What is News?

News is one of the most difficult issues to define in mass communication. There are almost
as many definitions of news as there are journalists. Even laymen in the streets can readily
come up with acceptable definitions of news. In general terms, news is very relative and
depends on what one thinks is news.

We can now consider some definitions given by scholars and media professionals thus:

William S. Maulsbyl defined news thus: News is an accurate, unbiased account of the
significant facts of a timely happening that is of interest to the readers of the newspaper that
prints the account.

William G. Bleyer defines it like this: News is anything timely that interests a number of
people; and the best news is that which has the greatest interest for the greatest number.

Mitchel Chainley defined news as: The timely report of facts or opinions that hold interest
of importance, or both for a considerable number of people.

Prof. Charles Coates defined it thus: News is what interests the reader, the viewer, the
reporter, the editor, the producer, their spouses and their neighbours. News is what affects
their diets and their lives.

Sam Zelman of CNN says: News is what is important because of its impact on society; it is
what people need to know and what they want to know.

There have been other numerous definitions of news but interwoven in all of this is the fact
that news must be something of interest to a significant number of people. In this regard, the
nature of news is always changing because community interests and standards are always
changing. For instance, the Western definition of news emphasizes an event that is out of
the ordinary, exciting, sensational, and of the “man biting dog” variety. According to Lord
Northcliffe, who revolutionised journalism in England between 1890 and 1920 (incidentally
he died a raving lunatic but very wealthy), “if a dog bites a man, it is NOT news, but when
a man bites a dog, it is News.” This definition has since influenced Western journalists and
media in the reportorial duties. To them, news is made in the developing countries only
when there are scandals, coups, civil wars, uprisings, natural disasters, and so on. Western
norms and values maintain that “bad” news is better than “good” news. That is why when
100 planes take off from a base to a destination and 99 of them arrive safely and one
crashes, the 99 that arrived safely will not be mentioned or reported but much noise will be
made about the only one that crashed. That is news for the Western mass media and
audience. However, for this course, I will define news as an accurate, unbiased account of a
current, timely event, which is reported in the mass media and is significant to a large
number of people in a locality.

Furthermore, in contemporary thinking, today’s news is about real life, real people, real
events, real places or real issues in a real world reported in real time using any available
means of communication. Agbese (2008) also sees news as finding out and publishing the
things people do not want others to know and second, anything that will make people talk.

Elements of News Values

While definitions of news vary, the main determinant of what can be considered as news is
“INTEREST.” To be news, an account of an event must be of interest to the readers,
listeners or viewers. Interest in a story is determined by the news values.

Determinants of News

A determinant is a factor that sets the character of something, in this case, news. The
determinants of news are as follows.

a. Timeliness
b. Proximity/geographic location
c. Prominence/personality involved
d. Consequence/impact/significance
e. Human interest
f. Novelty
g. Conflict
h. Necessity

a. Timeliness Today’s news may be stale tomorrow. Therefore, to attain that reader –
viewer or listener interest or appeal, facts must be fresh. However, some issues of great
impact are timeliness. Therefore, the best time to tell an important story is as soon as it
happens or as soon as possible.
b. Proximity/Geographic Location Distance between the news item’s place of origin and its
place of publication determines its degree of reader – appeal, and the limits of reader –
interest. Usually, the nearer an individual is to the location of a news event, the more
relevant it becomes for him/her. This is referred to as geographic proximity. There are
two types of proximity: • Geographical Proximity - This has been described above. •
Proximity of Interest - An account of students’ unrest in Kano will definitely interest
students in Owerri than a businessman in Kano. This is referred to as proximity of
interest.
c. Prominence/Personality Involved All men may be created equal, but some are more
equal and more newsworthy than others. In fact, “names make news” goes a cliché.
 However, names do not always make news. Still, happenings that involve well-known
people or institutions are likely to be interesting even if not very important.
d. Consequence/Impact/Significance/Magnitude How many people an event or idea affects
and how seriously it affects them determine its importance as news, as well as the extent
to which the information may be useful. Again, an item or event may give rise to thought
not because of itself but because of its probable consequences – its significance.
e. Human Interest - Interest in human beings and events because they concern men and
women in situations that might confront anyone else, is called human interest. In a
general way, human-interest stories might be defined as those stories that arouse an
emotion in the reader/ listener/ viewer and evoke emotional response.
f. Novelty This sounds like human interest but shows some differences. The unusual
makes news. The bizarre makes news too. Remember the-man bite-dog principle. The
principle applies here. The first flight to the moon was big news, so was Sandra Day O’
Connor’s appointment as the first woman Justice of the United States Supreme Court.
“Firsts,” “Lasts,” and “Only” have always been newsworthy. So also are stories of freak
occurrences and scientific or pseudoscientific phenomena.
g. Conflict - Nearly every story on each of our front pages is a report of conflict. Conflict is
a central feature of most news. Sometimes it is physical, as in wars or sports. Sometimes
it is more subtle and sophisticated like political conflicts.
h. Necessity - The seven earlier discussed news values involve people, events and
situations that call out for coverage. The value of necessity is, however, the journalist’s
making (Mencher, 2010). According to the Mencher (2010), the journalist has
discovered something he or she feels it is necessary to disclose. The essential element
here is that the journalist considers a situation to be something everyone should know
about and usually it is a situation that needs to be exposed and remedied.

News Virtues

Now that what news is and what determines readers’ interest in a story have been discussed,
reporters should strive to make the news they publish or broadcast win the credibility and
confidence of their readers and listeners by adhering firmly to the triple news virtues. These
triple news virtues are:

Truth

All news stories must represent factual events and personalities. The reporter should also
ensure that the facts of the News are truthful to the best of his/her knowledge before
publishing or broadcasting such story.
Objectivity

Objectivity presupposes that the reporter presents the reader with all sides of an issue,
presents all the facts and allows the reader to decide what these facts mean. For a story to be
objective, it must be devoid of a reporter’s biases and prejudice. It must not also be slanted
or editorialised.

Accuracy

This is the last news virtue. Accuracy is a pillar on which every story rests. A news story
can be regarded as accurate if all names, ages, addresses and direct quotations in the story
are accurate or correct. The only way to meet this requirement is for the reporter to check,
double check or even triple-check his facts before going to the press.

Who is a Reporter?

A Reporter can be described as the life-wire of a Newspaper or any media organization. He

is, perhaps, the most important person in the media set-up without whom the chief function
of the media – the provision of information- cannot be achieved.

The Reporter is the conveyor, the provider of the most important commodity which the
media organization sells – news. The reporter is that man or woman in a media organization
who gathers and writes the news.

Qualities of the News Reporter

Some of the major qualities that make a good reporter are discussed below.

 S/he must have a mastery of the written or spoken language of the medium of
expression: This will enable him/her to interact easily with news sources, eyewitnesses
or even the victims of events.
 S/he must have a nose for news: This means the reporter or journalist must be curious
about getting news from newsy or stale situations. A good reporter must have a natural
instinct for news and should be able to identify news from seemingly events that may
not be considered newsworthy by everyone else.
 S/he must be current and keep abreast of events and happenings: In the media industry,
yesterday’s news is stale and no more needed. To remain relevant in the industry,
therefore, the reporter must keep abreast of happenings in and around him/her.
 A good reporter must be fair, accurate and objective in his news writing and reporting
job. Fairness, accuracy and objectivity are news virtues, which the profession thrives on.
Any attempt to compromise any of these values makes a mess of the reputation and
credibility of the industry. These qualities of a reporter must be jealously guarded.
 A good reporter must be creative: Creativity makes the reporter see another unique story
from an already published report. Without creativity, the reporter will remain dry,
uninspiring and boring to his readers and even his sources.
 S/he must also have the ability to dress well: A common idiom says how you dress is
how you are addressed and I add that it also betrays your address. A good reporter must
know how to dress for the occasion otherwise he/she will be lost in the crowd or
misrepresented. Dressing well is not necessarily dressing expensively. It only means
having the right kind of dress for each occasion or situation.
 A good reporter must have perseverance: Perseverance is having the staying power and
refusing to give up even when the situation calls for giving up. A good reporter must
have the ability to stay longer and under stress or pressure.
 A good reporter must be a “good mixer”: There is no room for the reserved kind of
reporter who cannot easily get into a discussion with a potential news source. A good
reporter should be able to blend easily with all kinds of persons especially when such
persons are primary to getting the news he/she is pursuing at that moment. The good
reporter should be able to make contacts, grow and maintain them.
 S/he must have a high level of comportment: The good reporter must have self-control
and high level of comportment no matter the situation or circumstances. He/she is not
expected to be carried away easily by any surrounded situation.
 A good reporter must have the ability to embark on creative risk and courage especially
in reporting coups, wars, conflicts, crime, disaster etc.
 S/he must have the ability to ferret out news through the process of monitoring people
and events.
 S/he must also possess good observatory skills and have an eye for details: Poorly
trained reporters look without seeing. The good reporter is able to see leads and news
worthy situations by merely observing people and situations. Whenever the good
reporter looks, he/she sees. He/she is also able to taken in a lot of details by mere
observation.
 S/he must be a good listener and must have an unusual patience: The poorly trained
reporters are only interested in hearing their voices in an interview situation. However, a
good reporter is only interested in hearing the news source talk. Therefore, listening
becomes a vital quality a reporter must possess in order to succeed.
 S/he should also possess enough idealism to inspire indignant prose but not too much as
to obstruct detached professionalism.
 A good and modern reporter must be multi-skilled: S/he should be equipped with an
array of skills to meet the demands of diverse media users (Mencher, 2010).
 A good and modern reporter must also have the unique quality called enterprise: He/she
should be able to work through tougher assignments or situation by instantaneously
 assessing the situation and taking decisions and steps that will give him/her what the
media organisation wants.
 A good reporter must also have the strength of character to lead a disrupted personal life
without going absolutely haywire.

What Motivates a News Reporter?

 Being first with new facts or fresh insights : Every reporter really desires to be the first
to get the news out. The so called old fashioned scoops are still fashionable even in
today’s media industry. Being the first gives them a sense of fulfillment and originality.
 Pursuing stories that can have impact : Successful reporters are usually motivated by
the desire that their outputs changed the course history. Bob Woodward and Carl
Bernstein of the famed Watergate Scandal are examples of reporters in this class.
 Wining prizes - This is a little controversial because most journalists argue that their
stories were not motivated by prize and awards. But a careful look at the work of
journalists suggests this is one of the motivating factors.
 Impressing sources - According to Byron Calame cited in Mencher (2010), most of the
journalists remain highly motivated to impress their sources with the accuracy, fairness
and depth of their work.
 Finding out what’s really happening - According to Byron Calame cited in Mencher
(2010), “A fundamental motivation of reporters is the curiosity that drives them to get to
the bottom of a confusing or complicated situation and to find patterns that help explain
it to readers. Making sense out of chaos-especially when you can do it first-is something
many reporters find rewarding.”
 Telling stories in a compelling way - Most reporters who aim to the top are usually
moved to tell their stories in a way that their listeners or audiences are compelled to see
to the end of the story.
 Getting on the front page - Any reporter who spends five months in a media
organisation, say newspaper, and does not get on the front page of the paper, may be
regarded as not doing well. Front page stories are big stories in the judgment of editors.
So, reporters strive to have a sense of fulfillment that their story was considered big and
good to make a front page. The feeling is always rewarding and unexplainable.

General Rules for News Writing and Reporting

• Do not pass a verdict or make a judgment: It is not your duty as a reporter or writer to pass
a verdict or make judgment. Just gather the facts of the story, present them to your audience
and let them decide on whose side they will want to go.
• Do not editorialise: Leave editorialising to the editorial writers. News reports must be as
straightforward and objective as possible.

• Avoid the use of unfamiliar jargon: Do not assume that your audience understands the
meanings of the unfamiliar jargons you are using. Always use familiar words.

• Keep yourself and other reporters out of the story: Keep yourself and other colleagues out
of the story unless you and them are an essential part of the news.

• Avoid the use of “told me,” “told this writer” or “told our reporter: The phrase “in an
interview will serve your purpose.

• There must be perfect accuracy in writing and reporting: When in doubt, leave it out.

• There must be no willful distortion of facts in either news or headlines: Never tamper with
the facts of a story no matter the benefits that may accrue to you as a result. This is an
unforgivable offence in journalism. Any reporter who tampers or fabricates the so-called
facts of a story is “finished” in the industry. You become leprous, untouchable and
unemployable.

• Guard against publication of libelous statement: The good reporter is the one who lives to
write another report and see the fame of the previous reports come to him. Avoid writing
your way into jail. Libelous statements should be avoided because of its capacity to keep
you in jail and close down your media organisation because of insolvency resulting from
the inability to pay court fines.

• Always use simple words: News writing and reporting are not the platforms to impress
anybody with long sounding and big words. Always use the nearest simple word. A good
news report is the one the average reader reads and understands.

• All news copies must be typewritten and double-spaced: The era of hand-written copies is
gone. Therefore, a reporter must know how to type his story using the computer. It must
also be typed in double space so that sub-editors and editors will be able to edit the copy.

• Always make your lead interesting: Guard against misleading leads. Leads sell a story.
Therefore, to get and keep the attention of your audience, the lead must be interesting.

• Use the inverted pyramid format when writing your news story: This is the generally
accepted format for writing news reports because it presents the most important elements of
a story in the first few paragraphs. The format also makes it easy to cut stories from the
bottom without losing any substance of the story.

• You must quote accurately: Use quotes only where necessary to brighten up your story.
Please, do not overdo this in your copy.
• Use “said” if you want to write in the present tense and “said that” if it is reported speech:
This style helps the copy retain currency and life.

• Always read your copy carefully and connect all typographical spelling and grammatical
mistakes before turning it in: This is a primary rule even in ordinary or everyday writing.
No amount of haste could justify a badly written copy.

• Your copy must be submitted in duplicate and both copies must be properly edited • Never
underline words or phrases or titles of books in your copy

• A seasoned reporter and publisher, do not exaggerate, do not over-dramatise, beware of

adjectives, use the active voice and be natural and conversational when you write.

Elements of Good Writing

 Precision - A good writer must always obey the rule of precision. Words should be used
and they should mean exactly what you intend them to mean. You should never use for
example “uninterested” when you mean “disinterested”, nor should you use “farther” for
“further”. Words are the tools of your trade and the writer can use only certain words in
certain situations. In addition, the writer can choose from many words. That freedom can
be both exhilarating and dangerous.
 Clarity - All news reports and stories must be clearly written. Every reporter should be
aware of the following when attempting to write clear stories.
• Use simple sentences and familiar words.
• Use correct grammar and punctuation.
• Structure the story to have a beginning (lead), middle (body) and end (conclusion).
• Make use of the active voice.
• Avoid adjectives and exaggeration.
 Pace: Good writing must have a pace appropriate to the content. Sentences and words
give a story mood. Short sentences convey action, tension and movement. A series of
long sentences conveys a more relaxed mood; long sentences slow down the reader.
Between these two extremes are sentences of varying lengths, and good writers use them
all. Not all sentences should be long or short. Nor should they all be of medium length.
An abrupt change in sentence length draws attention to the sentence.
 Transitions: Good writing uses transitional devices that lead the reader from one thought
to the next. A transition is a bridge, which assures the reader that the writer has a sense
of direction. A transition can be a word, a phrase, a sentence or a paragraph. Common
transitions are “and,” “but” and “however.”
 Sensory Appeal: Good writing must appeal to the reader’s senses. Good writing appeals
to one or more of our five senses: sight, hearing, smell, taste and touch.
 Analogies: Good writing uses analogies. Analogies permit writers to show similarities
and contrasts. Similes and metaphors are often used to achieve this purpose. Where the
simile compares one thing to another, a metaphor says one thing is another. With similes
and metaphors, writers draw word pictures.

Sources of News
 Other People
 Other Publications; Newspapers, Magazines, Books, Pamphlets, Newsletters etc
 News releases
 Social services directory
 Government reports
 Stories in your Newspaper
 Advertisement
 You!

The Writing Process

After knowing what the News is and where to look out for it, the next step is to write it.
There are three parts in a news story;

1. The Headline
2. The Lead
3. The body of the story

The Headline

The Headline is the title given to a news story. In a Newspaper or magazine, it is the first
thing the reader encounters. It is usually written at the top of the story in bolder and bigger
type. The Headline summarizes in a few words, the main topic or idea of the story.

It is not the job of the reporter to give a headline to his story. Is it the job of another group
of journalists called sub-editors or copy editors.

The Lead

The lead is the first paragraph of a news story and contains the 5Ws and H. In fact, the lead
is the most important part of a news story because it contains the most important facts of
such a news story. The lead also summarizes the facts of a news story and it must be
attractive, interesting and readable. The lead could extend to the second paragraph of the
story but under normal circumstances, it should not go into the third paragraph. This is not
to say that one has not come across a story of three-paragraph lead in our dailies. What we
are trying to emphasise here is that a reporter should not indulge in writing three-paragraph
leads.

Function/Importance of the Lead

1. The lead summarizes the news - It gives the reader the sense of the story to follow and
takes him or her to the supporting facts or claims presented in the opening statements.

2. The lead answers the questions raised by the 5Ws and H - However, not all the
answers provided by the 5Ws and H must be present in every lead to make it acceptable but
no important one should be left out or omitted.

3. The lead must emphasize the news feature - The lead is expected to play up the most
interesting or significant aspect of the story. The news feature must be played up in the lead.

4. The lead must furnish the reader with identification needed for clarity - Persons,
places and events must be given identification to make the lead clear to the reader. These
bits of information may be considered as parts of the answers to the WHO, WHERE and
WHAT of an event.

5. The lead must also suggest or give the authority on which the news is written - This
is called DOCUMENTATION. Documentation gives credence to the news story.

6. The lead must attract readers to the story - As the window of the story, the lead must
get the attention of the reader and sustain this till he or she gets into the story.

7. The Lead Should Suggest the Headline - From the lead, it becomes easy for the sub-
editor or editor to cast the headline for the story. The lead should help suggest this.

How to Write the Lead

1. Use the SVO (subject-verb-object) sentence structure.

2. Make use of simple and short sentences.

3. Discover the most important element of the story and play this up in your lead.

4. Decide on what lead feature to emphasize among the five Ws and H and make this part of
the first sentence.

5. Use a single element if you find out that one element stands out clearly in the story.

6. Make your lead go straight to the point.

7. Always ensure that your main verb is in the active voice.

Types of Lead

1. Summary Lead - The summary lead is often used with the inverted pyramid form
because it seeks to summarize the story in a few lines and tells the reader what he needs to
know by answering the 5Ws and H. The summary lead summarizes the whole story and
gives details later. It is very brief and deals only with the key points of the story.

Example: • The ultra-modern Ariaria International Market in Aba, Abia State, reputed to be
the biggest in Africa, was razed by fire on Tuesday.

2. Figurative or Coloured Lead - This lead permits the extensive use of figures of speech
or allows the use of words in the figurative sense rather than the literal sense. The power of
a figurative lead is in its eye-catching effect.

Example: • After a countdown of several weeks, the Governor has put a fire button and
blasted the MD of the state-owned sugar company into the rank of redundancy.

3. Quotation Lead - A quotation lead usually consists of a striking statement that could
make readers interested in the story. Because the quotation lead is easy to write, the general
rule is to use it sparingly. It should be used only where the quote is quite significant, and in
cases where it could add drama to the story. Whenever a quotation is used, the explanation
of such quotation should be made in the next paragraph.

Example: • “The implementation of the present law on abortion would continue to impede
the control of abortion in the country”

This was contained in a call to the federal government by the Nigerian Medical Association
(NMA) to legalize abortion.

4. Question Lead - The question lead raises a question and attempts to answer the question.
A question lead is commonly used in explanatory or specialised writing. The question at
times answers itself when it is rhetoric.

Example: • What is constructive comment and what is disloyalty to the state? This is the
question in many minds today following the dismissal of a state commissioner as a result of
an alleged anti-government speech.

The function of the second paragraph as statement following the questions is to explain the
question to the listeners, readers or viewers.

5. Bullet Lead - Bullet lead is nearest to the headline. It is a short sentence that carries great
impact.
Example: • Multibillionaire and business tycoon, Chief John Agoli was killed today in a car
bomb blast outside his home.

6. Staccato Lead - This consists of short sentences, coming one after the other to create
heightened effect. It is used to establish a mood best suited for the kind of news story.

Example: • The disaster started with a building flash. Next, a shattering roar that led to a
crumbling wall. Then breaking glass, and death.

7. Immediate-Identification Lead - In the immediate-identification lead, one of the most

important facts of the story is the “WHO” element. Reporters often use this approach when
someone important or someone whose name is widely recognised is making news.

Example: • Pop Singer Roy Kelly was hospitalized in good conditions with second-degree
burns on his scalp last night after his hair caught fire when he was filming a commercial.

8. Delayed-Identification Lead - When a reporter uses this type of lead, usually it is

because the person or persons involved have little name recognition among the readers.

Example: • Madison – A 39-year old carpenter was killed today in a two-car collision two
blocks from his home.

• Dead is William Domonske of 205 W.Oak St. Injured in the accident and taken to Mercy
Hospital were Mary Craig, 21, of 204 Maple Ave. and Rebecca Roets, 12, of 207 Maple
Ave.

9. Multiple-Element Leads - In some stories, choosing one theme for the lead is too
restrictive. In such cases the reporter can choose a multiple – element lead to work more
information into the first paragraph. However, such a lead must be written within the
confines of a clear, simple sentence(s).

Example: • PORTLAND – The city council Tuesday ordered three department heads fired,
established an administrative review board and said it would begin to monitor the work
habits of administrators.

Structure of a News Story

Story structure distinguishes news writing from other types of writing such as the essay,
poetry, drama, novel, short story and so on. Whereas the author of these other forms of
composition usually begin with minor incidental details and work to a climax near the end
of their compositions, the news writer reverses this plan of organization. He begins with the
climax. In the first paragraph generally referred to as the lead or introduction, the news
writer begins with the most important information or climax of the story. The second most
important information comes second; the third most important information comes third and
so on. This form of news writing is called the Inverted Pyramid Format.

The Inverted Pyramid Format

The Inverted Pyramid Format is a news story writing format used centuries ago; however,
most modern newspapers still use the format because it is the most space-efficient story
form known. It permits writers to deliver the most important information in a paragraph or
two. This type of news writing format gives the most important information in the news
first in form of a lead and goes on to develop the story in a descending order of importance.
The inverted pyramid story has no conclusion, as many single incident news stories are
presented in this form. The illustration below shows the format.

Lead – the most important information

Second most important information

Third most important information

Supporting details

The Importance of the Inverted Pyramid Format

a. It makes the reader get the gist quickly.

b. It helps in headline writing.

c. It facilitates reading.

d. It satisfies the curiosity of the reader.

e. It helps and facilitates page make up.

f. It facilitates editing to suit the news hole.

The 5Ws and H Question

The first person associated with the 5Ws and H is Rudyard Kipling. “I keep six honest
serving men, they taught me all I know and their names are What, Why, Where, When,
Who, and How”. The question these “men” raise is What happened, Why it happened,
Where it happened, When it happened, Who was involved and How it happened.

It is very important that all these questions are answered in the course of the newstory.

Qualities of a News Story

a. Accuracy - All information provided in a story must be accurate and the facts must also
be verifiable.

b. Attribution - The sources which provided the reporter with information he or she used in
writing his/her story must be properly identified.

c. Complete - A news story should contain the specifics that illustrate, prove and document
the main point of the story.

d. Balanced and Fair - A news story should make sure all sides in a controversial issue are
presented.

e. Objective - The writer or reporter should never inject his or her own personal biases and
prejudices into his or her story.

f. Brief and Focused - The good news story should get to the point as quickly as possible
and should keep to the point.

g. Well-written - A good news story should be clear, direct, interesting and error-free.

Writing for Broadcast

Broadcast news stories are uuu differently when compared to print news stories that we
have been dealing with in our uu units. Broadcast stories are written to be easily
understood. According to Mencher (2010:195), “to write effectively for radio you must
unlearn the prose writer’s rules about sentence structure. Disregard such forms as dependent
clauses and balanced sentences. You can even forget the first grammatical rule you ever
learned – that a sentence mu. Two 🕝

Rhust have a subject and a verb. Some of radio’s most effective sentences are not complete
sentences at all. They are descriptive phrases. They save a lot of words and go over very
smoothly on the air”.
Criteria for Selecting Broadcast Stories

1. Timeliness - Timeliness as a news value is more important to the broadcast news writer
than to the print reporter and writer. Print journalists tend to work on daily cycles but
broadcast journalist work on hourly or less cycles. Generally, a news broadcaster has to
“go to press” many times a day, particularly if he is working on radio. The news must be
up to the minute.
2. Information, not Explanation - Broadcast news writers always look for selection
stories that do not need a lot of explanations in order for listeners or viewers to
understand them easily. They prefer stories that are relatively simple and can be told in a
simple and straightforward manner. The suggested maximum length for most TV
newscast is about 2 minutes; the normal length should be about 20 to 30 seconds.
What is important to the broadcaster is giving information not explaining in details what
happened. In essence, the broadcast news story concentrates on the WHO, WHAT and
WHERE and delves less into the WHY and HOW of events because of the airtime
allocated to the story.
3. Audio or Visual Impact - Broadcast news editors will always select stories that the
audience can hear or see. As a broadcast news writer, always write for the ear or eye if
you want your copy selected all the time. This is because news events that have good
visual appeals to the audience are usually hot cake. Some broadcast news events are
selected because they have both visual and audio effects that the public want.

Other Criteria

A broadcast story that must be accepted according to Mencher (2010) should use everyday
language, written in short sentences, limit every sentence to one idea, use the present
tense whenever appropriate and usually the story should confine itself to one overriding
theme.

Structure of a Broadcast News Story

1. News Highlights/Headline - This comes up at the beginning of the programmes and

gives listeners an idea or run-down of the major stories contained in the day’s program
in a descending order of importance. News highlights are also referred to as top stories
of the day. They should be brief, punchy, interesting, attracting and written in the present
tense. They also serve to arrest listener attention and get the listener to sit down for the
real gist.
2. Lead - The broadcast lead opens news stories. In writing the broadcast lead, immediacy
is the key. Listeners and viewers must be made to understand that the news is current
 and the events are happening now. Because of this, broadcast leads are always written in
the present tense. The broadcast lead should not attempt to answer the 5Ws and H like
its print counterpart. Only the most important of all of these should be featured in the
broadcast lead.
3. Correspondents’ Reports and Inserts - Correspondents’ reports add credibility to the
broadcast news report as the various media audiences are made to see that the media
organization in question was actually at the scene of the event and had reporters on
ground to monitor the situation and report direct from the scene.
Through correspondents’ reports and inserts, listeners and viewers are brought to the
scene of the event. This also helps to add detail to the report.
4. Lead-in and Lead-out - The lead-in is used to prepare the minds of listeners for
correspondents’ reports and inserts. It is regarded as a transition device that transports
the listeners from the story into the correspondents’ reports that has more detail. On the
other hand, the lead-out takes the listeners from the scene of the event back to the studio
where the story is expected to be wrapped up.
5. Wrap Around - Wrap around is simply a sign out by correspondents to indicate that
they are through with their correspondents’ reports. Upcoming reporters should note that
it is proper for the correspondent to say his or her name and the name of the station
before signing off on the reports.

Features of a Broadcast News Story

1. It is Conversational.
2. Brevity.
3. Written in Active Voice
4. Written in SVO format.
5. Use of Present Tense for immediacy

Press Freedom

Press freedom is defined as the ability or the freedom given to a country’s mass media to
practise without undue and unnecessary inhibitions/constraints in whatever form they may
appear. Press freedom also presupposes free access to information or information sources or
simply, freedom to source for information of whatever nature and the freedom to report
such information.

Threats to Press Freedom

1. Denials or Reduction in the Supply of Newsprint - A newspaper’s power to publish

could be curtailed or censored through the outright denial or reduction in the supply of
newsprints. Newsprint is used by the press to print/publish their newspapers and
 newsmagazines. Scarcity of newsprint usually poses as a threat to printing and when a
media organisation can no longer print the required number of copies of its newspaper
per day, supply suffers. This in turn affects distribution as the number of people who
crave for news and information may not be able to get them as a result of this reduction
in supply of newsprints.
2. Illegal Detention, Harassment and Intimidation - This is another major means through
which the practice of journalism is threatened. In several countries of the world,
especially in the Developing, stories abound about how journalists are illegally detained
on flimsy charges or no charges at all. Those who are lucky not to be detained are
constantly harassed and intimidated to submission to the will of the oppressors. These
harassment and intimidation affect negatively the practice of journalism as most
journalists now live in perpetual fear and thus resort to unethical and unprofessional
conducts just to satisfy their oppressors.
3. Seizure of Copies of Press Publications - The seizure of copies of press published
materials could also obstruct the smooth operation of any press organisation. Security
agents and officials acting on behalf of the government of the day usually carry out this
action.
4. Outright Closure or Threats of Closure of Media Houses - This is yet another measure
adopted by government in their attempts to curb the watchdog role of the press. This
particular threat is rife in developing nations and other nations that have not embraced
democratic norms and values. On flimsy charges, security agencies and their officials,
acting on the orders of a repressive government, can easily and illegally occupy the
premises of the so-called “offending” media firms in a bid to prevent them from carrying
out their day-to-day operations.
5. Over-Taxation by Government - A repressive government can also obstruct the practice
of journalism through over taxation. When government overtaxes a media firm whether
legally or illegally, that organisation will surely find it extremely difficult to break even.
Newspaper publishing is not a moneyspinning business and so, whenever a government
introduces all kinds of taxes, then it is trying to force out the publishers out of business,
using such subtle means as taxing. Buying of newsprints, payment of salaries and wages,
purchase and maintenance of equipment as well as other production cost will obviously
suffer. As we noted earlier, it will be a matter of time before the firm closes down.
6. Withdrawal of Licences/Threats to Withdrawal - The government could also threaten the
practice of press freedom through threats to withdraw or actual withdrawal of operating
licenses. This type of intimidation and threat is usually obtainable in countries where
media houses are required by their governments to register with them to be issued
operating licenses. This practice is not healthy for the growth of the profession because
any one who pays the piper ultimately calls the tune.
7. Withdrawal of Advertisement and Grants - This is another major and subtle means of
curbing the practice of journalism and the freedom of the press. Governments and
multinational companies can through this means, persuade media organisations to do
their wishes. They achieve this through threats to withdraw grants (for government-
owned media firms) and advertisements (for non-government-owned/price, profit
making media firms). Media houses survive mostly on revenue from sale of copies of
published materials, grants/subsides from owners and then, advertisements, which shores
up the profit margin. Withdrawal of these grants/subsides and advertisements by
government can affect the financial base of the affected media houses.
8. Enactment of Anti-Press Laws -This type of threat to the practice of press freedom is
obtainable in nations pretending to be practicing democracy while in actual practice the
leadership is autocratic and corrupt. To inhibit the practice of journalism and cover up
their corrupt and autocratic practices, they result to promulgating anti-press laws so as to
give their actions against the press a human face. These anti-press laws are found most
in countries of the Developing where the press is an appendage of government. Nobody
is against the press being subject to the already existing general laws governing society.
However, hiding under legality to perpetrate illegality through the promulgation of anti-
press and anti-people laws is obviously unacceptable.
9. Pressures from Families and Employers - Journalists also face undue pressures from
friends, relatives and employers. Since the profession of journalism is not too rewarding
financially, friends and family members could put pressure on the journalist to accept
financial gratification (popularly referred to as Brown Envelopes in media parlance) so
that he can live a more comfortable life with his relatives and friends. If the journalist
succumbs to such pressures, then he is obliged to do the wishes of whoever gave him the
“gratification” or “Brown Envelope”. Friends and relatives could also pressurise the
journalists, not just to accept brown envelops, but also to do the bidding of their friends
and relatives. A wife of a journalist, for instance, could put pressure on her husband
(through whatever means she deems necessary) not to expose the dirty deals of her
father (the journalist’s father in-law) who is a government official.
10.Unwarranted Government Secrecy - Most government agencies and officials also use
this method to obstruct the job of journalists and the practice of press freedom.
Government is the greatest source of news because its actions or inactions are of
consequence to a great number of people.

Basic Press Laws

Law can be defined as a ‘‘rule made by authority for the proper regulation of a community
or society, or for correct conduct in life’’. Law is also defined as laid down rules that guides
peoples behaviour in a state or society, and disobedience of which attracts sanctions from
the state. One issue is absolute about laws- this is its ability to bring people to order.

There are some Laws that a reporter must be knowledgeable about.

1. Defamation - Defamation can be defined as the transmission of information to a third

party either orally or in writing, which tends to damage the reputation of another person.
It is the publication of a statement, which exposes a person to hatred, ridicule, contempt
and/or causes him to be shunned or avoided by right thinking members of society.

For a statement to be defamatory of a person, that statement must be false and tend to:
(a) Lower the defamed person in the estimation of right-thinking men
(b) Cause him to be shunned or avoided
(c) Expose him to hatred, contempt or ridicule
(d) Conveys an imputation on him disparaging or injurious to him in his office,
profession, calling, trade or business
(e) Injures his financial credit.

There are two types of Defamation. Namely; Libel and Slander

i. Libel is defamation by means of writing or by any other permanent form such as video
tapes, pictures, was work, effigy and so on. Libel can also be defined as defamatory
statement made in a visible or permanent form such as written or printed statements as in
books, newspapers, notes, circular, letter, or by way of effigy, caricature, painting,
photograph, film, radio, and television broadcasts, any recorded audio – visual material
and so forth.

ii. Slander on the other hand is defamation through the spoken word or gesture. It is not
generally actionable upon mere publication. However, there are instances where slander
could be actionable per se, that is, without proof of special damage.

2. Sedition - Sedition can be defined as any statement or representation, which has the
intention to stir up treason, defame the person of the head of state or governor of a state
or incite one section of the population against another.
Section 50 (2) defines seditious intention as an intention:
a. To bring into hatred or contempt or to excite disaffection against the person of the
Head of the Federal Government, the Governor of a state or the government or
Constitution of Nigeria or a state as by law established or against the administration of
justice in Nigeria; or
b. To excite Nigerians to attempt to procure the alteration, otherwise than by lawful
means, or any other matter in Nigeria as by law established; or
 c. To raise discontent or disaffection among the inhabitants of Nigeria; or
d. To promote feelings or ill-will and hostility between different classes of the
population of Nigeria.

3. Copyright - Copyright is the right which the law gives an author or other originator of an
intellectual production whereby he is invested with the sole and exclusive privilege of
reproducing and selling copies of his work. The essence of the copyright law is to protect
intellectual property from being reproduced and sold by unauthorised persons, so that the
owner of the work can enjoy the fruit of his labour. However, the advance in technology is
making it increasingly difficult to enforce copyright laws. Piracy has assumed a worrisome
dimension in the developing countries where poverty and the get-rich –quick syndrome,
coupled with poor law enforcement, have combined to provide fertile ground for such vices.
In schools and universities, students photocopy whole books for their use, even where such
materials are available and affordable. Also, at the ubiquitous road side markets in the cities
it is common to find poor quality reproductions of recommended text books on sale at rock
bottom prices – the fruit of piracy.

4. Contempt of Court - The law of contempt is predicated on the absolute necessity to

provide an enabling environment for the courts and the legislature to perform their
constitutional duties without hindrance.

Contempt of court can be defined as any act which is calculated to embarrass, hinder or
obstruct court administration of justice, or which is calculated to lessen its authority or its
dignity, committed by a person who does an act in wilful contravention of its authority or
dignity, or tending to impede or frustrate the administration of justice or by one who, being
under the court’s authority as a party to a proceeding wilfully disobeys its lawful orders or
fails to comply with an understanding which he has given.

Contempt of court can be in two ways:

• Contempt in the face of the court (facia curia) otherwise known as direct contempt; and

• Indirect contempt or ex facia curia. This is contempt committed outside the court, so to
say.