3.

5 Mole calculations

Reacting masses
When reacting chemicals together, we may need to know what mass of each reactant to use so that they
react exactly and there is no waste (Figure 3.15). To calculate this, we need to know the chemical equation.
This shows us the ratio of moles of the reactants and products: the stoichiometry of the equation. The
balanced equation shows this stoichiometry. For example, in the reaction

Fe2O3 + 3CO → 2Fe + 3CO2

1 mole of iron(III) oxide reacts with 3 moles of carbon monoxide to form 2 moles of iron and 3 moles of
carbon dioxide. The stoichiometry of the equation is 1 : 3 : 2 : 3. The large numbers that are included in the
equation (3, 2 and 3) are called stoichiometric numbers.

In order to find the mass of products formed in a chemical reaction we use:

the mass of the reactants

the molar mass of the reactants
the balanced equation.

Figure 3.15: Iron reacting with sulfur to produce iron sulfide. We can calculate exactly how much iron is needed to react
with sulfur and the mass of the products formed by knowing the molar mass of each reactant and the balanced chemical
equation.

WORKED EXAMPLE

4 Magnesium burns in oxygen to form magnesium oxide.

2Mg + O2 → 2MgO
Calculate the mass of oxygen needed to react with 1 mole of magnesium. What is the mass of the
magnesium oxide formed?.

Solution

Step 1: Write the balanced equation.

2Mg + O2 → 2MgO

Step 2: Multiply each formula mass in g by the relevant stoichiometric number in the equation.

2 × 24.3 g 1 × 32.0 g 2 × (24.3 g + 16.0 g)

48.6 g 32.0 g 80.6 g

From this calculation we can deduce that:

32.0 g of oxygen are needed to react exactly with

48.6 g of magnesium
 80.6 g of magnesium oxide are formed.

If we burn 12.15 g of magnesium (0.5 mol) we get 20.15 g of magnesium oxide. This is because the
stoichiometry of the reaction shows us that for each mole (or part of mole) of magnesium burnt, we
get the same number of moles of magnesium oxide. This means that for every 0.5 mole burnt, we
get 0.5 mole of product.

In this type of calculation we do not always need to know the molar mass of each of the reactants. If one or
more of the reactants is in excess, we need only know the mass in grams and the molar mass of the
reactant that is not in excess.

The reactant which has the number of moles in excess is called the excess reagent.
The reactant which is not in excess is called the limiting reagent.

IMPORTANT
Remember that in calculating which reactant is limiting, you must:

work out the number of moles of the reactant

take into account the ratio of the reactants shown in the equation (the stoichiometry).

WORKED EXAMPLE

5 A sample of 79.8 g of iron(III) oxide is mixed with 9.36 g of carbon and heated. A reaction occurs.
2Fe2O3 + 3C → 4Fe + 3CO2
Show by calculation that iron(III) oxide is the limiting reactant.
(Ar values: Fe = 55.8, O = 16.0, C = 12.0)

Solution

Step 1: Calculate the moles of each reagent.

moles of Fe2O3 = = 0.50 mol

moles of C = = 0.78 mol

Step 2: Refer to the stoichiometry of the equation:

For every 2 Fe2O3 which react, 3 C are needed

So for 0.5 mol Fe2O3 we need 0.5 × = 0.75 mol C

Step 3: Determine which is in excess.

number of moles C required = 0.75 number of moles C from step 1 = 0.78
So C is in excess by 0.78 − 0.75 = 0.03 mol and iron(III) oxide is limiting.

WORKED EXAMPLE

6 Iron(III) oxide reacts with carbon monoxide to form iron and carbon dioxide.
Fe2O3 + 3CO → 2Fe + 3CO2
Calculate the maximum mass of iron produced when 798 g of iron(III) oxide is reduced by excess
carbon monoxide. (Ar values: Fe = 55.8, O = 16.0)

Solution

Step 1: Write the balanced equation.

 Fe2O3 + 3CO → 2Fe + 3CO2

Step 2: Calculate molar masses taking into account the number of moles in the equation.

1 mole iron(III) oxide → 2 moles iron

(2 × 55.8) + (3 × 16.0) → 2 × 55.8

159.6 g Fe2O3 → 111.6 g Fe

Step 3: Calculate mass of Fe in 798 g Fe2O3

× 798 = 558 g Fe

You can see that in step 3, we have simply used ratios to calculate the amount of iron produced from
798 g of iron(III) oxide.

Question
8 a Sodium reacts with excess oxygen to form sodium peroxide, Na2O2.

2Na + O2 → Na2O2

Calculate the maximum mass of sodium peroxide formed when 4.60 g of sodium is burnt in
excess oxygen. (Ar values: Na = 23.0, O = 16.0)

b Tin(IV) oxide is reduced to tin by carbon. Carbon monoxide is also formed.

SnO2 + 2C → Sn + 2CO

Calculate the mass of carbon that exactly reacts with 14.0 g of tin(IV) oxide. Give your answer to
3 significant figures. (Ar values: C = 12.0, O = 16.0, Sn = 118.7)

The stoichiometry of a reaction

We can find the stoichiometry of a reaction if we know the amounts of each reactant that exactly react
together and the amounts of each product formed.

For example, if we react 4.0 g of hydrogen with 32.0 g of oxygen we get 36.0 g of water. (Ar values: H =
1.0, O = 16.0)

This ratio is the ratio of stoichiometric numbers in the equation. So the equation is:

2H2 + O2 → 2H2O

We can still deduce the stoichiometry of this reaction even if we do not know the mass of oxygen that
reacted. The ratio of hydrogen to water is 1 : 1. But there is only one atom of oxygen in a molecule of
water: half the amount in an oxygen molecule. So the mole ratio of oxygen to water in the equation must
be 1 : 2.

Question
9 56.2 g of silicon, Si, reacts exactly with 284.0 g of chlorine, Cl2, to form 340.2 g of silicon(IV) chloride,
SiCl4. Use this information to calculate the stoichiometry of the reaction.

(Ar values: Cl = 35.5, Si = 28.1)

Significant figures
When we perform chemical calculations it is important that we give the answer to the number of significant
figures that fits with the data provided. The examples here show the number 526.84 rounded up to varying
numbers of significant figures.

rounded to 4 significant figures = 526.8

rounded to 3 significant figures = 527

rounded to 2 significant figures = 530

IMPORTANT

When you are writing an answer to a calculation, the answer should be to the same number of
significant figures as the least number of significant figures in the data.

Do not round numbers to the correct number of significant figures until the end of a calculation or you
risk introducing errors.

Percentage composition by mass

We can use the formula of a compound and relative atomic masses to calculate the percentage by mass of
a particular element in a compound.

WORKED EXAMPLES

7 How many moles of calcium oxide are there in 2.9 g of calcium oxide?
(Ar values: Ca = 40.1, O = 16.0)

Solution
If you divide 2.9 by 56.1, your calculator shows 0.051 693 … The least number of significant figures
in the data, however, is 2 (the mass is 2.9 g). So your answer should be expressed to 2 significant
figures, as 0.052 mol.

Note:

1 Zeros before a number are not significant figures. For example, 0.004 is only to 1 significant
figure.

2 After the decimal point, zeros after a number are significant figures. 0.0040 has 2 significant
figures and 0.004 00 has 3 significant figures.

3 If you are performing a calculation with several steps, do not round up in between steps. Round
up at the end.

8 Calculate the percentage by mass of iron in iron(III) oxide, Fe2O3.

(Ar values: Fe = 55.8, O = 16.0)

Solution

% mass of iron = × 100

= 69.9 %
 Figure 3.16: This iron ore is impure Fe2O3. We can calculate the mass of iron that can be obtained from Fe2O3 by
using molar masses.

Question
10 Calculate the percentage by mass of carbon in ethanol, C2H5OH.

(Ar values: C = 12.0, H = 1.0, O = 16.0)

Percentage yield
In many chemical reactions, especially organic reactions, not all the reactants are changed to the products
you want. This is because there are other reactions going on at the same time; reactants or products are
lost to the atmosphere; or the reaction does not go to completion. The percentage yield tells you how much
of a particular product you get from the reactants compared with the maximum theoretical amount that
you can get.

percentage yield = × 100

The actual yield is the moles or mass of product obtained by experiment.

The predicted yield is the moles or mass of product obtained by calculation if no side products are formed
and all of a specific reactant is converted to a specific product.

WORKED EXAMPLE

9 A sample of aluminium chloride, AlCl3, is made by reacting 18 g of aluminium powder with excess
chlorine. The mass of aluminium chloride produced is 71.0 g. Calculate the percentage yield of
aluminium oxide. (Ar values: Al = 27.0, Cl = 35.5)
2Al + 3Cl2 → 2AlCl3

Solution
Step 1: Calculate the predicted mass from the stoichiometry of the equation if all the
aluminium is converted to aluminium chloride.
2 × 27 g Al produces
2 × (27 + (3 × 35.5)) g AlCl3
54 g Al produces 267 g AlCl3

Step 2: Calculate the mass of aluminium chloride formed from the given amount of aluminium
using simple proportion.

18 g Al produces 267 × = 89.0 g AlCl3

Step 3: Calculate the percentage yield.

× 100 = 79.8%
Empirical formulae
The empirical formula of a compound is the simplest whole number ratio of the elements present in one
molecule or formula unit of the compound. The molecular formula of a compound shows the number of
atoms of each element present in a molecule.

Table 3.5 shows the empirical and molecular formulae for a number of compounds.

The formula for an ionic compound is always its empirical formula.

The empirical formula and molecular formula for simple inorganic molecules are often the same.
Organic molecules often have different empirical and molecular formulae.

Compound Empirical formula Molecular formula

water H2O H2O

hydrogen peroxide HO H2O2

sulfur dioxide SO2 SO2

butane C2H5 C4H10

cyclohexane CH2 C6H12

Table 3.5: Some empirical and molecular formulae.

Question
11 Deduce the empirical formula of:

a hydrazine, N2H4

b octane, C8H18

c benzene, C6H6

d ammonia, NH3

The empirical formula can be found by determining the mass of each element present in a sample of the
compound. For some compounds this can be done by combustion. An organic compound must be very pure
in order to calculate its empirical formula.

WORKED EXAMPLES

10 Deduce the formula of magnesium oxide.

Solution
This can be found as follows:

burn a known mass of magnesium (0.486 g) in excess oxygen

record the mass of magnesium oxide formed (0.806 g)

calculate the mass of oxygen that has combined with the magnesium (0.806 − 0.486 g) = 0.320
g

calculate the mole ratio of magnesium to oxygen

(Ar values: Mg = 24.3, O = 16.0)

moles of Mg = = 0.0200 mol

moles of oxygen = = 0.0200 mol

 The simplest ratio of magnesium : oxygen is 1 : 1. So the empirical formula of magnesium oxide is
MgO.

11 When 1.55 g of phosphorus is completely combusted 3.55 g of an oxide of phosphorus is produced.

Deduce the empirical formula of this oxide of phosphorus.
(Ar values: O = 16.0, P = 31.0)

Solution

P O

Step 1: note the mass of each element 1.55 g 3.55 − 1.55 = 2.00
g

Step 2: divide by atomic masses

= 0.05 mol = 0.125 mol

Step 3: divide by the lowest figure

=1 = 2.5

Step 4: if needed, obtain the lowest whole number ratio to get empirical P2O5
formula

Table 3.6: Steps to deduce an empirical formula.

An empirical formula can also be deduced from data that give the percentage composition by mass of the
elements in a compound.

WORKED EXAMPLE

12 A compound of carbon and hydrogen contains 85.7% carbon and 14.3% hydrogen by mass. Deduce
the empirical formula of this hydrocarbon.
(Ar values: C = 12.0, H = 1.0)

Solution

C H

Step 1: note the % by mass 85.7 14.3

Step 2: divide by Ar values

= 7.142 = 14.3

Step 3: divide by the lowest figure

=1 =2

Empirical formula is CH2.

Question
12 The composition by mass of a hydrocarbon is 10% hydrogen and 90% carbon. Deduce the empirical
formula of this hydrocarbon.

(Ar values: C = 12.0, H = 1.0)

Molecular formulae
The molecular formula shows the actual number of each of the different atoms present in a molecule. We
use the molecular formula to write balanced equations and to calculate molar masses. The molecular
formula is always a multiple of the empirical formula. For example, the molecular formula of ethane, C2H6,
is twice the empirical formula, CH3.
In order to deduce the molecular formula we need to know:

the relative formula mass of the compound

the empirical formula.

WORKED EXAMPLE

13 A compound has the empirical formula CH2Br. Its relative molecular mass is 187.8. Deduce the
molecular formula of this compound.
(Ar values: Br = 79.9, C = 12.0, H = 1.0)

Solution

Step 1: Find the empirical formula mass: 12.0 + (2 × 1.0) + 79.9 = 93.9

Step 2:
Divide the relative molecular mass by the empirical formula mass: =2

Step 3: Multiply the number of atoms in the empirical formula by the number in step 2:
2 × CH2Br, so molecular formula is C2H4Br2.

Question
13 The empirical formulae and molar masses of three compounds, A, B and C, are shown in Table 3.7.
Calculate the molecular formula of each of these compounds.

(Ar values: C = 12.0, Cl = 35.5, H = 1.0)

Compound Empirical formula Mr

A C3H5 82

B CCl3 237

C CH2 112

Table 3.7: Information table for Question 13.

3.6 Chemical formulae and chemical equations

Deducing the formula for ionic and covalent compounds

Ionic compounds
The electronic structure of the individual elements in a compound determines the formula of a compound
(see Section 2.1). The formula of an ionic compound is determined by the charges on each of the ions
present. The number of positive charges is balanced by the number of negative charges so that the total
charge on the compound is zero. We can work out the formula for a compound if we know the charges on
the ions. Figure 3.17 shows the charges on some ions related to the position of the elements in the Periodic
Table. The form of the Periodic Table that we shall be using has 18 groups because the transition elements
are numbered as Groups 3 to 12. So, aluminium is in Group 13 and chlorine is in Group 17.

For simple metal ions in Groups 1 and 2, the value of the positive charge is the same as the group number.
For a simple metal ion in Group 13, the value of the positive charge is 3+. For a simple non-metal ion in
Groups 15 to 17, the value of the negative charge is 18 minus the group number. The charge on the ions of
transition elements can vary. For example, iron forms two types of ions, Fe2+ and Fe3+ (Figure 3.18).

Figure 3.17: The charge on some simple ions is related to their position in the Periodic Table.

Figure 3.18: Iron(II) chloride (left) and iron(III) chloride (right). These two chlorides of iron both contain iron and chlorine,
but they have different formulae.

The roman numerals after the ions are called oxidation numbers.

There are rules for deducing oxidation numbers (see Section 7.2):

For most metal ions in Groups 1 to 3, the oxidation numbers are equal to the positive charge on the
ion, e.g. an Al3+ ion has an oxidation number of +3. When naming compounds containing these ions,
we do not include the oxidation number of the positive ion, e.g. magnesium oxide (not magnesium(II)
oxide).
Simple negative ions have oxidation numbers which are the same as the charge on the ion, e.g. O2−
has an oxidation number of −2 and Cl− has an oxidation number of −1. When naming compounds
containing these ions we do not include the oxidation number of the negative ion as these do not
generally vary.
For transition elements, the oxidation numbers do vary. They show the charge on the ion, e.g.
chromium(II) chloride contains a Cr2+ ion and chromium(III) chloride contains a Cr3+ ion. When naming
 these compounds we must include the oxidation number to avoid confusion.

Ions that contain more than one type of atom are called compound ions. Some common compound ions
and two metal ions that you should learn are listed in Table 3.8. The formula for an ionic compound is
obtained by balancing the charges of the ions.

Ion Formula

ammonium NH4+

carbonate CO32−

hydrogencarbonate HCO3−

hydroxide OH−

nitrate NO3−

phosphate PO43−

sulfate SO42−

zinc Zn2+

silver Ag+

Table 3.8: The formulae of some common ions.

WORKED EXAMPLES

14 Deduce the formula of magnesium chloride.

Solution
Ions present: Mg2+ and Cl−.
For electrical neutrality, we need two Cl− ions for every Mg 2+ ion.
(2 × 1−) + (1 × 2+) = 0
So the formula is MgCl2.

15 Deduce the formula of aluminium oxide.

Ions present: Al3+ and O2−.
For electrical neutrality, we need three O2− ions for every two Al3+ ions.
(3 × 2−) + (2 × 3+) = 0
So the formula is Al2O3.

Covalent compounds
You can work out the formula of a covalent compound from the number of electrons needed to achieve the
stable electronic configuration of a noble gas (see Section 4.1). In general, carbon atoms form four bonds
with other atoms, hydrogen and halogen atoms form one bond and oxygen atoms form two bonds. So the
formula of water, H2O, follows these rules. The formula for methane is CH4, with each carbon atom bonding
with four hydrogen atoms. However, there are many exceptions to these rules.

Compounds containing a simple metal ion and non-metal ion are named by changing the end of the name
of the non-metal element to ‘-ide’.

sodium + chlorine → sodium chloride

zinc + sulfur → zinc sulfide

The names of compound ions containing oxygen often end in ‘-ate’. Sometimes they end in ‘-ite’. For
example, the sulfate ion contains sulfur and four oxygen atoms, the phosphate ion contains phosphorus
and oxygen.
Question
14 a Write down the formula of each of the following compounds:

i magnesium nitrate

ii calcium sulfate

iii sodium iodide

iv hydrogen bromide

v sodium sulfide

b Name each of the following compounds:

i Na3PO4

ii (NH4)2SO4

iii AlCl3

iv Ca(NO3)2

Balancing chemical equations

When chemicals react, atoms cannot be either created or destroyed. So there must be the same number of
each type of atom on the reactants side of a chemical equation as there are on the products side. A symbol
equation is a shorthand way of describing a chemical reaction. It shows the number and type of the atoms
in the reactants and the number and type of atoms in the products. If this number of each type of atom is
the same on both sides, we say the equation is balanced. Follow these examples to see how we balance an
equation.

IMPORTANT

When balancing chemical equations remember:

Do not change any of the formulae.

The numbers used to balance are put in front of the formulae.
In equations involving combustion reactions of organic compounds, balance the carbon first and
then the hydrogen. Balance the oxygen last.

WORKED EXAMPLES

16 Write a balanced equation for the reaction of hydrogen and oxygen to form water.

Solution

Step 1: Write down the formulae of all the reactants and products. For example:
H2 + O2 → H2O

Step 2: Count the number of atoms of each reactant and product.

H2 + O 2 → H2 O
2[H] 2[O] 2[H] + 1[O]

Step 3: Balance one of the atoms by placing a number in front of one of the reactants or
products. In this case the oxygen atoms on the right-hand side need to be balanced, so
that they are equal in number to those on the left-hand side. Remember that the
number in front multiplies everything in the formula. For example, 2H2O has 4 hydrogen
atoms and 2 oxygen atoms.
H2 + O2 → 2H2O
 2[H] 2[O] 4[H] + 2[O]

Step 4: Keep balancing in this way, one type of atom at a time until all the atoms are balanced.
2H2 + O2 → 2H2O
4[H] 2[O] 4[H] + 2[O]

Note that when you balance an equation you must not change the formulae of any of the reactants
or products.

17 Write a balanced equation for the reaction of iron(III) oxide with carbon monoxide to form iron and
carbon dioxide.

Solution

Step 1: Formulae:
Fe2O3 + CO → Fe + CO2

Step 2: Count the number of atoms.

Fe2O3 + CO → Fe + CO2
2[Fe] 1[C] 1[Fe] 1[C]
3[O] 1[O] 2[O]

Step 3: Balance the iron.

Fe2O3 + CO → 2Fe + CO2
2[Fe] 1[C] 2[Fe] + 1[C]
3[O] 1[O] 2[O]

Step 4: Balance the oxygen.

Fe2O3 + 3CO → 2Fe + 3CO2
2[Fe] 3[C] 2[Fe] 3[C]
3[O] 3[O] 6[O]

In step 4, the oxygen in the CO2 comes from two places, the Fe2O3 and the CO. Note that trial and
error is involved here as the carbon also needs to be balanced.
In this particular case, in order to balance the equation, three oxygen atoms come from the iron
oxide and three oxygen atoms come from the carbon monoxide.

IMPORTANT

When balancing chemical equations follow these steps:

Write the formulae of the reactants and products

Count the numbers of atoms in each reactant and product
Balance the atoms one at a time until all the atoms are balanced.

Question
15 Write balanced equations for the following reactions.

a Iron reacts with hydrochloric acid to form iron(II) chloride, FeCl2, and hydrogen.

b Aluminium hydroxide, Al(OH)3, breaks down on heating to form aluminium oxide, Al2O3, and
water.

c Hexane, C6H14, burns in oxygen to form carbon dioxide and water.

Using state symbols
We sometimes find it useful to specify the physical states of the reactants and products in a chemical
reaction. This is especially important where chemical equilibria and rates of reaction are being discussed
(see Chapter 8 and Chapter 9). We use the following state symbols:

(s) solid
(l) liquid
(g) gas
(aq) aqueous (a solution in water).

State symbols are written after the formula of each reactant and product. For example:

ZnCO3(s) + H2SO4(aq) → ZnSO4(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

Question
16 Write balanced equations, including state symbols, for the following reactions.

a Solid calcium carbonate reacts with aqueous hydrochloric acid to form water, carbon dioxide and
an aqueous solution of calcium chloride.

b An aqueous solution of zinc sulfate, ZnSO4, reacts with an aqueous solution of sodium hydroxide.

The products are a precipitate of zinc hydroxide, Zn(OH)2, and an aqueous solution of sodium sulfate.

Figure 3.19: The reaction between calcium carbonate and hydrochloric acid.

The equation for the reaction shown in Figure 3.19, with all the state symbols, is:

CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) → CaCl2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)

Question
17 Which is the correct equation for the reaction between iron(III) oxide and carbon monoxide?

A Fe2O3(g) + 3CO(g) → 2Fe(s) + 3CO2(l)

B 2FeO(s) + 2CO(g) → 2Fe(s) + 2CO2(l)

C Fe2O3(g) + 3CO(g) → 2Fe(s) + 3CO2(g)

D 2Fe2O3(g) + 3CO(g) → 4Fe(s) + 3CO2(g)

Balancing ionic equations
When ionic compounds dissolve in water, the ions separate from each other. For example:

NaCl(s) + aq → Na+(aq) + Cl−(aq)

Ionic compounds include salts such as sodium bromide, magnesium sulfate and ammonium nitrate. Acids
and alkalis also contain ions. For example, H+(aq) and Cl−(aq) ions are present in hydrochloric acid and Na+
(aq) and OH−(aq) ions are present in sodium hydroxide.

Many chemical reactions in aqueous solution involve ionic compounds. Only some of the ions in solution
take part in these reactions.

The ions that play no part in the reaction are called spectator ions.

An ionic equation is simpler than a full chemical equation. It shows only the ions or other particles taking
part in a reaction. Spectator ions are omitted (left out). Ionic equations are often written for reactions
involving a change in oxidation state. Compare the full equation for the reaction of zinc with aqueous
copper(II) sulfate with the ionic equation.

full chemical equation:

Zn(s) + CuSO4(aq) → ZnSO4(aq) + Cu(s)

with charges:
Zn(s) + Cu2+SO42−(aq) → Zn2+SO42−(aq) + Cu(s)

cancelling spectator ions:

Zn(s) + Cu2+ → Zn2+ + Cu(s)

ionic equation:
Zn(s) + Cu2+(aq) → Zn2+(aq) + Cu(s)

In the ionic equation you will notice that:

there are no sulfate ions: these are the spectator ions as they have not changed
both the charges and the atoms are balanced.

IMPORTANT

When writing an ionic equation remember:

The product(s) will often include a precipitate or simple molecules such as iodine or water e.g.
Cl2(aq) + 2I−(aq) → I2(aq) + 2Cl−(aq)

Acids are represented by H+ ions, e.g. ZnO(s) + 2H+(aq) → Zn2+(aq) + H2O(l)

The next examples show how we can change a full equation into an ionic equation.

WORKED EXAMPLE

18 Writing an ionic equation:

Solution

Step 1: Write down the full balanced equation.

Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) → MgCl2(aq) + H2(g)

Step 2: Write down all the ions present. Any reactant or product that has a state symbol (s), (l)
or (g) or is a covalent molecule in solution such as chlorine, Cl2(aq), does not split into
ions.

Mg(s) + 2H+(aq) + 2Cl−(aq) →

Mg2+(aq) + 2Cl−(aq) + H2(g)
 Step 3: Cancel the ions that appear on both sides of the equation (the spectator ions).

Mg(s) + 2H+(aq) + →
Mg2+(aq) + + H2(g)

Step 4: Write down the equation omitting the spectator ions.

Mg(s) + 2H+(aq) → Mg2+(aq) + H2(g)

19 Write the ionic equation for the reaction of aqueous chlorine with aqueous potassium bromide. The
products are aqueous bromine and aqueous potassium chloride.

Solution

Step 1: The full balanced equation is:

Cl2(aq) + 2KBr(aq) →

Br2(aq) + 2KCl(aq)

Step 2: The ions present are:

Cl2(aq) + 2K+(aq) + 2Br−(aq) →

Br2(aq) + 2K+(aq) + 2Cl−(aq)

Step 3: Cancel the spectator ions:

Cl2(aq) + + 2Br−(aq) →
Br2(aq) + + 2Cl−(aq)

Step 4: Write the final ionic equation:

Cl2(aq) + 2Br−(aq) → Br2(aq) + 2Cl−(aq)

Questions
18 Change these full equations to ionic equations.

a H2SO4(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) → Na2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(I)

b Br2(aq) + KI(aq) → 2KBr(aq)+I2

19 Write ionic equations for these precipitation reactions.

a CuSO4(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) → Cu(OH)2(s) + Na2SO4(aq)

b Pb(NO3)2(aq) + 2KI(aq) → PbI2(s) + 2KNO3(aq)

Chemists usually prefer to write ionic equations for precipitation reactions. A precipitation reaction is a
reaction where two aqueous solutions react to form a solid: the precipitate. For these reactions the method
of writing the ionic equation can be simplified. All you have to do is:

write the formula of the precipitate as the product

write the ions that go to make up the precipitate as the reactants.

WORKED EXAMPLE

20 An aqueous solution of iron(II) sulfate reacts with an aqueous solution of sodium hydroxide. A
precipitate of iron(II) hydroxide is formed, together with an aqueous solution of sodium sulfate.

Solution
 Step 1: Write the full balanced equation
FeSO4(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) → Fe(OH)2(s) + Na2SO4(aq)

Step 2: Identify the precipitate formed:

Fe(OH)2(s)

Step 3: Identify the ions which form the precipitate:

Fe2+(aq) and OH−(aq)

Step 4: Write the ionic equation:

Fe2+(aq) + 2OH−(aq) → Fe(OH)2(s)

REFLECTION
1 Work with another learner to discuss these points:

a What are the stages in balancing a chemical equation?

b What sort of problems have you found when trying to write ionic equations?

c How do you know which species to include in the equation?

2 Make a list of the key words in this chapter so far, e.g. mole, and see if you can explain their
meaning to another learner.

3 Work with another learner to discuss an activity (it could be memory aid or a game) to help you
learn how to write formulae or do mole calculations. Can you teach this to someone else in your
class?
3.7 Solutions and concentration

Calculating the concentration of a solution

The concentration of a solution is the amount of solute dissolved in a solvent to make 1 dm3 (one cubic
decimetre) of solution. The solvent is usually water. There are 1000 cm3 in a cubic decimetre. When 1
mole of a compound is dissolved to make 1 dm3 of solution the concentration is 1 mol dm−3.

concentration (mol dm−3) =

We use the terms ‘concentrated’ and ‘dilute’ to refer to the relative amount of solute in the solution. A
solution with a low concentration of solute is a dilute solution. If there is a high concentration of solute, the
solution is concentrated.

When performing calculations involving concentrations in mol dm−3 you need to:

change mass in grams to moles

change cm3 to dm3 (by dividing the number of cm3 by 1000).

IMPORTANT

When making solutions of known concentration, you dissolve a weighed amount of solute in a small
amount of solvent. Then you make it up to the required volume by adding more solvent. You do not
add the solute to the required final volume of solvent because the total volume of the solution may
then change.

WORKED EXAMPLE

21 Calculate the concentration in mol dm−3 of sodium hydroxide, NaOH, if 250 cm3 of a solution
contains 2.0 g of sodium hydroxide.

Solution
(Mr value: NaOH = 40.0)

Step 1: Change grams to moles.

= 0.050 mol NaOH

Step 2: Change cm3 to dm3.

250 cm3 = 0.25 dm3

Step 3: Calculate concentration.

= 0.20 mol dm−3

Figure 3.20: The concentration of chlorine in the water in a swimming pool must be carefully controlled.

We often need to calculate the mass of a substance present in a solution of known concentration and
volume. To do this we:

rearrange the concentration equation to:

number of moles (mol) = concentration (mol dm−3) × volume (dm3)

multiply the moles of solute by its molar mass

mass of solute (g) = number of moles (mol) × molar mass (g mol−1)

WORKED EXAMPLE

22 Calculate the mass of anhydrous copper(II) sulfate in 55 cm3 of a 0.20 mol dm−3 solution of
copper(II) sulfate. (Ar values: Cu = 63.5, O = 16.0, S = 32.1)

Solution

Step 1: Change cm3 to dm3.

= 0.055 dm3

Step 2: moles = concentration (mol dm−3) × volume of solution (dm3)

= 0.20 × 0.055 = 0.011 mol

Step 3: mass (g) = moles × M

= 0.011 × (63.5 + 32.1 + (4 × 16.0))
= 1.8 g (to 2 significant figures)

Question
20 a Calculate the concentration, in mol dm−3, of the following solutions: (Ar values: C = 12.0, H = 1.0,
Na = 23.0, O = 16.0)

i a solution of sodium hydroxide, NaOH, containing 2.0 g of sodium hydroxide in 50 cm3 of

solution

ii a solution of ethanoic acid, CH3CO2H, containing 12.0 g of ethanoic acid in 250 cm3 of
solution.

b Calculate the number of moles of solute dissolved in each of the following:

i 40 cm3 of aqueous nitric acid of concentration 0.2 mol dm−3

ii 50 cm3 of calcium hydroxide solution of concentration 0.01 mol dm−3.

PRACTICAL ACTIVITY 3.2

Carrying out a titration

A procedure called a titration is used to determine the amount of substance present in a solution of
unknown concentration. There are several different kinds of titration. One of the commonest involves
the exact neutralisation of an alkali by an acid (Figure 3.21).

Figure 3.21: a A funnel is used to fill the burette with hydrochloric acid. b A graduated pipette is used to measure
25.0 cm3 of sodium hydroxide solution into a conical flask. c An indicator called litmus is added to the sodium
hydroxide solution, which turns blue. d 12.5 cm3 of hydrochloric acid from the burette have been added to the 25.0
cm3 of alkali in the conical flask. The litmus has gone red, showing that this volume of acid was just enough to
neutralise the alkali.

If we want to determine the concentration of a solution of sodium hydroxide of unknown concentration

we use the following procedure.

Use a volumetric pipette to place a given volume (usually 10 cm3 or 25 cm3) of sodium hydroxide of
unknown concentration into a flask.
Get some of acid of known concentration, e.g. hydrochloric acid of concentration 1.00 mol dm−3
Fill a clean burette with the acid (after having washed the burette with a little of the acid).
Record the initial burette reading.
Add a few drops of an indicator solution to the alkali in the flask, e.g. methyl orange.
Slowly add the acid from the burette to the flask, swirling the flask all the time until the indicator
changes colour (the end-point).
Record the final burette reading. The final reading minus the initial reading is called the titre. This
first titre is normally known as a ‘rough’ value.
Repeat this process, adding the acid drop by drop near the end-point.
Repeat again, until you have two titres that are no more than 0.10 cm3 apart.
Take the average of these two titre values.

Your results should be recorded in a table, looking like this:

Rough 1 2 3

Final burette reading / cm3 37.60 38.65 36.40 34.75

Initial burette reading / cm3 2.40 4.00 1.40 0.00

Titre / cm3 35.20 34.65 35.00 34.75

 Table 3.9: Example results table.

You should note:

all burette readings are given to an accuracy of 0.05 cm3

the units are shown like this: / cm3
the two titres that are no more than 0.10 cm3 apart are 1 and 3, so they would be averaged
the average titre is 34.70 cm3.

In every titration there are five important things you need to know or work out:

1 the balanced equation for the reaction

2 the volume of the solution from the burette (in this example this is hydrochloric acid)

3 the concentration of the solution in the burette

4 the volume of the solution in the titration flask (in this example this is sodium hydroxide)

5 the concentration of the solution in the titration flask.

If we know four of these five things, we can calculate the fifth. So, in order to calculate the
concentration of sodium hydroxide in the flask, we need to know the first four of these points.

Calculating solution concentration by titration

A titration is often used to find the exact concentration of a solution. Worked example 23 shows the steps
used to calculate the concentration of a solution of sodium hydroxide when it is neutralised by aqueous
sulfuric acid of known concentration and volume.

WORKED EXAMPLE

23 25.0 cm3 of a solution of sodium hydroxide is exactly neutralised by 15.10 cm3 of sulfuric acid of
concentration 0.200 mol dm−3.
2NaOH + H2SO4 → Na2SO4 + 2H2O

Calculate the concentration, in mol dm−3, of the sodium hydroxide solution.

Solution

Step 1: Calculate how many moles of acid.

moles = concentration (mol dm−3) ×

volume of solution (dm3)

0.200 × = 0.00302 mol H2SO4

Step 2: Use the stoichiometry of the balanced equation to calculate how many moles of NaOH.

moles of NaOH =

moles of acid (from step 1) × 2

= 0.00604 mol

Step 3: Calculate the concentration of NaOH.

 Note:

In the first step we use the reagent for which the concentration and volume are both known.

In step 2, we multiply by 2 because the balanced equation shows that 2 mol of NaOH reacts with
every 1 mol of H2SO4.

In step 3, we divide by 0.0250 because we have changed cm3 to dm3 0.0250 =

The answer is given to 3 significant figures because the smallest number of significant figures in
the data is 3.

IMPORTANT

When doing calculations from the results of titrations, remember:

average only those titres which are very close to each other, e.g. within 0.1–0.2 cm3 of each other,
and ignore the rough (rangefinder) titration.
keep the units the same. It is often easier to convert volumes in cm3 to dm3 because solution
concentration is usually given in mol dm−3.

Note that in some older books M is sometimes used in place of mol dm−3.

Question
21 a The equation for the reaction of strontium hydroxide with hydrochloric acid is shown below.

Sr(OH)2 + 2HCl → SrCl2 + 2H2O

25.0 cm3 of a solution of strontium hydroxide was exactly neutralised by 15.00 cm3 of 0.100 mol
dm−3 hydrochloric acid. Calculate the concentration, in mol dm−3, of the strontium hydroxide
solution.

b 20.0 cm3 of a 0.400 mol dm−3 solution of sodium hydroxide was exactly neutralised by 25.25 cm3
of sulfuric acid. Calculate the concentration, in mol dm−3, of the sulfuric acid. The equation for the
reaction is:

H2SO4 + 2NaOH → Na2SO4 + 2H2O

Deducing stoichiometry by titration

We can use titration results to find the stoichiometry of a reaction. In order to do this, we need to know the
concentrations and the volumes of both the reactants. Worked example 24 shows how to determine the
stoichiometry of the reaction between a metal hydroxide and an acid.

WORKED EXAMPLE

24 25.0 cm3 of a 0.0500 mol dm−3 solution of a metal hydroxide was titrated against a solution of 0.200
mol dm−3 hydrochloric acid. It required 12.50 cm3 of hydrochloric acid to exactly neutralise the
metal hydroxide. Deduce the stoichiometry of this reaction.

Solution

Step 1: Calculate the number of moles of each reagent.

 Step 2: Deduce the simplest mole ratio of metal hydroxide to hydrochloric acid.
1.25 × 10−3 moles of hydroxide : 2.50 × 10−3 moles of acid = 1 hydroxide : 2 acid

Step 3: Write the equation.

M(OH)2 + 2HCl → MCl2 + 2H2O

One mole of hydroxide ions neutralises one mole of hydrogen ions. As one mole of the metal
hydroxide neutralises two moles of hydrochloric acid, the metal hydroxide must contain two
hydroxide ions in each formula unit.

Questions
22 20.0 cm3 of a metal hydroxide of concentration 0.0600 mol dm−3 was titrated with 0.100 mol dm−3
hydrochloric acid. It required 24.00 cm3 of the hydrochloric acid to exactly neutralise the metal
hydroxide.

a Calculate the number of moles of metal hydroxide used.

b Calculate the number of moles of hydrochloric acid used.

c What is the simplest mole ratio of metal hydroxide to hydrochloric acid?

d Write a balanced equation for this reaction using your answers to parts a, b and c to help you.
Use the symbol M for the metal.

23 0.4 moles of aluminium sulfate, Al2(SO4)3, are dissolved in water and the volume of the solution was
made up to 500 cm3. Which one of these statements is correct?

A The solution contains a total of 2 moles of ions.

B The concentration of aluminium ions is 0.8 mol dm−3.

C The concentration of sulfate ions in solution is 1.2 mol dm−3.

D The solution contains a total of 4 moles of ions.

3.8 Calculations involving gas volumes

Using the molar gas volume

In 1811 the Italian scientist Amedeo Avogadro suggested that equal volumes of all gases contain the same
number of molecules. This is called Avogadro’s hypothesis. This idea is approximately true as long as the
pressure is not too high or the temperature too low. It is convenient to measure volumes of gases at room
temperature (20 °C) and pressure (1 atmosphere). At room temperature and pressure (r.t.p.) one mole of
any gas has a volume of 24.0 dm3. So, 24.0 dm3 of carbon dioxide and 24.0 dm3 of hydrogen both contain
one mole of gas molecules.

We can use the molar gas volume of 24.0 dm3 at r.t.p. to find:

the volume of a given mass or number of moles of gas

the mass or number of moles of a given volume of gas.

WORKED EXAMPLES

25 Calculate the volume of 0.40 mol of nitrogen at r.t.p.

Solution

26 Calculate the mass of methane, CH4, present in 120 cm3 of methane. (Mr value: methane = 16.0)

Solution

120 cm3 is 0.120 dm3

Question
24 a Calculate the volume, in dm3, occupied by 26.4 g of carbon dioxide at r.t.p.

(Ar values: C = 12.0, O = 16.0)

b A flask of volume 120 cm3 is filled with helium gas at r.t.p. Calculate the mass of helium present
in the flask. (Ar value: He = 4.0)
Figure 3.22: Anaesthetists have to know about gas volumes so that patients remain unconscious during major
operations.

Gas volumes and stoichiometry

We can use the ratio of reacting volumes of gases to deduce the stoichiometry of a reaction. If we mix 20
cm3 of hydrogen with 10 cm3 of oxygen and explode the mixture, we will find that the gases have exactly
reacted together and no hydrogen or oxygen remains. According to Avogadro’s hypothesis, equal volumes
of gases contain equal numbers of molecules and therefore equal numbers of moles of gases. So the mole
ratio of hydrogen to oxygen is 2 : 1. We can summarise this as:

We can extend this idea to experiments involving combustion data of hydrocarbons. Worked example 27
shows how the formula of propane and the stoichiometry of the equation can be deduced. Propane is a
hydrocarbon: a compound of carbon and hydrogen only.

WORKED EXAMPLE

27 When 50 cm3 of propane reacts exactly with 250 cm3 of oxygen, 150 cm3 of carbon dioxide is
formed.
propane + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water
CxHy (O2) (CO2) (H2O)
3 3 3
50 cm 250 cm 150 cm

Solution
ratio of moles:
1 5 3
As 1 mole of propane produces 3 moles of carbon dioxide, there must be 3 moles of carbon atoms in
one mole of propane, x = 3.
C3Hy + 5O2 → 3CO2 + zH2O
The 5 moles of oxygen molecules are used to react with both the carbon and the hydrogen in the
propane. 3 moles of these oxygen molecules have been used in forming carbon dioxide. So 5 − 3 =
2 moles of oxygen molecules must be used in reacting with the hydrogen to form water. There are 4
moles of atoms in 2 moles of oxygen molecules, so there must be 4 moles of water formed.
C3Hy + 5O2 → 3CO2 + 4H2O
 So there must be 8 hydrogen atoms in 1 molecule of propane.
C3H8 + 5O2 → 3CO2 + 4H2O

Questions
25 50 cm3 of a gaseous hydride of phosphorus, PHn reacts with exactly 150 cm3 of chlorine, Cl2, to form
liquid phosphorus trichloride and 150 cm3 of hydrogen chloride gas, HCl.

a How many moles of chlorine react with 1 mole of the gaseous hydride?

b Deduce the formula of the phosphorus hydride.

c Write a balanced equation for the reaction.

26 What is the volume of carbon dioxide produced when 14 g of ethene, C2H4, reacts with excess oxygen?
(Mr ethene = 28)

C2H4(g) + 3O2(g) → 2CO2(g) + 2H2O(l)

A 96.0 dm3

B 24.0 dm3

C 0.0467 dm3

D 12.0 dm3

REFLECTION

1. Make a list of the chemical expressions that you have learned during this chapter, e.g. the
relationship between moles, mass and relative molecular mass.

2. Compare your list with another learner then write the expressions out in as many different ways
as you can, e.g. the expression density = could be rewritten as mass = density × volume

What problems did you come across? How did you solve them?
SUMMARY

Unified atomic mass unit is one twelfth of the mass of a carbon-12 atom.

Relative atomic mass is the ratio of the weighted average mass of atoms in a given sample of an element to the
unified atomic mass unit.

The mass spectrometer can be used to determine atomic masses and isotopic abundances, to deduce the molecular
mass of an organic compound and to deduce the formula of an organic molecule from its fragmentation pattern and
isotopic ratios.

One mole of a substance is the amount of substance that has the Avogadro number of specified particles (6.02 ×
1023). The particles can be atoms, molecules, ions or electrons.

Molecular formulae show the total number of atoms of each element present in one molecule or one formula unit of
the compound. Empirical formulae show the simplest whole number ratio of atoms in a compound.

The mole concept can be used to calculate:

reacting masses
volumes of gases
volumes and concentrations of solutions.

The stoichiometry of a reaction can be obtained from calculations involving reacting masses, gas volumes, and
volumes and concentrations of solutions.
EXAM-STYLE QUESTIONS

1 a i State the meaning of the term relative atomic mass. [1]

10
ii A sample of boron was found to have the following % composition by mass: 5B
(18.7%), 115B (81.3%)
Calculate a value for the relative atomic mass of boron. Give your answer to 3 [2]
significant figures.

b Boron ions, B3+, can be formed by bombarding gaseous boron with high-energy [1]
electrons. Deduce the number of electrons in one B3+ ion.

c Boron is present in compounds called borates.

i Use the Ar values below to calculate the relative molecular mass of iron(III) borate,
Fe(BO2)3.
[1]
(Ar values: Fe = 55.8, B = 10.8, O = 16.0)

ii The accurate relative atomic mass of iron, Fe, is 55.8. Explain why the accurate [1]
relative atomic mass is not a whole number.
[Total: 6]
2 This question is about some metals and metal compounds.

a i Hafnium, Hf, forms a hydrated peroxide whose formula can be written as

HfO3·2H2O. Use the Ar values below to calculate the relative molecular mass of
hydrated hafnium peroxide.
[1]
(Ar values: Hf = 178.5, H = 1.0, O = 16.0)
[1]
ii What is meant by the term hydrated salt?

b A particular isotope of hafnium has 72 protons and a nucleon number of 180. Write the [1]
isotopic symbol for this isotope, showing this information.

c The mass spectrum of zirconium is shown below.

[1]
i Give the isotopic symbol for the most abundant isotope of zirconium.

ii Use the information from this mass spectrum to calculate the relative atomic mass [2]
of zirconium. Give your answer to 3 significant figures.

iii High-resolution mass spectra show accurate relative isotopic masses. State the [1]
meaning of the term relative isotopic mass?

d A sample of 15.2 g of tin(IV) oxide is mixed with 2.41 g of carbon and heated. A reaction
occurs.
SnO2 + 2C → Sn + 2CO
Show by calculation that the reagent in excess is tin(IV) oxide. (Ar values: Sn = 118.7, C
[2]
 = 12.0, O = 16.0).

e A sample of zirconium is made by reacting 58.30 g of zirconium tetrachloride, ZrCl4, with

excess magnesium.
ZrCl4 + 2Mg → Zr + 2MgCl2
The mass of zirconium produced is 20.52 g. Calculate the percentage yield of zirconium. [2]
(Ar values: Zr = 91.2, Cl = 35.5, Mg = 24.3)
[Total: 11]
3 Solid sodium carbonate reacts with aqueous hydrochloric acid to form aqueous sodium
chloride, carbon dioxide and water.
Na2CO3 + 2HCl → 2NaCl + CO2 + H2O
[1]
a Rewrite this equation to include state symbols.

b Calculate the number of moles of hydrochloric acid required to react exactly with 4.15 g [3]
of sodium carbonate. (Ar values: C = 12.0, Na = 23.0, O = 16.0, H = 1.0, Cl = 35.5)
[1]
c Define the term mole.

d An aqueous solution of 25.0 cm3 sodium carbonate of concentration 0.0200 mol dm−3 is
titrated with hydrochloric acid. The volume of hydrochloric acid required to exactly react
with the sodium carbonate is 12.50 cm3.

i Calculate the number of moles of sodium carbonate present in the solution of [1]
sodium carbonate.
[2]
ii Calculate the concentration of the hydrochloric acid.

e How many moles of carbon dioxide are produced when 0.2 mol of sodium carbonate [1]
reacts with excess hydrochloric acid?

f Calculate the volume of this number of moles of carbon dioxide at r.t.p. (1 mol of gas [1]
occupies 24 dm3 at r.t.p.)
[Total: 10]
4 Hydrocarbons are compounds of carbon and hydrogen only. Hydrocarbon Z is
composed of 80% carbon and 20% hydrogen.
[3]
a Calculate the empirical formula of hydrocarbon Z. (Ar values: C = 12.0, H = 1.0)

b The molar mass of hydrocarbon Z is 30.0 g mol−1. Deduce the molecular formula of this [1]
hydrocarbon.

c When 50 cm3 of hydrocarbon Y is burnt, it reacts with exactly 300 cm3 of oxygen to form
200 cm3 of carbon dioxide. Water is also formed in the reaction. Construct the equation [4]
for this reaction. Explain your reasoning.

d Propane has the molecular formula C3H8. Calculate the mass of 600 cm3 of propane at
[2]
r.t.p. (1 mol of gas occupies 24 dm3 at r.t.p.) (Ar values: C = 12.0, H = 1.0)
[Total: 10]
5 When sodium reacts with titanium chloride (TiCl4), sodium chloride (NaCl) and titanium
(Ti) are produced.
[2]
a Construct the balanced symbol equation for the reaction.

b Calculate the mass of titanium produced from 380 g of titanium chloride. Give your [2]
answer to 3 significant figures. (Ar values: Ti = 47.9, Cl = 35.5)

c Calculate the mass of titanium produced using 46.0 g of sodium. Give your answer to 3 [2]
significant figures. (Ar value: Na = 23.0)
[Total: 6]
6 In this question give all answers to 3 significant figures.
The reaction between NaOH and HCl can be written as:
HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H2O
In this reaction, 15.0 cm3 of hydrochloric acid was neutralised by 20.0 cm3 of 0.0500 mol dm−3
sodium hydroxide.
 a Calculate the volume in dm3 of:
[1]
i the acid
[1]
ii the alkali
[1]
b Calculate the number of moles of alkali.
[2]
c Calculate the number of moles of acid and then its concentration.
[Total: 5]
7 Give all answers to 3 significant figures.
Ammonium nitrate decomposes on heating to give nitrogen(II) oxide and water as
follows:
NH4NO3(s) → N2O(g) + 2H2O(l)
(Ar values: N = 14.0; H = 1.0; O = 16.0)
[1]
a Deduce the formula mass of ammonium nitrate.
[2]
b How many moles of ammonium nitrate are present in 0.800 g of the solid?

c Calculate the volume of N2O gas that would be produced from this mass of ammonium
[2]
nitrate?
[Total: 5]
8 Give all answers to 3 significant figures.

a 1.20 dm3 of hydrogen chloride gas was dissolved in 100 cm3 of water.
[1]
i Calculate the number of moles of hydrogen chloride gas present.
[2]
ii Calculate the concentration of the hydrochloric acid formed.

b 25.0 cm3 of the acid was then titrated against sodium hydroxide of concentration 0.200
mol dm−3 to form NaCl and water:
NaOH + HCl → H2O + NaCl
[2]
i Calculate the number of moles of acid used.
[2]
ii Calculate the volume of sodium hydroxide used.
[Total: 7]
9 Give all answers to 3 significant figures.
4.80 dm3 of chlorine gas was reacted with sodium hydroxide solution. The reaction
taking place was as follows:
Cl2(g) + 2NaOH(aq) → NaCl(aq) + NaOCl(aq) + H2O(l)
(Ar values: Na = 23.0; Cl = 35.5; O = 16.0)
[1]
a Calculate the number of moles of Cl2 reacted.
[2]
b Calculate the mass of NaOCl formed.

c The concentration of the NaOH was 2.00 mol dm−3. Calculate the volume of sodium [2]
hydroxide solution required.
[1]
d Write an ionic equation for this reaction.
[Total: 6]
10 Calcium oxide reacts with hydrochloric acid according to the equation:
CaO + 2HCl → CaCl2 + H2O
Ar values: H = 1.0; O = 16.0; Cl = 35.5; Ca = 40.1

a Calculate the mass of calcium chloride formed when 28.05 g of calcium oxide reacts with [2]
excess hydrochloric acid.
[2]
b Calculate the mass of hydrochloric acid that reacts with 28.05 g of calcium oxide.
[1]
c Calculate the mass of water produced.