General Physics A1

Pham Tan Thi, Ph.D. Courtesy of Prof. Bin Chen

Email: [email protected] (New Jersey Institute of Technology, USA)
Affiliation:
R&D and Project Management Office
Department of Biomedical Engineering,
Faculty of Applied Science,
Ho Chi Minh City University of Technology (HCMUT)

Education:
B.Sc. in Physics, University of Science, VNUHCM
M.Sc. in Physics, Osaka University, Japan
Ph.D. in Physics, Osaka University, Japan

Research Interests:
• Artificial Intelligence for Medical Diagnosis
• Light Emitting Diodes for Agriculture, Food Safety,
Sleep Disorder

Contac Info.:
Pham Tan Thi
Room No.: 314-A4
Email: [email protected]
Mobile: 0939.057.206
 Course Information
Number of Credits: 4
Number of Hours: Total: 75 Theory: 45 Exercise: 30
Evaluation: Mid-test: 30% Assignment: 20% Exam: 50%
Mid-test: 60 min
Exam: 90 min
Programs: Engineering and Technology Programs
Level: Undergraduate
Course level: 1

Textbooks:
1. Nguyen Thi Be Bay et al., General Physics A1, HCMUT Publisher 2009 (in Vietnamese).
2. H. D. Young, R. A. Freedman, University Physics with Modern Physics, 12th Edition
Addison-Wesley 2007.

Contact Info.:
Instructor: Pham Tan Thi
Affiliation: Department of Biomedical Engineering, Faculty of Applied Sciences
Office: A4-314; Open hour: as requested
Email: [email protected]
 Learning Strategies and Assessment Scheme
Learning Strategies:
- Get all related textbooks, workbooks;
- Join coursework full-time. The roll-call will be taken at a random time;
- Complete all e-learning exercises within the deadline; learn how to
implement and achieve;
- Organize group learning activities to complete assignments and
presentations;
- Regularly review lecture notes to avoid any broken work at mid-test and
final exam.
 Overall Syllabus
Part I: Mechanics (Week 1 - 4)
(1) Physics and Measurement
(2) Fundamentals of Kinematics
(3) Dynamics of Particle
(4) Dynamics of Particle Systems. Mechanics of Rigid Bodies
Part II: Thermodynamics (Week 5 - 7)
(5) Temperature
(6) Heat and The First Law of Thermodynamics
(7) Heat Engines and The Second Law of Thermodynamics
Part III: Electricity and Magnetism (Week 8 - 12)
(8) Electrostatics
(9) Capacitance and Dielectrics
(10) Current and Resistance
(11) Magnetostatics
(12) Faraday’s Law
 Classical and Modern Physics
Classical Physics Modern Physics
Large, Slow moving Object Small, Fast moving Object
• Newtonian Mechanics • Relativistic Mechanics
• Electromagnetism and Waves • Quantum Mechanics
• Thermodynamics
10% of c
Chapter 0: Measurement, Unit and Dimension
 Measurement
Being quantitative in Physics requires measurements
For instance, height and weight of LeBaron James are
Height: 2.03 m
Weight: 113.4 kg
Number Unit

“Thickness is 10.” has no physical meaning

Both Numbers and Units are necessary for any meaningful
physical quantities.
 SI Unit for 3 Basic Quantities
Many possible choices for units of Length, Mass, Time
In 1960, standards bodies control and define Systèm Internationale
(SI) unit as
LENGTH: meter
MASS: Kilogram
TIME: Second

Palladium (90%) and Iridium (10%)

1 second =
9,129,631,770 oscillations
of Cesium atom
 Derived Quantities and Units

Multiply and divide units just like numbers

Derived quantities: area, speed, volume, density, etc.
AREA = [Length] x [Length] SI Unit = m2
VOLUME = [Length] x [Length] x [Length] SI Unit = m3
SPEED = [Length]/[Time] SI Unit = m/s
DENSITY = [Mass]/[Volume] SI Unit = kg/m3
 Other Unit System
U.S. custom system (or imperial units): foot, slug, second
CGS system: cm, gram, second
We will use SI units in this course, but it is useful to know conversions
between systems
1 mile = 1609 m = 1.609 km 1 foot = 0.3084 m = 30.48 cm
1 m = 39.37 in. = 3.281 foot 1 in. = 0.0254 m = 2.54 cm
1 lb = 0.465 kg 1 oz = 28.35 g 1 slug = 14.59 kg
 Summary - Chapter 0
The three fundamental physical quantities of mechanics are length,
mass and time, which in the SI system have the units meter (m),
kilogram (m) and second (s), respectively.
Units in physics equations must be always be consistent.
1 [m] + 1 [kg] = ??????
Chapter 1: Kinematics
 Vectors and Scalars
Vectors Scalars
✦ Displacement ✦ Distance
✦ Velocity (magnitude and ✦ Speed (magnitude of velocity)
direction) ✦ Temperature
✦ Acceleration ✦ Mass
✦ Force ✦ Energy
✦ Momentum ✦ Time

A vector quantity has both magnitude (value + unit) and direction

A scalar is complete specified by only a magnitude (value + unit)
 Vectors: Important Notation
To describe Vectors we will use
✦ The bold font: Vector A is A
✦ And/or an arrow above the vector:
✦ Arrows point the direction
✦ To describe the magnitude of a vector, we will use absolute value
sign: or just A
✦ Magnitude is always positive, the magnitude of a vector is equal to
the length of a vector.
Head

Tail
 Properties of Vectors

Equality of Two Vectors

Two vectors are equal if they have the
same magnitude and the same
direction
Movement of vectors in a diagram
Any vector can be moved parallel to
itself without being affected
Negative of a vector
A vector the negative of another if they
have the same magnitude but are 180°
apart (opposite direction)


= − or =− A 
B
Adding Vectors Geometrically
(Triangle method and “tip-to-tail”)

 
A B 
B


A
 Adding Multiple Vectors Graphically

 When you have many vectors, just

keep repeating the process until all are
included.
  
 The resultant is still drawn from the A B C
origin of the first vector to the end of the  
last vector. A B
More on Vector Addition
 Vector Subtraction
 Special case of vector addition
 Add the negative of the subtracted vector
− = + (− )
 Continue with standard vector addition procedure


A


A
−
−
=
−
 Components of a Vector
 Components of a vector are the projections of the vector along
the x- and y-axes
 Components are not vectors, they are magnitudes of component
vectors

Components of a vector :
= A cos
= A cos (90° − )=A sin
 Calculating Using Components:
Magnitude and Direction
 We can use the components of a vector to find its magnitude a
direction:

= = +

tan = , and = arctan

 Calculating Using Components:
Vector Addition
 We can use the components
of a set of vectors to find the
components of their sum:

= +

 Components of : ,
 Components of : ,
 Components of :

= + , = +
 Unit Vectors

 Unit vectors ̂, ̂,
 Unit vectors used to specify direction
 Unit vectors have a magnitude of 1
 Then = ̂, = ̂
Magnitude Magnitude

Unit vector Unit vector

= + = ̂+ ̂
 Adding Vectors Algebraically
 Consider two vectors

= ̂+ ̂
= ̂+ ̂

 Then
+ =( ̂+ ̂) + ( ̂+ ̂)
=( + ) ̂+( + )̂

 = + =( + ) ̂+( + )̂
 = ̂+ ̂
 So we have reproduced
 = + , = +
 Frame of References
 In physics, a frame of reference (or reference
frame) consists of an abstract coordinate
system and the set of physical reference
points that uniquely fix (locate and orient) the
coordinate system and standardize
measurements. [Wikipedia]
Motion in One Dimension (1D) and Two Dimensions (2D)
 Motion in 1D
 Motion
can be studied with
Kinematics and Dynamics

 Simplification: Consider a moving LAX

object as a particle, i.e. it moves
like a particle—a “point object” Newark

 In the spirit of taking things apart

for study, then putting them back
together, we will first consider
only motion along a straight
line: one dimensional motion
 Quiz: Straight Line
Which case is a motion along a straight line?

A) B) C)

D) All of the above

 This is the simplest type of motion.

 Straight line can be oriented along any direction: Horizontal, Vertical,
or at some angle.
 It lays the groundwork for more complex motion.
Basic Quantities in Kinematics
 One Dimensional Position, x
 Motion can be defined as the change of position over time.
 How can we represent position along a straight line?
 Position definition:
 Defines a starting point: origin (x = 0), x relative to origin

 Direction: positive (usually right or up), negative (usually left or

down)
 It depends on time: t = 0 (start clock), x(t=0) does not have to be
zero.
 Position has SI units of meters.

x = + 2.5 m

x=-3m
 Displacement
 Displacement is a change of position in time.
 Displacement: = − ( )
 f stands for final and i stands for initial.

 It is a vector quantity.
 It has both magnitude and direction: + or - sign
 SI unit: meter.
x1 (t1) = + 2.5 m
x2 (t2) = - 2.0 m
Δx = -2.0 m - 2.5 m = -4.5 m

x1 (t1) = - 3.0 m
x2 (t2) = + 1.0 m
Δx = +1.0 m + 3.0 m = +4.0 m
 Motion in Two Dimensions
 Kinematic variables in one dimension
 Position: ( ) m
x
 Velocity: ( ) m/s
 Acceleration: ( ) m/s2
 Kinematic variables in three dimensions
 Position: = ̂+ ̂+ m
 Velocity: = ̂+ ̂+ m/s
 Acceleration: = ̂+ ̂+ m/s2
 All are vectors: have direction and magnitudes
 Position and Displacement
 In one dimension

∆ = −

xi (ti) = - 3.0 m, xf (tf) = + 1.0 m

Δx = +1.0 m + 3.0 m = +4.0 m

 Intwo dimensions
 Position: the position of an object is
described by its position vector ( )
always points to particle from origin.
 Displacement: ∆ = −
 Position and Displacement
 In one dimension

∆ = −

xi (ti) = - 3.0 m, xf (tf) = + 1.0 m

Δx = +1.0 m + 3.0 m = +4.0 m

 Intwo dimensions
 Position: the position of an object is
described by its position vector ( )
always points to particle from origin.
 Displacement: ∆ = −
 Example: Walkman
 A man walking (with a walkman) firstly takes one walk which can
be described algebraically as = −3 ̂ + 5 ̂, followed by another
= 4 ̂ − 2 ̂. Find the final displacement and direction of the sum
of these motions
 Example: Walkman
 A man walking (with a walkman) firstly takes one walk which can
be described algebraically as = −3 ̂ + 5 ̂, followed by another
= 4 ̂ − 2 ̂. Find the final displacement and direction of the sum
of these motions

= + =( + ) ̂+( + ) ̂
= −3 + 4 ̂ + 5 − 2 ̂ = 1 ̂ + 3 ̂
=1 =3
2 2
C  (C x  C y )1/ 2  (12  32 )1/ 2  3.16

3
= arctan = arctan = 71.5°
1
 Average Velocity
 The average velocity between
two points is the displacement
divided by the time interval
between the two points.
 The average velocity has the
same direction as the
displacement.

∆
=
∆
∆ ̂+∆ ̂ ∆ ∆
= = ̂+ ̂= , ̂+ , ̂
∆ ∆ ∆
 Instantaneous Velocity
 The instantaneous velocity is the
instantaneous rate of change of position
vector with respect to time.
r dr
lim
t 0 t dt
 Thecomponents of the instantaneous
velocity are

dx dy dz
x y z
dt dt dt
 Theinstantaneous velocity of a particle is
always tangent to its path.
 Average Acceleration
 The average acceleration during a time interval ∆ is defined as
the velocity change ∆ divided by ∆ .

2 1
aav
t2 t1 t
 Instantaneous Acceleration
 The instantaneous acceleration is
the instantaneous rate of change of
the velocity with respect to time.
d
a lim
t 0 t dt
 Any particle following a curved path is
accelerating, even if it has constant
speed.
 The components of the instantaneous
acceleration are
d x d y d z
ax ay az
dt dt dt
 Acceleration Direction
 Another useful way to think about
instantaneous acceleration is in
terms of its component parallel or
perpendicular to the velocity.
 Parallel
component tells us about
changes in the particle’s speed.
 Perpendicular component tells us
about changes in the particle’s
direction of motion.
 Example: Calculating Displacement
 A rover is exploring the surface of Mars, which we represent as a
point. It has x- and y-coordinates that vary with time:

x  2.0 m - (0.25 m/s 2 )t 2

y  (1.0 m/s)t  (0.025 m/s 3 )t 3
 Find the rover’s coordinates and distance
from the origin at t = 2 s.
x  2.0 m - (0.25 m/s 2 )(2.0 s) 2  1.0 m
y  (1.0 m/s)(2.0 s)  (0.025 m/s 3 )(2.0 s) 3  2.2 m
r  x 2  y 2  1.0 2  2.2 2  2.4 m
 Example: Calculating Displacement
 A rover is exploring the surface of Mars, which we represent as a
point. It has x- and y-coordinates that vary with time:

x  2.0 m - (0.25 m/s 2 )t 2

y  (1.0 m/s)t  (0.025 m/s 3 )t 3
 Find the rover’s coordinates and distance
from the origin at t = 2 s.
x  2.0 m - (0.25 m/s 2 )(2.0 s) 2  1.0 m
y  (1.0 m/s)(2.0 s)  (0.025 m/s 3 )(2.0 s) 3  2.2 m
r  x 2  y 2  1.0 2  2.2 2  2.4 m
 Example: Calculating Instantaneous Velocity
 A rover is exploring the surface of Mars, which we represent as a
point. It has x- and y-coordinates that vary with time:

x  2.0 m - (0.25 m/s 2 )t 2

y  (1.0 m/s)t  (0.025 m/s 3 )t 3
 Find a general expression for the rover’s
instantaneous velocity vector V.
dx
vx   - (0.25 m/s 2 )(2t )
dt
dy
vy   1.0 m/s  (0.025 m/s3 )(3t 2 )
dt

v  v x iˆ  v y ˆj
 What is the rover’s instantaneous
velocity at t = 2 s (magnitude and direction)?
Example: Calculating Instantaneous Acceleration
 A rover is exploring the surface of Mars, which we represent as a
point. It has x- and y-coordinates that vary with time:

x  2.0 m - (0.25 m/s 2 )t 2

y  (1.0 m/s)t  (0.025 m/s 3 )t 3
 Find a general expression for the
rover’s instantaneous acceleration a.
v x  - (0.50 m/s 2 )t
dy
vy   1.0 m/s  (0.075 m/s 3 )(t 2 )
dt
dv x
ax   0.50 m/s 2
dt
dv y
ay   (0.075 m/s 2 )(2t )
dt

a  a xiˆ  a y ˆj
 Summary I : Vectors
 Vector addition
+ =( ̂+ ̂) + ( ̂+ ̂)
=( + ) ̂+( + )̂

 Vector subtraction
− =( ̂− ̂) + ( ̂− ̂) −

=( − ) ̂+( − )̂
 Summary II:
Position, Velocity, Acceleration
 Position r x ˆ y jˆ zkˆ
r2 r1 r
 Average velocity av
t2 t1 t

r dr
 Instantaneous velocity lim
t 0 t dt
dx dy dz
x y z (components of instantaneous velocity)
dt dt dt
d
 Acceleration a lim
t 0 t dt
d x d y d z
ax ay az (components of instantaneous acceleration)
dt dt dt
  
 r (t), v (t ), and a (t ) are not necessarily along the same direction.
 Quiz: Vector Subtraction
Vector points north and vector points east. If = − , then
vector points:

A) North of east
B) South of east
C) North of west
D) South of west
E) No conclusion can be made with the information given

−
 Quiz: Calculation Displacement
 Anant moves in one direction with a displacement derived by
A=3i+5j, then it turns to another direction describes as B=4i+10j.
The units are in m. Find the angle in degrees of the final
displacement of the ant relative to the X axis.
(A) 79
(B) 11
(C) 65
(D) 25
(E) 36
 Quiz: Acceleration Direction
 Consider the following controls in an automobile: gas pedal,
brake, steering wheel. What are the controls in this list that
cause an acceleration of the car?

(A) Only the gas pedal and the brake

(B) Only the brake
(C) Only the gas pedal
(D) All three controls
(E) None of them
 Relationship between Acceleration and Velocity
 Velocity
and acceleration are in the
same direction
 Accelerationis uniform (blue arrows
maintain the same length)
 Velocityis increasing (red arrows
are getting longer)
= + ( − )

 Positive
velocity and positive
acceleration
Relationship between Acceleration and Velocity

 Uniformvelocity (shown by red

arrows maintaining the same size)
 Acceleration equals zero

= + − =
Relationship between Acceleration and Velocity

 Accelerationand velocity are in

opposite directions
 Acceleration
is uniform (blue
arrows maintain the same length)
 Velocityis decreasing (red arrows
are getting shorter)
= + ( − )

 Velocity
is positive and
acceleration is negative
 Kinematic Variables: x(t), v(t), a
 Position is a function of time x(t)
 Velocity is the rate of change of position v(t)
 Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity.
∆ ∆
= lim = , = lim = =
∆ → ∆ ∆ → ∆

 Position Velocity Acceleration

 Graphical relationship between x, v, and a
The same plot can apply to an elevator which is
initially stationary, then moves upward, and then
stops. Plot v and a as a function of time.
Special Case: Motion with Uniform Acceleration

 Acceleration is a constant
 Kinematic Equations:
= + (1)

= + ( + ) (2)

= + + (3)

= +2 ( − ) (4)
 Derivation of the Equation (1)
= +
 Given initial conditions:
a(t) = constant = a, v(t = 0) = v0, x(t = 0) = x0
 Start with definition of average acceleration:
∆ − − −
= = = = =
∆ − −0
 We immediately get the first equation
= +

 Shows velocity ( ) as a function of initial velocity ( ),

acceleration ( ), and time ( )
 Use when you do not know and are not asked to find the
displacement ( )
 Derivation of the Equation (2)

= + ( + )

 Given initial conditions:

a(t) = constant = a, v(t = 0) = v0, x(t = 0) = x0
 Start with definition of average velocity:
− −
= =
−
 Since velocity changes at a constant rate, we have
− = = ( + )
 Gives displacement ( ) as a function of initial displacement
( ), initial velocity ( ), final velocity ( ), and time ( )
 Use when you do not know and are not asked for the
acceleration ( )
 Derivation of the Equation (3)

= + +
 Given initial conditions:
a(t) = constant = a, v(t = 0) = v0, x(t = 0) = x0

 Start with the two just-derived equations:

= + − = ( + )

 We have = + + + = + +
 Gives displacement as a function of four quantities: time ( ),
initial displacement ( ), velocity ( ) and acceleration ( )
 Use when you do not know and are not asked to find the
final velocity ( )
 Derivation of the Equation (4)
= + ( − )
 Given initial conditions:
a(t) = constant = a, v(t = 0) = v0, x(t = 0) = x0
 Rearrange Eq. (1) derived from the definition of average
acceleration = + , to find the time
= ( − )/
 Use it to eliminate t in Eq. (2):
1 1 −
= + + = + + − = +
2 2 2
rearrange to get
= +2 ( − )
 Gives velocity ( ) as a function of acceleration ( ), initial
displacement ( ), and initial velocity ( )
 Use when you do not know and are not asked for the time ( )
Free Fall Acceleration
y  Earth gravity provides a constant
acceleration. Most important case of
constant acceleration.
 Free-fall acceleration is independent
of mass.
 Magnitude: |a| = g = 9.8 m/s2
 Direction: always downward, so is
negative if we define “up” as positive,
a = -g = -9.8 m/s2
e.g., = + = −
 Try to pick origin so that y0 = 0
Quiz: Free Fall Acceleration
y  In 1600, Italian physicist Galileo
performed a famous experiment on
the top of the Leaning tower of Pisa.
He dropped two balls with different
weights simultaneously. If air
resistance is negligible, which ball
hit the ground first?
A) heavy ball hit the ground firs
B) light ball hit the ground first
C) they hit the ground at the same
time
D) unable to determine

Begin with t0 = 0, v0 = 0, y0 = 0
So, = 2 / , same for two balls!
Assuming the leaning tower of Pisa
is 50 m high, = 2 × 50/9.8 =3.2 s
 Summary III: 1D motion
 This is the simplest type of motion
 It lays the groundwork for more complex motion
 Kinematic variables in one dimension
 Position x(t) m L
 Velocity v(t) m/s L/T
 Acceleration a(t) m/s2 L/T2
 All depend on time
 All are vectors: magnitude and direction vector:
 Equations for motion with constant acceleration: missing quantities
 = + x, x0
1
 = + ( + ) a
2
1
 = + + v
2
 = +2 ( − ) t
Generalize: 2D Motion under Constant Acceleration
 Motions in two dimensions are independent components
 Constant acceleration equations in vector form of
1
⃗= ⃗ +⃗ ⃗− ⃗ = ⃗ + ⃗ ⃗ = ⃗ + 2 ⃗( ⃗ − ⃗ )
2
 Constant acceleration equations hold in each dimension
= + = +
1 1
− = + − = +
2 2
= +2 ( − ) = +2 ( − )
 t = 0 beginning of the process
ˆ ˆ
 a  a x i  a y j where ax and ay are constant
 
ˆ ˆ
 Initial velocity v0  v0 x i  v0 y j initial displacement r0  x0iˆ  y0 ˆj
 Projectile Motion
 A projectile is any body given an
initial velocity that then follows a
path determined by the effects of
gravity.
 Projectile Motion: A Simple Case
 2-D problem and define a coordinate
system: x- horizontal, y- vertical (up +)
 Try to pick x0 = 0, y0 = 0 at t = 0
 Horizontal motion + Vertical motion
 Horizontal: ax = 0 , v0x = v0
 Vertical: ay = -g = -9.8 m/s2, v0y = 0
 Equations:

Horizontal Vertical
= + = +
1 1
− = + − = +
2 2
= +2 ( − ) = +2 ( − )
 Example: Projectile Motion
A ball rolls off a table of height h.
The ball has horizontal velocity v0
when it leaves the table.
 How far away does it strike the
ground?
 How long does it take to reach the
ground? x0 = 0, y0 = 0, v0x = v0, v0y = 0,
x0=?, y0=?, v0x=?, v0y=?, ax=?, ay=?
ax = 0, ay = -g, y = -h
x=?, y=?, vx=?, vy=?
 Vertical Displacement:
= =−
1
− =− = −ℎ
2
 Time needed: = 2ℎ/
 Horizontal Displacement:
− = = 2ℎ/
 Projectile Motion: Generalized
 2-D problem and define a coordinate system.
 Horizontal: ax = 0 and vertical: ay = -g.
 Try to pick x0 = 0, y0 = 0 at t = 0.
 Velocity initial conditions:
 v0 can have x, y components.

= cos = sin
 vx is usually constant.
 vy changes continuously.

 Equations:

Horizontal Vertical
= = cos = − = sin −

= + y= + −
= ( cos ) 1
= ( sin ) −
2
 Projectile Motion
 Provided air resistance is
negligible, the horizontal
component of the velocity
remains constant
 Vertical component of the
acceleration is equal to the
free fall acceleration –g
 Vertical component of the
velocity and the displacement
in the y-direction are identical = cos = sin −
to those of a freely falling = + y= + −
body =( cos ) = ( sin ) −
1
2
 Projectile motion can be
described as a superposition
of two independent motion in
the x- and y-directions
 Height and Range of a Projectile

 Initial
conditions (t = 0): x0 = 0, y0 =
0 v0x = v0 cosθ0 and v0x = v0 sinθ0 h
 Final conditions for the projectile
“touch down"
= ( cos ) 2 sin
=
= ( sin ) − = 0=0

2 sin
= −0=( cos )
sin(2 ) Horizontal Vertical
=
= cos = sin −
 Finalconditions for the projectile to = + y= + −
reach the apex: =0 = ( cos ) 1
= ( sin ) −
2
 Quiz: Velocity of Projectile
 You throw a ball from your window 8 m above the ground.
When the ball leaves your hand, it is moving at 10 m/s at an
angle of 20 below the horizontal. Find the velocity in the x
direction after 0.5 s.

A) 4.7 m/s
B) 9.4 m/s
C) 14.3 m/s
D) 5.6 m/s
E) 10 m/s
 Quiz: Vertical Distance of Projectile
 You throw a ball from your window 8 m above the ground.
When the ball leaves your hand, it is moving at 10 m/s at an
angle of 20 below the horizontal. Find the vertical distance
after 0.5 s.

A) 1.2 m
B) 5.9 m
C) 1.7 m
D) 2.9 m
E) 4.7 m
 Quiz: Horizontal Distance of Projectile
 You throw a ball from your window 8 m above the ground.
When the ball leaves your hand, it is moving at 10 m/s at an
angle of 20 below the horizontal. Find the horizontal
distance after 0.5 s.
A) 4.7 m
B) 5.0 m
C) 1.7 m
D) 9.4 m
E) 5.9 m
 Summary IV : Projectile Motion

 Projectilemotion is one type of 2-D motion under constant

acceleration, where ax = 0, ay = -g.
 The key to analyzing projectile motion is to treat the x- and
y-components separately and apply 1-D constant
acceleration kinematics equations to each direction:

horizontal direction Vertical direction

= + = +
1 1
− = + − = +
2 2
= +2 ( − ) = +2 ( − )

=0 =− (projectile motion, no air resistance)