EP2210, Principles of Quantum Mechanics, January–May 2024

Additional exercises I
Essential classical mechanics
1. Snell’s law of refraction: Two homogeneous media of refractive indices n1 and n2 are placed adjacent
to each other. A ray of light propagates from a point in the first medium to a point in the second
medium. According to the Fermat’s principle, the light ray will follow a path that minimizes the
transit time between the two points. Use Fermat’s principle to derive the Snell’s law of refraction,
viz. that
n1 sin θ1 = n2 sin θ2 ,
where θ1 and θ2 are the angles of incidence and refraction at the interface.
Note: As the complete path is not differentiable at the interface, actually, the problem is not an
Euler equation problem.

2. Variation involving higher derivatives: Show that the Euler equation corresponding to the integral
�x2
J[y(x)] = dx f (y, yx , yxx , , x),
x1
� �
where yxx ≡ d2 y/dx , is given by
2

� � � � � �
d2 ∂f d ∂f ∂f
2
− + = 0.
dx ∂yxx dx ∂yx ∂y

Note: In order to obtain this equation, the variation as well its first derivative need to be set to
zero at the end points.

3. Geodesics on a cone: Consider a cone with a semi-vertical angle α.

(a) Determine the line element on the cone.

4. Action for a free particle: Given that a free particle that is moving in three dimensions was located
at the position r1 at time t1 and at the position r2 at time t2 , determine the action for the free
particle in terms of r1 , r2 , t1 and t2 .
Note: Make use of the solution known in the case of the free particle in the integral describing the
action.

5. Motion in one dimension: Obtain the solutions describing the time evolution of a particle moving
in the one-dimensional potential
� �
U (x) = α e−2 β x − 2 e−β x , where α, β > 0,

for the cases E < 0, E = 0 and E > 0, where E is the energy of the particle. Also, evaluate the
period of oscillation of the particle when E < 0.

6. Application of the virial theorem: Using virial theorem, show that the total mass M of a spherical
cluster of stars (or galaxies) of uniform density and radius R is given by

5 R �v 2 �
M= ,
3G
where �v 2 � is the mean-squared velocity of the individual stars and G is, of course, the gravitational
constant.

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 EP2210, Principles of Quantum Mechanics, January–May 2024

Note: The above relation allows us to obtain an estimate of the mass of a cluster if we can measure
the mean-squared velocity, say, from the Doppler spread of the spectral lines and the radius of the
cluster, say, from its known distance and angular size.

7. The Laplace-Runge-Lenz vector: Recall that, for a particle with s degrees of freedom, we require
2 s − 1 constants of motion in order to arrive at a unique trajectory for the particle. According to
this argument, for the Kepler problem, we would then need five integrals of motion to obtain the
solution. We had expressed the solution in terms of the energy E of the system and the amplitude
of the angular momentum vector L, both of which were conserved. However, these quantities, viz.
the energy E and the three components of the angular momentum vector L, only add up to four
constants of motion! Evidently, it will be interesting to examine if we can identify the fifth integral
of motion associated with the system.

(a) Show that, for a particle moving in the Keplerian central potential, i.e. U (r) = −α/r with
α > 0, the following vector is an integral of motion:
mαr
A = mv × L − .
r
Note: The conserved vector A is known as the Laplace-Runge-Lenz vector.
(b) Show that the vector A lies in the plane of the orbit.
(c) Indicate the amplitude and the direction of A associated with a planet as it moves in an
elliptical orbit around the Sun.
Hint: Determine the amplitude and the direction of A at, say, the perihelion and the aphelion.
(d) If E, M and A are all constants, then, we seem to have seven integrals of motion instead of
the required five to arrive at a unique solution! How does seven reduce to five?
Hint: Examine if there exist any relations between A and L and/or E.

8. Phase portraits: Draw the phase portraits of a particle moving in the following one dimensional
potentials: (a) U (x) = α |x|n , (b) U (x) = α x2 − β x3 , (c) U (x) = α (x2 − β 2 )2 , and (d) U (θ) =
−α cos θ, where (α, β) > 0 and n > 2.

9. Hamiltonian of a free particle: Show that the Hamiltonian of a free particle can be written as

p2r L2
H= + ,
2 m 2 m r2
where pr is the momentum conjugate to the radial coordinate r and L = r × p.

10. Angular momentum of a free particle: Show that the angular momentum of a free particle can be
written as
p2φ
L2 = L2x + L2y + L2z = p2θ + .
sin2 θ

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