning which information to
discard and which to select and edit are influenced by other variables as well
(Dimbleby & Burton 1992; Tubbs & Moss 2003).
A major consideration in the selection and rejection of media material is
economics. The mass media are very expensive to operate and most media
organisations have to make a profit. One of their chief sources of income is the
money spent by the advertisers, who pay heavily for media space and time and
expect to see a return on their investment. A magazine advertisement for
toothpaste, for example, sells not only because of the persuasive message in the
advertisement but also as a result of the content in the rest of the magazine. The
magazine editor selects material which will please the advertisers – that is,
material which will appeal to the type of audiences the advertisers are targeting.

Sources of media income:

Advertisers
Audiences

A second major source of income is from the audiences who, for example,
buy newspapers or magazines or pay to watch a film in a cinema. To attract and
satisfy large audiences media personnel have to decide on both the news value
and relevance of a particular story. News values (also called newsworthiness) are
beliefs about what topics make good news and can vary from one organisation to
the next. Generally, stories that involve well-known personalities are considered
to have more news value than stories about lesser-known
News values/newsworthiness: beliefs about what topics make good
news.

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people. Likewise, stories that portray drama, such as children being rescued from
a fire or conflict between opposing parties, are often chosen in preference to
stories which portray ‘ordinary’ events. The relevance of a particular programme
is determined by deciding, for example, whether a story about striking miners in
England or a radio drama set in Alaska will interest South African audiences
more.
A very important influence on the choices made by the gatekeeper is the
policy and ideology of the media organisation. Policy is the criteria for news
value laid down by a particular organisation. Ideology is a particular political
point of view that most media organisations adopt, which is reinforced in their
interpretation of news stories. You have probably noticed that, while they may
cover the same events, three different newspapers interpret those events to
coincide with their respective points of view or ideology. What you read in your
newspaper is not an ‘objective’ report of the ‘facts’ but an interpretation of what
has occurred. Public service programmes, however, broadcast by an organisation
such as the SABC, are expected to be impartial.

Policy: the criteria for news values for a particular organisation.

Ideology: the political point of view of a specific media organisation

which is reinforced by their interpretation of news stories.

Legal restrictions and ethics also influence the choices made by media
organisations. Every country has legal restrictions on the type of messages the
mass media may communicate. The media will generally avoid reporting
malicious gossip about people, unless it is verifiable, for fear of being taken to
court. Most organisations also follow a code of ethics in the interests of good
taste. There are exceptions, of course, but most newspapers would probably
decide not to publish photographs of the mutilated bodies of accident victims
because it may offend some readers. Likewise, most television stations would
not broadcast pornographic material in the early evening when children might be
watching. The question of ethics in the mass media is a very important one, but
is too vast to consider in detail in an introductory text on communication.

10.5 THE MASS MEDIA

As mass communication became an increasingly prevalent form of
communication, a great deal of research was, and continues to be, conducted on
the effects of the mass media and their messages on society. Let us now discuss
some of the theories that became important in the study of the effects of the
media.
Mass media theories:
 Agenda-setting theory
Framing
Spiral of silence theory

10.5.1 Agenda-setting theory

Agenda-setting refers to the way the mass media create public awareness and
concern about important issues, thereby contributing to the shaping of public
opinion. Public opinion comprises ideas about social issues that are expressed
and debated in public, and the opinions of the general public as a group, rather
than of individuals. The underlying argument of agenda-setting is that the public
responds, not to actual events in the environment, but to ‘pictures in our heads’
that are created by the media in their reporting of news stories (Heath & Bryant
1992: 281).

Agenda-setting: the way mass media create public awareness and

concern about important issues, thereby contributing to the shaping of
public opinion.

Public opinion comprises ideas about social issues that are expressed and
debated in public. It’s the opinions of the general public as a group rather
than that of individuals.

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Agenda-setting is concerned with the selection of news stories and the

prominence given to certain stories by the media. According to this theory, the
mass media select topics, issues and individuals they consider to be important
and bring them to the attention of the public. The matters that the media choose
to publicise ultimately become those that we think about and talk about. We
associate the importance of what is covered with the media attention it receives,
regardless of how important it may really be. The result of highlighting an issue
is that it is placed on the public agenda for serious discussion (Agee, Emery &
Ault 1988; Infante, Rancer & Womack 2003).

Agenda setting is concerned with the selection of news stories and the
prominence given to certain stories by the media.

An example of agenda-setting is provided by Severin and Tankard (1992),

who describe how New York newspapers ‘created’ a crime wave in the
1930s. When one reporter wrote a crime story involving a well-known
 family, a rival newspaper promptly looked for, and reported on, another
crime. Soon all the New York newspapers were ‘finding’ crimes to keep up
with the others. The public perceived the sudden increase in crimes reported
in the press as a ‘crime wave’. Although the crime rate had not actually risen,
the public came to see crime as an important issue because of the media
attention it received.

Examples of agenda-setting by the media in South Africa recently include

the issues of high crime levels, corruption in government, taxi violence,
HIV/Aids, the influx of immigrants from other African countries and the
concept of an ‘African Renaissance’ (Mersham & Skinner 2002).
Do you think that your views on the xenophobia in South Africa, for
instance, were shaped to a large extent by what you heard, read and saw
through the mass media?

A conclusion about agenda-setting reached by many theorists was first expressed

by Cohen in 1963:
The press may not be successful much of the time in telling people what to
think, but it is stunningly successful in telling its readers what to think about.
(Agee et al 1988)

Regarding what to think about, all recipients of mass communication should be

aware that, because agenda-setting is an extension of the gatekeeping function,
what is excluded from a particular mass medium’s agenda may be as important
to consider as what is included. McCombs and Shaw (in Griffin 2003: 396) have
concluded that
[t]he media may not only tell us what to think about, they also may tell us
what and how to think about it, and perhaps even what to do about it.

How many people did not know about the gross human rights violations
committed against fellow South Africans during the apartheid era because of
media censorship by the National Party government? How did the picture
change when they were exposed to television coverage of the testimonies of the
people who testified in the Truth and Reconciliation Commission?
Criticisms that have been levelled against agenda-setting include the view by
McQuail (1987), for example, who asserts that agenda-setting is a plausible but
unproven idea. He argues that research studies have not provided sufficient
evidence to confirm a connection between the
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order of importance placed on issues by the media and the significance attached
to those issues by the public.

10.5.2 Framing
Based on research conducted in the late 1990s, it has been strongly suggested
that agenda-setting by the media does more than tell us what to think about. The
mass media do in fact tell us how to think. The process by which this occurs is
called framing. Tankard (Griffin 2003: 396) describes a frame as
the central organising idea for news content that supplies a context and
suggests what the issue is through the use of selection, emphasis, exclusion
and elaboration.
Framing: the suggestion that the media does not only tell us what to
think (agenda-setting) but also how to think.

The media not only suggest which issues, events or candidates in the news are
the most important. As they transfer ‘pictures’ into our heads, the attributes the
media portray as important are simultaneously transferred. How was the strike,
and later the tragedy, of the Marikana miners framed by the media?
Framing is not an option. Reporters inevitably frame a story by the personal
attributes of public figures they select to describe. For example, the media
continually reported on the ‘youthful vigour’ of assassinated US President John
F Kennedy while he was alive, but made no mention of his extramarital affairs,
which were well known to the White House press corps. Do you think the media
framed Thabo Mbeki as more of an aloof figure than President Nelson Mandela,
who was framed as warm and friendly?

10.5.3 Spiral of silence theory

Another theory that ascribes power to the mass media is the spiral of silence
theory developed by German researcher Elisabeth Noelle-Neumann (1973). The
underlying argument in this theory is that the media do have powerful effects,
but that these effects have been underestimated or undetected in the past because
of the limitations of research. The spiral of silence explains why some opinions
are publicly expressed, whereas others are not discussed in public.

Spiral of silence: the media effectively limit the range of opinions

available to the public.

The basic assumption of spiral of silence theory is that the media effectively
limit the range of opinions available to the public. Noelle-Neumann argues that
because all media tend to concentrate on the same news stories, the public
receives a unified picture of an issue from newspapers, magazines, television
and radio stations. This unified picture creates the impression that most people
view a controversial issue in the same way as the media.
If people find that their own opinion on a particular issue coincides with the
majority opinion expressed in media messages, they will be more likely to
express and act on this opinion. If, on the other hand, their opinion is not
supported by the messages disseminated by the media, they are more likely to
keep quiet about it, refrain from action and therefore get caught up in the spiral
of silence. The more they remain silent, the more other people feel that the
particular point
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of view is not represented, and the more they too remain silent. In political
elections, for example, people are sensitive to the prevailing opinion about
candidates and issues and they are more likely to express their preferences when
they are shared by others.
The spiral of silence is not just a matter of wanting to be on ‘the winning
side’, but is an attempt to avoid being isolated from one’s social group.
Adolescents are particularly sensitive about not being different to their peers
regarding the clothes they wear and the jargon they use to communicate. Have
you noticed that smokers tend to express their views on smokers’ rights when
other smokers are present and refrain from expressing their views in a group of
non-smokers?
Political intolerance in South Africa, for example, has been responsible for
thousands of deaths. During 2006 the attacks on security guards who refused to
join the nationwide strike demonstrate how dangerous it can be to run against the
prevailing climate of opinion. In some cases, therefore, the danger of expressing
a minority opinion is extreme.
The mass media influence our impressions about which opinions are dominant
and which opinions we can utter in public without becoming isolated. Noelle-
Neumann believes that this influence is especially powerful today because of the
pervasiveness and repetitiveness of media messages (Noelle-Neumann 1973;
Severin & Tankard 1992).

In what ways do you think the Internet is challenging the spiral of silence
theory?

10.6 AUDIENCES OF MASS COMMUNICATION

For a very long time it was assumed that individual members within an audience
were passive receivers of mass media messages. Media messages were therefore
capable of directly influencing the values, opinions and emotions of the
audience. It was taken for granted that individual audience members shared the
same psychological and emotional characteristics. It was also assumed that
individual recipients of mass communication lived in isolation and did not
interact with others. Media messages would therefore have a predictable and
uniform effect on all the members. This uniform and direct media effect was
labelled the magic bullet or hypodermic needle theory and later became known
as the stimulus-response theory. Messages had only to be loaded, directed at the
target and fired. If they hit their target, then the expected response would be
forthcoming. For example, the results of early research studies showed that
people could easily be manipulated by advertising and political propaganda
messages communicated by the mass media (Heath & Bryant 2000). After
additional investigation mass communication theorists concluded that the earlier
research results could not be substantiated and several alternative theories about
the influence of the media were put forward.

Stimulus-response theory: an action-reaction theory – communication

and action will automatically stimulate a response.

During the 1940s researchers concluded that, while the mass media did have a
profound effect on the audience, several other intervening factors modify the
uniform response to messages. Studies at that time showed that recipients of
mass messages are not isolated individuals, but that they interact with others –
family members, friends and work
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colleagues – who influence their opinions on a variety of matters, such as their
voting behaviour. Studies revealed that several people obtained most of their
information from other people (who had received it directly from the mass
media) before they learned about it through the media. It is from these findings
that Katz and Lazarsfeld (1955) developed the two-step flow theory of mass
communication.

10.6.1 Two-step flow theory

The two-step flow theory asserts that information from the media moves or
flows in two stages. First, certain people who are regular users of the mass media
receive the information. These people, called opinion leaders, then pass the
information along to others who are less exposed to the media through informal,
interpersonal communication. Opinion leaders, in retransmitting the information,
tend to include their own interpretation of the information in addition to the
actual media content, thereby modifying the influence of the mass media. The
two-step flow theory is illustrated by the model in Figure 10.2.
Two-step flow theory: information from the media flows in two stages –
from opinion leaders to others.

Figure 10.2 Two-step flow model of media influence compared with the traditional model of mass
communication (adapted by McQuail & Windahl 1981 from Katz & Lazarsfeld 1955)

Several characteristics of opinion leaders have been identified. For instance, they
are not always prominent people in the community, but are found at all levels of
society. Opinion leaders are usually well-informed people who have similar
beliefs, values, education, social level and so on, to those they influence, a
principle known as homophily (cf Barker & Gaut 1996). For example, a student
is more likely to acquire information from another student, a doctor from another
doctor, and so on. Opinion leaders are reasonably successful in persuading
people to change their attitudes and behaviour because they are perceived as
being experts in their field. In addition, because the exchange of information
takes place in an interpersonal situation, the opinion leader is able to respond to
questions and discuss
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the matter, something the mass media are unable to do. Think about a major
purchase you have to make, such as a computer. You may see a number of
advertisements in the press or on television about the qualities and capabilities of
different computers, but, because you are not an expert on computers, the
probability is that you will also seek out the advice of someone whom you
consider to be an expert or opinion leader on the topic of computers and whose
opinion you trust (Heath & Bryant 2000; Infante, Rancer & Womack 2003).
The two-step flow theory of mass communication has helped to predict the
influence of media messages on audiences and to explain why certain media
campaigns fail to alter audience attitudes and beliefs. It has also been criticised
on the grounds that many major news stories are first heard on the media and are
then discussed interpersonally. The death of Nelson Mandela and the
assassinations of Martin Luther King Jr and Chris Hani are events which most
people first learned about from the mass media (including social media, in the
case of Mr Mandela’s death) and then discussed among themselves.
The implication that opinion leaders are active recipients and that followers
are passive consumers of information, has been found to be too simplistic and
not entirely true. Nevertheless, the concept of two-step flow was instrumental in
guiding future research, which would lead to more complex theories about the
influence of mass communication and the idea that mass audiences are active
recipients of information.
More recent studies suggest that it is more accurate to talk about a multi-step
flow model, since opinion leaders may themselves be consulting with others
whom they consider to be knowledgeable. The multi-step flow model, or
diffusion of information, involves change agents and gatekeepers, as well as
opinion leaders. A change agent is someone who is responsible for making
policy and introducing change. Change agents are usually professionals who are
more educated and of higher status than opinion leaders. They come into a
community from outside – for instance, a nursing sister from the Department of
Health who comes into a rural area to introduce the idea that babies should be
vaccinated. Because of their position they are not usually homophilous with the
people to whom they must disseminate information.

Multi-step flowmodel/diffusion of information involves change agents,

gatekeepers and opinion leaders who are involved in the flow of media.

Change agent: someone who is responsible for making policy and

introducing change.

The change agent prefers to interact with opinion leaders in the community.
Because the opinion leaders are respected by the community, they have
considerable influence in forming and changing the attitudes of the mothers who
need to bring their babies to the clinic to be vaccinated. A gatekeeper is someone
who controls the flow of information to the audience, like the editor of a local
newspaper. Because gatekeepers decide which stories will reach the public they
represent another step in the flow of information between the media and the
audience. There is therefore more than one intermediary and channel involved in
the process of diffusion and influence (Barker & Gaut 1996; Infante, Rancer &
Womack 2003).

10.6.2 Uses and gratifications theory

Largely in reaction to the growing dissatisfaction about the direct effects of mass
communication on passive audiences, a number of
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recent mass media theorists have argued that the most important factors
governing the effects of mass communication are the needs and interests of
audience members. They have focused their attention, not on what the media do
to people, but what people do with the media. In other words, they make
provision for an active audience.
Think about the ways in which an audience can be active rather than passive,
as suggested by the stimulus-response theory. Who controls what you choose to
listen to or read or watch? You buy the newspaper of your choice; you select the
radio and TV programmes you want to watch; you decide which movies you will
go to; you rent videos or DVDs you want to watch at home. You can also choose
to switch off the radio or television if a programme does not hold your interest,
or even walk out of a cinema if you are not enjoying the movie (Tubbs & Moss
2003).
Think back for a moment to our criticism of functionalism. The four functions
described by Lasswell (1948) and Wright (1960) represent functions of the
content (messages) of the mass media and neglect to take into account the way
audiences use that content for their own purposes. In other words, for what
functions are mass media messages used by audience members? An analysis of
how an audience member actively uses the media is explained by uses and
gratifications theory.
Uses and gratifications theory suggests that basic human needs motivate
individuals to attend to particular mass media and to select and use media
messages in ways they find personally gratifying. Thus a given medium, such as
radio, and a certain set of messages, such as weather information, might be used
by different individuals in very different ways depending on the particular needs
and interests they are seeking to satisfy. On the other hand, some audience
members may have no use for this information at all (Hunt & Ruben 1993).

Uses and gratification theory: The way in which an audience member

actively uses the media to fulfil needs.

Perhaps the best way to understand uses and gratifications is to think about the
process suggested by the theory. Acting on the basis that you have a need to
satisfy, for instance the need to relax after a hard day of study, you consider all
the options provided by the mass media. From these options you first choose the
medium you think will best satisfy that need and, second, a particular item or
programme offered by that medium. You may decide between doing the
crossword puzzle in the newspaper, listening to a talk show on radio or watching
a soap opera on television. Your individual characteristics, needs and interests
will largely determine the choice you make. The degree of gratification (or non-
gratification) that results from your choice will influence decisions you make in
the future.
One of the results of uses and gratifications research has been the
identification of basic need categories that can be satisfied through media
choices. Tan (1985) suggests five categories which show that mass
communication can satisfy many of the needs associated with interpersonal
communication.

Cognitive needs: needs related to acquiring information, knowledge and

understanding of our environment, as well as satisfying our curiosity. Reasons
for using the media in this
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category can range from wanting to understand what is happening in the rest
of the world to learning about other people’s interests and hobbies.
Affective needs: needs related to the pursuit of pleasure and entertainment
and the satisfaction of our emotions. The choice of material in this category is
highly subjective and can vary from listening to pop music to reading about
astronomy or electronics or even watching a horror movie.
Personal integrative needs: needs related to the individual’s desire for self-
esteem and self-actualisation. Some people tend to identify with media heroes
and heroines and participate vicariously in their triumphs and successes. They
might even strive to reach similar goals themselves. When interviewed by the
media, some people who have climbed Mount Kilimanjaro have said that they
did it because watching other ‘ordinary people’ succeed on television made
them feel that ‘If they can do it, so can I’.
Social integrative needs: needs related to strengthening contact with family,
friends and the world. When you discuss a TV programme with a friend or go
to the movies with a sibling, you are using the media to fulfil this need.
Escapist needs: needs related to escape, tension release and the desire for
diversion. Viewers report that one of the reasons for watching soap operas is
that they can escape into the lives of other people (even fictional people) and
forget their own problems for a while.

Needs mass communication can satisfy:

Cognitive needs
Affective needs
Personal integrative needs
Social integrative needs
Escapist needs

Think about your own media usage in terms of the needs we have described.
Suppose that you and your mother often watch travel programmes together
because you both enjoy them. You especially listen for information about how to
travel to a certain destination, what sort of accommodation is available and what
there is to do and see. Your mother simply loves to relax and enjoy the beautiful
scenery, smartly dressed people and exotic food. Your need is different to your
mother’s – your primary need is cognitive whereas your mother’s is affective.
The fact that you always try to watch together shows that you also share a
common need to satisfy social integrative needs of family life.
Uses and gratifications research has a practical application in that it assists
mass media organisations to determine the motivations of their audiences and
serve them more efficiently. It has, however, been criticised for being vague in
defining and explaining the concept of needs and for producing inaccurate
results. It has been suggested that respondents in research studies infer the needs
they seek to satisfy from questions that are asked about why they use the media,
leading to the suspicion that the need was created by the media. Like
functionalism, uses and gratifications theory has also been criticised for being a
conservative approach that looks primarily at the positive ways in which
individuals meet their needs, without any attention to the possible negative
effects of media in society. Nevertheless, it provides a refreshing change from
the traditional viewpoint of the passive audience (cf Severin & Tankard 1992).
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SCENARIO 10.1
We said earlier that a given medium, such as radio, and a certain set of
messages, such as weather information, might be used by different
individuals in very different ways depending on the particular needs and
interests they are seeking to satisfy. Over a period of two or three days,
observe how the members of your family use the mass media. Then, for each
member of the family, describe which uses and gratifications appear to be
satisfied by the programmes they have selected. Take note of the differences
in media use among the older and younger members of your family, the time
of day that various media are used for different purposes, and differences in
weekday and weekend use of the media.
Use the table below to help you identify different types of gratifications
that can be sought and obtained from the mass media.

Table 10.1 Typology of gratifications sought and obtained from the media
 Gratification Examples
category
• Finding out about relevant events and conditions in
immediate surroundings, society and the world
• Seeking advice on practical matters or opinions and
Information decision choices
• Satisfying curiosity and general interest
• Learning, self-education
• Gaining a sense of security through knowledge
• Finding reinforcement for personal values
• Finding models of behaviour
Personal identity
• Identifying with valued others (in the media)
• Gaining insight into one’s self
• Gaining insight into circumstances of others: social
empathy
• Identifying with others and gaining a sense of
belonging
Integration and social • Finding a basis for conversation and social
interaction interaction
• Having a substitute for real-life companionship
• Helping to carry out social roles
• Enabling one to connect with family, friends and
society
• Escaping or being diverted from problems
• Relaxing
• Getting intrinsic cultural or aesthetic enjoyment
Entertainment
• Filling time
• Gaining emotional release
• Experiencing sexual arousal
Source McQuail (1983: 82–83)

10.7 THE SOCIAL EFFECTS OF MASS

COMMUNICATION
The social effects of mass communication have been a topic of discussion,
controversy and research since the emergence and mass distribution of
newspapers, film, radio and especially television. A great deal of empirical
research has been conducted on the psychological, social and political effects of
television on viewers. Questions such as the following, amongst others, have
been investigated:
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Is there a relationship between TV viewing and cognitive development? How

does TV advertising influence young children?
What is the relationship between violence on TV and antisocial behaviour in
teenagers?

This section has online support material available

Another way of examining the social effects of mass communication is the

cultural studies approach. Cultural studies has its roots in Marxist philosophy,
which emphasised class differences as a cause of conflict in society. The cultural
studies approach suggests that it is not only economics that maintains class
differences in society, but that the content of the mass media helps to perpetuate
a system that maintains the status quo of power relationships in society. It also
pays attention to the fact that recipients can find different meanings in the same
message. The cultural studies approach asks questions such as the following: Is
it aesthetic taste or financial profits that determine whether art is considered
good or bad?

Cultural studies approach: it is not only economics that maintains class

differences in society – content of the mass media helps to perpetuate it.

To conclude our study of mass communication we have chosen to examine a

third approach to the social effects of mass communication: technological or
media determinism. Technological determinism sees social change as a direct
result of fundamental technological development and innovation. Marshall
McLuhan (1911–1980), the Canadian literary and communications scholar, was
one of the best-known writers about the relationship between technology and
social change. McLuhan’s theory was first published in 1964 and he gained
worldwide prominence as an authority on electronic media and their impact on
both culture and society. As the Internet and new media have expanded, theorists
today are showing renewed interest in his views. Although McLuhan made an
intensive study of the history of technology from primitive times, his main
interest was in print and electronic media.

Technological/ media determinism: the medium is the message.

Although McLuhan was interested in all communication media, he was

renowned for his views on the technology and power of the electronic media to
shape society. In fact, he was the first communication theorist to have directed
attention to the important role of the medium in communication. To understand
the main proposition in his theory – the medium is the message – we need to
briefly explain the term ‘media determinism’.

10.7.1 McLuhan and media determinism

The medium is an important component in the structure of communication
because it provides the means by which the communicator is able to transmit the
message to the recipient. Without the medium, communication would not be
possible. Media determinism is an approach to the study of communication that
considers the medium to play a more important role in the communication of
messages than simply as the technical or physical means whereby messages are
transmitted in the communication process. The medium is usually regarded as a
neutral ‘container’ that has no influence on the content of the message or the
communication process itself. Media determinism asserts that the medium,
because of its particular characteristics, plays an influential role not only in

Medium plays an influential role not only in the communication process

itself, but also on how the message is formulated and understood.

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the communication process itself but also on how the message is formulated and
understood. The main focus is often directed at ways in which a particular
medium can assist the communicator to deliver a more effective message and the
effects of the message on the recipient.
McLuhan took this idea a step further and suggested that the type of medium a
society uses also determines the structure of the society and shapes the way
people experience their world. Consequently, media determinism tends to
minimise the role of people in creating and interpreting meaning and to ascribe
to the media the power of influencing not only the message but also society
itself.
McLuhan’s particular interest in the characteristics of communication media
was sparked off by the way that advertisements and newspapers achieve their
effects. He described this as a mosaic of impressions created by the juxtaposition
of pictures, words, colours, different typefaces and so on which invite
participation by the recipient in the communication process. Think about an eye-
catching advertisement: it often achieves its effect precisely because of the way
that the different elements are placed on the page. McLuhan maintained that it is
not so much the product that interests you, but the form (the shape or layout) of
the advertisement that has captured your attention, and it is the form that
determines how you respond to the advertisement. This assumption led him to
examine the form, rather than the content, of all the different media that exist in
society. He came to regard the content of messages as irrelevant and suggested
that the medium and its technology was the influential factor in society. He went
so far as to claim that the channels of communication we use are the primary
cause of cultural change. Nothing remains untouched by communication
technology – family life, schools, healthcare, friendship, religious worship,
recreation, politics.
The discussion that follows is based mainly on Understanding media: The
extensions of man (McLuhan 1974) first published in 1964.

10.7.2 McLuhan’s assumptions about the media

McLuhan’s understanding of ‘medium’ or ‘media’ was very broad. One of his
definitions is that the media are technologically created extensions of the human
senses. He argued that media quite literally extend sight, hearing and touch
through time and space. He maintained that people have developed extensions
for practically everything they once did with their bodies. The wheel is an
extension of the foot, writing is an extension of sight, clothes an extension of the
skin, electronic circuits an extension of the central nervous system and so on
(McLuhan & Fiore 1967).

McLuhan argued that media quite literally extended sight, hearing and
touch through time and space.

Let’s take clothing as an example. The skin is the medium for our sense of
touch and is one of the ways we communicate with the environment. Clothing
not only extends this form of communication, but clothing itself – for instance
the way that we dress – allows us to express ourselves visually, thereby
communicating a message. Similarly, McLuhan regarded the printed words that
we read as an extension of our ears. The reason is that our primary mode of
communication is naturally conducted by way of speech and hearing, but since
the invention of the printing press we ‘see’ our speech on a
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printed page. As print spread in society people began to obtain more of their
information by reading than listening, with the result that the sense of sight
became overdeveloped. Based on these assertions, McLuhan maintained that the
medium is not merely a tool invented by people, but that it has become part of
the natural environment. As with any other element in the environment the
medium exerts an influence on people and on society.

10.7.3 Ratio of the senses

The core of McLuhan’s theory is that people adapt to their environment through
a certain balance, or ratio, of the senses. The primary medium of an age brings
out a certain sense ratio. Let’s clarify what McLuhan means. We live in a world
that includes our physical and social environment and we perceive or interact
with our environment through our senses. We receive information from the
environment through our five senses. Children, before they learn to speak,
interact with people and objects that they observe in their environment by
touching, tasting and smelling them. In similar manner preliterate tribal
societies, who did not have language with which to communicate, also used all
their senses in their interaction with their environment and with other people.
The senses of hearing, touch, taste and smell were developed far beyond the
ability to see. But what happens when a new medium such as language is
introduced?
The basic characteristic of language is speech, a series of sounds that people
make and hear. As people became accustomed to the use of speech in their daily
communication they gradually came to depend less and less on the other senses
because, to receive information through speech, they only needed to use their
sense of hearing. Senses like touch, taste and smell became less important.
Therefore, according to McLuhan, before printing was invented the sense of
hearing was dominant and language became part of the human environment, as
natural to people as water to a fish. The environment was an acoustic place in
which people led richer and more complex lives than their literate descendants
because the ear, unlike the eye, is not able to block out stimuli in the
environment.
McLuhan maintained that hearing-oriented communities tend to receive and
express many experiences simultaneously. They are in touch with every aspect
of the environment and with each other. People who get their information from
other people are necessarily drawn closer together, in the tribal way. They have
to be close to each other in order to obtain information and they have to believe
what others tell them because they have no other source of information. So they
are interdependent. They are also more emotional – the spoken word conveys
anger, sorrow, joy and other emotions with greater intensity than the printed
word.
The mechanical developments of the 20th century brought about a radical
change because, as other media were invented, they became part of the human
environment and exerted their influence on society. For example, the invention
of the phonetic alphabet and the
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development of print media had great effects on the way we see and experience
the world and the way that societies operate.
McLuhan called the print-dominated environment the Gutenberg Galaxy.
Consider the way he described the effects of the Gutenberg Galaxy on society
and people.
Writing and printing are media with particular characteristics that are different
from those of speech. Print converts audible sounds (spoken words) into visual
signs (the letters of the alphabet). In order for people to communicate in written
or printed media they need to learn to read and write. Reading and writing
demand the use of different senses than those demanded by speech. As people
began getting their information primarily by seeing it sight replaced hearing as
the dominant medium. The printed word brought a new sense ratio into being
which caused a bias in human perception. In McLuhan’s words, visual people
have substituted ‘an ear for an eye’ (1974: 91).
McLuhan proposed that Western culture developed because the requirements
of the print medium forced people into a linear, logical and categorical kind of
perception, rather like the string of words and letters on the printed page. When
you read and write your eyes follow each letter and word in linear succession.
McLuhan maintained that, after generations of using such a medium, our thought
processes have also begun to behave in the same way as we read. We think in
linear fashion and that is why we work things out in logical sequences. McLuhan
maintained that Western people are communicologically ‘deaf’ – out of touch
with the environment and detached from each other. People who communicate
by means of writing do not have to be in the same place at the same time – they
only have to exchange written messages. Because they are alone when they
express and receive messages there is no direct interaction between them and no
opportunity to see the expressions on the other’s face or to exchange messages in
real time. Writing and print have also changed the way people collect and store
information about their environment. In oral cultures people relied on their
memory for all the information they needed, but when writing and printing
became available they no longer needed to memorise information.

The character of each society and civilisation is determined by the types

of media that are used predominantly for communication in that society.

10.7.4 The media and social change

McLuhan maintained that each new medium influences the society as well as the
people. According to McLuhan, the character of each society and civilisation is
determined by the types of media that are used predominantly for
communication in that society. This is based on McLuhan’s assertion that the
medium is the entire environment in which people live and the environment
makes an impression on the human nervous system. When McLuhan said ‘The
medium is the message’ he meant that, because our environment is the medium,
the messages communicated by this medium structure our perceptions, attitudes
and feelings. The introduction of each new medium changes the whole
environment and influences the entire process of human thought and perception.

‘The medium is the message’: because our environment is the medium,

the messages communicated by this medium structure our perceptions,
attitudes and feelings.

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Each new medium also causes a revolutionary change in the whole way of life of
a society. The development of writing and printing gradually brought about
changes in the structure of society. The phonetic alphabet made people visually
dependent and the printing press ensured that it became widespread. McLuhan
pointed out that the most important characteristic of movable type is
repeatability. Because the print medium demonstrated that mass production of
identical products was possible McLuhan called it the forerunner of the
Industrial Revolution. Furthermore, writing and printing became important
means of administration and government and new social institutions were
established, such as libraries, book stores and printing companies. Thus a whole
bureaucracy developed to manage and regulate the production and distribution of
written and printed messages within society.
Today new technologies are causing yet another change. McLuhan maintained
that we are in the midst of another revolution, but most people do not yet
understand that the world will never be the same (remember that he was writing
in the 1960s). The new technologies have ushered in a new electronic age in
which the electronic media are re-tribalising the human race. Although modern
man is literate, we obtain most of our information by hearing it – primarily
through electronic sources such as the telephone, radio and television.
McLuhan saw in the electronic circuit a similarity to the human nervous
system. The electronic media stimulate perception by all the senses and thereby
restore equilibrium. They have put us back in touch with the environment and
with other people. McLuhan maintained that whereas the print revolution created
an explosion, breaking people up into categories, the new electronic media are
causing an implosion, putting them in touch with one another as messages are
communicated instantly around the world and forcing them back into a tribal
unity.

10.7.5 The global village

As a result of the expansion of the electronic media, the world has become what
McLuhan called a ‘global village’, in which our thoughts, actions, institutions
and our relationship to society have been modified. The introduction of a
network of telecommunications has made possible the instantaneous
transmission of information, culture, values and attitudes. Time and distance are
bridged, so that what is happening in countries thousand of kilometres away can
be observed in our own home, much like the situation in a small village, where
little happens that is not known to everybody. In fact, McLuhan pictured us all as
members of a single community. You need only think about how enthusiastically
we have participated in televised broadcasts of the 2014 soccer World Cup in
Brazil or how we eagerly watched the progress of the war against terrorism in
various parts of the world, including Afghanistan, Nigeria and Somalia.
According to McLuhan, the power of the printed word is over. By replacing
books and writing as our main source of information the electronic media have
once again provided means of communication that involve the use of various
senses simultaneously and, as a result, communication in the global village
resembles communication in preliterate societies. The linear
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logic imposed by print is useless in the global village. Acoustic people no longer
enquire, ‘Do you see my point?’ Instead we ask, ‘How does that grab you?’ What
we feel is more important than what we think (Griffin 2003: 347). And, for the
modern generation, ways of thinking are changing rapidly. In the hyperlinked
world of the Internet we make connections in a nonlinear network. We surf from
one site to the next, backwards and forwards, up and down. Will this lead us to
develop a nonlinear form of rationality, ask Baran and Davis (2003: 373).

10.7.6 ‘Hot’ and ‘cool’ media

Based on his view on the important influence of the media on society, McLuhan
suggested that we can best understand media by classifying them according to
their effects on the human senses. His explanation of the effects of a medium on
the senses is linked to the distinction he made between hot and cool media, terms
which refer to the ‘temperature’ of the information or the ‘definition’ of the
image (McLuhan 1974: 31). The temperature of a message is not to be confused
with its content. McLuhan classified media and their messages in terms of the
degree to which they involve people perceptually. Because television had
become the dominant medium of the 1960s McLuhan focused his attention on
the nature and power of television.

Hot media require minimal participation from the recipient.

Hot media, such as print, photographs and movies, contain relatively complete
sensory data so that the informational content of the message is high, or ‘hot’.
Hot media therefore require minimal participation from the recipient – the
meaning is delivered in the message itself. McLuhan explained that in youth
culture something ‘cool’ is something that one likes, and indicates commitment
and involvement. Cool media, such as television, draw a person in, requiring you
to participate perceptually by filling in missing sensory data.

Cool media require perceptual participation.

 The comparison between film and television that McLuhan (1974) made
elucidates the difference. Film is a hot medium because the image projected on
the screen is three-dimensional, complete in every detail, and the viewer is not
required to fill in missing information in order to understand the message. A
television shot is cool because it has very low definition: it is two-dimensional,
rather like a comic strip cartoon. Television requires the viewer to participate in
obtaining information by filling in the spaces and contours with his mind, as one
does with a cartoon. The viewer is therefore more involved in the television
image than the film image. McLuhan suggested that when our eyes look at
images on television they behave as if they were handling or touching the image.
They seem to ‘rub’ their senses over it, filling the mosaic of impressions. In this
way people participate in understanding television images. The sense of touch is
once again being used.
The difference between hot and cool media is crucial because of the different
impact they have on society. Because the meaning in a hot message is complete
it creates a dulling or hypnosis of the senses of the population, whereas a cool
medium stimulates the senses. Paradoxically, because a cool medium demands
involvement and emotion from the viewer it results in a culture that is hot or
based on greater emotional involvement. McLuhan defined Western cultures as
cool, whereas
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developing or underdeveloped cultures are hot. He maintained that we are

currently in transition from a cool to a hot culture. The change is created by the
media we use for communication – books are being replaced by the electronic
media, especially television, and the augmented participation required by the
recipients has created a new type of tribal society and increased the level of
people’s involvement with their world.
Table 10.2 Features and types of hot and cool media

Hot media Cool media

Low participation High participation
Extends one single sense Low definition
High definition Small amount of
Features A large amount of information
information Need to be completed by
(McLuhan 1974: 31–33)
 Tend to overtake cool the audience
mediums Tend to be supplanted
Tend to be mechanical, and remade by hot
repetitive, uniform mediums

Telephone
Television
Radio Cartoon
Cinema Speech
Photograph Hieroglyphic and
Examples Phonetic alphabet ideogrammatic
(McLuhan 1974: 31–32) Print written characters
Paper Monastic and clerical
Lecture script
Book Stone
Seminar
Dialogue
The contemporary TV
Examples Past mechanical times age
(McLuhan 1974: 36) Developed countries Underdeveloped
countries
Source Holmes (2005: 71)

But the change is not without problems – it creates tremendous stresses in

society while people adjust during the transition. For example, the new
environment is reshaping the perceptual life of the young. Today’s youth are a
new tribe. They respond emotionally to the spoken word because they have
tribal sensory balances. They are ‘hot’, they perceive in patterns rather than
linearly, they want to touch, they want to be involved. But the modern acoustic
youth is confronted in the classroom by teachers who think in a linear fashion.

10.7.7 What does the future hold?

During the 1960s McLuhan became a phenomenon – a popular philosopher, a
media guru and prophet. He had a strong following, especially among artists and
advertising practitioners who accepted his views and pronouncements as those of
an oracle. He was hailed as
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the High Priest of Popcult, the Metaphysician of Media and the Oracle of the
Electronic Age. McLuhan has, however, been severely criticised for the
incoherence of his ideas, his unsubstantiated statements and the lack of evidence
to support his psychological arguments.
His notion that literacy was obsolete and his praise of nonlinear thinking were
severely criticised by other literary critics who thought nonlinear thinking was
just another label for logically inconsistent thoughts. Empirical media
researchers, who found it difficult to design research to systematically study
something as amorphous as ‘people’s experiences’, concluded that his ideas
were overly speculative and empirically unverifiable (Baran & Davis 2003).
While McLuhan’s pronouncements are in fact outrageous and do not form a
unified theory of communication, he nevertheless succeeded in stimulating
people to look at the media in a different way and raised some important issues
about the influence of modern media on people and the structure of society.
McLuhan’s perspective deserves more attention by mass communication
scholars, especially those interested in studying new media.
McLuhan was featured on the 3 March 1967 cover of Newsweek and, 29 years
later, despite the suspicion and outright hostility with which his views were
regarded in the intervening years, he graced the cover of the January 1996
edition of Wired magazine, an informative magazine on cyberspace (Baran &
Davis 2003).
Before his death in 1980 McLuhan predicted that even the impact of computer
technology as he knew it would be insignificant compared with the upheaval
caused by the computer software to come. McLuhan predicted that people would
work at home connected to their corporations by television. They would relay
information by computer systems. The rush-hour traffic would be a thing of the
past. Huge cities like New York would become obsolete. Even shopping would
be done via television. It is true that we have information and entertainment at
our fingertips and instant communication with people all over the world. But the
question that some contemporary theorists are asking is: How does one assess
qualitative changes in the lives of people in the new digital age?
Jenkins (2006: 2) has used the term convergence to refer to the
flow of content across many media platforms, the co-operation between media
producers and the migratory behaviour of media audiences.
Convergence allows for participation by ordinary people in selecting what
information they want to consume. But ordinary people are also able to produce
and share information on a variety of media platforms.

Convergence allows ordinary people to select the information they want

to consume, and to produce and share their own information on various
media platforms.

Schmidt and Cohen (2013) predict that

if the current pace of technological innovation is maintained, most of the
projected eight billion people on Earth will be online.

They note that the modern individual can function efficiently without often
having to venture beyond his or her front door.
Griffin (2003: 350–351) cites Neil Postman, a leading media and cultural
theorist, who believes that people in the Digital Age are
[Page 239]

‘culturally the worse for wear’. We have become a ‘technopoly’ – his term for a
society that is monopolised by technology. He maintains that we no longer use
the tools we have invented, but that our tools use us. Instead of being integrated
into the society’s culture our tools intrude on its belief systems and values and
threaten to take it over.
The culture seeks its authorisation in technology, finds its satisfaction in
technology, and takes its orders from technology. (Griffin 2003: 350)

Technopoly: a society monopolised by technology.

Postman (1990) maintains that our reliance on technology has replaced

traditional print values of propositional logic, sequential understanding, context,
detachment, discipline and wisdom with the ‘cyber virtues’ of speed, capacity,
imagery, hypertexuality, immediate gratification and emotional involvement. We
have come to rely less on logic and more on feelings.
Postman suggests that, unless we assess the effects of new technologies on our
lives before we adopt them, we will become ‘tools of our tools’. Griffin (2003:
351) gives us two examples. He asks: Will palm computers really make us more
efficient and increase our leisure time; or will we actually become more enslaved
to our schedules and lists of things to do? Will our ability to ‘beam’ a friend’s
computer simplify our lives and draw us closer together; or will that ability
simply complicate our lives with new programs to learn and equipment to buy?
He concludes by saying that, ‘Tools will do what they are designed to do. The
question is, what are they ultimately doing to us?’

SCENARIO 10.2
The following is an extract about Marshall McLuhan’s theory from Baran
and Davis (2003: 300–301). Study the text carefully and then answer the
question that follows.
Initially, McLuhan’s work fit the spirit of the early 1960s … he was
unabashedly optimistic about the profound but ultimately positive changes
in our personal experience, social structure, and culture that new media
technology would make possible. McLuhan was the darling of the media
industries – their prophet with honour. For a brief period, he commanded
huge fees as a consultant and seminar leader for large companies. His
ideas were used to rationalise rapid expansion of electronic media with
little concern for their negative consequences. His mantra became
broadcast industry gospel: So what if children spend most of their free
time in front of television sets and become functionally illiterate? Reading
is doomed anyway, why prolong its demise? Eventually, we will all live in
a global village where literacy is as unnecessary as it was in preliterate
tribal villages. Why worry about the negative consequences of television
when it is obviously so much better than the hot, old media it is replacing?
Just think of the limitations that print media impose.
Linear logical thinking is far too restrictive. If the triumph of electronic
media is inevitable, why not get on with it? No need for government
regulation of media. The ideal form of media can be expected to evolve
naturally, no matter what we try to do. No need to worry about media
conglomerates. No need to complain about television violence. No need to
resist racist or sexist media content. Adopt McLuhan’s long-term, global
perspective. Think big. Think nonlinearly. Just wait for the future to
happen.

Do you agree or disagree with McLuhan’s main assumptions about the mass
media as outlined in the extract above? Provide reasons for your answer.
[Page 240]

SUMMARY
This chapter has tried to explain some aspects of mass communication. It first
explained the terms ‘mass’, ‘mass communication’ and ‘mass media’. The
distinction between mass communication and mass media is important to our
understanding of the mass communication context. The process of mass
communication was discussed by contrasting it with interpersonal
communication and then illustrating the process by means of a model. The next
topic discussed was the functions that mass communication perform in society.
The remainder of the chapter broadened our understanding of mass
communication and its influence on society and people by examining the
components of the mass communication process in greater detail: the mass
communicator, the mass medium and the audiences of mass communication. It
referred to various research studies and theories that attempt to explain the
effects of mass media messages on society and on people: gatekeeping, agenda-
setting, spiral of silence, magic-bullet, two-step flow and uses and gratification
theory. This section of the chapter ended with a scenario based on the uses and
gratification theory. To conclude our study of mass communication the chapter
examined an approach known as technological or media determinism.
Technological determinism sees social change as a direct result of
fundamental technological development and innovation. To illustrate this
approach McLuhan’s views on media determinism – the power of the medium to
change people’s lives and the nature of society – were examined. The discussion
revolved around the main concepts in his theory: the medium is the message, the
global village, the ratio of the senses, hot and cool media, an eye for an ear and
the Gutenberg Galaxy. The chapter concluded with the views of two theorists
who are critical of McLuhan’s belief in the power of the media to bring about
cultural and social changes. The chapter ended with a commentary on
McLuhan’s views by Baran and Davis (2003).

TEST YOURSELF QUESTIONS

1. Differentiate between the terms ‘mass’, ‘mass communication’ and ‘mass

media’.
 2. Contrast mass communication with interpersonal communication by
describing five differences between them.
3. Explain four functions of mass communication and illustrate each with an
appropriate example.
4. Briefly describe the effects of the mass media on public opinion
according to
a. the agenda-setting theory
b. the spiral of silence theory.
5. Briefly describe how the mass media influences its audience, according to
a. the magic-bullet theory
b. the two-step flow theory
c. the uses and gratifications theory.
6. Compare the coverage of a major event as presented by a newspaper, a
television newscast, a radio news programme and, if you have access to
the Internet, a news site on the Web. Relate your findings to what you
have learned about the gatekeeping function of the media.

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7. Watch a television programme that deals with a controversial topic with

at least five other people. Take note of their comments about the
programme. Did they express similar opinions about the topic? Were any
opinions opposed to the stand taken by the programme presenters? Did an
opinion leader emerge in the group?
8. Identify the television programmes on the channels you receive that are
used primarily to inform, persuade or entertain. Do some combine two or
more purposes? Which, in your opinion, are the most successful?
9. Explain the assumptions of media determinism.
10. Write two or three paragraphs on each of the following concepts in
McLuhan’s theory, using your own examples to illustrate your discussion:
a. the medium is the message
b. the global village
c. ratio of the senses
d. the Gutenberg Galaxy
 e. an eye for an ear
f. hot and cool media.
11. What news have you seen recently on television that confirms McLuhan’s
belief that we live in a global village?
12. What do you think McLuhan would say about the impact of the Internet
on the global village?
13. Study the way Wolfe (1965: 37), the well-known author and critic, begins
his essay on McLuhan:

What do you think Wolfe is suggesting?

[Page 242]
Chapter 11
Digital communication
Marla Koonin

OVERVIEW
In earlier chapters of this book you have learnt about the foundations of
communication and the various communication contexts: intra- and
interpersonal, small group and mass communication. This chapter covers
digital communication, the latest context of communication to emerge as a
result of our living in a digital era, one in which so much of our
communication is governed by our exchanges with one another via electronic
or digital means of communication. Digital communication applications and
tools have become the new interface that individuals, organisations and the
mass media use to communicate. Digital communication depends on
computer networks and the World Wide Web to enable people to
communicate with one another via the various digital platforms, applications
and tools such as short message services (SMS), social media (Facebook,
Twitter and LinkedIn), blogs, wikis and podcasts to name but a few.
To understand how we got to this digital age, we look first at a brief history
of digital communication. This is followed by examples and explanations of
digital communication types. Digital communication has also impacted on
many fields of communication such as journalism and public relations, with
new activities made possible and new terms now in use, such as ‘citizen
journalism’, ‘online authorship’ and ‘the management of an individual’s and
organisation’s online presence’.
As citizens we can stand on the sidelines of society and actually
commentate, using various social media applications and tools such as
Twitter, Facebook and blogs, about what is happening in a given time and
 space. This makes each citizen a watchdog and has changed the way we act as
social commentators. Digital devices such as tablets, personal computers and
smartphones give us access to content at any time and in any space via
platforms, applications and tools. This information comes to us in the form of
feeds, tweets and chats, to name but a few. It is all immediate and in bite-sized
chunks.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the end of this chapter you should be able to:
Discuss the history of digital communication.
Explain, with examples, the various types of digital communication.
Apply digital communication types to various communication contexts.
Explain, with examples, the concept of citizen journalism.
Understand how to manage online reputations.
Evaluate the citizen as a social commentator via social media.

[Page 243]

INTRODUCTION
As you have learnt in previous chapters, communication is the transfer of
information between different points in a given time and space. In digital
communication this information is sent and received in digital form. The
communication systems used to transfer the information in digital
communication utilise digital technology. Examples include – but are not limited
to – cellphones, the Internet, data and music storage devices such as USB flash
drives, CDs and DVDs (Madhow 2008: 1). There are many terms used in
speaking about digital communication – such as electronic communication, new
communication, new media technologies, digital media – and these terms are
often used interchangeably. However, for the purpose of this chapter the term
‘digital communication’ is used, which includes all of these.
 Terms used for digital communication include:
1. electronic communication
2. new communication
3. new media technologies
4. digital media

Let’s look at a few definitions from various sources so that you can get a
clearer picture of what digital communication is. The Princeton Review (2014)
defines digital communication as ‘communication performed with and by digital
technology’. Gallager (2006) defines digital communication as ‘communication
systems that use … a digital sequence as an interface between the source and the
channel output’. In other words, digital communication is the ‘electronic
transmission of information that has been encoded digitally (as for storage and
processing by computers)’ (Free Dictionary 2014). Whilst this sounds rather
complex, what is being said is that when digital technological platforms,
applications and tools are used within the communication process they are
considered to be digital communication.
Digital communication has changed communication within both developed
and developing countries. It is important to note that accessibility to technology,
the expense of data and the issues around inadequate digital infrastructure in
developing countries remains challenging.
So many aspects of our lives and the world we live in have been
revolutionised by technology. You use digital technology or are exposed to
digital technology thousands of times a day, some of which you choose to
engage with, such as Facebook, Twitter, WeChat and WhatsApp, and in other
cases digital technology finds you, for example when you are sitting in a class
watching an audiovisual presentation prepared on a laptop or you are at work
and using e-mail to do your job.
In many cases there is immediate and interactive feedback in digital
communication because of the constant connectivity. This means that you can
access as many people as you want across time zones and continents – it is
borderless communication. According to Fielding and Du Plooy-Cilliers (2014:
320–321), with digital communication the user makes his/her own content and
distributes this content. You as the user are the maker of your own content and
the distributor of the content that you have created. Digital communication
includes a number of areas, such as video games, Internet, multimedia and social
media, to name but a few.
[Page 244]
 See if you can answer the following questions:
How many times a day do you think you use digital communication?
For one day make a note each time you use digital communication – how
many times did you record?
Was your answer the same as you thought?
We have become so accustomed to using digital technology that we do not
even realise how much we use it. When you go out to a restaurant, attend
social engagements or travel on the train and in buses you see people
continually engaged digitally, using cellphones, tablets or MP3 players.

Digital communication has brought about a revolution in the way that companies
market products and people stay in touch and an explosion in the amount of
information freely available in ‘cyberspace’, the global environment of
interlinked computer and communications networks and events where this
information is created, accessed and transferred. Social media trends – people,
events, products and services, music or companies currently being mentioned in
cyberspace – have become such important data for organisations to use when
they market products or want to understand society that specific social media
trending organisations have been founded to follow online and social media
trends and obtain data for organisations about what is ‘trending’. An example of
a company that does this in South Africa is Brands Eye. There are jobs today,
such as a search engine optimisation specialist, that did not even exist a few
years ago because of the changes in technology. Can you think of any others?

Cyberspace: the global environment of interlinked computer and

communications networks and events where this information is created,
accessed and transferred.

Presidents, celebrities, average citizens and organisations all communicate

with their followers, fans, friends and stakeholders using various digital
applications and tools. We live in an era of digital connectivity. However, before
we go into more depth on digital communication it is important to give a brief
history of digital communication.
11.1 A BRIEF HISTORY OF DIGITAL
COMMUNICATION
Digital communication has evolved out of the earlier forms of communication of
writing, printing and electronic media (Rogers 1986: 23–24). Prior to the start of
contemporary digital communication as we know it, communication was limited,
but it does not mean that forms of mass communication did not exist as far back
as the 14th century, in the form of the Gutenberg printing press, or that the
digital communication revolution, albeit in a primitive state by today’s standards,
can be traced as far back as 1832 with the invention of an electrical telegraph by
a German diplomat, Baron Pavel Shilling. Some authors argue that this is not a
form of digital communication as we know it today, which is true; but many,
such as Seke (nd), Rogers (1986: 25) and Stokes (2011: 4–5), include it in
timelines of the history of milestones and inventions related to media, electronic
media, communication and digital communication and it will be used as such in
this chapter. Table 11.1 shows some of these key historical milestones.

This section has online support material available

[Page 245]

Table 11.1 Historical digital communication milestones

Century Historical digital communication milestones

1456: The Gutenberg bible is printed with movable metal type,
15th
invented by Johannes Gutenberg, starting the mass
(1400–1499)
printing press process.
1830: First mass-produced penny press newspaper printed.
1837: The Morse telegraph is patented and demonstrated.
1839: Practical method of photography that can be used by
newspapers is demonstrated.
1844: Morse transmits famous telegraph message ‘What God
hath wrought’ from Washington DC to Baltimore.
19th 1858: Transatlantic cable is laid and fails and then it is
(1800–1899) successfully re-laid in 1866.
1875: Design of a fixed-length binary code for a telegraph.
1876: The telephone is patented by Alexander Graham Bell
 and the first message sent.
1895: Radio transmission is demonstrated by Guglielmo
Marconi.
1906: Voice over radio begins.
1915: New York–San Francisco telephone transmission
occurs.
1920: AM radio broadcasting begins in the UK.
1926: First public radiotelephone test over the Atlantic.
1929: TV is demonstrated.
1933: Demonstration of TV transmission.
1936: Commercial TV broadcast.
1937: First digital computer using relays.
1950s: Electronic computers.
1956: Transatlantic telephone cable.
1967: First floppy disk.
1967: GPS is made commercially available.
1969: First supercomputer.
1969: Laser printer is developed.
1969: Internet began as the Arpanet; the original Arpanet
20th
network grew into the Internet. Internet service
(1900–1999)
providers emerge in the 1980s.
1970: First modem.
1972: CDs commercialised.
1973: First cellphone.
1975: First microcomputer is marketed.
1976: Apple introduces first colour graphics computer.
1982: Short message services (sms) launched and in the public
domain in 1992.
1983: Windows is announced.
1988: Fiber optic cable through the Atlantic.
1991: WWW is launched.
1992: The term ‘surfing the net’ is introduced by JM Polly.
1995: Amazon is launched.
1996: Yahoo is launched on the stock exchange.
1998: Google is founded.
1999: The term ‘blog’ is coined by Peter Merholz.
[Page 246]

2000: AOL and Time-Warner merge.

2003: LinkedIn is launched.
2004: Facebook and Flickr are launched.
2005: YouTube is launched.
2006: Twitter is launched; Google buys YouTube.
21st
2007: Apple launches the iPhone.
(2000–2099)
2010: Pinterest is launched; Facebook reaches 500 million
users.
2011: Google+ launches.
2012: Facebook listed on the New York Stock Exchange.
2013: Twitter listed on the New York Stock Exchange.
Seke (nd); Rogers (1986: 25); Stokes (2011: 4–5)

Today communication is limitless and there are so many forms of

communication that keep us connected all the time. The electronic superhighway
now includes voice, video and data coverage, multimedia and interactive
communication technologies. In former times the great writers were a select few,
a small percentage of the population who wrote well and were published. Today,
however, anyone can publish in the online spaces via the various platforms,
applications and tools, such as blogs and home pages, and have a free
publishable space. Free ‘e-books’ can be downloaded onto tablets and eReaders.
Information is freely put out into cyberspace, as well as freely accessible online
(Kaul 2012: 114; Koonin 2013: 81–82). Let’s have a look at what types of digital
communication are available.

11.2 TYPES OF DIGITAL COMMUNICATION

There are literally thousands of different types of digital communication
platforms, applications, tools, networks and devices. It is not possible to list or
name all of them, not only because there are so many out there but also because
they are changed and updated so rapidly that by the time this book is printed
many will have had multiple upgrades, many new ones will have come into
being and many others will have ceased to exist. However, it is important to
know some of the types and understand some of the digital communication
jargon from a communication perspective and then continually update yourself
on what is trending.
So what are platforms, applications and tools? An operating system is a
platform. There are various operating systems, which are platforms on which
applications can be built and run. Examples include Android, iOS, Windows and
Symbian.

An operating system such as Android, iOS, Windows or Symbian, is a

platform.

Applications, including social media applications, are built and used on

operating system platforms. Some applications, such as Facebook and LinkedIn,
are environments that allow tools to be built and run within them.

Applications, such as Facebook, are built and used on operating system

platforms.

[Page 247]

An easy way to think about operating systems, applications and tools is through
an analogy of a tool box and a carpenter who would use this tool box.
The carpenter – representing the operating system or platform – would need a
toolbox to build something. The toolbox is the application. The toolbox is filled
with different tools, each one for a specific use/purpose. If the carpenter wanted
to put a nail into a wall, he would use a hammer, not a wrench, and the same
goes for digital tools. The tool box has lots of different tools; an application can
be expanded to have many tools.
Here’s an example: Android is an operating system, or platform, developed by
Google. If you use Google Chrome, a web browser, to surf the web, you are
using a Google application. In Google Chrome you can to search for a friend’s
address by using the Google Maps tool.
Table 11.2 lists some of the more widely used types of digital communication.
The list is not exhaustive and you should research what other social media
platforms, applications, tools and web-based platforms are available for creating
digital content.
Table 11.2 Types of digital communication

Digital
communication Explanation
type

The Internet is a public web of interconnected computer

networks. It is a global communication network that
consists of numerous private, businesses, governmental,
educational and other networks, all passing around large
Internet amounts of information and allowing people to share
information.
The Internet keeps people connected and informed.
Education institutions, for example, connect to online
libraries to conduct research.

The World Wide Web is accessed via the Internet. It is a

comprehensive information system that contains interlinked,
hyperlinked documents, images and videos. Many people
think the World Wide Web and the Internet are the same
thing, but they are not. The World Wide Web provides a
World Wide standard procedure for people to access all the hyperlinked
Web documents through the Internet. The Internet provides the
infrastructure.
When you click on a link it leads you to the page where you
can find the information that you need. A website, for
example, would be accessed on the Internet using the World
Wide Web.
[Page 248]
 A search engine is software that will search for information on
the World Wide Web. Examples of search engines are Google
(the largest), MSN, Bing, Yahoo, Ask.com, Exalead,
LookSmart and Ananzi. YouTube is also a search engine, but
specifically for video searches.
A search engine home screen will have a search facility, a
blank space usually with a magnifying glass icon, where you
type in key words that describe the information you are
Search looking for. You click on a ‘Search’ button or the magnifying
engines glass icon and a range of options and combinations for your
search word(s) will come up.
It is advisable to put your search phrase in inverted commas,
for example ‘Landmarks in Johannesburg’, because the search
will deliver results for your exact search phrase. If you do not
use inverted commas, it will deliver all possible combinations
of the individual words you have put in. This type of
searching is referred to as Boolean.
Search engines are useful for finding information or
conducting research.

Instant messaging is a web-based communication method of

exchanging typed messages between computers and/or other
devices via the Internet. Instant messaging happens in real
time. In other words, as you type and send the message the
Instant
receiver immediately gets it and you can communicate
messaging
straight away back and forth, having a text-based
(IM)
conversation.
Examples include Yahoo Messenger, Google Messenger and
Microsoft Windows Live. An example of an instant
messenger application for cellphones is WhatsApp.

Short A short message service (SMS) is a service that allows

messages cellphone users to send short text messages to other cellphone
(SMS) users.

Stokes (2011: 556) explains that

social media is media that is created, published and shared
 by individuals on the internet such as blogs, images,
videos, etc. Social networks, in the online sense, refers to a
type of website model where individual members become
part of a broader virtual community, i.e. social network.
Social media allows you to create, share and exchange
information via virtual networks and communities. Social
Social media
media depends on mobile and web-based technologies in
order to operate.
Social media is all about user-generated content, which is
created by users and then uploaded onto social networking
sites.
Social media is a two-way exchange.
Today organisations need to have an active social media
presence in order to connect with their target audiences.

Examples of social media applications and tools

Facebook is a social networking site where users create a

profile of themselves, filling in various pieces of personal
information. They can upload images, pictures and messages
about themselves and express their thoughts and opinions.
They can also post messages on other people’s pages and join
Facebook online communities of like-minded people. Facebook is a
virtual community.
Facebook is an application and some of its tools include the
Friends list, the photograph uploading facility and the various
games that are played on Facebook.
[Page 249]

Twitter is a microblogging site where a user registers an

account and a ‘handle’, or online name, and is then able to
post short messages (no more than 140 characters at a time)
and images. These messages are called tweets.
Users are also able to follow other people’s tweets. Many
celebrities post tweets of their day-to-day activities and
have millions of followers. South African media coverage
Twitter has recently been transformed via Twitter with the trial of
Paralympic and Olympic athlete Oscar Pistorius, where
various bits of information related to his trial have been
posted via Twitter.
The hashtag symbol # is used on Twitter before a word in
order to emphasise a keyword or a topic, for example
#womanpower.

This is also a social networking site, similar to Facebook,

LinkedIn but it is for people to post their professional profiles and
connect with like-minded business people.

Flickr is an image and video-hosting website and is for

Flickr
people to post images and videos.

YouTube is a video-sharing website where users can upload

videos and share these with the world. Many people, such as
musicians Justin Bieber and PSY, have become famous
YouTube through uploaded YouTube video clips.
You can watch video clips on just about any topic on
YouTube. You can search for these on the YouTube site or
through one of the search engines.

Instagram is a visual content sharing site. It is about creating

Instagram
and sharing visual content via posts.

This is Google’s alternative to Facebook, but is not as

Google+
popular as Facebook and Twitter.

Allows you and nine others to simultaneously video

Google+ conference. Each person either has the option of using
Hangouts video, voice or text chat, and everyone can interact all at
once. (Karch 2014)

This is for the sharing of creative visual content. People will

upload, save, manage and sort this visual content, known as
Pins.
Pinterest
All the language on this platform is linked to the word ‘Pin’;
 for example, where Facebook has newsfeeds, Pinterest has
Pinfeeds and the quick links are termed ‘Pin it’.

This application is for sharing details and recommendations

Yelp/Foursquare or other comments about businesses, such as restaurants,
and sharing a business profile.

Blogs, Wikis and podcasts are web-based tools that allow you to create
and share content, but they don’t necessarily allow users to comment or
post or provide feedback (two-way exchange) so they are not always
social media.

A blog (or web log) is a website published on the World

Wide Web. It is a content-based site where individuals or
groups will post their thoughts and opinions on topics.
Blogs Blogs are frequently updated like an online journal. People
use blogs as a reflective and expressive platform. Knight
(2010: 38) adds that ‘a blog is a website which provides
short commentary on various topics’.

Wikis are a page or a collection of pages filled with content

and hyperlinks that can be modified and edited by anyone
Wikis
permitted to by the administrator. For this reason they are
not always considered to be reliable sources of information.

Podcasts are multimedia digital files that are downloaded

directly from the Internet via a streaming digital source.
Podcasts They can then be downloaded onto a digital media device
such as an MP3 player, iPod, iPad or a PC for listening to
later.
[Page 250]

Cellular technology was primarily established to make phone

Cellular calls, but phones today have the ability to be utilised for
technology various computing functionality as well as social media
applications.

A smartphone is a handheld hardware device that allows you

 to access applications and tools for social media from your
hand. It can be used for more than just phone calls and SMS
Smartphones
messages. It has very good connectivity and computing
abilities and is technologically advanced. Examples of
smartphones are the BlackBerry, Samsung Galaxy and Apple
iPhone.

Applications
and tools Some apps and tools were developed primarily for the
developed smartphone environment, such as BlackBerry Messenger
primarily for (BBM), WhatsApp, Viber and WeChat, to name just a few.
smartphones
Source Table adapted with permission from Fielding and Du Plooy-Cilliers (2014: 322–324)

11.3 THE CITIZEN AS A DIGITAL PARTICIPANT

As a citizen of the world you will be a digital participant in one way or another
throughout your lifetime. It is important for you to remember that whenever you
engage within the digital communication space, either via a social media
application or tool or a web-based platform, application or tool, using any
capable device, you are in a public space and will leave a digital footprint that
cannot be erased. The social world has been moved onto these platforms,
applications and tools where today many aspects of an individual’s life are
visible in or via the online domain. Koonin (2013: 76) explains that rapid
circulation of visual or verbal communication on one of the digital platforms,
applications or tools is termed ‘going viral’. As citizens of a digital era we are at
all times, in some way, participating digitally, whether consciously or not.
Going viral: the rapid circulation of visual or verbal communication on
digital platforms, applications or tools.

The way that we get information via digital communication is by means of

small snack bytes. For example, with Twitter, using 140 characters maximum
per tweet, we get fed on a continual basis, always snacking on the media.
Based on this –
Consider going on a digital communication diet by giving up one digital
 application, tool or device for 24 hours, for example your cellphone.
Which application, tool or device will you give up for 24 hours?
How did you cope? What did it feel like?

11.3.1 Citizen journalism

Given the advances in media technology, and the subsequent increased ability
of the public to engage with media material and voice their opinion on all
manner of topics, there has been much furore and debate around notions of
audience engagement and participation in the public sphere. (Hyde-Clarke
2010: 1)

Citizen journalism is about regular citizens performing some kind of a

journalistic function. There are many definitions of citizen journalism and many
career journalists, as Knight (2010: 33) points out, that journalism is the
professional practice of edited and
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packaged information – just because someone contributes to a story does not

make them a journalist. Moyo (2010: 52) uses a term that describes citizen
journalism while he speaks to the concept ‘citizen engagement in storytelling’.
Citizen journalism cannot be made into a simple definition. Citizen journalism is
not replacing the profession of journalism but rather can function as an
alternative to journalism (Moyo 2010: 56–57).
There are many ways that citizen journalism can occur. Media outlets can
allow viewers to attach comments to an article such as one sees on many online
newspapers, where readers can comment and ‘like’ or ‘dislike’ stories. The
journalist him/herself can interact with his/her audiences and this can happen
online on a particular story via various applications or tools such as Twitter,
blogs and interactive web pages. Alternatively, sometimes big events happen
when there are no professional journalists around, but there are bystanders
recording events as they unfold. A citizen bystander at a momentous event can
contribute unedited live video clips to a media outlet. For example, as a tsunami
or other natural disaster is happening it can be recorded by smartphone camera,
or at the Boston Marathon bombing people were giving first-hand accounts via
the various platforms using applications and tools. Finally, a citizen can
contribute such information and it can be edited by the news agencies and then
used. Regardless of the way a citizen contributes, the idea of a citizen as part-
time journalist has only come about because we have the applications and tools
at our disposal to contribute to the media when major events take place.

The idea of citizen journalists has only come about because we have the
applications and tools at our disposal to contribute to the media when
major events occur.

Think of events over the last 20 years – such as the 2001 9/11 World Trade
Centre attack, the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and resulting tsunami, the
2012 Marikana miners’ strike shooting, the 2013 Boston Marathon terrorist
bombing, to name but a few – where big news organisations such as CNN,
SkyNews, SABC and others have used bystander contributions for a first-
hand account of what happened.
Have you ever been at an event and filmed something on your cellphone?

11.3.2 Introduction to managing and protecting your online

presence
Both as an individual and as an organisation it is very important to manage
online presence and reputation. Stokes (2011: 550) points out that an online
reputation is formed by the collection of views based on mentions that an entity
receives online.
With the advent of social media, the concept of reputation management has
moved into a new realm, where people’s digital footprints and online identities
have become the place where reputations need to be managed. (Koonin 2013:
81)

An online reputation is formed by the collection of views based on

mentions that an entity receives online.

Managing one’s reputation online means that there needs to be an understanding

of who is saying what in the online spaces and what is being said about you.
Within these online spaces you are able to create content about yourself and
others and create an online footprint, which is made up of information about
yourself and things you have said and done. It is
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this online presence that you need to be able to manage because it will follow
you for the rest of your life. This creation of content where you are the author is
often referred to as online authorship.

Online authorship
Although Stern (2008) speaks specifically to youth authorship, the same
definition can be applied to online authorship, which is the creating of content on
an online platform by using an application or a tool. This creation can be any
online content that is the original work of the creator or someone else and placed
online. It transforms unnamed individuals into people who now have a public
profile, even if not quite in the celebrity sense of the word. These online
presences can catapult a virtual stranger from obscurity into the public eye,
many current ‘celebrities’, such as Justin Bieber, having been ‘found’ online.

Online authorship: the creation of content on an online platform by

using an application or a tool.

Stern (2008) does point out, however, that the younger generation, those up to
about 35 years of age, are far more comfortable expressing themselves in this
online space and through the creation of online content. Examples would be any
of the social media applications and tools such as blogs, home pages, Twitter,
Pinterest or singing in a YouTube video. Over and above this, online spaces also
become social spaces for people to ‘live’ in. Public spaces like parks and
shopping centres have been replaced by the youth using networked public spaces
to gather, socialise with their peers and make sense of and help build the culture
around them through these online communities, using various platforms,
applications and tools (Koonin 2013: 83). This clearly shows that an online
environment has become a lived in space where people gather to socialise as
much as around a braai (barbecue) on a Saturday evening.
Online spaces have both positive and negative implications. On the positive
side they can help people stay connected, build self-confidence when they
‘publish’ their work and get positive feedback, widen their horizons, and keep
geographically separated families connected. But the flip side is that negative
things equally can be posted and they cannot be deleted, anti-social behaviour
can become rife because people’s only interaction is via devices and people
could become victims of ‘cyber bullying’; one’s reputation is also easily
damaged by people publishing untruths or rumours about you in a public
domain, which are not easily countered or deleted.

Cyber bullying: is the same as normal bullying except that the bullying
takes place using digital technology and happens in cyberspace.

Protecting yourself online

It is very important to be able to protect yourself from negative exposure online
because it can affect your reputation and follow you for the rest of your life.
Here are some ideas:

It is important to be able to protect yourself from negative exposure

online – it can affect your reputation and follow you for the rest of your
life.

Read terms and conditions: Every site, application, tool or platform that you
engage with online has terms and conditions. You must read and understand
the terms and conditions.
Stay on top of things: Platforms, application and tools change rapidly so it is
important if you wish to maintain an online presence, as an individual or an
organisation, to stay on top of new trends and new online platforms,
applications and tools.
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Online ethics and legal awareness: It is important to remember that online

environments also have boundaries. Online practice needs to be ethical, but
you must also ensure that what you are doing is legal because online spaces
are also policed and monitored by various organisations. Koonin (2013: 86–
87) explains that
if you post pictures of others, items about others, engage in illegal
activities such as the distribution of pornography (if any of the participants
are underaged, this would amount to the distribution of child pornography
even if it is with consent), the consequences will not only be unethical
online practices but could also have legal ramifications depending on the
country of origin and young adults need to know and understand this
because it can irreparably harm their lives and they may be criminally
charged.
 Brand management: This is very important:
… [P]eople need to see and manage themselves as a brand – people need
to view themselves as a brand made up of a brand identity and a brand
image. They need to disseminate all the aspects of their personal
characteristics and attributes to the world every time they speak or write
both online and off line and they need to view themselves as an
autonomous brand at all times … [A]ny interaction they have will have an
impact on their brand image i.e. the perception others have of them. In
doing this and treating themselves as a brand they will continually be
managing their reputation. (Koonin 2013: 87)

Contemplate whatever you write: You must always reflect on and consider
what you have written before you post.
Community leaders should lead from the front: Leaders in the community,
such as politicians, celebrities, organisations and business leaders also have
online profiles and it is important for them to present themselves and their
personal brands in a positive manner.
Cyberspace is a new social space: Much of our life happens either by using
applications and tools or by parts of our lives being depicted in online social
spaces. Many social interactions happen in or as part of an online community.
It is very important to remember that once things are out in cyberspace they
cannot be taken back even if deleted. If, for example, you tweet something or
post on Facebook, within seconds someone could have retweeted it or
reposted it hundreds of times, sometimes to your detriment.

11.4 APPLICATION OF DIGITAL

COMMUNICATION: TWO SOUTH AFRICAN
ICONS DIGITISED FOR VERY DIFFERENT
REASONS
South Africa has recently experienced two separate events which saw the world
and South Africans participate in the digital communication landscape.
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The first is the death of a legend, the iconic Nelson Rolihlahla Mandela
(Madiba), the first fully democratically elected president of the new South
Africa, who died at the age of 95, the hero of a nation; the second is the much
publicised murder trial of Oscar Leonard Pistorius. Pistorius, South Africa’s
Paralympic and Olympic athlete known as ‘the Blade Runner’ for his prosthetic
lower legs, shot and killed his girlfriend Reeva Steenkamp on Valentine’s Day
2013, stating that he mistook her for an intruder, and that his intention was not to
kill anyone. He has been on trial since March 2014 for her death. The trial
resulted in a verdict of guilty of culpable homicide.
These two events, for very different reasons, have seen these two individuals
trending on various social media platforms, applications and tools, making South
Africa a major player in digital communication and a large player in citizen
journalism, and also seeing South Africans becoming digital participants
whether out of curiosity, because of trending, international interest, celebrity
fascination, being a part of history or whatever other reason.

SCENARIO 11.1
THE DEATH OF NELSON MANDELA
On 5 December 2013 Nelson Mandela passed away at 8:50 pm. Jacob Zuma,
the South African President, made the public announcement on the national
broadcaster at 11:45 pm. Whilst this was the official announcement,
speculation and comments were rife hours before on various social media
sites that he had passed away. What followed would not only be the official
10 days of mourning but an outpouring of sorrow and condolences via digital
communication channels of epic proportions. News of Nelson Mandela’s
death broke on Twitter before the government had announced the news to the
nation and the world. British newspaper the Daily Mail’s Damien Gayle
(2013) gives the Twitter statistics on the announcement of Mandela’s death
by stating that ‘7,2 million tweets were posted about Mandela’s death. 95
000 tweets a minute paying tribute’.
South Africa’s public broadcaster SABC (2013) explains that over 4 000
journalists covered Mandela’s state funeral. The public broadcaster provided
‘3,8 million minutes of broadcast material’ and ‘some 247 000 videos were
viewed on the SABC site and social media platforms and YouTube’ (SABC
2013).
Every single medium in South Africa, from the moment that Madiba had
 passed until he was laid to rest, was saturated with messages, images, sound
bites and photographs.

SCENARIO 11.2
THE OSCAR PISTORIUS TRIAL
Oscar Pistorius is one of South Africa’s top Paralympic and Olympic
athletes, winning numerous gold medals at the Paralympic Games. In 2012
Pistorius made history by competing against able-bodied athletes at the
London Olympic Games (Pistorius 2014). Pistorius shot and killed his
girlfriend, model Reeva Steenkamp, on 14 February 2013, claiming in his
defence that it was a case of mistaken identity and that he believed she was
an intruder and

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their lives were in danger, but that he had not meant to kill anyone. The trial
to prove his guilt or innocence in the Pretoria High Court resulted in a
verdict of guilty of culpable homicide.
The day news of the shooting broke social media sites all over the world
were abuzz. Furthermore, a decision was taken that was a defining moment
in broadcast history. Various South African media houses took their
application to the North Gauteng High Court for their right to ensure that the
Oscar Pistorius trial would be broadcast live – the application was successful
(SAPA 2014). Ferreira (2014) explains that allowing the visual and audio
broadcasting of the trial, as well as using social media platforms,
applications and tools, has reshaped broadcast history in South Africa.
MultiChoice, operator of the DStv satellite television service, dedicated an
entire channel to the trial called The Oscar Pistorius Trial Channel, which
has broadcast proceedings throughout the trial. The Oscar Pistorius Trial
Channel also has a Twitter handle, a Facebook page and a WeChat account.
The Oscar Pistorius trial has been taking place in the age of social media
with tweets, Facebook pages and posts, and various other social media
applications and tools giving up-to-the-minute information. Social media
experts on The Oscar Pistorius Trial Channel on 8 April 2014 analysed the
social media trending on this trial at that point. The figures have superseded
most other South African events, coming in second in usage only to Nelson
Mandela’s passing.
Various social media analysis organisations and social media analysts
studying social media usage in relation to the Oscar Pistorius trial have found
that:
• On the day that Reeva Steenkamp was killed there were 3 600 tweets an
hour in South Africa with #OscarPistorius. Internationally there were 9
000 tweets an hour.
• On the first day of the bail application there were 400 000 tweets with
#Oscar.
• Barry Bateman is a well-known Eye Witness News reporter and had 9 000
followers on Twitter for his up-to-the-minute court reporting. However, it
was he who kept the public up to date on the day Steenkamp died, as one
of the first reporters on site and all through the bail application. Based on
this his Twitter followers skyrocketed to 139 000.
• There were 1,3 million posts online about the incident from days one to
six after Steenkamp’s death.
• When Barry Bateman tweeted that Oscar Pistorius had been granted bail
his message was retweeted 2 300 times.
• Directly after the shooting Oscar attempted to end his entire online
presence, terminating updates on his official website, Twitter handle and
all other aspects of a social media presence. Pistorius always had an active
media presence but even though he had absconded from the online world
the evidence of the life he once had was still online in the form of old
tweets, photos, video clips and his official website. Later, Pistorius and his
team began reviving his social media and website presence with
purposeful messages as he stood trial.
• One year after the fatal shooting he put a message up on his website on the
anniversary (14 February 2014) of Steenkamp’s death expressing his grief
and wishing all those who loved her well.
• There were 1,6 million points of data from day one to day nine of the trial.
These included Twitter mentions, Facebook comments and Instagram
posts.
 • The scope of these points is that they reached 17 billion people.
• In September 2012, 2,4 million South Africans were on Twitter. In
September 2013 there were 5,5 million Twitter users in South Africa.
(Kloppers 2014; Oscar Pistorius Trial 2014)

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CONCLUSION
In today’s times, digital communication plays a critical role within the context of
communication. There are many different types of digital communication and
many trends happening within the digital communication context via the various
digital communication platforms, applications and tools. As a communication
practitioner, it is important to constantly keep up to date with trends and
developments in digital communication technologies, applications and tools, as
well as what is trending at any given time. Change is so rapid in this context of
communication that even as we create content it becomes outdated and so this
chapter has merely given an overview of digital communication. It is very
important to remember that everything that happens within a digital
communication environment leaves some kind of footprint and so you need to
ensure that all your communication is purposeful and controlled, and that you
remember to manage your online reputation at all times.

SUMMARY
This chapter provided an overview of what digital communication is so that we
could contextualise this modern form of communication. Before you have even
written a chapter on it there are new platforms, applications, tools, improvements
and trends and so it is important that you become a trend watcher. This chapter
also looked at the different types of digital communication, but these too grow
and change. The citizen as a digital participant has become an important part of
how societies operate as most citizens maintain some kind of digital persona.
The chapter also used two topical scenarios to illustrate the practical application
of the theoretical principles discussed in each setting.
TEST YOURSELF QUESTIONS

1. Discuss the history of digital communication.

2. Select any two types of digital communication, give an example of each
and explain these.
3. Explain how you as a citizen are also a digital participant.
4. You have decided to write a blog and also exhibit some of your artwork
online. As an online author discuss the risks that you will take by doing
this.
5. Discuss any three ways that you can protect yourself and your reputation
online.
6. a. Explain how an event in the life of a public figure has played out via
social media tools/platforms/applications.
b. What tools/platforms/applications were used for this purpose?
c. Which tool did you use most to follow this event?
[Page 257]
Part 3:
So you want to work in the field of
communication?
[Page 259]
Chapter 12
Some specialisation areas in
communication studies
Daleen Krige

OVERVIEW
You have now familiarised yourself with the foundations of communication
and communication contexts and this may drive you towards a career choice
or a special area of interest in the field of communication. Therefore in this
chapter we are going to explore some specialisation areas of communication,
namely public speaking, political communication, organisational
communication, intercultural communication, mass media specialisation,
development communication and health communication. You are encouraged
to look into your own mind while working through the sections to see where
you think that you can fit in to make a valuable contribution to society.
It must, however, be clearly understood that this chapter is not exhaustive
on the chosen areas of communication specialisation and if you have
identified an area with special interest to you, it is highly advisable that you
also consult other sources to complement your knowledge.
We sincerely hope that you will find a field in which you have a special
interest and that you will pursue a career in communication with great
success!

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
 At the end of this chapter, you should be able to:
Form a clear picture of the various fields of communication specialisation.
Exercise a fairly informed choice about a career in a communication field.
Understand the close linkage amongst various areas of specialisation.

INTRODUCTION
Let us begin to look at the named areas of specialisation from a more focused
perspective. The first specialisation area we are going to discuss is that of public
speaking.
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12.1 PUBLIC SPEAKING

So why is public speaking important to you? As a responsible citizen you are
required to know how to read critically, how to write coherently and how to
speak effectively. Not only is public speaking important in deciding, for
instance, who becomes the next president or chairperson of a board of directors
but also your ability to speak effectively may have a decisive influence on your
success in social and work situations (cf Verderber 1990; Gronbeck et al 1992).

Steps in preparing for public speaking:

Determine its purpose
Analyse the audience
Select and research a topic
Write the talk
Deliver the talk

Since you may spend the greater part of your working life in private or public
sector organisations, you may be called upon to give introductory talks to new
employees, to conduct meetings, to present training sessions and to report to the
board of directors. These speeches are more formal than discussions with your
family, because your purpose is more specific than in social interaction.
However, a great deal of our ‘speechmaking’ is informal and takes place in
everyday social situations. For example, you might be called upon to lead the
meetings of a social action group or to discuss a novel you have read at a book
club.
What are the benefits of being able to speak well in public? First, training in
public speaking develops your ability to investigate and gather information on a
topic. Secondly, the learned skills will help you be more perceptive and critical
in your thinking and your evaluation of your own and other people’s ideas.
When we listen to political speeches critically we are better informed citizens.
When we listen to advertisers critically we are wiser consumers. The third
benefit is that training in public speaking helps to develop confidence in oneself,
which promotes self-esteem (Minnick 1983).
Although you might have had no experience in public speaking, you certainly
have been a member of an audience, attending a lecture, a church service or even
a court trial. Being an audience member at such occasions has already helped
you form an impression of public speaking. Keep in mind that public speaking is
not only concerned with the role of the communicator (the speaker) but also with
the role of the recipient (the listener). However, the responsibility for an
effective oral presentation rests with the speaker, who has to be well prepared.
Let us now consider important steps in talk preparation and delivery.

Public speaking is not only concerned with the role of the

communicator/speaker, but also with the role of the recipient/listener.

12.1.1 Determining the purpose of the talk

The topic will either be determined by the person or organisation that has invited
you to address them or you may have to select the topic yourself. In both cases
your first step should be to decide on the purpose of your talk. Most oral
presentations have one of three purposes: to inform, to persuade or to entertain,
or sometimes a combination of these.

The purposes of oral presentations:

to inform
to persuade
to entertain

Informative talks: In informative oral presentations you aim at increasing

your audience’s knowledge of a subject by providing information in an
interesting, organised and professional manner, for example a report-back on
the proceedings of a club or social interest group, or on the activities of a
work group in an organisation.
[Page 261]

Persuasive talks: Persuasive presentations are intended to influence people.

You go beyond giving information; you try to change or reinforce the
attitudes, beliefs, values and behaviour of your listeners – how they feel about
an issue or how they are going to act on an issue. Logical reasoning and
emotional appeals are used to convince your audience, as demonstrated, for
example, by an architect who addresses a community group to justify building
a new shopping centre. Has it ever occurred to you that advertisements on
television and radio are examples of short persuasive ‘speeches’?
Entertaining talks: The main goal is to increase the audience’s feeling of
enjoyment by providing humorous anecdotes and illustrations to make them
laugh and relax. You may be asked to deliver a speech at a wedding, for
example, or to address your colleagues at an end-of-year luncheon. An
effective humorous talk depends largely on the choice of examples and
illustrations, as well as on the speaker’s personality, delivery and sense of
humour.

12.1.2 Analysing the audience

Your must have a clear picture of the audience you are going to address.
Audience analysis is the process of gathering information about the listeners
whom you expect to hear your speech so that you can structure your talk to
capture their attention and interest. The information you require concerns the
demographic (gender, age, nationality, language, occupation, marital status,
educational level, income and/or residential area and racial, ethnic or cultural
ties), psychographic (their interests, values, attitudes and beliefs) and
sociographic (group affiliations forming a bond between people who often share
the same interests, attitudes, beliefs and values as other members of the group)
characteristics of your audience, as well as the setting in which the presentation
will take place (Hybels & Weaver 1989; Gronbeck et al 1992; Lucas 1995; De
Jager 1997; Gamble & Gamble 1998; Steinberg 1999b).
Audience analysis is the process of gathering information about the
listeners whom you expect to hear your speech, that you may structure
the talk to capture their attention and interest.

As important as the need to analyse the audience is the need to analyse the
occasion on which you are speaking and the physical environment or setting of
the speech. Because the occasion is what brings the audience together, it usually
determines the listeners’ expectations. You should also make enquiries about the
venue where you will be talking. Variables such as the following may influence
the audience reaction to you and your presentation: audience size, time of day,
type of venue, seating arrangements, whether the room is likely to be hot or cold,
and the availability of a microphone, lectern, overhead projector or other aids
that will help you deliver the talk.

The occasion determines the listeners’ expectations.

12.1.3 Selecting and researching a topic

Although taking the audience’s background, preferences and predicted reactions
into account are important, the final choice of subject-matter lies with you and
should be guided by your analysis of the audience, the occasion and the setting.
Even if the topic has been
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determined for you, you should examine it in the light of the following steps: the
subject area of the talk, a specific topic within the subject area, the purpose of
the talk and the topic statement. Below are steps to guide you to construct your
talk.

Steps to consider in constructing a talk:

Subject area
Topic
General purpose
Specific purpose
Topic statement

1. Write down the subject area of your talk in one sentence. As a social
worker, for example, you might decide that you want to talk about social
issues in South Africa. ‘Social problems in South Africa’ then becomes the
subject area of your talk.
2. Write down the topic of your talk in one sentence. Owing to the vastness of
the subject area, you have to narrow the topic by identifying a specific
aspect. For example, you may decide that your topic will be ‘Street children
in South Africa’.
3. Write down the general purpose of your talk in one sentence. Is your
intention to inform or instruct, to persuade or to entertain the audience? In
 the instance of the street children you may simply want to inform the
audience about the problem of street children or you may want to persuade
them to donate money to your cause.
4. Write down the specific purpose of your talk in one sentence. The specific
purpose is a concise statement that describes the nature of the response you
want from your audience. It indicates what you want your listeners to know,
feel, believe or do at the end of your speech.
A well-written specific purpose should meet five requirements:
a. it should contain one main idea
b. it should be a complete sentence
c. it should be clear and concise
d. it should be worded as a statement, not as a question
e. it should be worded in terms of the audience response you desire at the
end of the speech.
(cf Samovar & Mills 1989; Lucas 1995)
5. Write down the topic statement in one sentence. The topic statement is a
simple, complete sentence that refines and sharpens the specific purpose
statement – it helps you identify what you want to say to your audience and
focuses your attention on the information you are going to have to find.
Look at the following examples:

Topic: South Africa’s prison system.

Specific I want my audience to understand the three major problems
purpose: in South Africa’s prison system.
South Africa’s prison system suffers from three major
Topic
problems – overcrowding, lack of reliable rehabilitation
statement:
programmes and high expense to the taxpayer.

Topic: HIV/Aids in the workplace.

 General To inform.
purpose:
Specific I want my audience to understand the consequences of the
purpose: problem of HIV/Aids in the workplace.
The three most important consequences of the problem of
Topic illiteracy in the workplace are: HIV/Aids is detrimental to
statement: the individual; HIV/Aids is detrimental to industry;
HIV/Aids is detrimental to the economy.

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Your next task as a speaker is to look for information to support your ideas.
Good supporting material indicates to your audience that you fully understand
the topic and that the information you provide is correct and soundly based.
Supporting materials also make your ideas clear to your listeners. For example,
in a persuasive speech on road safety you might say, ‘It is essential to drive
within the speed limit. Now I will tell you why.’ The ‘whys’ are your form of
support which offers reasons that might make your statement believable and
acceptable to your listeners.
Generally, a talk requires two sorts of material: information that you need for
the content of your talk and material, such as illustrations, statistical evidence,
expert opinion and quotations, to support your information. You can research the
topic by using the material available in libraries and on the Internet, by
conducting interviews and by drawing on your personal experiences and
observations. Don’t forget to cite your sources because whenever you use ideas
that are not your own you need to acknowledge the source of your information.
It also adds to the credibility of your speech.

12.1.4 Writing the talk

Now we come to actually writing the talk. Effective talks contain three main
parts: an introduction, body and conclusion, each with a specific purpose.
Parts of a talk:
Introduction
Body
Conclusion
The introduction
The opening comments establish the impression the audience forms of you and
of the topic and you should aim to achieve four goals: gain the audience’s
attention, establish your credibility as a speaker, establish rapport with the
audience and state the purpose of your talk. Finally, the introduction should
contain a brief statement of the topic and a reason for the audience to listen. For
instance, in a persuasive speech on the importance of voting you could say
something like this: ‘In this speech, I am going to explain four reasons why you
should all vote in the next election.’

The body of the talk

In the body of your talk you elaborate on the ideas mentioned in the introduction
and this section must allow the recipients to follow the arguments easily,
recognise important points, clarify abstract ideas, reinforce critical issues and
draw conclusions with confidence.

The conclusion
The conclusion and introduction should complement one another. An effective
conclusion leaves the audience with the impression that the topic has been fully
covered. The goals you should strive for in the conclusion are the following: to
reinforce the central idea(s); to sum up and tie the main points together; to
remind the audience why the information is important to them; and to motivate
them to think or act
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on the ideas presented. You do this by restating the purpose of your talk and the
main points indicated in the introduction. Try to leave your audience with a final
impression by using the same techniques as in the introduction – a quotation,
rhetorical question or startling statement that leaves no doubt about your position
on the topic.

12.1.5 Delivering the talk

A well-researched and prepared talk is not effective unless it is presented in a
polished and professional manner. Rehearsing the talk will boost your
confidence, make sure that you handle any visual aids or props effectively, point
out any problems and check the timing of the talk. It is also advisable to think
through the answers to possible questions that may arise at the end of the talk.
Take the following five factors into consideration when you prepare the delivery:
using notes and visual aids, the language of the message, using your voice,
nonverbal behaviour and dealing with questions (Strano, Mohan & McGregor
1989).

Factors to consider for speech delivery:

Using notes and visual aids
Language level
Vocal rendition
Nonverbal behaviour
Dealing with questions

A speech read from a manuscript is usually boring. Organising the material

into notes serves as reminders of important points and is often the best
preparation against ‘speaker’s nerves’. It allows you to look at the audience and
make a carefully planned talk seem spontaneous and natural.
The use of visual aids could also enhance your speech. You could use
PowerPoint slides, audio and video clips, an interactive whiteboard or even
animation, amongst others.
Concerning your choice of language level, remember that your language
should be personal and direct and must allow the listener instant understanding
of meaning. Directness is achieved by using the active voice and addressing the
audience as ‘you’. Select words that the audience will understand and explain
any essential technical terms. It is best to avoid colloquialisms and slang. Keep
in mind that the audience hears the spoken word only once. The important ideas
should be restated several times during the body of the talk, using different
words and examples to help the listener absorb the information.
Your vocal rendition is as important as the word choice. The speaker’s voice
should be clear and the enunciation and pronunciation correct and distinct. You
should practise the use of intonation, emphasis and changes in pace and pitch to
provide variety and achieve different effects. For example, a conversational,
relaxed tone of voice creates a pleasant atmosphere, whereas an enthusiastic
delivery causes the audience to become more attentive and creates an emotional
or persuasive mood. Pay particular attention to the volume or loudness of your
voice and the rate or speed at which you speak and decide when to introduce
pauses. Vocal interferences are the sounds and words we use when we hesitate or
are not sure of the right word, like the occasional ‘uh’, ‘er’, ‘well’ and ‘you
know’ to indicate that we are searching for the right word. Vocal interferences
are part of everyday speech and are also acceptable in public speaking, but they
should not interrupt your listeners’ concentration and comprehension.
Another important factor in delivering your speech is nonverbal behaviour.
Body movement, gestures, posture and appearance convey
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meaning and increase your chances of success in two ways: it helps you appear
relaxed and natural and it helps you to measure the audience’s reactions, but
should not distract from the presentation. A good speaker looks directly at the
audience, makes eye contact and smiles from time to time. The way you dress is
another nonverbal message and can influence the audience’s initial impression.
Try to look your best regarding clothes and personal grooming. Keep in mind
that nonverbal behaviour varies from culture to culture and your audience
analysis should help you decide what is appropriate.

Dealing with questions

Decide in advance whether the audience should be free to ask questions during
the talk or rather at the end. The question period allows the speaker to clarify or
expand on points raised in the talk. It is important to listen carefully, right to the
end of the question. Then repeat or rephrase the question to eliminate the
possibility of misunderstanding and to ensure that the entire audience has heard
it. In all circumstances you must always remain courteous and avoid sarcasm.
Although you cannot anticipate exactly what questions will be asked, you know
your topic so well by now that you can prepare possible answers in advance.
When faced with a question to which you do not have an answer you should
offer to find out the answer.

12.1.6 Evaluating speeches

One of the most effective ways of learning what makes a good speech is to
evaluate your own and other people’s speeches. Evaluation means that we look
for the weak points in a speech as well as the positive aspects. Through
evaluation you will get an idea of what works and what does not work in a
speech. Here follow the five general principles by which speeches are usually
judged (cf Minnick 1983).
 1. What kind of speech did the occasion demand? Was the speech meant to
inform, to persuade or to entertain? This shows how well the speaker
understood the topic and the occasion and whether the speaker met the
requirements of each type of speech.
2. Did the speaker understand the needs of the audience and did he or she
adapt the message and content to those needs?
3. Has the speaker researched the topic thoroughly? Have the best reliable
sources been used? Does the supporting material substantiate the main
points? Are the conclusions and recommendations logical? Is the
material organised in a way that is understandable to the audience?
4. Does the speaker create the impression that his or her motives can be
trusted? Does the speaker seem to respect the audience? Does the
speaker appear to be knowledgeable about the topic and well prepared?
Does the speaker appear to be credible?
5. Was the speaker’s delivery and language clear and vivid? How did the
speaker make use of nonverbal communication? How did the speaker
use his or her voice?

12.1.7 Career opportunities

As you most probably have realised, public speaking is a specialised
communication skill that is used in many fields, from political
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campaigns to informal settings. Persuasion makes out an important part of the

advertising, public relations and marketing industries and good presentation
skills, which are actually closely associated to speech making, is a skill very
often used in corporate communication, especially in a meeting situation. It also
finds application in development and health communication, where one often
has to inform people in groups. As already indicated, political communication is
often closely associated with public speaking and next we are going to take a
closer look at political communication.

12.2 POLITICAL COMMUNICATION

Political communication is not only closely aligned to public speaking but also
to persuasion. This specialised communication includes all public speaking
efforts by politicians and also political views of voters who react to such
addresses and all types of media reports on political issues. Political
communication concerns itself primarily with the role of political
communication in a democracy. If a democracy wishes to function well, it has to
rely on the use of persuasion in order to settle disputes, sell political ideas to the
broad public and change the ideas of the voters (De Wet 2010: 6). In this process
propaganda, as well as activism are often used as persuasive tools.

Political communication concerns itself primarily with the role of

political communication in a democracy.

12.2.1 Perspectives on propaganda and activism

‘Propaganda’ is often associated with the practice of attempting to control the
thoughts of people (De Wet 2010: 85) and can be defined as ‘the deliberate
attempt by some individual or group to form, control or alter attitudes … through
the use of media communication’ (De Wet 2010: 88). Propaganda can sometimes
be disguised as official information and only the media-literate person will
realise the propaganda beneath the official communique.

Types of propaganda:
Political and sociological
Agitation and integration
Rational and irrational
Vertical and horizontal

Propaganda takes on various forms and the following major types can be
distinguished (De Wet 2010: 93–94):

Political and sociological propaganda. Political propaganda attempts to

change the views of voters, whereas sociological propaganda attempts to
move the masses to become active in sociological matters in the community.
Agitation and integration propaganda. Where propaganda of agitation aims
at exploiting areas of conflict, propaganda of integration aims at stabilising
the social system where there is imbalance and the possibility of agitation.
Rational and irrational propaganda. Rational propaganda makes use of
facts and logical appeals to convince the voters, while irrational propaganda
makes use of emotions and feelings to achieve its goal.
Vertical and horizontal propaganda. Vertical propaganda is so-called
 downward propaganda where a superior (leader) tries to convince the inferior
(voters), while in horizontal propaganda
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peers try to influence each another in a situation where all have equal say and
power.

Political activism encompasses the ways in which citizens participate in political

matters, the processes that lead them to do so and the consequences of these acts.
Often activism manifests itself through petitions, solidification (new members
are hyped up through protests), non-violent resistance, eg a sit-in strike, and, at
its worst, revolution which aims at overthrowing the authority (De Wet 2010:
120). Political campaigns are also examples of activism where persuasion is used
to promote a party/candidate.

12.2.2 Performance dimensions of persuasion and negotiation in

politics
Apart from persuading followers to accept or reject a certain viewpoint or
actions proposed by a political figure or party through political campaigns,
political communication is often used to manage the image of a political party. It
is through the calculated interaction between a political party and the followers
or voters that the image of the party is created, and mass media plays an
important role in establishing or maintaining the image of a specific political
party. In this regard De Wet (2010: 118) says the following:
The party official wants the news media to serve only his or her interpretation
of the party’s interest – to publish a version of reality where publication
promises a good return and to refrain from publication whenever the official
has any doubts about the wisdom or propriety of disclosure.

According to De Wet (2010: 146), political conflict can arise when there are two
or more responses given to a particular political issue. Such a conflict needs to
be resolved and the peaceful way to do so is through negotiation. The
negotiation approach will depend on the ‘opponent’s’ style – factual, intuitive,
analytical or normative – and should be addressed by meeting their particular
style of negotiation. Naturally such negotiation can happen within a political
party, a country and also internationally. Since this process is a very delicate
balancing act, the intervention of a mediator is often necessary. Albert (1986)
states the following responsibilities of such a negotiator in political
communication:
humanising the conflict, establishing trust, opening channels of
communication, interpreting the issues and providing support where
necessary.

12.2.3 Career opportunities

Political communication as a specialisation field prepares people for active
careers in politics and in political NGOs. These skills will also come in handy in
governmental departments, organisational structures of political parties and in
political commentary and analysis of political happenings in the mass media. It
would also form a good
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grounding for a person who wants to follow a career in the diplomatic service of
the country, to name only a few areas.

12.3 ORGANISATIONAL COMMUNICATION

Organisational communication developed as a response to the need for
organisations to become more efficient and productive in order to serve the
needs of society. Organisational communication is therefore an umbrella term for
all the diverse acts of communication that happen in an organisation or business.
For example, typical communication that is generated in organisations include,
amongst others, e-mail, departmental meeting agendas and minutes, face-to-face
meetings (with staff and customers), company newsletters and annual reports,
bulletin boards, formal letters (e g appointments), posters, CEO or corporate
blogs, faxes, voicemail messages, telephone calls, formal speech occasions (like
long-service awards), intra-organisational memos, Internet and lately social
media, like Facebook and/or Twitter (Tubbs, Moss & Papastefanou 2012: 286).
Organisational communication is an umbrella term for all the diverse
acts of communication that happens in an organisation or business.

Organisational communication can happen in the following contexts:

intrapersonal (thinking to yourself), interpersonal interactions at work (with
superiors, inferiors and peers), public speaking occasions (at company
celebrations, presentations to clients, etc), small group communication (work or
task groups) and mediated communication (e-mails, memos, webpages and
social media, etc) (West & Turner 2010: 37). Let us now look at the structure of
organisational communication.

12.3.1 Structure of organisational communication

Communication channels
There are mainly two: the formal and informal flow of information. Formal
channels are the official channels through which communication is exchanged
and may be written or oral and include personal instructions, interviews, training
programmes, letters, memoranda and oral reports. However, information is also
exchanged unofficially, or through informal channels, during, for example,
conversations among employees. Such information may be work-related or may
be concerned with social and personal matters. Informal channels may at times
prove to be more effective than the organisation’s formal channels.

Formal and informal communication channels are used in organisations.

Hierarchies
An organisation’s hierarchy is often depicted in an organisational chart, a linear
diagram showing the status of different members of an organisation and the
relationships between them. The hierarchy affects the interpersonal relations of
its employees and controls the channels of communication within the
organisation.

Hierarchies control the channels of communication within the

organisation.

Flow of information in organisations:

upward
downward
horizontal/lateral
grapevine

Flow of information
The flow of information refers to the direction in which messages travel in the
organisation and includes upward, downward and lateral,
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or horizontal, communication and the grapevine. Communication flows in the

formal structure vertically and horizontally, where the managers hold a higher
power position and peers share equal power. Lateral (horizontal) communication
describes communication between people on the same hierarchical level and
may take the form of work-related messages or social interaction. Upward
communication flows from subordinates to superiors and usually takes place via
the same channels as downward communication.
An informal channel, the so-called grapevine, often arises from the fact that
vertical communication downwards is not effective, which leaves employees to
‘guess’ and to ‘gossip’. Often it acts to spread rumours as well as to convey
important information such as news on promotions, personnel changes, annual
salary adjustments and organisational policy changes.
External communication (normally of a formal nature) flows from the
organisation to all stakeholders, be they customers or clients, suppliers or the
press (e g press releases). Internal communication is all the communication
(formal and informal) that happens inside the organisation.

The grapevine often arises due to inefficient downward communication.

Communication networks
Communication may also take place through communication networks in the
organisation. On the most basic level a network can be identified by establishing
who communicates with whom and who the central figures and the peripheral
figures are in the communication process. Awareness of potential networks in an
organisation provides insight into what type of information is likely to be
received by which people. In a university, for instance, policy decisions made by
the senate about course curricula will be networked among deans and
department heads (central figures), but not among the rest of the university staff
(peripheral figures). Current research into communication networks examines
the impact of computer technology in organisations as computers increasingly
perform essential information processing functions at all levels of an
organisation.

12.3.2 Functions of organisational communication

The functions of organisational communication are largely concerned with the
purposes that communication serves and its effects on people and activities in
the organisation (Koehler, Anatol & Appelbaum 1981).

Functions of organisational communication:

informative
regulatory
integrative
persuasive

The informative function is concerned with the provision of information to

ensure the efficient operation of the organisation, for example accurate, timely
and well-organised information to enable managers and staff to do their work
efficiently, make decisions and resolve conflicts.
The regulatory function serves to control and co-ordinate the activities of the
organisation to ensure its successful operation. Manuals, policies, memoranda,
rules and instructions collectively constitute a set of guidelines for the
management of the organisation.
The integrative function is used to achieve organisational unity and cohesion
by creating identity and uniformity in the organisation. It can
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also be used to co-ordinate the work schedules of individuals, groups and

departments, thereby eliminating wasted time and effort.
The persuasive function is concerned with the way communication influences
members of an organisation. Managers, for instance, have found that power and
the enforcement of authority do not always achieve the desired control, but that
persuasion is often more effective than authoritarian methods to gain employees’
co-operation.

12.3.3 Theoretical approaches to organisational communication

Although there are numerous approaches to organisational communication, for
example the classical approach, the human relations approach, the human
resources approach and the systems approach, the one that is discussed here is
the cultural approach.

Components contributing to organisational culture:

Corporate identity
Corporate image
Corporate personality
 Every organisation has its own cultural identity because every organisation
has a particular way of doing what it does and its own way of talking about what
it does. Three of the components that contribute to the culture of the organisation
are its corporate identity, image and the personality towards which it strives.
‘Corporate identity’ refers to how an organisation chooses to present itself to the
public through, for example, letterheads, colour schemes, logos and so on.
‘Corporate image’ is the way in which the public perceives an organisation,
whereas ‘corporate personality’ comprises all the characteristics that contribute
to the uniqueness of an organisation, such as original ideas that individual
members contribute and the slogans that characterise particular organisations
(Du Plooy 1991; Steinberg 1999a).
The culture in an organisation inspires employees to behave in certain ways
because they are expected to do so. An understanding of its culture can help
bridge cultural gaps in organisations and assist in striving to create a common
culture (shared values and beliefs) which all employees can embrace. This has a
unifying function and is the basis for collective activities by people in the
organisation – ‘the way we do things around here’ (Andrews & Baird 1992: 20).

12.3.4 Career opportunities

In this specialisation area many opportunities exist, for example as the official
spokesperson of a company, or you may find a creative outlet in advertising or
public relations activities; you may become the editor of an in-house publication
or a newsletter that has internal and external circulation. Your organisational
communication skills may land you the role of a leader in a work-group or you
may be the person preparing promotional presentations to entice prospective
customers. In fact, organisational communication is important in businesses and
industrial organisations, as well as in churches, hospitals, government agencies,
military organisations, and academic institutions. As a communication
consultant you will be the person advising a business on their internal and
external communication and their image in public.
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12.4 INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION

Communication between people from different cultural groups is one of the most
complex areas of human interaction. Individuals vary in their ways of looking at
the world and these variations must be understood before effective
communication can take place.

Intercultural communication: Communication between people of

different cultural groups.

Intercultural communication can be defined as ‘communication between

members of different cultures (whether defined in terms of racial, ethnic, or
socio-economic differences)’ (Tubbs, Moss & Papastefanou 2012: 198). But
what is culture? Culture can be defined as ‘the total accumulation of beliefs,
norms, activities, institutions, and communication patterns’ (Dodd 1991: 41) of
an identifiable group of people. Another definition indicates that culture is
any of the customs, worldview, language, kinship systems, social organisation
and other taken-for-granted day-to-day practices of a people which set that
group apart as a distinctive group. (Burton & Dimbleby 1995: 130)

Every aspect of your life is affected by your culture: the way you dress, the food
you eat, the music you enjoy, your family relationships, your expectations about
marriage and a career are but a few examples.

12.4.1 Identity and culture: situating the individual

There is a reciprocal relationship between culture and communication: the one
informs the other. Communication is a dynamic process, makes use of symbols
and is contextually informed. Besides, we learn communication behaviour, it is
not inborn, and we also learn culture: it is transmitted from generation to
generation, it is based on symbols and it is dynamic (Samovar et al 2013: 30–
53). From this comparison the tight relationship between the two is clear and
when we communicate across cultural groups we need to be aware of the deep
structure of culture in order to better understand our communication partner.

When we communicate across cultural groups we need to be aware of

the deep structure of culture in order to better understand our
communication partner.

At any moment a person has various social identities, established through

communication interaction and cultural background. He/she may have a racial
identity, ethnic identity, gender identity, national identity, regional identity,
organisational identity, personal identity and cyber and fantasy identity
(Samovar et al 2013: 208–213). In an intercultural situation a person’s cultural
identity and his/her communication style are very important. An intercultural
communicator should ensure that he/she establishes tolerance and harmony in
intercultural communication encounters.

12.4.2 Key concepts in intercultural communication

Infante, Rancer and Womack (2003) describe the following as key concepts in
the study of intercultural communication.

Key concepts in intercultural communication:

Verbal and nonverbal codes
Worldview
Social norms and role expectations
Cultural barriers
High- and low-context cultures

Verbal and nonverbal codes

Not only do languages differ but nonverbal codes also are not universal and
depend on cultural context. Often cultural differences are most obvious with
regard to proxemics, haptics and chronemics.
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Worldview
One’s worldview consists mainly of your values and beliefs. Samovar et al
(2013: 57) state the following:
The people of different civilisations have different views on the relations
between God and man, the individual and the group, the citizen and the state,
parents and children, and of relative importance of rights and responsibilities,
… equality and hierarchy.

The manifestation of these differences we see in aspects like individualism–

collectivism, high and low context communication, power distance and
masculinity–femininity, uncertainty avoidance and low–high face concerns
(Tubbs, Moss & Papastefanou 2012: 206–210). For example, many Western
visitors to South Africa do not understand why people from some African
cultures would consult a sangoma about persistent illness or bad luck which they
perceive to be the result of evil supernatural forces.
Social norms and role expectations
Cultures differ about how a member is expected to fill his or her role
expectations. It is extremely rare to find a married woman in the workplace in
Japan because she is expected to be a full-time wife and mother, rather than the
Western ‘supermom’, who often tries to combine a high-powered job with home
and parental obligations.

Cultural barriers
Barriers which have been identified as significantly contributing to poor
intercultural relationships include prejudice, ethnocentrism and stereotyping.

High- and low-context cultures

High-context cultures rely on the context (the physical and emotional setting)
rather than words to convey a large part of the message’s meaning. It is assumed
that the recipient will understand the implicit (underlying) meaning because of
the context in which the message is communicated. Individuals from high-
context cultures find nonverbal cues extremely important in helping them to
interpret messages. They are usually more skilled at decoding nonverbal
messages than people from low-context cultures.
In low-context cultures messages are explicit, direct and completely encoded
in words because low-context cultures believe that if thoughts are not clearly
expressed, they may be misunderstood. Asian countries, such as China and
Japan, are high-context and have a ‘message context’ orientation, whereas
American culture is low-context and relies more on ‘message content’.
In situations of intercultural negotiation or business transactions complications
arise because in Chinese culture, for instance, disagreement is shown by silence.
Most Westerners, however, would interpret silence as indicating agreement –
they do not instinctively
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know that in China it is not polite to disagree with others and that the context
explains the meaning of the silence (Griffin 2003; Infante, Rancer & Womack
2003; Tubbs & Moss 2003).

12.4.3 Cultural values: guidelines for behaviour

Samovar et al (2013: 16) remind us that mindfulness is the first prerequisite for
intercultural communication. Through mindfulness a communicator can adjust
his/her message to suit the person and the specific context in which the
communication happens. Showing respect for the other person’s dignity and
feelings and his/her culture goes hand in hand with mindfulness. Intercultural
communication needs the participants to seek their commonalities and not to
focus on the aspects that divide them.
Intercultural communication is rule-governed, and these rules are informed by
the context in which the communication takes place and may differ from culture
to culture. Formal intercultural communication in an organisation dictates
different rules to those of a social interaction across cultures.
When speaking, you should pay attention to the rate of delivery and the words
by which you choose to express yourself and your ideas. Nonverbal behaviour is
usually a give-away of the partner’s feelings and in intercultural encounters it is
especially important to pay attention to the nonverbal communication behaviour
of the other person(s). Clarity on communication content and understanding it is
very important. Since many young people nowadays use social media, it is also
important to remember that although the channel of communication has
changed, the rules have not: be mindful in any intercultural communication, in
direct contact or in mediated communication.

This example is taken from Beamer and Varner (2001: 22) and illustrates
how misunderstandings can occur in a conversation between a member of a
high-context culture and a member of a low-context culture.
A Turkish male student in the United States lived in a residence where he
shared a room with an American student. One day his roommate went into
the bathroom and completely shaved his head. The Turkish student easily
discovered this fact when he visited the bathroom and saw the hair
everywhere. He returned to the room and said to his roommate, ‘You’ve
shaved your head’. The American replied, ‘Yeah, I did’.
The Turkish student waited a little and said, ‘I discovered you’d shaved
your head when I went into the bathroom and saw the hair’. ‘Yeah,’ the
American confirmed. The Turk was at a loss. He believed he had
communicated in the strongest possible language his wish that the American
would clean up the mess he’d made in the bathroom. But no such meaning
was attributed to his words by his roommate. Later he discussed the
 surprising episode with his friends, who told him, ‘Listen, with Americans
you actually have to say “Clean up the bathroom!”’ The Turkish student
believed his message had been very clear. He was relying on the context of
the communication for the message to be understood.

12.4.4 Career opportunities

Since intercultural communication is so general and actually happens in all
spheres of life, it is not really possible to indicate specific careers for this area of
specialisation. However, a person emigrating to another country to take up a job
in business, education, the diplomatic corps or any other position will come in
contact with
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people from other cultures every day. Even in our own country we have daily
interactions with other cultures, in social and professional capacities. It would be
in the best interest of effective intercultural communication to understand and
apply what you have learned about differences between cultures which can affect
communication.

12.5 MASS MEDIA SPECIALISATIONS

Mass media per se has already been discussed in Chapter 10. Therefore in this
section attention will be focused on mass media application in the workplace. In
South Africa we can divide mass media basically in three categories: broadcast
media (radio and television), print media (newspapers and magazines) and new
media (Internet and social media) (Tubbs, Moss & Papastefanou 2012: 304).

12.5.1 Mass media trends

Over the past century there have been several trend changes in mass media. In
broadcast media, technology and information have allowed broadcasters to move
from broadcasting to ‘narrowcasting’, which is
sending out messages to large audiences, but adapted to individuals or groups
within the audience for whom the message has special reference. (Morreale,
Spitzberg & Barge 2007: 427)
 Narrowcasting: using mass media to send messages that are adapted to
individuals or groups within the audience who will specifically relate to
its content.

The second trend manifests itself in the greater flexibility nowadays in sending
and receiving messages, even over great distances. What goes with this is the
fact that mass media is portable in the form of social media – people carry it on
their cell phones and tablets where they go, which means that they can send and
receive messages from anywhere, all the time. This last trend change links onto
the convergence of mass media, where the integration of media technologies is
creating a multimedia environment, accessible at all times (Morreale, Spitzberg
& Barge 2007: 427–428). How the users of mass media ‘help themselves to it’
depends on their media competence and their media literacy.

12.5.2 Considerations for a journalist

In addition to the information provided in chapter 10, certain aspects of the
journalist’s job will be highlighted here, irrespective of the media in which
he/she works. A reporter considers the following to decide whether a story is
newsworthy: Is the happening fresh/new/recent? How prominent are the people
involved in the happening? What are the consequences of the happening for
other people? Does the story have a human interest? (Dominick 2013: 312).
Economic considerations play a role and, since any media should make a
profit to continue to exist, advertising space has to be sold, which means less
space is available for journalism.
The gatekeeping function of the reporter is also influenced by realities in the
media world – for example, there are certain legalities to keep in mind, the
policy of the media owner is as important as the previously mentioned aspects
and there are very tight deadlines
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to meet and many other ethical matters to consider (Tubbs, Moss &
Papastefanou 2012: 308). Recently citizen journalism has grown enormously
thanks to social media. This means that ordinary citizens post interesting
happenings on the Internet, in blogs and/or other social media. Cellphones and
cellphone videos are also often used. This practice is often in direct competition
with conventional journalism.

12.5.3 The business of advertising

Advertising is the non-personal presentation and promotion of goods and/or
services paid for by an identified sponsor (Dominick 2013: 350) with five main
functions: the marketing function brings products and services to the attention of
consumers; it is educational in the sense that it informs about the goods and
services on offer; its economic function provides new businesses with a way to
announce their presence in the market; as mass communication it lowers the cost
of selling (advertising is cheaper than personal selling); and the standard of
living is bettered as people take notice of improved goods and services
(Dominick 2013: 350–351).

Functions of advertising:
Marketing function
Educational function
Economic function
Lower cost of sale
Improved living standards

Advertising specifically targets the consumer market (that means the buying
public), but equally also other businesses in business-to-business advertising. In
this case companies market products being used in other businesses or industries.
In the past advertising relied heavily on printed and broadcast media, but
nowadays the Internet and social media are effective, omnipresent advertising
channels increasingly being accessed on smartphones and tablets. To be
effective, advertising has to have a wide reach (how many people get to see the
advertisement), high frequency (how often the message is seen), selectivity (the
correct medium/channel is chosen for the specific target audience) and cost-
effectiveness (cost to reach a specific number of people) (Dominick 2013: 360).
However, a favourable reaction by the consumer cannot be guaranteed by these
measures as there are too many other important variables that play a role.
Characteristics of effective advertising:
wide reach
high frequency
selectivity
cost-effectiveness

12.5.4 Public relations and the face of the business

Public relations, or PR, could have been included under organisational
communication, but since it concerns a message generated to address a faceless
group outside of a specific organisation, it qualifies to be considered under mass
media. As the name indicates, public relations entails working with the public.
As Dominick (2013: 334) puts it:
Increasing population growth along with more specialisation and job mobility
made it necessary for companies to employ communication specialists whose
task it was to interpret the needs of the audience for the organisation.

PR has become very important in presenting a favourable image of a person,

institution or organisation to the public; for example, ‘spin doctors’ have been
involved in political campaigns to ‘sell’ a particular party or candidate to voters.
PR is also used in crisis management communication. For example, when Tiger
Woods was publicly
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criticised for his extra-marital affairs he made use of PR specialists to try and
control the damage to his public image. This practice is also followed by many
firms and organisations (Dominick 2013: 335).
New technological advances enable PR officials to communicate fast and
effectively with their various audiences. Not only are websites (company and
personal) used but also blogs, podcasts and social media, which have improved
PR relations with specific audiences. These media are often used to gauge public
and customer feelings so that corrective measures can be taken, should that be
necessary. Linked to advertising, PR is advantageous in introducing new services
or goods and can be used for dealing with customer or public complaints
(Dominick 2013: 336).
A proper PR project normally begins with gathering information and then
moves on to planning, based on the information obtained. This planning can be
strategic and/or tactical. Next it communicates the planned steps and, after
completion of its task, it evaluates how successful the PR activities were in
achieving the goal set by the planning actions (Dominick 2013: 341–344).

12.5.5 Career opportunities

Since mass media specialisations include so many aspects of the communication
field, we point out only a few of these career opportunities: you can become a
journalist/reporter in print or digital media, find your spot in advertising as an
advertising researcher, planner or media purchaser, become a media analyst and
work in communication research, or work as a PR officer or a communications
official in a business.
12.6 DEVELOPMENT COMMUNICATION
Development communication is defined as communication that promotes
development with the purpose of finding ways to avoid one-way transmission of
(usually) patronising messages from developers to recipients and to engage
recipients in a two-way transactional process in which they participate in the
planned development projects.

Development communication: Communication that promotes

development with the purpose of encouraging two-way transactional
communication processes in which the recipients engage in the
development projects.

Initially it referred to attempts by First World countries to improve the

standard of living in Third World or developing countries. Despite South
Africa’s modern infrastructure and mass media systems, it also reveals typical
Third World characteristics such as poverty, homelessness, malnutrition,
illiteracy and lack of access to modern mass media. Development
communication is basically addressed through three paradigms, or theoretical
approaches: the dominant paradigm, the alternative paradigm and the new
paradigm.

12.6.1 Three development paradigms

Development paradigms:
Dominant paradigm
Alternative paradigm
New paradigm

The Dominant Paradigm assumed that if underdeveloped societies became

industrialised and urbanised and developed a Western capitalist economy,
modernisation and prosperity would follow. This
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approach often relied on ‘innovations’ (real new objects or ideas) to promote

development and mass media for the transmission of ideas from developed
countries to the Third World and from urban centres to rural areas. In this
paradigm communication was top-down, that is, one-way transmission of
messages from specialists to passive recipients, who were not consulted about
their needs and priorities.
 The Dominant Paradigm was followed by the Alternative Paradigm, which
proposed that the problems of the Third World were caused by the domination of
Third World countries by Western capitalist ideology. As an alternative to
modernisation it was proposed that Third World governments promote their own
form of development independent of the West. Development journalism made its
approach with the idea that the freedom of the media should be subordinated to
their responsibility to contribute to nation-building, economic growth and
cultural identity.
The New Paradigm, which originated in the 1980s, emphasises participation
of recipients and communication as a two-way process between communicators
and recipients as a means to self-actualisation. Through discussion the needs and
problems of the community are identified and a plan of action formulated, which
is then implemented by the community. The emphasis is on self-development
and cultural growth. For example, a discussion with a development agent about
the conditions of existence in an informal settlement could lead to the
community identifying problems and making suggestions about how to rectify
the problems. Although still important, mass media alone is not sufficient as a
carrier of development messages. It is more important to use the most
appropriate medium for a particular group of people. Communicators emphasise
the importance of culture as a facilitator of development and indigenous
channels of communication, such as folk media, which are a product of local
culture, are often used.
The question of participation involves ‘the granting and assigning of goods,
rights and responsibilities’ (Chasi 2011: 138), while Lubombo (2011: 103) refers
to the inclusion of the excluded. Community participation and stakeholder
involvement are crucial for the success of these programmes, which rely on the
following principles: recognition of all shared interests, accountability in all
actions, a facilitated decision-making process that allows everyone a voice and
true communication, which means unbiased, open and honest communication.
With this goes collective action when addressing the problem (Lubombo 2011:
103). While the New Paradigm appears to offer the ‘best’ approach to
development in that it is people-centred, it has not entirely replaced the other two
paradigms.

Community participation and stakeholder involvement are crucial for the

success of development programmes which relies on the principles of:
recognition of shared interests
accountability in all actions
 facilitated decision-making process and
true communication.

In South Africa a new democratic era started in 1994, but developmental

problems were not, and cannot be, resolved overnight. A renewed approach
to development started out with a Reconstruction and Development
Programme (RDP) in 1994. This programme had as its aims: to empower
people in order that they should be self-reliant, to build local capacity, to
initiate development projects with a participatory approach and to address
the injustices of the previous regime on a socio-economic level (Davids,
Theron & Maphunye 2005: 43).

[Page 278]

The RDP was followed by the Growth, Employment And Redistribution

(GEAR) strategy in 1996 (Davids, Theron & Maphunye 2005: 44). All these
programmes and strategies were attempts to execute the rights enshrined in
the Bill of Rights in the South African Constitution. These rights include,
amongst others: the right of access to housing, health care, food, water and
social security; the right to basic education; the right to a clean, healthy
environment; the right of children to basic nutrition, shelter, basic health care
and social services (Davids, Theron & Maphunye 2005: 44).

12.6.2 Development support communication

Often communicators and recipients do not share a common language and the
sharing of development knowledge sometimes involves the use of technical
jargon. To promote interactive communication and the sharing of messages on
an equal footing a development support communicator (DSC) acts as a
facilitator, or go-between, in the exchange of ideas.
According to Govender, McDonough and Mathew (2011: 207)
a DSC professional can be any organisation, institution or individual who
facilitates resources, finance or expertise from donors or governments to
disadvantaged communities.
The DSC is therefore the ‘middle-man’ between the sponsoring body and the
community. This person or organisation has the following tasks: first, to enhance
experience and competence by encouraging community members to upgrade
their abilities and skills; secondly, to enhance group structure and capacity – help
develop plans to address the issues at hand; thirdly, to remove social and
environmental barriers that hinder development, and environmental support and
resources should be enhanced by networking and creating links between society
and possible assistance. Development support communication has as its aim to
support development actions in a community through various channels of
communication, e g traditional media such as folk media and/or mass media.

12.6.3 Edutainment in development

Fourie (2011: 316) defines edutainment as follows:
Entertainment-education broadly refers to the use of entertainment media to
educate people with the aim of bringing about social change.

Edutainment went through a few paradigm shifts since its inception in the 1950s
and nowadays it focuses on dialogue and empowerment. The idea is that people
should gain knowledge from these programmes and then engage in dialogue
with others about possible solutions to their problems. Although edutainment
programmes made their debut on the radio, nowadays especially TV is used for
these programmes. In rural areas folk media (storytelling and enactments) are
also sometimes used as edutainment. A typical South African edutainment
programme is Soul City, which was broadcast a few years ago.
Edutainment: Education-entertainment focuses on dialogue and
empowerment to help people gain knowledge and engage with others to
find possible solutions to their problems.

[Page 279]

12.6.4 Career opportunities

As development communication is a rapidly developing field of communication
specialisation there are numerous career possibilities in this area. To name only a
few possibilities: you can become a change agent by working in development
support communication that liaises with sponsoring bodies, be it NGOs or
governmental organisations or external sponsors; you can develop edutainment
programmes to address specific development problems in a specific area; you
can act as an adviser on developmental issues to policy makers.

12.7 HEALTH COMMUNICATION

When we consider the diversity of cultures in South Africa we can understand
why differences in language and health beliefs, attitudes and behaviour can lead
to a breakdown in communication between health service providers and patients.
This is the reason for the growing importance of health communication.
The problems addressed in health communication include, amongst many
others, matters such as insensitivity to concerns voiced by patients and their
families, poor listening behaviour and a lack of empathy and respect. Although it
has been established that communication is the most important tool health
professionals have in providing healthcare for their clients, many patients report
that they are so intimidated by health professionals that they leave a clinic or
hospital without talking, even about their symptoms (Infante, Rancer & Womack
2003).
The concept of ‘health’ is a broad one because, according to the World Health
Organisation, it refers not only to the physical state of one’s body but also
includes mental health and social adjustment (Faure 2000). One can say that
health communication is the art and technique of informing, influencing, and
motivating individual, institutional, and public audiences about important
health issues.

‘Health’ refers not only to the physical state of one’s body, but also
mental health and social adjustment.

The scope of health communication includes disease prevention, health

promotion, health care policy and the business of health care, as well as
enhancement of the quality of life and health of individuals within the
community (Healthy People 2010 2010).

12.7.1 Health communication contexts and functions

Health-care contexts normally refer to health-care settings and can include
interpersonal (e g between physiotherapist and patient), small group (eg a
healthcare team), organisational (eg clinics) and mass communication (eg
campaigns to encourage condom use to prevent HIV/Aids) contexts. These
contexts include various relationships, be it that of professional and patient,
between professionals or that of the patient with his or her significant others.
What adds to the complexity of the health communication contexts is the fact
that everyday lifestyles, attitudes and beliefs, gender, socio-economic

Aim of health communication: To empower the patient to make an

informed decision about his or her health and thereby promoting better
health outcomes.

[Page 280]

situation, mental and physical aspects, and many other factors influence how
health information is disseminated and taken up. In spite of the complexity of the
contexts the aim of health communication is to empower the patient to make an
informed decision about his or her health and thereby to promote better health
outcomes.

Basic functions of health communication:

Diagnosis
Counselling
Education

Health communication has the following basic functions:

Diagnosis: This function concerns the health professional’s skills of gathering

and interpreting data from the patient and finding solutions to health
problems.
Counselling: This refers to the healthcare professional acting as a therapist
and engaging in empathic listening to understand the patient’s symbolic
orientation, for example, cultural beliefs about sexually transmitted diseases.
This includes a full dialogical process of discussion about the nature of the
patient’s illness and the implications of treatment prescribed. This function
also includes all discussions with significant others about the patient’s
physical and/or mental health.
Education: Healthcare is not only about curing illness but also about
preventing it. It is important to educate people about, for instance, nutrition,
inoculation, clean water and the use of condoms in order to prevent disease.
This function is carried out interpersonally, as well as in small groups, in
organisations and by the mass media.
12.7.2 Health information and technology
Normally health information is disseminated to individuals and communities by
means of various strategies generated by governments, NGOs and/or private
initiatives. With the fast development in information technology, health
information specialists realised the potential that modern technology holds for
health communication. This mode of health communication is known as e-health
and aims to disseminate information so that people can base their decisions on
informed considerations. At the same time it aims to promote preventive care by
making people aware of certain health threats. Added benefits that sprung from
the use of e-health is that people make use of technology for support purposes (e
g anxiety groups), it promotes better self-care and it instigates at times health
behaviour change (Corcoran 2013: 95). For this purpose, the Internet and social
media are being utilised, as well as other computer-mediated programmes and
technology. We foresee that this is increasingly going to become a very
important communication channel for health messages as nowadays people even
in rural areas have cellphones and access to the Internet; with appropriate
cellphone applications it is possible to ‘chat’ with a doctor whenever you feel the
need.

12.7.3 Communication skills and support in health

communication
Effective healthcare requires that patients be given the opportunity to explain
their symptoms and problems accurately to the healthcare
[Page 281]

professional. It is therefore vital to create a relationship of openness and trust

with the patient and thereby encourage the process of self-disclosure, i e
revealing information about oneself that is not usually disclosed to others. The
provider must also be willing to share control with the patient in order to ensure
that communication is not one-directional (from professional to patient) but an
interactive or transactional process.
Empathy and confirmation are two more communication skills that influence
effective health communication. Empathy requires qualities such as interactive
listening, observational skills, perceptual skills and sensitivity to emotions. For
patients empathy is important because illness is confusing and frightening and
being understood by the health provider helps them to cope with these emotions.
Communication that is confirmatory allows the other person to know that he or
she is acknowledged, understood and accepted as a unique individual.
Health communication functions best in an environment where there is
support and no discriminating behaviour. This support is generally provided by
social interaction between the patient and significant others in his or her life.
This social support includes four types of assistance: emotional support (through
love, trust, caring and acceptance of the patient), instrumental (tangible aid and
services that assist a patient, usually provided by friends, colleague or
neighbours), informational support (advice on a problem provided by healthcare
officials or significant others) and appraisal support (e g constructive feedback
on actions taken by the patient) (Rensburg & Krige 2011: 92).
In South Africa health care often takes place in an intercultural context and it
is therefore important to be aware of the other person’s culture and ethnicity
(also refer to section 12.4 on intercultural communication).
Each specific disease has its own specific communication challenges and is
often complicated by additional disabilities or inabilities on the side of the
patient. The fact that a person is deaf or blind or cripple, or has a speech
problem, or any other physical challenge on top of his or her illness does not
make him or her less intelligent or less concerned about his or her illness. In
addition to emphatic communication in these circumstances, communication
should not be labelling or stigmatising the person. Research has indicated that
patient satisfaction is closely related to communication efficiency of the health
worker. According to Moodley, Goodfellow and Corcoran (2013: 60), healthcare
worker assistance that comes in the form of
new information technology (IT) such as smart phones and tablets can be
used to aid communication with disabled people by using different
applications.

In older people the main concern is often quality of life. Barriers to

communication in this group are mainly of a physical and/or psychological
origin and therefore communication should be adapted, for example by making
direct eye-contact (if culture allows it) and to speak and articulate clearly. The
older person should be treated as a worthy person, with respect and empathy. It
must be kept in mind that older people are not a homogeneous group, but a
group comprising
[Page 282]
unique individuals, each with his and her own circumstances that should be
acknowledged in the approach to health communication. In the words of
Moodley, Goodfellow and Corcoran (2013: 67), ‘with older people and health
care one size does not fit all’.

12.7.4 Career opportunities

Since health communication is a very wide field with definite links to
intercultural communication and development communication, amongst others,
many opportunities exist. These range from designing health messages for
campaigns to health reporting in the media and health communication research.
Often, in development communication, health issues are important and you
could be a counsellor who provides health information. You can be working in a
support group context to advise people on healthy behaviour or you can give
training to medical staff on empathic communication. You can find yourself in
the field of technology, where you might be designing messages or message
formats for new technology. We think that in future there will be many more
developments in this field.

CONCLUSION
In all of these fields there are also specific ethical aspects to consider and,
although we haven’t mentioned them in particular, it is expected in all fields to
be honest and to act in a way that upholds the dignity of the profession. You
have now been given a small taste of some aspects in the wide field of
communication specialisations and we would like you to find your niche and
practise your skills, entrepreneurial insights and knowledge in a very satisfying
communications career.
Do you want to know more? Consult Google Scholar, using the specific area
of specialisation as the search word. You can also consult people working in the
field and gain from their insight and experience. Another useful link is that of
the South African Standard Classification of Occupations (SASCO):
http://personal.psc.isr.umich.edu/~davidl/southafrica/ghs2002.codes.occupational.pdf.

This section has online support material available

SUMMARY
This chapter provided an overview of some of the specialisation areas in the
field of communication: public speaking, political communication,
organisational communication, intercultural communication, mass
communication specialisations, development communication and health
communication. It also used a variety of scenarios to apply the theoretical
principles discussed in each setting to practical examples.
[Page 283]

TEST YOURSELF QUESTIONS

1. Why should you have knowledge about public speaking?

2. How does a persuasive talk differ from an informational talk?
3. How do you go about selecting and researching a topic for a speech?
4. What are valuable points to consider when evaluating a speech?
5. In which contexts would you find political communication?
6. What is the difference between political and sociological propaganda?
7. How would you define political communication?
8. How does communication flow in an organisation?
9. What are the functions of organisational communication?
10. What is meant by a ‘communication network’ in organisational
communication?
11. Why is intercultural communication important in South Africa?
12. How does a high-context culture differ from a low-context culture?
13. Give advice to someone who is engaged in intercultural communication.
14. What are the advantages of advertising?
15. Name the prerequisites for an advertisement to be effective.
16. What would you say is the main function of PR?
17. How does the New Paradigm differ from the Dominant Paradigm in
development communication?
18. Discuss development support communication.
19. How can edutainment assist in development communication?
20. Give a definition of health communication.
21. What are the three main functions of health communication? Give an
example of each.
22. Name the various contexts in which health communication is found.
[Page 285]

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[Page 300]

Index

Please note: Page numbers in italics refer to tables and figures.

A
abdicrats 184
accommodation strategy 207
active listenership 124
activism 267
adaptors 94
adjacency pairs 124
adjourning state of group 200
advertising 221, 275
affect displays 93
affection, need for 184
affective needs 229
age in non-verbal communication 90–91
agenda-setting theory 222–224
aggressive behaviour 186–187
aggressive style 186
agricultural communities 9
alternative paradigm of
development communication 277
altruism 5
Android 246–247
anthroposemiotic perception 115
anxious-ambivalent style 180–181
applications 246–247
Arab Spring 16
arrangement of objects 101
artefacts 99
assertion training 186–187
assertive behaviour 186–187
assertiveness 176–177, 185–187
associations, forming of 82
attachment styles 180–181
attitude(s)
of certainty 171
intrapersonal communication 154
audience 216, 225–230, 261
auditory perception 75–76
authoritarian leaders 203–204
autocrats 184
autonomy 166
avoidance 170, 180, 207

B
backchannel cues 124
Bantu languages 112–113
beliefs 155
BlackBerry Messenger (BBM) 250
blogs 249
body language 103, 135
body movements 92, 103
bonding 169
books 10–11
brainstorming 210–211
brand management 253
Buber’s theory of interpersonal
relationships 162–163
buzz sessions 209–210

C
career opportunities
development communication 279
 health communication 282
mass media 276
organisational communication 273–274
political communication 267–268
public speaking 265–266
cave paintings 7, 9
cellular technology 15–16, 250
change agents 227
channels of communication 28–32, 268
chronemics 91, 98, 105, 271
circular process of exchanging
information 29–32
circumscribing 169
citizen journalism 250–251, 275
civilisation, development of 5, 7–8
classifier language 112
closedness 166–167
closure in visual sense making 70
clothing 91, 99
codes 40, 42, 62, 118–119, 121, 189, 198, 271
cognitive needs 33, 228–229
cohesiveness 198, 200–202
collaboration 206–207
commitment 165
communication
components of 27, 30
as constructing meaning 35–37
colour 101–102
as culture 59, 62
networks 269
phenomena 26, 39–42, 47
purpose of 33–34, 37–39, 66
research 18, 20–22
skills 175–177, 203, 280–282
stages 8–11
structural components 32–33
uniqueness of 5–8
 what are 25–39, 243
communicator(s) 27, 76, 81–85, 216–217, 221–222
complementary structure 182
complementation of message 89
comprehensive or discriminative listening 77
compromise strategy 207
conative/vocative function 119–120
conceptions of communication 57–61
concepts in communication 19–20
conclusion of talk 263
confirmation 281
conflict
communications skills for 175–177
[Page 301]

culture and 174–175

inter- and intra-role 164
interpersonal communication 173–177
small group communication 206–207
connection 166
connotative meanings 118
consensus 75, 204
Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996 60–61, 278
constructive conflict 206
constructive rules 165
constructivism 34–35
constructivist approach to
communication 34–40, 47, 56–64
content analysis 21
context(s)
description of 30
effect of 166
health communication 279–280
of identity 144–145
influences 66
types of 43–46
contradiction of message 89
control
of ideology 183
need for 184
problem orientation versus 172
of resources 183
convergence 16, 238
conversational and reflective listening 77–78
conversational practice 123–124
conversation analysis 122
correlation 218–219
counselling in health communication 280
covert conflict 173
critical
discourse analysis 41
listening 77
political economy perspective 41
theorists 36, 40
cultural approach
to language and gender 125–126
to organisational communication 270
cultural barriers 272
cultural significance 38, 62
cultural studies approach 231
cultural transmission 219–220
cultural values 273
culture
communication as 59, 62, 130
conflict and 174–175
essentialism and non-essentialism 131
high- and low-context 272–273
language and 111, 126–127
politeness and 104, 134
ratchet 6
self-concept 155–156
values 273
culture-specific behaviour 90
cuneiform 9
cyber bullying 252
cybernetic research tradition 39
cyberspace 244, 253

D
decision-making 204
decoding 30, 33, 55, 62, 150
deficit approach to language and gender 125
democratic leaders 204
democratic revolutions 16
democrats 184
demographics 261
denotative meanings 118
descriptive communication 171
destructive conflict 206
development
communication 276–279
support 278
diagnosis 280
dialogue 162
difference approach to language and gender 125–126
differentiating stage 169
diffusion of information 227
digital communication
application of 253–256
description of 45, 243–244
history of 244–246
participants in 250–253
and self 151–153
types of 246–250
digital context of nonverbal communication 91
digital divide 15
digital identity 151–152
digital media 11–17 see also digital communication
discourse 40–41, 131
discriminative listening 77
discursive approach to language and gender 126
distance zones 96, 96
diversity 202 see also Nando’s diversity advertisement
dominance 181–182
approach to language and gender 125
dominant paradigm of development communication 276–277
dramaturgical performance 188–189
dyadic communication 44, 116–117, 119, 194–195
dyads 116–117
dynamic approach to language and gender 126

E
education and health communication 280
edutainment 278
e-health 280
electrical telegraph 244
electricity 11
electronic age 11
electronic communication see digital communication
electronic mass media 11–16
emblems 92
emotional self 144
emotional state 157
empathy 172, 281
encoding 30, 33, 62, 151
encoding/decoding model 62
English 110–111
enlightenment understanding 35
entertaining talks 261
entertainment 220–221, 220
environmental influences 101–102, 146, 218
equality 173
[Page 302]

escapist needs 229

essentialism 130–131
ethics 12, 222, 253
ethnicity 174–175
ethnocentrism 171, 272
evaluative statements 170–171
exit response 174
Exit-Voice-Loyalty-Neglect Model 174, 174
expectations 73, 272
experimental research 22
experimenting 167–168
expressing ourselves 37
expressive/emotive function 119–120
eye contact 95, 134

F
Facebook 46, 248
facial expressions 91, 93
false consensus 157
false consistency 157
feedback 30, 32–33, 83–85, 243
feminism 125, 129
feminist theorists 40
fidgeting 80
field research 22–23
figure–ground principle 70
film 8, 21, 45, 220–221, 230, 236
Flaaitaal 128
Flickr 246, 249
framing 224
freedom of expression 60
functionalism 218, 220, 228
fundamental attribution error 157

G
gatekeepers 221–223, 274–275
gender
conflict 175
 language and 112, 125–129
non-verbal communication 90–91
power and 182–183
self-concept 155–156
genetic influences 146
Gestalt Grouping Principles 69–70, 70
gestures 90, 95, 134
giving 5
global village 235–236
Goffman, Erving 188–189
going viral 250
Google Chrome 247
Google+ 249
Google+ Hangouts 249
gossip 128
grammatical gendering 112
grapevine 269
gratifications theory see uses and gratifications theory
group(s) see also small group
communication
climate 197–198
formation 199–200
goals and norms 199
and identity 145–146
groupthink 201–202
Gutenberg Galaxy 214, 234
Gutenberg printing press 10, 244–245

H
hacker practices 14
hairstyles 99–100
Hall, Edward 95–97
Hall’s four spatial zones 96–97, 96
halo effect 157
handshakes 134–135
haptics 91, 97–98, 105, 271
health communication 279–282
hearing 66, 76 see also listening
hegemony 60
hermeneutics 35, 41, 47
heterogeneous group 202
hieroglyphics 9
high-contact cultures 97
high-context cultures 272–273
Himba people of Namibia 100
historical research 22
hlonipha 127
Homans’ social exchange theory 184–185
homogeneous groups 202
human nature experiences
investigations 41
hypodermic needle theory 225

I
icon 116
iconicity 117–118
idea
discussion and documentation 210
formation and ranking 210
identity(ies) see also self-concept
culture and 271
personal 144–146
identity theory 145
ideology
control of 183
mass communication 222
I–it relationship 163
illustrators 93
impervious responses 84
inclusion, need for 184
index 116
individual(s) 145–146
roles of 199
information flow in organisational communication 268–269
informative function of organisational communication 269
informative talks 260
informing 5
initiating 167
Instagram 249
instant messaging (IM) 248
integration 150, 168–169
integrative function of
organisational communication 269–270
intellectual self 144
intensifying stage 168
intention of message 62
interaction stages 167–170
interactive listening 76
intercultural communication 129–136, 271–274
interdependency 35–36
Internet 4, 11–17, 45, 247
interpersonal communication
assertiveness and 185–188
description of 44, 46, 215–216
dominance 181–182
gender and power 182–183
needs and 183–185
presentation of self 188–189
self-disclosure and 177–181
status 182
[Page 303]

interpersonal relationships
Buber’s theory 162–163
conflict in 173–177
messages in 170–173
social context of 163–164
stages of development of 167–170
interpretation 30, 74, 79, 219
interrupting responses 84
interruption 124
intimate distance 96
intrapersonal communication
cultural and gender differences 155–157
description of 43, 143
digital age 151–153
perception of others 156–158
the self and identity 143–151
variables 153–155
intrapersonal values 153–155
irrelevant responses 84
Iscamtho 128–129
isihlonipha sabafazi 127
I–you relationship 162–163

J
Jakobson, Roman 111, 118–121
Jakobson’s speech act model of communication 118–121
Johari window 178–179, 178
journalism
citizen 250–251, 275
mass media 274–275

K
kinesics 91–95, 105
kinship terms 112–113
Knapp’s interaction stages 167–170

L
lack of concentration 80
laissez-faire leaders 204
language
culture and 111, 126–127
 English 110–111
gender and 112, 125–129
intercultural communication 129–136
Jakobson’s speech act model of communication 118–121
level 264–265
signs and 113–118
social interaction and 109–113
spoken versus written forms 121–124
Lasswell, Harold 26–28, 52–53
Lasswell’s model of communication 27–28, 27, 52–53
leadership 202–204
legal awareness in digital communication 253
legal restrictions in mass communications 222
lighting 101
linear transmission of information 26–29, 56
lingua franca 110
linguistic diversity 109
linguistic imperialism 110–111
linguistic relativity principle 111
linguistics 110
linguistic signs 115, 117–118
linguistic turn 36
LinkedIn 249
listening
barriers to 80–81
description of 76, 85
ensuring effective 81–83
feedback 83–85
process 78–80, 78
types of 76–78
looking-glass self 147–148
low-contact cultures 97
low-context cultures 272–273
loyalty response 174

M
magic bullet theory 225
maintenance roles 199
Mandela, Nelson 107, 254–255
Mandoza 42
marginalised groups 38
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs 33, 33
mass audience 216, 221, 225–230
mass, concept of 215
mass communication
description of 45–46, 215–216
functions of 218–220
future of 237–239
model of 216–218, 217
process of 215–218
mass communicator 216, 221–222
mass media
career opportunities 276
cultural studies approach 231
gratification sought from 230
hot and cool 236–237, 237
specialisations 274–276
theories 222–225
mass self-communication 37–38, 45–46
McLuhan, Marshall 232–238
McLuhan’s ratio of senses 69
meaning-centred approach 35–37, 37
meaning of message 30–33, 35–37, 61–63
media
determinism 231–234
ethics 222
income 221
medium of communication 27, 33, 54–55, 231–237
meetings, team 208
member’s roles in small groups 199
memory 151
men’s language style 127–128
message
 meaning of 27, 30–33, 35–37, 61–63
misunderstanding of 62
nonverbal communication 88–89
metalingual code or function 119, 121
mnemonics 82
mobile technologies see cellular technology
models 20, 27–29, 28, 30, 52–53, 62, 118–121, 174, 216–218, 217
see also specific models
monologue 162
moral self 144
motivation leaders 203
movies 236
Müller-Lyer illusion 71, 71
multilingualism 107, 109–111
[Page 304]

multisensory cross-check 75
multi-step flow model 227, 227
mutual understanding 37

N
names 142–143
Nando’s diversity advertisement 49–51, 50–51, 53–61, 63–65
narrowcasting 274
national identity 132–134
nationalism 6
national socialism 6
need(s)
for affection 184
affective 229
interpersonal communication 183–185
purpose of communication 33–34
neglect response 174
negotiation 31–32, 61, 207, 267
network societies 15
neural signals 66
neutrality 172
new communication see digital communication
new media technologies see digital communication
new paradigm of development communication 277
newspapers 10–11
news values 221–222
newsworthiness 221–222
noise 27–28, 32–33
nominal group technique 210
non-essentialism 131
nonverbal behaviour 90, 264–265
nonverbal communication
aspects of 89–91
categories of 91–103
functions of 88–89
intercultural communication 271
intrapersonal communication and 156
politeness and 103–104
theoretical approaches to 103
nonverbal skills 104–105
norming 200
norms 163–164
notes for talks 264
novelty 166

O
oculesics see eye contact
one-way process of communication 27–29
online authorship 252
online ethics 253
online presence 251–253
online protection 252–253
online reputation 251–253
onomatopoeia 117
openness 166–167
operating systems 246–247
opinion leaders 226–227
opinions 155
organisation, of perceptions 73
organisational communication 268–270
overt conflict 173

P
panel discussions 208–209
paralanguage 102
parallel structures 182
participatory communication 38
passive or non-assertive style 185–186
perception(s)
description of 66–68, 85
of others 156–158
process 72–74
selective 157
types of 68–69
perceptual accuracy 74–75
perceptual closure and expectation 73
perceptual distortions 70–71
perceptual inaccuracies 71–72
perceptual organisation 73
perceptual sets 151
performing and co-operating 200
personal appearance 99–100
personal branding 152–153
personal distance 96
personal grooming 103–104
personal identity 144–146
personal integrative needs 229
personality traits 203
personal relationships, characteristics of 164–167
perspective, meaning of 34
persuasion 37, 267
persuasive function 270
persuasive talks 261
phatic communication 38
phatic function 119–121
phenomenology 41
Phillips 66 209–210
photographs 236
physical self 144
Pinterest 249
Pistorius, Oscar, trial of 254–255
Podcasts 249
poetic function 119, 121
policy 222
politeness 103–104, 127, 134
political communication 266–268
postcolonial perspective 40–41
posture 94
power
interpersonal communication 59–60, 182–183
play 36–37
struggle 59–60
predictability 166
prejudice 27, 30, 80, 153, 155, 183, 272
primacy effect 157
printing 10–11
private self 144
problem orientation 172
problem-solving 204–206
propaganda 266–267
provisionalism 171
proxemics 95–97, 103
proximity 70
public communication 44–45, 185
see also public speaking; talks
public distance 97
public opinion 222
public relations 275–276
public self 144
public speaking 260–266 see also public communication; talks
public sphere debates 45

Q
qualitative research 42
[Page 305]

quality circles 209

quantitative research 42
questionnaires 22
questions, dealing with 265

R
race perspective 40
radio 11, 21, 29, 219–220, 245
ratio of senses 69, 233–234
reading 62
recipients 216
reciprocality 35–36
referential function 119–120
Rugby World Cup, 1995 133–134
regulative rules 165–166
regulators 93–94
regulatory function of
organisational communication 269
reinforcement of message 88
relational dialectics 166–167
relationship rules 165–166
relationships 36, 62–63, 164–167 see also interpersonal relationships
remembering 79
repetitive nature of process 31
replacement of message 89
reputation see online reputation
research methods 21–22
resources, control of 183
responding 79
responses 83–84
rhetorical strategies 40
role expectations 272
roles 164
round-robin recording 210
rules 164

S
safety needs 33
Sapir–Whorf hypothesis 111
schemata 141, 150–151, 159
scholarly theory and research 16–17
Schramm’s model of communication 29–32, 29
Schutz’s interpersonal needs theory 184
scientific research and study 18
scribes 10
search engines 248
seating 197
secure attachment styles 180
selection 72–73
selective attention 72–73
selective exposure 72
selective perception 157
self, the 143–144
self-actualisation needs 33, 37
self-concept 35, 37, 146–151, 155–156 see also identity(ies)
self-disclosure 177–180
self-esteem see self-concept
self-esteem needs 33, 37
self-image see self-concept
self-knowledge 187
self-presentation 188–189
self-worth 37
semiotics 40, 114–116
sender 61–62
sensation 68
sensing and attending 79
sensory perception 68–69
Shannon, Claude 28–29, 52–53
Shannon-Weaver model of
communication 28–29, 28, 52–53, 118
shared context 30
shared understanding 62
sharing 5
short messages service (SMS) 248
Shosholoza 133–134
signals 8
signified 116–118
signifier 116–118
signs 113–118
silence 103, 224–225
similarity 70
small group communication
advantages and disadvantages 195–196
challenges 201–207
characteristics of 197–200
defining context of 194–195
description of 44
form of 193, 207–211
member roles 199
purpose of 193
smartphones 250
sociability traits 203
social comparison 148–150
social context of interpersonal relationship 163
social distance 97
social effects of mass communication 230–239
social identity 134, 144, 146
social integrative needs 229
social interaction 109–113
socialisation 219–220, 219
social media 37–38, 45, 152–153, 248
social needs 33, 37
social networks 14
social norms 272
social obligations 183
social perception 69, 69
social relations 37
social significance 38
sociolinguistics 110
solutions 205–206
sound
image 116–117
resemblances 117
source of information 55
space see proxemics
spatial zones 96–97
speech
development of 8–9
distinctions between writing and 121–123
speeches, evaluation of 265
spiral of silence theory 224–225
spontaneity 171
sport 132–134
stagnating 169–170
status 182
stereotyping 40, 155, 157
stimulus-response theory 225
storming 200
strategy 171
structuralism 26, 52–56
structuralist approach 26–34, 46–47, 52–56, 64
study of communication 17–19, 39–42
subjectivity 71
superiority 172–173
survey research 22
survival needs 33
symbols 116
[Page 306]

symmetrical structures 182

symptoms 115
systems theory 39

T
talks 260–265
tangential responses 84
task roles 199
teaching 5–6
team leadership 202–204
team meetings 208
technological changes 17–18
technological determinism see media determinism
technology gap 15
technology identity 145
technopoly 239
telegraph 11, 13, 244–245
telephone 11, 13, 15, 28, 120, 237, 245
television 45, 54, 58, 60, 155, 216, 219–224, 227–228, 230, 235–239, 261
temperature 101
terminating relationships 170
theories 16–20, 39–42, 145, 147–148, 162–163, 184–185, 222–230 see also
specific theories
time influences see chronemics
Tomasello, Michael 5–6
touch see haptics
trajectory 70
transactional model of communication 31, 31
transmission or linear model of communication 28, 62–63
triadic communication 44
triads 116–117
Tshabalala, Mduduzi see Mandoza
Tsotsitaal 128–129
turn-entry devices 124
turn-taking in conversational practice 123–124
Twitter 249
two-step flow theory 226–227, 226
U
ukugxavula (snatching) 135
uniqueness 3, 4, 100, 102, 142, 156, 164–165, 168, 270
uses and gratifications theory 227–230

V
values 153–154, 273
verbal and nonverbal codes 271
Viber 250
violence, incitement of 61, 63
virtual communities 38
virtual identity see digital identity
visual aids 264
visual sense making 69–70
vocal characteristics 102
vocal interferences 102
vocal rendition 264
vocational identity 145
voice response 174
Volosinov, Valentin 111

W
Weaver, Walter 28–29, 52–53
website 13
WeChat 250
WhatsApp 250
Whorf, Benjamin 111
Wikis 249
worldview 272
World Wide Web (WWW) 13, 242, 247–249
writing
origins of 9–10
speaking and 121–123
Y
Yelp/Foursquare 249
YouTube 46, 249