GUIDANCE AND COUNSELING LICENSURE EXAM

GROUP PROCESS REVIEWER

 CHAPTER V
KURT LEWIN’S FIELD THEORY AND ADULT
LEARNING

KURT LEWIN

Kurt Lewin was a brilliant psychologist who left Nazi Germany and migrated to the
United States. Cornell University and Stanford vied to have him on their faculty, but he
settled in Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) where he became a professor and
director of the Research Center for Group Dynamics until his death in 1947.

Lewin was a person with broad humanitarian sympathies and attempted to redress some of
humanities problems by undertaking a type of investigation known as “action research”
which aims at changing social conditions. Lewin’s work also earned him the distinction of
being called the founder of “group dynamics”.

FIELD THEORY

Lewin’s research at MIT led to the formulation of “Field Theory”.

“Field Theory” asserts that IF A PERSON IS TO BE UNDERSTOOD, they must be seen

in the light of how they view the world (subjective reality), not merely in terms of how the
world really is (objective reality).

The theory also defines FIELD as the TOTALITY of coexisting facts that are conceived as
mutually interdependent. At any moment of life, a person stands within such a field. Their
behavior at a specific moment will be a function of the interaction between their person
and the environment. As Lewin puts it, B = f(P, E).

Environment consists of the objective reality that surrounds a person. It impinges on the
person and may or may not evoke responses from them. Understood this way, Lewin now
calls “environment” as the “objective environment”.

When the objective environment, however, does evoke a response from the person, the
objective reality becomes part of the person’s subjective reality or psychological
environment.
At the moment the person enters into dynamic interaction with the environment, the
environment becomes part of her subjective reality, or her LIFE SPACE, which Lewin
calls her FIELD. To understand a person fully, one must observe how she manifests her
beliefs, values and attitudes in dynamic interaction with the environment.

TENSION SYSTEM

The continuing interaction WITHIN a person as she operates in her life space, and her
dynamic interaction with her environment, may be further illustrated by the TENSION
SYSTEM, a concept that played a central role in Lewin’s Theory.

A person is said to be in a STATE of TENSION within herself if an unsatisfied need or an

unfulfilled intention exists. TENSION is RELEASED when the need is satisfied, or the
intention is fulfilled (Deutsch, 1968).

In Lewin’s construct, any element within the psychological environment that relieves the
tension is called the OBJECT. An object can be a goal, an activity, or a concrete object (e.g.
winning in sports, sleeping, or a candy bar).

A hungry child for example, will be attracted to a piece of chocolate within her
environment, for it can satisfy her need.

VALENCE

VALENCE is the quality in an object that makes the object of special interest to the
individual. This can either be positive or negative.

If the quality renders the object attractive to the individual, it is said to have a POSITIVE
VALENCE. A positive valence effects APPROACH BAHAVIOR; a negative valence
elicits AVOIDANCE BEHAVIOR.

If there is constant frustration from trying to acquire the object with positive valence
occurs, the object now acquires a negative valence. The negative valence now acts as a
restraining force pushing one away from the object or goal. Too much frustration may lead
one to avoid and ignore the “object”, thus they have been said to have “left the field”.
LIFE SPACE

Lewin conceived of the adults LIFE SPACE as composed of three major regions, with each
further divided into sub-regions:
• Home Life
• Professional Life
• Social Life

All these regions and sub regions are in constant and dynamic interaction with one another.
This results in a number of tensions created by unattained goals and unfulfilled intentions.

There will be times in a person's life when tensions are many and strong. At other times
tensions will be few and of little intensity.

GROUP DYNAMICS

The individual does not live only within themselves, within their own life space, they are
in constant interaction with the external environment. A major component of this external
environment are other individuals and groups of individuals, all with their own life space.

GROUP PROCESS or GROUP DYNAMICS interaction of forces or energies of the

environment called PROCESS ELEMENTS, at any given point time which actively
influence the individual, the group, and the situation.

Elements in the interaction can either be perceived as threatening or accepting and, either
way, tension can grow in the subject.

The more RIGID her position toward what she perceives as threatening, the more tense she
becomes. Tensions can reach an explosive level, and at this point the release of tension is
often accompanied by aggressive behavior.

On the other hand, one who LESS RIGIDLY responds to pressures from her environment
is less tense and, therefore, more apt to manifest accepting behavior.

Valence and Tension play significant roles in the study of Group Dynamics. For example,
group acceptance may be a positive valence and group disapproval may be a negative
valence. If the group shows characteristics attractive to an individual, it elicits an approach
behavior, while if the group behaves threateningly, avoidance behavior may be elicited.
ADULT LEARNING

Two fundamental and logical requirements are expected of facilitators:

• Considered seriously the basic tenets of adult learning.
• Manifest competence in various training, education and development methods and
strategies that are effective with adult learners.

Adult learners come from all levels and sectors of society. They bring along a wealth of
experience, knowledge and skills when they enter a session. They are armed with their
own beliefs, values and convictions. They have their own perceptions, biases, and feelings.
As such, the adult learner is the richest resource in the learning process.

PRINCIPLES AND CONDITIONS FOR LEARNING IN ADULT

EDUCATION (PINE AND HORN, 1976)

PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING
1. Learning is an experience which occurs inside the learner and is activated by the
learner. No one directly teaches anyone anything of significance.
2. Learning is the discovery of the personal meaning and relevance of ideas.
3. Learning (behavioral change) is the consequence of experience.
4. Learning is a cooperative and collaborative process.
5. Learning is an evolutionary process.
6. Learning is sometimes a painful process.
7. One of the richest resources for learning is the learner himself.
8. The process of learning is emotional as well as intellectual. People must come
before purpose.
9. The process of problem solving and learning are highly unique and individual.

CONDITIONS WHICH FACILITATE LEARNING

Learning is facilitated in an atmosphere which:
1. Encourage people to be active.
2. Promotes and facilitates the individual’s discovery of the personal meaning of ideas.
3. Emphasizes the uniquely personal and subjective nature of learning.
4. Difference is good and desirable.
5. Consistently recognizes people’s right to make mistakes.
6. Tolerates ambiguity.
7. Evaluation is a cooperative process with emphasis on self-evaluation.
8. Encourages openness of self rather than concealment of self
9. People are encouraged to trust in themselves as well as in external sources.
10. People feel they are respected.
11. People feel they are accepted.
12. Permits confrontation.
ADULT LEARNING CYCLE

Also called “The Experiential Learning Theory” as proposed by David Kolb.

Kolb proposed that experience was critical in the development of knowledge construction,
as learning occurs through discovery and active participation.

Kolb defined learning as “the process whereby knowledge is created through the
transformation of experience” (Kolb, 1984)

Kolb’s theory has two parts:

• Four Stage Learning Cycle
• Learning Styles (Learning Style Preferences)

FOUR STAGE LEARNING CYCLE (ADULT LEARNING CYCLE)

a. Experiencing - Using the experience, participants have had already or providing
them with an experience that furthers learning.
b. Processing - Discussing the experiences of participants, sharing reactions and
observations of the activity provided.
c. Generalizing - Finding general trends and truths in the experience, forming
reactions to new experiences into conclusions, concepts, theories.
d. Applying - Modifying old behaviors or testing new behaviors and practicing them
in everyday situations

The Adult Learning Cycle

FOUR LEARNING STYLES
a. Concrete Experiencers – receptive, experience-based approach to learning, rely
heavily on feeling based judgements and learn best from specific examples,
involvement and discussions.
b. Reflective Observers – tentative, impartial, reflective approach; rely on careful
observation and learn best from situations allowing impartial observation.
c. Abstract Conceptualizers – analytical and conceptual approach, using logical
thinking and rational evaluation, learn best from impersonal situations, from the
opportunity to integrate new learnings with what is already known and from
theory.
d. Active Experimenters – approach learning pragmatically, rely heavily on
experimentation and learn best from projects, back-home applications, and “trying
it out”.

The Adult Learning Cycle and The Types of Learners

The illustration above shows the relationship between the types of learners and the specific
stage in the cycle. As such, concrete experiencers enjoy the experiencing stage, the
reflective observers may be pleased with the processing stage, and so forth.

The learning cycle cannot be abridged just because an individual prefers one particular
approach to learning. For learning to be effective and lasting, the learning cycle must be
completed.

It is necessary that a trainer/group leader/facilitator can skillfully lead the group

through all aspects of the learning cycle.
DEDUCTIVE AND INDUCTIVE METHODS OF LEARNING

There are only two fundamental approaches to learning:

1. Deductive Method
2. Inductive Method

All other approaches are variations of one or the other.

THE DEDUCTIVE METHOD

• May have started with Plato and Aristotle, also referred to as “pedagogy”, the art
and science of teaching children to learn.
• This method is the traditional lecture or “didactic” approach.
• Attitudinal relationships are on the parent-child, teacher-student, master-disciple
level, where the teacher is an authority figure, the center and the star in the
classroom.
• “Deductive” also means to draw conclusions from accepted or already known
principles, concepts, generalizations and theories.
• The main aim is to increase or change factual knowledge with the hope that the latter
will be applied to life.

STEPS IN THE DEDUCTIVE METHOD

1. Preparation – requires a thorough knowledge of the subject matter that has been
selected, the rationale, and relevance to the target audience.

2. Presentation – involves the teacher or lecturer offering a body of knowledge

considered reliable and valuable.

3. Clarification – gives opportunity for the students to ask questions after the lectures.
Public lectures are usually followed by an open forum.

4. Application – aims to improve skills and/or change attitudes through actual practice
of what has been taught, in the performance of some task. Improved skills and
change of behavior are expected to be attained.

5. Recapitulation – assures retention through a repetition of the teacher's presentation.

Students are tested for comprehension through quizzes and exams.
THE INDUCTIVE METHOD
• This method embodies all the principles and condition of learning in adult
education.
• Here, a set of individual cases or circumstances is presented for study and from their
own empirical observations, participants formulate concepts, general principles, or
evolve theories that will provide greater clarity to the understanding of these cases
or circumstances.
• Due to this, this process is also called as the “laboratory method”. In the educational
sector, it is called evocative, dialogic or participative method or teaching or training.
Also known as “experiential learning” (which is synonymous with inductive
method).
• In this approach, learners and facilitators relate in an adult-to-adult fashion. The
facilitator is a team player and shares his own expertise to augment what is freely
discussed in the session.
• More recently, this has been used synonymously with “andragogy” coined by
Malcolm Knowles, defined as an art and science of helping adults learn.

STEPS IN THE INDUCTIVE METHOD

1. Setting the Climate
• Means making every effort to build an atmosphere conducive to learning,
as it could affect how the participants will behave in the group.
• This includes making sure that the physical facilities are appropriate to the
learning objectives, and that the orientation and mood setting is appropriate
for the participant's profile.
2. Determining The Learning Objective
• It can start with dilemmas, disturbing circumstances, problems, concerns.
• The objective may be a personal problem, work problem, relationships,
faith, religion or politics.
• In the inductive method, the whole spectrum of human life can be a subject
for study, as long as learners want to something about it to affect a more
meaningful life.
3. Doing
• Opens up the issue, dilemma, or problem by making use of structured
exercises, case studies, verbal descriptions, role plays or personal reports.
4. Looking, Observing
• Focuses on what happened, at the content of expression and at the processes
at work.
• It involves examining what happened as honestly as possible and
describing it as accurately as possible.
• One’s perceptions are checked against the perceptions of others.
5. Thinking, Analyzing, Reflecting
• What can we learn from the facts? What can we learn from our perception
of the facts? Why did what happened, happen? What were the underlying
problems? What are the implications? What can we learn?
• Learning is derived not from the experience but from reflecting on it,
thinking about how the experience affected one’s feelings and thoughts
• These reactions are shared with others, and one finds how different people
react and respond differently to the same event.
6. Generalizing, Looking for Insights
• Insights will have been gained through the participants reflective “sorting
out” of their experiences together.
• The learning here is primarily different from what is derived from the
deductive method in that new knowledge has been arrived through the
learners' efforts with learners testing it against their own feelings, thoughts
and experience.
7. Acting
• Acting on what has been learned is the final step in the process, with the
insights and greater understanding of the concerns obtained.
• Learners are free to decide to act immediately, to delay acting, or not act at
all, as they see fit.
 CHAPTER VI
STRUCTURED LEARNING EXPERIENCE
STRUCTURED LEARNING EXPERIENCE

Structured Learning Experiences (SLE) are experiential, and supervised educational

activities designed to provide students, adults and group members with exposure.

Applying Lewin’s Field Theory, University Associates founders, Pfeiffer and Jones,
developed the use of structured experiences. The creative use of structured experiences
contributed significantly to making the inductive method an exciting form of learning.

Pfeiffer states that “Learning can be defined as a relatively stable change in behavior and
that is the usual purpose of training. A structured experience provides a framework in which
the inductive process can be facilitated. The steps follow those of a theoretical cycle”.

The experiential learning cycle described and illustrated below was adapted from Jones
and Pfeiffer (1980) with clarification based on current practices and terminologies used in
the Philippines.

The Experiential Learning Cycle (Pfeiffer and Jones)

STEPS IN THE STRUCTURED LEARNING EXPERIENCE
The following are the steps in the structured learning experience. Each step is explained
below.
• Step 1: Orientation
• Step 2: Instructions
• Step 3: Experiencing
• Step 4: Data Gathering and Analysis (Processing)
• Step 5: Synthesis and Generalization
• Step 6: Integration
• Step 7: Closing Remarks

STEP 1: ORIENTATION
• The facilitator sets the mood with encouraging words and eases the participants
into the activity. This builds trust among the participants.
• The activity is contextualized within the learning objectives and linked to the total
program.
• An “icebreaker” maybe used at this point but should be carefully selected to suit
the participants.

STEP 2: INSTRUCTIONS
• The facilitator prepares the instructions and sees to it that they are clearly heard,
understood, and carried out by the participants.

STEP 3: EXPERIENCING
• This step is often associated with games or fun. If the process stops here, then all
learning is left to chance and the cycle is not completed.
• Any activity that involves self-assessment or interpersonal interaction can be used
here. The activities can be carried out individually, in dyads or triads, small groups
or group-on-group arrangements or large groups.
• The learning objectives will dictate both the activity and the appropriate groupings.

STEP 4: DATA GATHERING AND ANALYSIS (PROCESSING)

• Part of the “processing” step. The first part is data gathering.
• People share what they have experienced, what they saw and what they felt. This
involves finding out what happened at the cognitive and affective levels and making
this available to everyone in the group through “publishing” (verbal sharing or
writing on the board what they felt and thought).
• The second part is the systematic examination of commonly shared experiences, this
is the “group dynamics” phase as participants recreate the patterns of interactions.
• Facilitator needs to formulate carefully the processing questions and plan how the
processing will be carried out.
STEP 5: SYNTHESIS AND GENERALIZING
• Results of the data analysis are synthesized or put together so that generalizations
can be made about the relevance of the activity to everyday life.
• This stage makes the SLE practical as they are led to focus their awareness on
situations in their life like the ones in the activity they experienced.
• At this stage the facilitator may bring in theoretical and research findings (lecturette)
to augment the learning. This provides a cognitive framework to the learning
produced inductively and validates the experience. This practice, however, may
encourage dependence on the facilitator as a “source of knowledge”.

STEP 6: INTEGRATION
• The final stage of the SLE and the purpose for which the whole SLE is designed.
• Facilitator helps participants apply generalizations to actual life situations in which
they are involved in outside of the sessions. Ignoring this will jeopardize the
usefulness of the learning.
• Attention must be given to designing ways for participants to use their learning
generated during the SLE to plan more effective behavior in their daily life.
• Individuals are more likely to implement their planned application if they share it
with others. Volunteers may be asked to report what they intend to do with their
learnings.

STEP 7: CLOSING REMARKS

• Brief remarks give a sense of closure or ending to the SLE.
• If another activity is scheduled to follow, linking mechanisms are done at this step.
• Participants are usually reminded of their “back-home” applications and imply that
participants are expected to apply their learnings and insights in real world
situations.
• “Back-home” applications is where true integration happens and implies that only
when experiences are processed can they provide learning and life becomes an
experience of continuing growth.
 CHAPTER VI
DESIGNING A STRUCTURED LEARNING
EXPERIENCE

The STRUCTRED LEARNING EXPERIENCE (SLE) outline and specific guidelines for
running SLE’s are presented below.

STRUCTURED LEARNING EXPERIENCE OUTLINE

I. Planning Implementation of the Structured Learning Experience (SLE)

A. Selecting the SLE with the appropriate learning objectives – skills,
knowledge and attitudes (SKA) – to meet the clients needs.
B. Planning the structure
i. Logistics – time required, materials, physical setting, and group size.
ii. Formulating process questions for the data-gathering stage and
insight questions for the integration stage.
iii. Relevant theory input if needed.
iv. Assignment of team members’ responsibilities.

II. Putting the Group Through the Activity

A. Orientation – introduction, link to previous session and/or conceptual
framework.
B. Instructions according to sequence of activities
C. Running activity proper, monitoring by facilitators.

PROCESSING
D. Data Gathering
i. Asking process questions – refer to SKA objectives.
ii. Grouping
iii. Publishing Data
1. Writing on board
2. Gallery viewing
3. Sharing
E. Synthesis
i. Summarizing data
ii. Conceptualizing, generalizing, linking to a theory when/if applicable
– by facilitator of the group.

GROUP PROCESS REVIEW PART TWO | 14

 F. Integration
i. Asking insight questions and planning for application – refer to
whole SLE.
1. In small groups
2. Reporting to big group
G. Closing Remarks
i. Refer to group responses.

III. Clinic-ing (Evaluation)

A. Critique the SLE as a team along these lines:
i. Orientation
ii. Instructions
iii. SLE proper
iv. Data Gathering and Analysis
v. Synthesis and Integration
vi. Asking insight questions
vii. Appropriateness – whether the activity proper as experienced
achieved the learning objectives.
viii. Teamwork
ix. Floor management and presentation skills

SPECIFIC GUIDELINES FOR RUNNING SLE’S

I. PLANNING THE IMPLEMENTATION

A. Preparation
1. Secure the profile of the participants.
a. Age range
b. Sex distribution
c. Occupation/organization
d. Group Size
e. Degree of familiarity with each other
f. Educational Background
g. Types of Seminars attended
2. Determine the needs of the group. Have a clear perception of their
needs.
3. Determine the learning objectives of participants along SKA (Skills,
Knowledge, Attitudes)
4. Select SLE appropriate to learning objectives of participants.
5. Clarify the SKA of the SLE chosen:
a. Skill – the observable outcome; what the participants are
expected to do and say as n outcome of the SLE.

GROUP PROCESS REVIEW PART TWO | 15

 b. Knowledge – the concept/theory/principle input to help in
learning the skill.
c. Attitudes – attitudes, philosophy needed to learn the skill.
6. Formulate process questions:
a. Question referring to the SKA of the SLE and that will be
used in data gathering.
b. A separate set of questions for the integration

B. Considerations facilitators take into account:

1. Their familiarity with the SLE and the total program
2. The number of facilitators needed to run the SLE, based on group
size.
3. Their professional competencies or skills.
4. Their complementarity in style and personality with each other
5. The compatibility of their beliefs and values on how people learn
and of the methodologies used.
6. Their psychological/emotional readiness to be deeply involved in the
learning process.

C. Planning the structure.

1. Take care of logistics – through an ocular survey or previous
knowledge or place prior to running the SLE (atmosphere conducive
to learning? Enough space for participants? Are there tables, chairs,
chalkboards? Is there privacy and freedom from interruption?).
2. Be ready with feedback mechanisms, formulating (a) process
questions for data gathering, and (b) insights and learning questions
for integration.
3. Select a theory concept, essays to augment the synthesis.
4. Ready instructional materials, reading supplements, and supplies.
5. Plan for the orientation of the participants based on their profile.
6. Assign specific and general responsibilities to the facilitating team.

II. PUTTING THE GROUP THROUGH THE ACTIVITY

A. The facilitator must personally
1. Be relaxed, confident, warm, trusting, open, human.
2. Be objective, do not allow personal biases to color intervention.
3. Be aware of facial reactions and gestures that convey such negative
feelings as irritation, impatience, anger, etcetera.
4. Accept and not question participants feelings.
5. Modulate tone of voice to encourage participants to share feelings,
insights and learnings.
6. Respond quickly to verbal and nonverbal reactions of participants
and/or group’s needs.
 7. Emphasize important points.
8. Adapt language to the level of participants.
9. Be a keen listener.
10. Have a sense of humor.
11. Have a sense of direction and be clear about objectives of each SLE.

B. Orientation
1. Come before the scheduled time and settle yourselves.
2. Introduce yourselves to the participants and settle them down.
Handle overt negative or resistant behavior none defensively. Give
reassurances and encouraging words to allay anxieties.
3. Use an ice breaker or energizer as needed at this point, carefully
select one appropriate to the profile of participants.
4. Introduce the SLE by putting it in the context of participants learning
objectives. Link the first SLE through the conceptual framework of
the total program and to the previous session.

C. Instructions
1. See to it that the instructions are clearly heard and understood by
participants. Rehearse prior to session in order to ensure clarity of
instructions.
2. At the start call the attention of participants by saying, “May I have
your attention please”. Wait for silence. It is useless to shout over the
heads of a noisy group.
3. Instructions should be well thought of, clearly worded, simple, and
complete.
4. Have a common frame of reference to avoid misinterpretations of
instructions.
5. Only one person should give instructions at any one time.
6. Aside from giving instructions verbally, write them on the board.
7. Give general instructions before groupings. Give follow-up
instructions given in small groups if necessary.
8. If an SLE is complicated, stagger giving of instructions according to
progress of activities.
9. While giving out instructions, be sensitive to nonverbal reactions of
participants.
10. Check clarity of instructions with participants.
11. Avoid giving, repeating, or clarifying instructions while an SLE is
going on.
D. Activity Proper or EXPERIENCING
1. Mill around to be available to participants. Be strategically
positioned to observe group process and/or facilitate small group
interaction, and to see if instructions are being followed.
2. Take note of observations in behavior of groups.
3. Monitor time closely.
4. Observe guidelines set but allow for flexibility of time, especially if
the group is large.
5. Remind participants of the time 5 minutes before the activity is set to
end, asking them how much more time they will need if it appears
they cannot finish the activity in time.

PROCESSING
E. Data Gathering
1. Ask the prepared process questions verbally or write this on the
board.
2. Give the participants enough time and freedom to express
themselves. Don't interrupt participants while they are expressing
themselves.
3. Check out for similar feelings among participants.
4. Record accurately participants responses.
5. Check out with process observers’ important points not brought out
by participants.
6. Avoid collecting data for the sake of data gathering.
7. Share or publish data in dyads, triads, small groups, or large groups,
write on the board as appropriate to the activity.

F. Data Analysis, Synthesis, Generalization

1. Summarize written and verbal data.
2. Categorize data.
3. Look at commonalities and differences.
4. Draw out principles or make generalizations from data.
5. Link principles and generalizations to a theory, if there is one
relevant, familiar, and available.
6. Input theory related to the SLE’s learning objectives.

G. Integration
1. Ask the participants to list outstanding insights and learnings gained
from the whole experience.
2. Ask them to formulate individual action plans on how to apply
learnings in institutions, at home, at work, and society.
3. Share learnings in the small groups or with the big group.
 H. Closing Remarks
1. make some brief closing remarks, maximum of three minutes. For
example, share one of your own personal insights as a facilitator, or
one outstanding positive observation about the group, and give a
preview of the next activity. If this is the last session of the day for
the whole program have the group participate in a brief closing
activity using all or a combination of the above.

III. CLINIC-ING (EVALUATING)

At the end of the sessions, the facilitating team, as a matter of regular
procedure, critique their effectiveness in the stage of implementation and in
teamwork.

A. Stages of Implementation
1. Orientation
2. Instructions
3. Activity proper
4. Data gathering
5. Synthesis
6. Integration
7. Appropriateness of the choice of SLE to the SKA.
8. Pertinence or relevance of process questions to the SKA.

B. Teamwork
1. Clarity of the SLE’s objectives to all facilitators.
2. Clear definition of the roles and functions of each facilitator.
3. Consultation, when possible, with co-facilitators on any change in
the activity.
4. Trust and confidence in co-facilitators.
5. Support for one another.
6. Presentation of different perceptions and opinions about the sessions.
7. Sensitivity to co-facilitators needs.
8. Acceptance of one another's strengths and weaknesses.
9. Intervention at the proper time, as when the issue is still on focus.
10. Close monitoring of activities and sharpening of POA skills.

C. Floor Management
1. Place teaching materials and supplies where they are accessible to
the lead facilitator.
2. Prepare chalkboard for data gathering. Leave a chalkboard free for
additional instructions. Plan the board work. Data on the board must
be written legibly and visibly and be systematically arranged.
3. Maintain eye contact, walk around, refer to participants by their first
names.
4. Make direct references to what participants have shared orally or in
writing. Paraphrase or summarize contributions to ensure clarity of
understanding.
5. Speak clearly with a modulated voice. Use a microphone or a public
address system if you have a soft voice or if the room is large.
6. As co-facilitators, position yourselves so that you are able to assist in
data gathering and to contribute to the lead facilitators’ tasks. You
may for instance begin your comments with “Another way of
looking at it…” or “My own experiences have been…”
7. Recognize the different stages of the learning cycle and see to it that
the cycle is completed.
8. Be conscious of the time but do not rush. One SLE that is well
processed is worth more than two SLE's that are completed
superficially.
9. Be flexible in implementing the training design. Consider the
capacity, readiness, taste, and level of physical energy of
participants.
 CHAPTER VII
ETHICAL AND PROFESSIONAL ISSUES IN
GROUP WORK

ETHICS DEFINED
• Moral principles that govern a person's behavior or the conducting of an activity
• Is a branch of philosophy that involves systematizing, defending, and
recommending concepts of right and wrong behavior.

WHY THE NEED FOR ETHICS

• They educate practitioners and the general public about the responsibilities of the
profession.
• They provide a basis for accountability, and through enforcement, clients are
protected from unethical practices.
• It provides a basis for reflecting on and improving one’s professional practice.

ETHICAL AND PROFESSIONAL ISSUES IN GROUP COUNSELING

A. Informed Consent
B. Freedom to Leave a Group
C. Freedom from Coercion and Undue Pressure
D. Right to Confidentiality
E. Ethical Issues in Multicultural Group Counseling
F. Group Leader Competence
G. Liability and Malpractice

A. INFORMED CONSENT
• Members have the right to receive basic information before joining a group and
they have a right to expect certain other information during the course of the
group.
• Participants are likely more cooperative and active once properly informed.

PRE-GROUP DISCLOSURES
1. A clear statement regarding the purpose of the group.
2. A description of the group format procedures and ground rules.
3. An initial interview to determine whether this particular group with this particular
leader is at this time appropriate to their needs.
 4. An opportunity to seek information about the group to pose questions and to
explore concerns.
5. A discussion of the ways the group process may or may not be congruent with
cultural belief and values of members.
6. A statement describing the education, training, and qualifications of the group
leader.
7. Information concerning fees and expenses, information about length of group,
frequency and duration of meetings, group goals and techniques being employed.
8. Information about the psychological risks involved in group participation.
9. Knowledge of the circumstances in which confidentiality must be broken because
of legal, ethical or professional reasons.
10. Clarification of what services can and cannot be provided within the group.
11. Help from the group leader in developing personal goals.
12. A clear understanding of the division of responsibility between the leader and the
participants.
13. A discussion of the rights and responsibilities of group members.

CLIENTS RIGHTS DURING THE GROUP

1. Guidance concerning what is expected of them.
2. Notice of any research involving the group and of any audio or video recording of
group sessions.
3. The right to stop any recording if it restricts member participation.
4. Assistance from the group leader in translating group learning into action in
everyday life.
5. Opportunities to discuss what one has learned in the group and to bring closure to
the group experience, so participants are not left with any unnecessary unfinished
business.
6. A consultation with the group leader should a crisis arise as a direct result of
participation in the group or a referral to other sources of help if further help is not
available from the group leader.
7. The exercise of reasonable safeguards on the leaders’ part to minimize the
potential risks of the group.
8. Respect for members privacy with regards to what the person will reveal and the
degree of self-disclosure.
9. Observance of confidentiality on the part of the leader and other group members.
10. Freedom from having values imposed by the leader and other members.
11. The right to be treated as an individual and accorded dignity and respect.
12. The leader should stress that participation in groups carries certain responsibilities
as well as rights. These responsibilities include:
a. Attending regularly
b. Being Prompt
c. Taking Risks
d. Be willing to talk about oneself.
 e. Giving others feedback
f. Maintaining Confidentiality
g. Asking for what one needs

B. FREEDOM TO LEAVE A GROUP

• Leaders should be clear about their policies pertaining to attendance, commitment
to remaining in a group for a predetermined number of sessions if they do not like
what is going on the group.
• The topic of leaving should be discussed during the initial session.

C. FREEDOM FROM COERCION AND UNDUE PRESSURE

• Members can reasonably expect to be respected by the group and not be subjected
to coercion and undue group pressure.
• Some degree of group pressure is inevitable, and it is even therapeutic in many
instances.
• It is essential for leaders to differentiate between destructive pressure and
therapeutic pressure.
• It is well to keep in mind that that purpose of a group is to help participants find
their own answers, not to pressure them into doing what the group thinks is the
appropriate course.

D. RIGHT TO CONFIDENTIALITY
• As a leader you are required to keep confidences of group members, but you have
the added responsibility of impressing on the members the necessity of them
maintaining the confidential nature of whatever is revealed to and in the group.

EXCEPTIONS TO CONFIDENTIALITY
✓ Counselors are legally required to report client’s threats to harm themselves or
others (Duty to Warn). This requirement also covers cases of child abuse or
neglect, incest or child molestation, clients who exhibit bizarre behavior.
✓ Confidentiality with Minors – in groups for children in a school setting, CARE
needs to be exerted to ensure that what goes on within the group is not a subject
for discussion in class or in the playground.

E. ETHICAL ISSUES IN MULTICULTRAL GROUP COUNSELING

• The values a leader brings to the group process must consciously acknowledge the
reality human diversity in our society.

GUIDELINES
1. Group leaders should acquire the knowledge and skills they need to effectively
work with the diverse range of members in their group.
 2. Group leaders are aware of how their cultural background, attitudes, values,
beliefs and biases influence their work and they make efforts to correct any
prejudices they may have.
3. Group leaders acknowledge that ethnicity and culture influence behavior.
4. Group leaders respect the roles of family and community hierarchies within a
client’s culture.
5. Group leaders consider the impact of adverse social, environmental and political
factors in assessing problems and designing interventions.
6. Group leaders respect the members religious and spiritual beliefs and values.
7. Group leaders make efforts to eliminate biases, prejudices, and discriminatory
practices.

F. GROUP LEADER COMPETENCE

• It is a good policy for leaders to have a clear theoretical and therapeutic rationale
for any technique they use.
• Different groups require different leader qualities and qualifications.

BEST PRACTICE GUIDELINES

1. Remain current and increase your knowledge and skill competencies through
activities such as continuing education, consultation, supervision, and participation
in personal and professional development activities.
2. Be open to getting professional help for your own personal problems or conflicts
that may impair your professional judgement or ability to facilitate a group.
3. Utilize consultation and supervision to ensure effective practice when you are
working with a group for which you need to acquire more knowledge and skill
competencies.

TWO LEVELS OF COMPETENCIES AND RELATED TRAINING

1. CORE KNOWLEDGE/AREA OF KNOWLEDGE
✓ Identifying one’s strengths and weaknesses and one’s values.
✓ Being able to describe the characteristics associated with the typical stages
in group’s development.
✓ Being able to describe the facilitative and debilitative roles and behaviors of
group members.
✓ Knowing the therapeutic factors of a group
✓ Understanding the importance of group and member evaluation
✓ Being aware of the ethical issues especial to group work

2. SKILL COMPETENCIES
✓ Being able to open and close a group session.
✓ Engaging in appropriate self-disclosure in the group.
✓ Giving and receiving feedback.
✓ Helping members attribute meaning to their experiences in the group.
 ✓ Helping them integrate and apply their learning.
✓ Demonstrating the ability to apply ethical standards in group practice.

G. LIABILITY AND MALPRACTICE

• Group leaders are expected to practice within the code of ethics of a particular
profession and also abide by legal standards.
• Group leaders need to keep up to date with the laws of their country as they affect
their professional practice.

ETHICAL ISSUES ON PSYCHOLOGICAL RISKS FOR MEMBERS

The forces at work in a therapeutic group are powerful. They can be constructive,
bringing about positive change, but their unleashing always entails some risk. It is
unrealistic to expect that a group will not involve risk. Explaining both the potential
benefits and the risks of group therapy is an essential part of the informed consent
process (Fallon, 2006). It is the ethical responsibility of the group leader to ensure that
prospective group members are aware of the potential risks and to take every precaution
against them and to consider ways of reducing potential risks.

Group leaders must have a broad and deep understanding of the forces that operate in
groups and how to mobilize those forces in an ethical fashion. Unless leaders exert
caution, members not only may miss the benefits of a group but also could be
psychologically harmed by it. Ways of reducing these risks include knowing members’
limits, respecting their requests, developing an invitational style as opposed to a pushy or
dictatorial style, avoiding assaultive verbal confrontations, describing behavior rather
than making judgments, and presenting hunches in a tentative way rather than forcing
interpretations on members. These risks should be discussed with the participants during
the initial session.

After an intense group experience, participants may be inclined to make rash decisions
that affect not only their own lives but also the lives of members of their families. It is not
the leader’s responsibility to stand in the way of members’ decisions, but the leader is
responsible for cautioning members against acting prematurely without carefully
considering potential consequences. It is also a good practice to caution members who
have done significant cathartic work to refrain from leaving a session and saying in
person everything they may have symbolically said to a significant other in a therapeutic
context.

A somewhat different risk involved in group work is the reality that members can misuse
the purpose of a group. Below are some other issues and possible risks involving groups:
1. Misuse of power is a significant risk factor. Group leaders can do a great deal
toward preventing damaging group experiences. Smokowski, Rose, and Bacallao
(2001) remind us that group leaders have a great deal of power, prestige, and status
within their groups; however, “many leaders are not able to responsibly manage,
or even recognize, their power and influence” (p. 228). It can be intoxicating to be
such a powerful part of the healing and personal development of members. On the
other hand, group therapists also have legitimate power by virtue of their
leadership expertise and specialized knowledge and skills. Ideally, group leaders
will use their power to empower the members of their groups by helping them to
discover their inner resources and capacities. This power is used to the members’
good, and it can be shared. This is what collaborative relationships are about.

2. Self-disclosure is sometimes misused by group members. The group norm has

sometimes been misunderstood to mean the more disclosure that takes place, the
better. But privacy can be violated by indiscriminately sharing one’s personal life.
Self-disclosure is an essential aspect of any working group, but it is a means to the
end of fuller self-understanding and should not be promoted in its own right. It is
important to keep in mind prohibitions against self-disclosure within certain ethnic
and cultural groups. Some members may have been harmed by past self-
disclosure, and others may be hesitant to make any personal disclosures. Group
members may avoid their own work by remaining quiet and allowing other
members to talk and do work.

3. Maintaining confidentiality is a potential risk in every group. Some of the

disclosures made during a session may not remain in the group. Group leaders
need to continually emphasize the importance of maintaining confidentiality. Even
when they do so, however, the possibility remains that some members will talk
inappropriately about what was discussed in the group.

4. Scapegoating may occur. Occasionally an individual member may be singled out

as the scapegoat of the group. Other group members may “gang up” on this
person, making the member the focus of hostile and negative confrontation.
Clearly, the group leader should take firm steps to eliminate this behavior and
explore what is happening within the group. Generally, it is a good practice for the
leader to explore what is going on with the person doing the scapegoating before
focusing on the person being scapegoated. Moreno (2007) asserts that unexplored
scapegoating is destructive. Not only is damage done to the scapegoat, but the
group suffers in the depth and progress of their work.

5. Confrontation, a valuable and powerful tool in any group, can be misused,

especially when it is done in a destructive manner. Intrusive interventions, overly
confrontive leader tactics, and pushing members beyond their limits often produce
negative outcomes. Here, again, leaders (and members as well) must be on guard
against behavior that can pose serious psychological risks for group participants.
To lessen the risks of nonconstructive confrontation, leaders can model the type of
confrontation that focuses on specific behaviors and avoids judgments of
members. They can teach members how to talk constructively about themselves
and the reactions they are having to a certain behavior pattern of a given member.
 TEST YOURSELF II
INSTRUCTIONS: Choose the best answer among the choices given below (40
items, 30 minutes)

1. Considered as the most influential and founder of “group dynamics”

a. Carl Rogers
b. Joseph and Pfieffer
c. Kurt Lewin
d. David Kolb

2. Asserts that if a person is to be understood, they must be seen in the light of their
subjective reality, not merely in terms of the objective reality.
a. Valence
b. Field Theory
c. Transition
d. Tension

3. It is the totality of coexisting facts that are conceived as mutually interdependent.

a. Field
b. Valence
c. Tension
d. Object

4. Which of the following is not part of our Life Space?

a. Home Life
b. Professional Life
c. School Life
d. Social Life

5. Which of the following statements is true?

a. Our life spaces are separate from each other and do not intersect.
b. The interaction of the subsystems does not create tension.
c. There are four major regions of our life space.
d. There will be times in a person's life when tensions are many and strong.
6. It is the quality in an object that makes the object of special interest to the
individual.
a. Tension
b. Field
c. Valence
d. Object

7. If the object is perceived to be something that can relieve tension, the object is said
to have ___________ valence.
a. Negative
b. Positive
c. Neutral
d. Frustrating

8. Which of the following is true about adult learning according to Pine and Horn?
a. Learning is an experience which occurs outside the learner and is activated
by the learner.
b. Learning is the discovery of the impersonal meaning and relevance of
ideas.
c. Behavioral change is the consequence of experience.
d. Learning is on an individual level.

9. Learning is facilitated in an atmosphere which:

a. Consistently recognizes that people should not make mistakes.
b. Ambiguity is not tolerated.
c. Emphasizes the objectivity of learning.
d. Encourages openness of self rather than concealment of self

10. Proposed that experience was critical in the development of knowledge

construction, as learning occurs through discovery and active participation.
a. David Kolb
b. Kurt Lewin
c. Jones and Pfeiffer
d. Pine and Horn

11. What is the correct sequence of Kolb’s Four Stage Learning Cycle?
a. Experiencing, Applying, Generalizing, Processing
b. Experiencing, Processing, Generalizing, Applying
c. Processing, Generalizing, Applying, Experiencing
d. Applying, Experiencing, Processing, Generalizing
12. The stage in the Adult Learning Cycle where old behaviors is modified or new
behaviors are tested and practiced in everyday situations.
a. Experiencing
b. Processing
c. Applying
d. Generalizing

13. On a Stress Management session, the group is now sharing with each other their
responses to the Stress Level Questionnaire as well as their reactions, thoughts and
feelings about their results. Which stage are they at in the Adult Learning Cycle?
a. Applying
b. Generalizing
c. Processing
d. Experiencing

14. These learners approach learning pragmatically, rely heavily on experimentation

and learn best from projects, back-home applications, and “trying it out”.
a. Concrete Experiencers
b. Reflective Observers
c. Abstract Conceptualizers
d. Active Experimenters

15. Which of the learners would most likely enjoy the Processing stage of the Adult
Learning Cycle?
a. Concrete Experiencers
b. Reflective Observers
c. Abstract Conceptualizers
d. Active Experimenters

16. The facilitator asked the group to perform an activity that is related to their overall
theme. Jim finds much satisfaction in doing the activity. Given that, we can say
that Jim is a __________________.
a. Concrete Experiencer
b. Reflective Observer
c. Abstract Conceptualizer
d. Active Experimenter
17. An Abstract Conceptualizer would find these activities gratifying:
a. Going through an experience that furthers learning.
b. Discussing the experiences of participants, sharing reactions and
observations of the activity provided.
c. Finding general trends and truths in the experience, forming reactions to
new experiences into conclusions, concepts, theories.
d. Modifying old behaviors or testing new behaviors and practicing them in
everyday situations.

18. It started with Plato and is also referred to as “pedagogy”.

a. Inductive Method
b. Andragogy
c. Recapitulation
d. Deductive Method

19. Which of the following best describes the inductive method?

a. Traditional method
b. Pedagogy method
c. Laboratory method
d. Didactic method

20. The art and science of teaching children to learn.

a. Inductive
b. Pedagogy
c. Traditional
d. Focusing

21. Experiencing: Concrete Experiencers; Generalizing: ______________.

a. Reflective Observers
b. Active Experiencers
c. Active Experimenters
d. Abstract Conceptualizers

22. Which of the following best exemplifies the deductive method?

a. Traditional method
b. Pedagogy method
c. Laboratory method
d. Collaborative method
23. This step in the deductive method requires thorough knowledge of the subject
matter.
a. Clarification
b. Preparation
c. Presentation
d. Recapitulation

24. On a forum on drug addiction, the speaker has now opened the floor for questions.
In the deductive method, this is known as:
a. Clarification
b. Preparation
c. Presentation
d. Recapitulation

25. In the deductive method, quizzes and exams are used to:
a. improve skills and/or change attitudes through actual practice of what has
been taught.
b. give the students the opportunity to ask questions after the lectures.
c. assures retention through a repetition of the teacher's presentation.
d. involve the teacher in offering a body of knowledge.

26. The art and science of helping adults learn.

a. Pedagogy
b. Traditional
c. Didactic
d. Andragogy

27. The deductive method is best explained by which word or phrase?

a. Traditional lecture
b. Experiential learning
c. Participative teaching
d. Adult-to-Adult relationship level

28. The teacher is making sure that the physical facilities are appropriate to the
learning objective and provides an orientation, setting the appropriate mood for the
participant's profiles. In the inductive method, this is known as:
a. Doing
b. Determining Learning Objectives
c. Setting the Climate
d. Generalizing, Looking for insights
29. Marvin, the group facilitator on forming good study habits, is using an activity
which requires the students to answer a questionnaire about their study habits.
Under the inductive method, this step is also called as:
a. Doing
b. Determining Learning Objectives
c. Setting the Climate
d. Generalizing, Looking for insights

30. These are experiential, and supervised educational activities designed to provide
students, adults and group members with exposure:
a. Didactic Teaching
b. Laboratory Method
c. Traditional Lecture
d. Structured Learning Experiences

31. It is considered as the “Putting Together” phase of an SLE.

a. Data Gathering
b. Synthesis
c. Generalizing
d. Experiencing

32. The stage of an SLE where trust is built:

a. Data Gathering
b. Processing
c. Orientation
d. Closing Remarks

33. Amy is giving a short lecture on how to effectively manage time. If we go by the
steps in an SLE, what step is Amy at now?
a. Orientation
b. Closing Remarks
c. Synthesis and Generalization
d. Integration

34. You are tasked with creating an SLE for a group of adolescents. What should be
your first step?
a. Select an appropriate SLE.
b. Secure the profile of the participants.
c. Determine the needs of the participants.
d. Determine the learning objectives.
35. The facilitator is now milling about the room, notes the behaviors of the members
in the group, and monitors time closely. Later, he reminds them of the time left for
the activity. Which stage of an SLE is the facilitator on?
a. Generalization
b. Closing Remarks
c. Synthesis
d. Experiencing

36. Why are ethics important?

a. They educate practitioners and the general public about the responsibilities
of the profession.
b. They provide a basis for accountability, and through enforcement, clients
are protected from unethical practices.
c. A only
d. A and B

37. When should basic information about the group, the rights of the members, and
what is expected of them be given to the group?
a. Closing Remarks
b. Generalization
c. Orientation
d. Experiencing

38. The group has stalled in its development, and it seems that the members are now
one in blaming Alice for their stagnation. This phenomenon is known as:
a. Manipulating
b. Scapegoating
c. Universality
d. Catharsis

39. Which of the following is not true about confidentiality?

a. It is absolute.
b. It can be superseded by our “duty to warn”.
c. Facilitators are required to keep the confidence of members.
d. It is difficult to compel members to keep confidence.
40. Marcy is being pressured by her groupmates to agree on a certain decision and
making her feel guilty for going against the group norm. Which ethical principle is
being violated by this action?
a. Informed Consent
b. Freedom to Leave a Group
c. Leader Competence
d. Freedom from Coercion and Undue Pressure
ANSWER KEY

1. C 21. D
2. B 22. A
3. A 23. B
4. C 24. A
5. D 25. C
6. C 26. D
7. B 27. B
8. C 28. C
9. D 29. A
10. A 30. D
11. B 31. B
12. C 32. C
13. C 33. C
14. D 34. B
15. B 35. D
16. A 36. D
17. C 37. C
18. D 38. B
19. C 39. A
20. B 40. D

REFERENCES

Bajo, J.P., Guidance and Counseling Review Manual for National Counselor Exam, (2014), Davao City
Corey, C., Corey, G, Corey, M.S., Group Process and Practice, Ninth Edition (2014), Cengage Learning
Ortigas, C.D., Group Process and the Inductive Method (1990), Ateneo de Manila University Press
Rosenthal, H., Encyclopedia of Counseling, Third Edition (2008), New York