HTS Teologiese Studies/Theological Studies

ISSN: (Online) 2072-8050, (Print) 0259-9422

Page 1 of 8 Original Research

The building blocks of matter

Authors: The question of what everything around us is made from has fascinated humanity since
Delia A. Haynes1 ancient times. The development of ideas on what the building blocks of matter are, and how
Margaret A.L. Blackie1
these building blocks come together to form materials, are discussed in this contribution. In
Affiliations: order to manipulate matter in a useful way, an understanding of the structure of the building
1
Department of Chemistry blocks is the key. For this reason, atomic theory and bonding theory are introduced. An
and Polymer Science, Faculty explanation of the periodic table shows why it is such a powerful predictive tool, and the use
of Science, Stellenbosch
University, Stellenbosch, of symbols in chemistry is discussed.
South Africa
Contribution: In this article, the historical development of key ideas in our understanding of
Corresponding author: matter is presented, along with some of the important ideas in understanding how matter
Delia Haynes, behaves. As part of this special collection, the implications of the meaning and utilisation of
[email protected] this knowledge are also considered.
Dates: Keywords: matter; chemistry; atomic structure; bonding; materials; quantum mechanics;
Received: 03 May 2021 states of matter; symbols.
Accepted: 21 June 2021
Published: 20 Aug. 2021

How to cite this article: Introduction

Haynes, D.A. & Blackie,
M.A.L., 2021, ‘The building The Universe, as far as we know, is made from only a few fundamental constituents: dark matter,
blocks of matter’, HTS dark energy, radiation and ordinary matter. Here, we are concerned with ordinary matter,
Teologiese Studies/ which makes up a tiny proportion of the Universe (see the article by A. J. John [2021] in this
Theological Studies
special collection for more about the rest of the Universe). Ordinary matter is the stuff of which
77(3), a6809. https://doi.
org/10.4102/hts.v77i3.6809 everything around us is made – tables, potatoes, clouds, planets and people – and this matter is
the same throughout the Universe. The stars and planets are made from the same basic building
Copyright: blocks as you and I. Matter is defined as anything that has mass and occupies space (OED Online
© 2021. The Authors.
2021). The study of matter, its behaviour and the changes it undergoes is known as chemistry.
Licensee: AOSIS. This work
is licensed under the Any investigation of the building blocks of matter will thus involve chemistry.
Creative Commons
Attribution License. Every day in the process of simply going about living life, we encounter chemistry. From the
burning of fuel in an internal combustion engine which so many rely on for transport, to cooking
a meal, many common processes involve chemical reactions. The simple act of boiling a kettle
involves liquid water molecules being heated until they reach the boiling point and move into the
gas phase. Despite being surrounded by chemistry, most people have no chemical ‘intuition’
(Blackie 2014:462–469). We simply do not see molecular interactions. And yet every breath we
take is an exchange of small molecules: carbon dioxide, the product of chemical reactions occurring
in our cells, is expelled and oxygen is drawn in.

This lack of chemical intuition can be likened to ‘sound blindness’. Sound blindness was the
phrase coined by Franz Boas in the late 19th century (Boas 1889:47–54) to describe the incapacity
of American anthropologists to discern the subtle difference in tone which gave rise to new
meanings in languages they encountered in the islands of the South Pacific. These languages,
much like Mandarin, are tonal languages. The anthropologists, used to European languages,
simply could not hear the tonal variation. In a similar manner, most people are chemically
blind. This gives rise to nonsensical claims such as beauty products being ‘chemical free’
(Shivaram 2019:12). ‘Chemical’ is just another word for a ‘distinct compound or substance’
(OED Online 2021), so any particular substance is a chemical, and is made of matter.

From a chemist’s point of view, the building blocks of matter are atoms. The types of atoms that
make up a particular bit of matter, and the way those atoms are arranged, affect the properties and
Read online: the behaviour of that matter. Changes in the way atoms are arranged can affect the melting point of
Scan this QR a substance, how quickly it reacts and even its colour. Changes in the world we see around us –
code with your
smart phone or macroscopic changes – have their origin in the sub-microscopic realm of atoms and molecules.
mobile device
to read online. Note: Special Collection: Challenging Building Blocks, sub-edited by Chris Jones (Stellenbosch University) and Juri van den Heever
(Stellenbosch University).

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 Page 2 of 8 Original Research

An element is a substance that only consists of one type of along with the Enlightenment drive to understand and
atom. (The general chemistry discussed in this article can be explain what was being observed. It became clear through
found in any good introductory undergraduate chemistry measuring the mass of the materials before and after a
textbook, e.g. Brown et al. 2013. We have thus not referenced chemical transformation had taken place that the total mass
every one of these statements that are general chemical of the substances before the reaction and after the reaction is
knowledge, and refer the interested reader to such a text for the same (Read 1995). This is called the law of conservation of
more detail). For example, oxygen only contains oxygen mass (see Dalton’s atomic theory below). The old ‘elements’
atoms, and sulfur contains only sulfur atoms. Elements of water, earth, fire and air were no longer sufficient to
cannot be decomposed into simpler substances, so an element explain the observations scientists were making, and a new
is a substance that cannot be purified any further. theory was needed.
A compound is a substance that contains more than one type
of atom: water is a compound made up of both oxygen and Development of atomic theory
hydrogen atoms. Under the right conditions, water can be
decomposed into oxygen and hydrogen. Atoms can be The idea of atoms, that is, the idea that matter is composed of
combined in a variety of ways to give the vast array of discrete indivisible units, has been around for a very long
substances we see around us. time. Centuries BC, the Indian and Greek philosophers
argued for the existence of a fundamental building block of
Physics, chemistry and biology are deeply interrelated, but matter. The very word ‘atom’ comes from the Greek átomos,
occupy different levels of complexity. Particle physics is which means uncuttable (OED Online 2021).
concerned with fundamental particles – quarks, bosons,
muons and the like. Quarks combine in various ways to give The modern idea of an atom really started with John Dalton,
the sub-atomic particles protons and neutrons. Biological who was a schoolteacher in Manchester in England in the
systems are made up of complex aggregations of enclosed early 1800s (Gribbin 2003). Dalton used the idea of atoms as
environments with highly controlled chemical reactions. indivisible units to explain the law of conservation of mass.
Self-replication of the aggregate, which could be a cell, an As we saw above, this law states that the mass of substances
organism or even a piece of nucleic acid which has found a formed by a reaction is the same as the mass of substances
way to program cells of another organism to replicate it going into the reaction. Because matter cannot be created or
(a virus!), is a key feature of biological systems. Chemistry destroyed, the mass of the products of a reaction must equal
falls between these two, and tries to build a bridge between the mass of the reagents. In Dalton’s description of atoms,
them (Lehn 2014). all the atoms of a particular element (see above) are the
same as each other, and they have a particular size and

How did chemistry begin?

mass. Each type of element has its own type of atom, and in
a chemical reaction, these atoms change the way they are
In ancient times, the craft of alchemy began with the connected to one another. In other words, the number and
interrogation of the ways in which matter could be changed. type of atoms do not change in a chemical reaction. All that
Alchemical activity is observed in many ancient civilisations. changes is the way the atoms are arranged. Because each
The very characterisation of the bronze age and iron age type of atom has its own defined mass, the mass of all the
indicates that metallurgy was in operation (Amzallag atoms before a reaction is the same as the mass of those
2009:497–519). There is evidence of use of the technology of same atoms after the reaction (the rearrangement) has taken
metallurgy in the artefacts found through archaeology across place.
the world. In some civilisations, such as ancient Egypt or
ancient Greece, we also have written records of a diversity of Dalton also used atoms to explain another law known at the
exploration. In ancient times, the elements were conceived as time, the law of constant composition, which states that all
a combination of four or five factors. In ancient Greece, these samples of a compound have the same composition, that is,
were water, earth, fire and air; in China, they were wood, fire, the same proportions by mass of the constituent elements.
earth, metal and water. Any sample of water, when decomposed, will always yield
the same relative masses of hydrogen and oxygen. Dalton
Alchemy is strongly associated with the desire to change said that there are as many different types of atoms as there
base metals to gold. We now know that this was a fool’s are elements, and that atoms of different elements have
errand. However, alchemy is also the forerunner of modern different masses. As mentioned above, he explained chemical
pharmacology (Read 1995). Making tea from willow bark to reactions as changes in the way atoms are grouped together.
treat a headache or other pain, we now recognise as the This is still how chemical reactions are understood today
extraction of acetylsalicylic acid. Acetylsalicylic acid is the (Figure 1).
chemical name for the compound which is sold under the
brand name of Aspirin. The simple model of an atom as a hard sphere has been
greatly advanced over the past century, particularly as a
Chemistry as a science emerged as the technology of result of the understanding gained from quantum mechanics.
measurement became accurate. The capacity to weigh matter We now know that atoms are not indivisible at all, in contrast
accurately was a critical turning point (Fabbrizzi 2008:1501), to what the Greeks believed. Atoms contain protons, neutrons

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particles, which are emitted by some radioactive substances,

at various substances, including thin sheets of gold foil. They
observed that some of the alpha particles went straight
through the sheet, but others were deflected and some
bounced directly back. Based on the understanding of the
atom at the time, this was a very unexpected result. In
Rutherford’s own words:
It was quite the most incredible event that has ever happened to
me in my life. It was almost as incredible as if you fired a 15-inch
shell at a piece of tissue paper and it came back and hit you.
(Andrade 1968:247–250)
FIGURE 1: A scheme of a simple reaction, where spheres represent atoms.
Different types of atoms are indicated by different colours and sizes. The
reaction involves rearrangement of the atoms, but there is same number of Rutherford explained these results by suggesting that most
each type of atom both before and after the reaction. This particular scheme is
a representation of the reaction of hydrogen and oxygen to give water, which a of the mass of an atom is concentrated in a small, positive
chemist would write as 2H2 + O2 → 2H2O (vide infra). central core, which we now know as the nucleus. Only those
alpha particles which came into contact with the nucleus
and electrons. The charge on an electron is −1.602 × 10-19 would be bounced back.
coulombs (C), and that of a proton is 1.602 × 10-19 C. Usually
(so we do not have to keep writing 10-19!), we express these The final constituent of atoms, the neutron, was discovered
charges as multiples of the fundamental charge, so usually in 1932 by James Chadwick. Interestingly, Thompson and
we would say the charge on the electron is −1, and on the Rutherford, as well as Rutherford and Chadwick, worked
proton, it is +1. Protons and neutrons have mass, which again together at different stages of their careers (Gribbins 2003).
are very small, and so we usually express them in unified
atomic mass units (u), where 1 u = 1.66054 × 10-24 g. Protons In 1913, Niels Bohr introduced the idea of quantisation to
and neutrons both have a mass close to 1 u. The electron has atomic theory (Bohr 1913:1–25). Quantisation comes from the
a far smaller mass of 5.486 × 10-4 u. By far the majority of the Latin word quanta, meaning ‘how much’, and refers to the
mass of an atom comes from protons and neutrons. fact that some things only come in particular values. For
example, money is quantised: we have a R1 coin, a R2 coin
Atoms are very small – between 1–5 × 10-10 m. The protons
and a R5 coin, but there is no R3 coin – coins are quantised
and neutrons in an atom are bound together in the nucleus
and only have particular values. In the same way, Bohr
by the strong nuclear force, one of the four fundamental
proposed, the energy of an electron in an atom is quantised:
forces of nature. The atomic nucleus is extremely small, and
it can only have particular values. In the Bohr model of the
the vast majority of the space in an atom is where the electrons
atom, electrons revolve around the nucleus, like planets
reside. If the atoms were of the size of a cathedral, the nucleus
revolve around the sun, in orbits of fixed radii. The energy of
would be about the size of a fly (Cathcart 2005).
the electron depends on the radius of its orbit.
How do we know about all these extremely tiny particles?
This ‘solar system’ model is the way atoms are commonly
Their existence was discovered by a series of scientists who
carried out some careful and clever experiments in the late depicted, but it is almost entirely wrong. Electrons have
19th and early 20th centuries. In 1897, Thompson discovered properties of both particles and waves (they can interfere or
the electron, and established that this particle, which he be diffracted like waves, but can be detected at a point like
found in cathode rays, is significantly smaller than the atom particles). This is known as ‘wave-particle duality’ and is a
(Thompson 1897:293–316). This was a significant finding: the fundamental aspect of how all matter behaves. We do not
atom is not indivisible, as was thought, but rather is made up normally notice the wave nature of larger particles because
of smaller subatomic particles. Another deeply important they have extremely short wavelengths. Quantum mechanics
idea from Thompson’s (1897) work, that subatomic particles and the wave theory of the electron were developed in the
are the same in all atoms, is best expressed in his words: mid-1920s by Heisenberg, de Broglie and Schrödinger, each
[… A]ll matter – that is, matter derived from different sources
of whom made profound contributions to our understanding
such as hydrogen, oxygen & c. – is of one and the same kind; this of the behaviour of electrons (Challoner 2018). Part of what
matter being the substance from which all the chemical elements quantum mechanics tells us is that we cannot specify the
are built up. (pp. 293–316) exact position of an electron, we can only talk about the
probability of finding an electron in a particular region of
The next big step in our understanding of atomic structure space. Chemists now describe electrons as residing in
was taken by Ernest Rutherford, under whose guidance the orbitals, which are mathematical functions with wave
well-known ‘gold foil’ experiment was carried out. In fact, character that tell us something about where the probability
this was a series of experiments carried out by Ernest of finding a particular electron is the greatest.
Marsden and Hans Geiger (who also developed the Geiger
counter) between 1908 and 1913, while working under The ideas of quantum mechanics also have some profound
Rutherford. Geiger and Marsden fired a stream of alpha philosophical implications. For example, if, as specified by

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quantum mechanics, we cannot describe the precise position metals sodium (Na) and potassium (K), which can be found
or momentum of a particle, we cannot use Newton’s Laws to in the left-hand column of the periodic table, both form
describe where the particle will go next. In other words, we compounds with a 1:1 ratio with chlorine, whereas
cannot predict the future by precisely describing the position magnesium (Mg) and calcium (Ca), from the second column,
and momentum of everything in the Universe. The form compounds with a 1:2 ratio with chlorine. Based on
interpretation and meaning of quantum theory, and exactly these observations, elements with similar properties were
what it tells us about reality, is still an open conversation. grouped together, leading ultimately to the periodic table as
we know it today.
The atom and the periodic table
The periodic table is a visual representation of the periodic
As we have discussed above, an atom is made up of protons, law, which states that the elements show approximate
neutrons and electrons. The thing that makes one type of
repetition in their properties at regular intervals. So, lithium
atom different from another type of atom is the number of
and sodium, separated by 8, have similar properties. Fluorine
protons in its nucleus. For example, if an atom has 6 protons
and chlorine are also separated by 8, and also have similar
in its nucleus, it is an atom of carbon. An atom of oxygen has
properties. The properties of the elements are periodic –
8 protons in its nucleus. The number of protons in the nucleus
hence the periodic table.
is called the atomic number of the element. Each element has
its own atomic number, and these numbers are always whole
Mendeleev made the most important contributions to the
numbers.
development of the periodic table. In fact, he noticed that
some elements did not fit the position implied by their atomic
Atoms are electrically neutral, so there must be the same
mass, so he left gaps and moved things around so that the
number of electrons as protons in an atom. Atoms can,
periodicity in properties was maintained. It was later shown
however, differ in the number of neutrons they have in the
that the order was based on atomic number and electronic
nucleus. Usually, it is close to the number of protons, but it
structure – we now have the theoretical understanding of the
can be more or less. For example, carbon has 6 protons and
experimentally established periodic law. Mendeleev actually
usually has 6 neutrons, but it can also have 7 or 8 neutrons.
made predictions about missing elements and their
Atoms with identical numbers of protons but different
properties. For example, he predicted the existence of an
numbers of neutrons are called isotopes. The mass number is
element which he called eka-silicon, giving predictions of its
the sum of the protons and neutrons (because they each
melting point, boiling point and a number of other important
essentially have a mass of 1). Isotopes have the same atomic
number but different mass numbers. Carbon with 8 neutrons properties. We now know the element as germanium (Ge),
is known as carbon-14 (because it has a mass number of 14: 6 and Mendeleev’s predictions of its properties were all
protons + 8 neutrons = 14), and it is this isotope of carbon that remarkably close to what has been measured (Greenwood &
is used in carbon dating, which is used to date samples that Earnshaw 1984).
came from living tissue. Living things have the same amount
of carbon-14 in them as the environment until they die. After There are currently 118 known elements in the periodic table:
they die, they no longer get any more of this isotope into their it looks like it is full. The first 94 elements occur naturally; the
system from the environment. Carbon-14 is radioactive, and remaining 24, americium to oganesson (95–118), occur only
so it decays over time. By measuring the amount of carbon-14 when synthesised in laboratories. These synthetic elements
remaining in a sample, we can tell how long ago it died. are made in very small quantities by bombarding atoms of
one element with another, or with other particles, in nuclear
The underlying structure of the atoms that make up the reactors, particle accelerators or atom bomb explosions. No
elements is reflected in the periodic table, which lists all the element heavier than einsteinium (element 99) has ever been
known elements. The elements in each column of the periodic observed in macroscopic quantities in its pure form, nor has
table have the same arrangement of their outermost electrons. astatine (element 85). But, are there more elements waiting to
Amazingly, the periodic table was developed before the be discovered? This is still a hotly debated topic, and several
electron was even discovered – Mendeleev’s periodic table, research groups around the world are actively engaged in
which is essentially the one we use now, was published trying to make previously undiscovered elements. A
around 1871, and the electron was only discovered in 1896 theoretician, Pekka Pyykkö, has published a periodic table
(Strathern 2000). where he has calculated the positions of the elements up to
atomic number 172 (Pyykkö 2011:161–168). These elements,
So how was the periodic table put together? Scientists had if they are ever made, will probably be very unstable and are
noticed that there are relationships in the properties and not likely to exist for very long.
chemistry of the elements. In fact, if the elements are arranged
in order of increasing atomic mass, there are periodic The periodic table is of great use to chemists because of its
variations in the properties of the elements. For example, predictive power. As mentioned above, Mendeleev used the
there is a relationship between positions of elements and periodic table to predict the existence of unknown elements.
stoichiometry of simple compounds (stoichiometry refers to Chemists now use the periodic table to predict the properties
how many of each type of atoms are in a compound). The an element will have, and how it will bond to other elements.

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For example, the periodic table allows us to predict which HA + NaHCO3 → NaA + CO2 + H2O
combinations of elements are most likely to form
semiconductors, and which compounds will lead to acid rain. There is a great deal encoded in this equation. With the
exception of ‘A’, all the symbols can be found in the periodic
Symbols in chemistry table. ‘A’ here is used to symbolise any acid – this could be
ascorbic acid (vitamin C), acetylsalicylic acid (aspirin) etc.,
There is little real understanding of chemistry without and will be particular to the medicine. The rest of the
grappling with the periodic table. But the symbolic density in substances are common to most of these kinds of tablets.
the periodic table is substantial: the use of a symbol for an Thus, a slightly less ‘encoded’ version could be written as:
element (C for carbon, Cu for copper), the significance of the
physical position of the element in the table and so on. This is An acid + sodium bicarbonate react to form a sodium salt of the
all before any kind of association of elements into molecules acid + carbon dioxide + water.
and compounds is taken into consideration. Water,
symbolised as H2O, is a combination of two hydrogen atoms While it is certainly easier to read, this simplified version
with a single oxygen atom (hence, the subscript 2 after slips into an awkward no man’s land of being neither a
hydrogen). But the properties of water are distinct from chemical equation, nor being completely accessible to the
hydrogen gas and oxygen gas. lay reader. As chemists, we lose the clarity of communication
on the conservation of matter: if you count the atoms of
The use of symbols in chemistry is by no means new. Symbols each type before the arrow, they will equal the atoms of
were used extensively by alchemists. With the development each type after the arrow, but they may not be coupled to
of alchemy came an element of protecting intellectual the same thing. For example, there are two H atoms before
property. The power of transformation of matter took on an the arrow; one in HA, the acid, and one in NaHCO3, sodium
esoteric flavour and with this ‘recipes’ began to be coded in bicarbonate. After the arrow, both H atoms are present in a
symbols: single water molecule. Importantly, this detail in the
Alchemists were essentially practitioners, mainly concerned chemical equation also means that we can know exactly
with producing new substances or devising new procedures for how much of each substance we will need to ensure that we
preparing precious materials at low cost. They were not do transform all the acid into the salt of the acid. One acid
interested in or capable of establishing theories for the molecule reacts with one molecule of sodium bicarbonate.
rationalization and explanation of the many experiments Correct balancing of the equation (making sure that both
described. (Fabbrizzi 2008:1501) sides have the same number of each type of atom) is the
bane of many high school learners’ life, and is known as
Ancient alchemists are similar then, to many modern chefs. reaction stoichiometry.
The all-important product is the object of desire, rather than
understanding the science of the process which is occurring. As we have already seen, chemical combination matters. The
It was only in the 18th century with the development of the properties of water are not obviously related to hydrogen or
precision balance (Fabbrizzi 2008:1501) that the mystery of oxygen. From a pharmaceutical point of view, the acid, HA
transmutation inherent in alchemy gave way to the decidedly may not be particularly soluble in water, and therefore may
more grounded, and infinitely more powerful science of not be in the best form for absorption through the wall of the
chemistry. intestine. Changing the acid into its salt, NaA, may well make
it more water soluble and therefore make it more available
While the alchemists’ agenda of using symbols may have for absorption. So, the pharmaceutical manufacturer makes
been driven by the desire to retain the control of the use of a chemical reaction, which you perform in a glass
knowledge, modern chemistry is inseparable from the use of when you add the effervescent tablet to the water, to deliver
complex symbols. Each branch of chemistry has its own the ascorbic acid (vitamin C) to you in a form you can more
subset of symbols which have been developed to convey easily absorb (sodium ascorbate). And the reaction comes
information. The representation of the chemical equation with the delightful sensory bonus of fizzing as carbon dioxide
will be discussed in some detail here because anyone who is released.
has studied science at high school is likely to have encountered
these equations. It is far easier to show the power of the All around us, on a daily basis, we employ chemical
chemical equation using a simple example. Here, we have reactions. The petrol in your car is reacting with oxygen to
chosen a reaction which many will have encountered – form carbon dioxide and water, alongside releasing a
effervescent tablets. These are usually large tablets which one substantial amount of energy. That reaction can be written
is required to dissolve in water before drinking. They ‘fizz’ as in the condensed form of the chemical equation, and
carbon dioxide is released as they dissolve. There are many calculations on how much energy is released and how much
examples of effervescent tablets as a mode of drug delivery. oxygen is required will impact the design of the engine. The
Vitamins, minerals, headache tablets and antacids are the act of cooking always involves chemical reactions. The
most common. Essentially, these are all based on the same study of changing the properties of matter through the
chemical reaction (Chen & Yaung 2002:848). To the chemist, application of heat surely dates back to the harnessing of
the general reaction would be written as: fire for cooking. The definition of meat is ‘muscle tissue that

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has undergone physical and chemical change’ (Provost Covalent bonding (Figure 2a)
et al. 2016). The cooking of meat entails several processes.
In a covalent bond, electrons are shared between atoms, and
Collagen, one of the macromolecules present in the meat,
the shared electrons are what hold the atoms together. Atoms
will shrink upon heating. Collagen is a protein – a complex
will share electrons with each other so that each atom has a
structure comprising a long chain of amino acids bonded
stable number of electrons around it (usually eight). In order
together, held in a particular three-dimensional shape by
to share electrons, the atoms must be close to each other, and
weaker intermolecular forces. The ‘shrinkage’ of the
the electrons must stay between the two atoms. This is called
collagen is a result of the disruption of these relatively weak
a covalent bond, and it holds atoms together quite strongly.
intermolecular forces. The three-dimensional structure is no
A large amount of energy needs to be added to a molecule to
longer held together and so the collagen no longer holds the
break apart the atoms held together by a covalent bond.
structure of meat together so strongly. The result is that
meat is more ‘tender’ (Provost et al. 2016). There are clearly
other changes to the meat, such as browning etc., which are Ionic bonding (Figure 2b)
also chemical changes.
Sometimes, instead of electrons being shared between two
atoms, an electron is completely transferred from one atom
Any chemical reaction will involve the breaking and making
to another. When this happens, the atom that gains an
of chemical bonds. What constitutes a chemical bond? How
electron has a negative charge, because it has more electrons
do atoms combine to form compounds?
than protons. This is called an anion. The atom that lost an
electron has a positive charge, and is called a cation. Because
Chemical bonding anions have a negative charge, and cations have a positive
As we have mentioned in passing, atoms can combine to charge, they are attracted to one another through an
form molecules, which contain two or more atoms joined electrostatic force. This electrostatic interaction between a
together. A molecule can be made up of atoms of the same cation and an anion is what holds the atoms together. This is
type – for example, the oxygen molecule, O2. Molecules can called ionic bonding.
also be made up of different kinds of atoms, for example,
water is H2O. Note that the number of each atom type in a Metallic bonding (Figure 2c)
molecule is very important – H2O (water) is a very different
In metallic bonding, all the electrons in the substance are
substance from H2O2 (hydrogen peroxide)!
shared over all the atoms. A simple image is that of a ‘sea’ of
electrons. Because the electrons are not strongly associated
How do atoms combine with one another in order to form with any one atom, they can move through the solid, which
molecules? What holds the building blocks of matter is why metals can conduct electricity.
together? We now know that it is the interaction between
the electrons in atoms that holds the atoms together in a An important point here is that the nature of the bonding,
molecule. This can happen in several ways, each of which that is, the nature of the way electrons are shared between
results in a class of substances with distinct properties atoms, is what gives the resulting material its properties. By
(Figure 2). understanding the bonding, we can control and develop the
properties of materials. For example, understanding that a
‘sea’ of electrons leads to conductivity has allowed researchers
a to design polymers (very large molecules that are usually
covalently bonded), where some of the electrons are less
tightly bound to a single atom. These materials, when doped
(extra electrons are added or removed), conduct electricity
(Nobel Prize organisation n.d.).
b
In recent years, the existence of a new type of bonding, called
charge-shift bonding, has been proposed (for a perspective, see
Shaik et al. 2009:443–449). Our scientific understanding of
bonding, and how the building blocks of matter are held
c
together, is still growing and developing.

States of matter
We have discussed how chemistry is the study of chemical
reactions as illustrated through the effervescent tablet. But
FIGURE 2: Types of bonding. (a) Covalent bonding, in which atoms are held
chemistry is also the study of changing states of matter.
together by a shared pair of electrons. (b) Ionic bonding, where transfer of an Matter can exist in various forms. The substance that we
electron from one atom to another results in a cation (positively charged) and an
anion (negatively charged), which are held together by electrostatic forces. (c)
change from one form to another on a daily basis is water. Ice
Metallic bonding, where electrons are shared across many atoms in a ‘sea’. is the solid form of water, which we can change to the liquid

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form by melting it, and then to the gaseous form by applying wash them frequently, and their efficacy is entirely
heat until it boils. dependent on the pore size of the material. More layers,
with a material of small pore sizes, will provide a more
There is a classic in the education literature which asks efficient barrier. Hand sanitiser (or soap and water)
incoming postgraduate students in chemistry what is in the operates on a chemical level. The virus is encapsulated in a
bubbles that form when water boils (Gabel, Samuel & Hunn membrane. The alcohol in the sanitiser disrupts the
1987:695). The correct answer is water molecules in the gaseous membrane. Without the membrane, the virus no longer has
state. Alas, far too many students answered a mix of hydrogen the biological docking equipment to hijack human cells,
gas and oxygen gas! (Hydrogen and oxygen react explosively and without the human cell, the virus cannot replicate.
to form water!) When a molecular substance, which has While soap does the same thing, the additional action of
covalent bonds between a small number of atoms, changes the flow of water means that any virus that is present gets
state, the bonds between the atoms of the molecule do not washed away.
change. The H2O molecule remains intact when water boils,
but the intermolecular forces (the weaker bonds between the You may not need to know the chemistry to use hand
molecules) are disrupted. This is why it does not take too sanitiser or a mask. But if you understand the chemistry, it
much energy to boil water – it boils at 100 °C. However, if you will surely assist in understanding where you have to make
want to boil table salt, much more energy is required. This is choices about what can be substituted.
because salt (NaCl) is made up of sodium cations and chloride
anions bound together by ionic bonds. To boil salt, you would Deep understanding of the way the building blocks of matter
need enough energy to break all of the ionic bonds, resulting come together to give the things we see around us
in cations and anions in the gas phase. NaCl boils at 1465 °C. ultimately allows us to manipulate matter, giving us control.
This is most powerfully demonstrated in two examples: the
An age-old technology which takes advantage of changes in development of the atomic bomb, and the development of
the state of matter is distillation. This process, most commonly chemotherapeutics, drugs and vaccines. Our ability to
used to gain a more concentrated solution of alcohol, is a
manipulate the building blocks of matter comes with some
separation technique. Alcohol, which is mostly ethanol, has a
responsibility. This is summarised beautifully in the words
slightly lower boiling point than water. Beer and wine can be
of Linus Pauling, a hugely influential chemist, and the only
produced through simple fermentation: yeast is used to
person to win two unshared Nobel prizes, one for chemistry
convert sugar from the grain or grapes into alcohol. To get
and one for peace:
spirits, one needs to distil. The distillation apparatus allows
one to boil the liquid and to cool the vapour into a second Every aspect of the world today – even politics and international
container. Because ethanol boils at a lower temperature, it relations – is affected by chemistry.
enters the gas phase first, and can be cooled and collected.
and, importantly:
Ethanol and water cannot be completely separated this way,
The two factors that will determine the nature of the world of
but the percentage of alcohol in the mixture can still be
the future are the knowledge that we possess and the decisions
increased quite substantially.
that we make about how to use that knowledge. (Pauling
1984:54–56)
So what?
For a person who has been ‘chemically blind’, the implications Acknowledgements
of a chemical understanding of matter may still not be clear.
Competing interests
For a moment, simply pause and look around you. The
clothes that you are wearing, the beverage on your desk, any The authors declare that they have no financial or personal
paper or printed item, the computer, the glass of the window, relationships that may have inappropriately influenced them
the varnish on your desk: the production of every single one in writing this article.
of those items involves the utilisation of chemistry. So many
of the things we take for granted as being an essential part of Authors’ contributions
life involve chemical processes. And the more thoroughly we
Both authors contributed equally to the preparation of this
understand the science, the better the technology we can
manuscript.
build. You may not have a chemical understanding of the
world, but the world you inhabit is utterly infused by
chemistry and has been profoundly shaped in and through Ethical considerations
the advancement of the science. The world as you know it This article followed all ethical standards for research
would not be as it is were it not for chemistry. without direct contact with human or animal subjects.

In this time of the COVID-19 pandemic, two things have

become ubiquitous: face masks and hand sanitiser. The Funding information
face mask provides physical protection. It will trap small The publication of this article was supported financially by
water droplets containing the virus. Hence, one needs to Stellenbosch University.

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