¥ Computer Aided Design (GTU) la INTRODUCTION To CAD/CAM CONCEPTS > (May 12, Deo. 12) The rapid developments in the field ‘of computers in the Past four decades can be undoubtedly Shales’ | an the tose, most signifiant Contributing factor responsible for the boost in the technological developments. The computer has Shtered each and every fleld. It has become the most important tool in all the technological areas Including design and manufacturing. ‘The entry of computers in the fields of design and manufacturing has led to the emergence of new areas known as Computer-Aided Design (CAD) and Computer Aided Manufacturing (CAM). Computer-Aided Design (CAD) : Computer-Aided Design (CAD) can be defined as the use of computer systems to assist in the creation, modification, synthesis, analysis, and/or optimization of a design. Computer-Aided Manufacturing (CAM) + Computer-Aided Manufacturing (CAM) can be defined as the use of computer systems to plan, ‘manage, and control the manufacturing operations through the direct or indirect computer interface with the manufacturing machine, Traditionally, the design and manufacturing have been treated as two distinct and separate activities. However, the CAD/CAM has led to the greater integration of design and manufacturing. 1.2 TYPICAL CONVENTIONAL PRODUCT CYCLE > (May 19) Fig, 1.2.2 : Typical Conventional Product Cyc The various steps in the typical conventions product cycle (Fig. 1.2.1) are as follows : 4. [Product Concept : The product cycle begins wis the product concept. This concept 1s cultivate, refined, analysed, and improved. 2. Design OF Product + The next step is the design o the product, which include synthesis, analysis, aq optimization. 3. + The design is followed by its documentation by means. of component drawings, assembly drawing, materal specifications, etc. Here, the design department hhands over the bottom to the manufacturing department. 4+ Progess Plating The next step is the proces planning. Based on the drawings, the process plans formulated, which specifies the sequence of ‘manufacturing operations. The detail specifications of tools required, tool layout and materia ‘Tequirement are prepared. 5. This 1s followed by the production planning ofthe product. 6 Production : Production planning is followed by the actual manufacturing or production of the Product. (Quality Control: The produced parts are inspected fare made to pass through certain standard ‘qualcy tests, ‘8 Marketing : The product is then packaged and shipped to the customers. % Gustomer Feedback : The feedbacks from the fomers are continuously. incorporated in the design. The continuous closed loop curve,Computer Aided Design (GTU) 1.3. PRODUCT CYCLE WITH CAD/CAM TOOLS D (May 11, Dec. 12) _ a age aot oo in 1 Compare computer sided design and conventional +s design with a neat block diagram, The various steps in the product cycle with CAD/CAM (Fig. 13.1) areas follows: 1. [Product \Concept! : The product cycle begins with the product concept. The product concept is cultivated, refined, analysed and improved. Computer-Aided Design : The computer-aided design of the product is carried out using the various CAD tools such as : geometric modeling, ‘finite element analysis and simulation, ‘Computer-Alded Drafting and Documentation : From the geometric model, the detail two dimensional drawings of the product and its components are created automatically. This is known as computer-aided drafting. at this stage, the complete description and information of the product and its components is available in the Fig. 1.3. : Product Cycle with CAD/CAM Introduction Computer-Aided Process Planning : In the next step, using the geometric model of the product stored in the database, computer-aided process planning (CAPP) is carried out. ‘The tool design and ‘tool layout are also carried out using computers. Computer Assisted Production Planning : This s followed by the computer assisted production planning of the product. computers are used in production to monitor and control the manufacturing operations. Using the geometric model stored in the CAD/CAM database, automatically the tool paths can be generated for CNC machines. The computer controlled robots and ‘the material handling equipment are also used in production. : In quality control, the computers are used for inspection and performance testing of the product and its ‘components. + Computers can be used in. ee product. + The online customer feedback of the product is taken with the help of computers. ‘The CAD/CAM has led to the greater integration of design and manufacturing. 2 1.4 APPLICATION OF COMPUTERS IN DESIGN (STAGES OF DESIGN PROCESS) Be ‘D (May 13, May 17, Deo. 18, Dec. 19) ‘The general design process consists of following six phases or steps:\ soma: ‘* Once the problem is defined, the next step is the Computer Aided Design (GTU) |i a computer-aided design (CAD), the computer ‘ystems are used to assist in these different phases of design process. The use of ‘computer system in these Phases ls discussed below [Fig. 1.4.1]. Design Process Every design process starts with the recognition or identification of need. Recognition of need is the outcome of either the requirement or the discontent withthe existing system. © Its highly creative act and computer system does not play any role in this phase. \ 2-etnton of Problem: + The difference between the statement of the need and the definition of thie problem lies in the fact that the problem is more specific. © Definition of problem must include all the inputs parameters, functional requirements and constraints of the system. ‘© In this phase also the computer system has no role to play. synthesis. Synthesis is the process of contriving a scheme or a method of accomplishing a given purpose. Introduction It Is the process of selecting the mechanism (or configuration) of the system, materials, sizes, ang shapes of the components so as to get the desireq output with the given input. I involves number of Iterations. In a computer-aided design, the geometric modeling s used to assist the synthesis. Geometric modeling is defined as the complete representation of an object (or a system) with the ‘graphical and non-graphical information. It generates the mathematical description of the geometry and non-geometry of an object (or a system) in the computer database and the image of ‘an object (or a system) on the graphics screen. ‘The graphical image of an object fs generated on the ‘graphics screen of the system by inputting three types of commands to the computer. The first type ofcommands generate basic geometric entities such as points, lines and circles. ‘The second type of commands accomplish the transformations of these graphic elements. The third type of commands cause the various graphic elements to be joined into the desired shape ofthe object ‘The various methods of geometric modeling are discussed in detail in Chapters 3 and 4, Ina synthesis, itis required to modify or alter the object (or system) number of times till the desired one is obtained. As the geometric model is stored in the computer database, it can be easily modified or altered any number of times. \ 4-—Aiasie and optimization: Every synthesis must be followed by analysis, ‘Analysis is critically examining an already existing or proposed design in order to judge its suitability forthe task. Analysis determines whether the performance complies with the requirements. All possible solutions are analysed and optimum one is selected. The different types of analysis are : stress-strain analysis, Kinematic analysis, dynamic analysis, vibration analysis, thermal analysis, fluid flow analysis, etc.¥ Computer Aided Design (GTU) 1 Introduction For the complicated objects (or systems), many a | ¢ The computer-aided design also generates the times it is very difficult or sometimes it is information like: parts list, material specifications, impossible to carry out the analysis large number of | _gtc, directly from the geometric model. times till the optimum solution is obtained, This difficulty is overcomed by CAD. In a computer- 1.5 ADVANTAGES OF CAD/CAM JENTING tlded design, the engineering analysis of any (REASONS FOR IMPLEM complicated object (or system) can be carried out in cAD/CAM) a shortest time by using the engineering analysis > (May 11, May 12) software like, finite element analysis (FEA) ‘The analysis is carried out on the geometric model i : software. of an object (or system) and the output is presented inthe trial ar well as raph ov on te | | > Wists aarzpr of AD IGS — screen. Evaluation is measuring the design against the specifications set in the definition of problem. [EE ‘There are many advantages of CAD/CAM. Few of them are as follows: 4. In a CAD system, more’ number of alternative Its often requires the fabrication and testing of a designs can be checked for suitability. Ths results prototype to assess performance, quality, and reliability Itis the final proof ofa successful design. ‘The fabrication and testing ofthe prototype is time ‘consuming and costly. Ina computer-aided design the geometric model is created on the computer and evaluation is done by using simulation software. The design review can be carried out by features like, automatic interference checking between the cba ofthe assembly. ‘Presentation: =~ in better optimization of the design. Hence, the CAD “system improves the quality of design. 2 Ima CCAD, as the calculations are performed by the computer, the approximations can be minimized. ‘This improves the accuracy of design. 3, Ina CAD, all the time consuming and iterative phases of the design process are carried out on the computer, Therefore, the time required for the design is reduced drastically. - )\5The CAD system reduces the engineering personnel requirements. ‘© Presentation of the design is the final phase in the\ in a CAD system, as the model of the object (or ‘drawings, parts list, material specifications, etc. ° ee | . neki ey (ne aided design creates the two dimensional manufacturing drawings directly from the | 5 ‘geometric model. ‘The CAD mr eatcle the prototype testing, which is costly and time consuming, It is replaced by For better viewing the different sectional views can | simulation on the computer. bbe automatically created. ‘The three dimensional solid model of the object (or en a CAD, the manufacturing drawings can be ‘any given orientation. The visualization can be ‘enhanced by using different colours and shades.Spt Ald Desig (CTH) 10. ‘The CAM system Plann Plan he ‘an use computer-aided process NG and computer assisted production ning. This results in effective planning, and Zhe CAM "system can use online automatic 'nspection. This results in better product quality. ‘The limitations of CAD/CAM areas follows Nea \4 Hh ied manpower requ opt CAD/CAM systems. 17 APPLICATIONS OF CAD nu D (Dec. 12) The different applications of CAD in engineering fleld are as follows : 1 Geometric modeling software are used for generating two-dimensional as well as three-dimensional models of components, assemblies and systems. + FEA software are used for stress strain analysis, thermal analysis and vibration analysis, + Simulation software are used for evaluation of engineering system. ‘Automated Drafting : The automated drafting feature tn CAD creates the two dimensional drawing directly from geometric model. Fs ee Introduction ‘SYSTEM EVALUATION ‘while evaluating the CAD/CE application: (iv) Compactness ofhardware (%) Costofhardwaresystem, (i) Flexibility of hardware system for up (vi) Ease of maintenance of hardware system; a bility of hardware system with CAD/ re related criteria considered while selecting the system are as follows: (Operating system req (U) Interfacing of different modelling software, anal manufacturing software,Computer Aided Design (GTU) «Advantages of LED display : (@ LED displays are completely flat screen, (i) LED displays are thin, light weight. (il) LED displays consume less p LED displays have long life, 0,000 more, (v) “DED displays have rugged construction. Introduction wu lays have better contrast. (vit) Le do not use mercury in backlight, and ‘environment friendly. . display : @ up ensive, 1.11.5 Comparison of Graphics Display Devices : ‘Table 1.11.1 gives comp: three types of display devices. 1.11.1 : Comparison of Display Devices irected-Beam Refresh | Direct-View Storage : ‘ é £2.61 et ODO iar Display Generation Techni ing Stroke-Writing Raster-Scan _Picte Quality (Resolution) Excell Excellent Good . Limited High High . Possible Not Possible Possible . Moderate No Excellent + Animation Capability Excellent o Good 1.11.6 Comparison of Random Scan (Vector Scan) and Raster Scan Displays : > (May 14, Deo. 17) ‘The comparison of Random Scan (Vector Scan) display and raster scan display is given in Table 1.11.2. ‘Table 1.11.2 : Comparison of Random Scan (Vector Scan) and Raster Scan displays Random Scan (Vector Scan) Display | | __Raster Scan Display ( _| Invector scan display, the electron beam | In raster scan display, the electron beam is swept along operates like a pencil to generate a'| the horizontal line (row) from left to right. During the picture on the CRT screen as shown in | swapping of electron beam, the beam intensity is turned Fig. 1.11.5(a). ‘on and off depending upon the intensity value of the corresponding pixel, as shown in Fig. 1.11.5(b). _.1.12.1 Organization of Raster Scan System with Display Processor : + Ina conventional architecture of a raster scan display system, though the video controller is used for controlling the operation of the display device, the processing of graphics data with the help of graphics software is essentially done by CPU, esti———K——k————————— ee. Computer Aided Design (GTU) * But screen positions integer number coor calculated positions of ;pProximated to nearest in ling of coordinates of poi to be displayed with shown in Fig. 1.20.1, of line is more notice: resolution, whereas on system with high 1.21 LINE GENERATING ALGORITHMS ‘The following two algorithms are commonly used for generating the line between two end points: 1. DDA (Digital Differential Analyser) Line Algorithm 2.__Bresenham’s Line Algorithm 1 DDA (Digital Differential Analyser) Line Algorithm : "> (May 12, Dec. 14, May 16, May 18) CESS eae Q.:9e*Bean DA algorithm for goneraton of no. - an Vee DDA algorithm for fine generation with its lntaions. Daf * DDA algorithm is used for generating the straight line between points (x, y;) and (x, y,), as shown in Fig 1.21.1. y Introduction ‘© DDA algorithm works on the principle that x and y are simultaneously incremented by a small step proportional to the first derivatives of xand y, © Forstraightline, y = mx+c; ay ay x and or (1.21.4) Similarly, ee ia ae (1215) money 0219 ‘© In DDA algorithm, either Ax or Ay, whichever is larger, is chosen as one raster unit. Using Equation (4.21.4) or (1.21.2), other increment is calculated. © The following two cases are possible : T Case: ]Ax] = lay] 2. _Caselt:| Ay] > | Ax] For both the cases, the procedure for calculation of .the pixel positions of line is discussed below. 1, Cosel =| xq= x 121 ¥n— V1? @ AS[x.—* 12 1¥e—Yi | Ax] | Ay] (i) ‘Therefore,take |Ax|= 1 ax = 41 bx = 41 ax =-1 (i) Calculate, ay (EB ]e Gv) Starting from initial pixel position (x, y;), the successive pixel positions are calculated by using equations : Mert = et AK Jeet = yet dy 2 Case lt -| ¥n— Ys 1> 1 %e— xy 12 @ AS ¥e-¥11> 1 %.—% LAY |> [Ax] ¥Computer Aided Design (GTU) (ii) Therefore, take. | Ay| = 1 sedy 221 ay = 41 tya> ye aaa y (May 11, May 12, May 13, Dec. 12, May 15, Dec. 17) 27 generation of ow Sere ine having slope 0:"Wite & Bresenhanys algorithm for I Bresenham’s line algorithm is ‘used for generating the line between end points (x, y;) and (x ¥a)+ Itincrements by one unit in either x or y, depending. ‘CApoir the slope of the line. The increment in the ‘other variable is taken as'either zero or one, and is, determined by examining the distance between the actual line and the nearest pixel location. The following two cases are possible: 1. CaseI-| Slope |$1[ (¥.-¥)S(a-%1)] 2, Case ll-| Slope |>1[ (.-¥s)> Ga-%)] For both the cases, the procedure for calculation of the pixel positions of line is discussed below: Case! -| Slope] <1 [(Yn~¥1) $ %q—%1) 1? If (Ys) $ (%q~ m), the positive slope is less than or equal to 1. Gi) Insuch case take, Ax = 1 and Ay = 0 or 1, depending upon the distance between the actual line and the nearest pixel location. 1. oOoo” Introduction Computer Alded Design (GTU) 1.28 sen endteaY » rting value of decision parameter, 8 7 | 5 4 3 | 1 x He eT ) Fig. 1.21.3 : Bresenham's Line Algorithm For | Slope | $2. (Uf) Mlustration for Bresenham’s algorithm for [slope |<: (@) Fig. 1.21.3(a) shows a line drawn between end points (1, 2) and (8, 6). For the given line, ¥4—Ys =6-2=4andx,-%=8-1=7. ‘Therefore, (y,-y;) < (u,~¥) and slope is less than 1. (®) According to Bresenham's algorithm, Ax=1. ~ (©) For second location, as actual line is closer to upper grid, Ay=1, * omy = medee4122 and ve = ytdye2t1=3 } (4) For third location, as actual line is closer to lower grid, Ay =0. f My = my ehxe 24123 and ys = y2+Ay=3+023 Gv) Bresenham's line algorithm for | slope | $1: ‘The Bresenham’s line drawing algorithm for a line with a positive slope less than 1 is discussed below: (a) Input the two end points, (x, ys) and (ry ¥,), of a line, (€). Calculate the st pyas:Py22 ¥en Xe @ ‘teach value of along the line, starting at k= nm, <0: Themen points (* 14) and Prt Pet 2 Ye tp,>0: Thenext point (* 14Ye* 1) and Pao = Pet 2 Yer Ke @ Repeat the step (4), Xe times. fig. 1.214 shows the flowchart for Bresenhan, line algorithm. Fig. 1.21.4 : Flowchart for Bresenham’s Une Algorithm for | slope | $2‘Computer Aided Design (GTU) 2 Casell-| Slope] >11(¥4=¥)>(eq=m) 1: > (ey 17 Q. Write stops required t plot ine whoa slope a between 45° & 90°, using Bresenham's algorithm. @O EO. greater than 1. - Yi) > (% - %), the positive slope is (W) In such vase take, Ay = 1 and Ax = 0 or 1, depending upon the distance between the actual line and the nearest pixe! location, y, 12345676 X ” y, t we Ye a Rx Kat % © Fig. 1.215 : Bresenham’s Line Algorithm For | Slope | > 1 (Ud) Bresenham's line algorithm for | slope |> 1: ‘The Bresenham's line drawing algorithm for a line with a positive slope greater than 1 {s discussed below: {@)_ Input the two end points, (x 1) and (ty Y,), of line. : 1.29 Introduction (b) Calculate : X= x,-%, and Y= Ya Yr (©) Calculate the starting value of decision parameter, Pras: Fig. 1.21.6 : Flowchart for Bresenham’s Line ‘Algorithm for | slope | > 1 (@)_Ateach value of x, along the line, starting at k= 1: IfP, <0: The next point is (xp Yx* 1) and Peer = Pat 2 Xe IP, > 0: The next point is (x+ 1, yx+ 1) and| -¥\— "*—X———S——FrrLr<€cdc Y.-¥) Hence, Ax = 1 ' YorMn_ 4 and Ay = yy 7720571 ' * Determination of pixel positions : : @ Point 1: My = x +0521405=15; Ya = yi+05=2405=25 Set point (xpy:) = (1,2) ' Gn) Point 2: Hy = xy +Au=154+1=25; Ye = y+4y=25+0571=3.071 Set point (x2,¥2) = (2,3) (Gut) Point 3: My = mp HAK=25 41235; Yo = y2+Ay=3.071 + 0.571 = 3.642 Set point (xs,y3) = (3,3) (iv) Point 4: Xy = my tAK=35S+1=45; Ye = Ys+Ay=3.642 +0571 = 4.213 * (v) Points: xs (vi) Point 6: Ys (vit) Point Set point (x1 ¥r) (vityPoint s : xe Fig. P.1.21.1. ve Introduction = xt Ax= 4541255; Ys = Yat Ay= 4.213 +0571 24794 Set point (xs,ys) = (5,4) kg expe = 55+1=65; = yst Ay. A 4.784 + 0.S71=5.355 Setpoint (xy) = (6,5) Xy = Xe +AN=6541=75; Yr = Ye+Ay=5.355 +0571 = 5.926 @s) xy + Ax=75 +1285; Yo = Yy+Ay=5.926 +0571 = 6.497 Set point (xe Ya) = (8,6) The pixel representation of line is shown in Solution : Given: x, = 10 Set point (x.¥4) = (4,4) x, = 19; Tessas 67801 x Fig. P, 1.21.1 : Display of Line the piel locations that wil b ‘chosen by the pany er while scan converting a line fete srt 0 '90) Yo.(19, $6):? sy, = 30; Yo " &‘We Computer Aided Design (GTU) «Estimation of increments: %-% = 19-10 =9 sand y.-y, = 36-3026 Inthis case, (%-%1) > (a-y,) Hence, Ax = 1 ad ay = © Determination of pixel positions : () Point1: Set point (x,,y;) = (10,30) (i) Point2: =X +Ax=105+1=115 Ya = Y1 + AY = 30.5 + 0,666 = 31.166 ‘Set point (x2, y) = (11,31) (itt) Point: xy = Xp HAK=115+1=125; Ys = Y2+ Ay =31.166 + 0.666 = 31.832 ‘Set point (x,ys) = (12,31) (iv) Point 4: Xj = xy+4x=125+1= 135; Ye = Yat by 31.832 + 0.666 = 32.498 Setpoint (.y4) = (13,32) (v) Points: My = Xy+Ox=13.5 412145; Ys Set point (xs.ys) = (14,33) (vi) Point: Xe = M5 + Ax=14.5+1= 15.5; Yo = Ys Ay = 33.164+ 0.666 = 33.83 Setpoint (xe yo = (15,33) (vil) Point 7: = y4+ Ay =32.498 + 0.666 =33.164 EE 131 Introduction (vill) Point: My =X) +AX= 165412175; Ya = ¥r+ By = 34.498 + 0.666 = 35.162 Set point (x, ye) = (17,35) (tx) Point 9: % Yo = Yet Ay=35.162 + 0.666 = 35.828 Set point (%,ys) = (18,35) () Point10: Mp = Hy + AK= 18541= 195; Yao =Yo+ Ay = 35.828 + 0.666 = 36.494 Set point (xo, ¥s0)™ (19, 36) The pixel representation of line is shown in Fig P.1.212. < BgeRpeges TON RD wT. xX Fig. P. 1.21.2 : Display of Line ple 1.21.9 : Using DDA algorithm, find the plxel value postion of ling : between points. (2,; 10) and (6, 6). _ TT yy = 10; = 5. and Yar Ya = 5~ 1 Inthis case, | yxy | = |*.-%1]? Xy 5X4 Axe 15.5 +1= 165; fay] = 4 ” = ye + Ay = 33.83 + 0.666 = dy 241 Setpoint (x,y) = (16,34) Hence, Ay =-1 Pano and 4 -1=08My conpier nied den (GT) Determination of pixel positions © Points; X= x,+05=2+05=25; Vi Fy, t0S=10+05=105 Setpoint (x,.y,) = (2,10) (i) Point2: My =X +Ax=25+08=3.3; Ya = yytAy=105-1=95 Setpoint 2,y2)_ = (3,9) (iit) Point 3 ; my = my thx=33+08=44; Ys = yptdy=95-1285 Set point (xp,ys) = (4,8) (iv) Point4: X= x 4hx= 41408249; Ye = Yatdy=85-1=75 Set point (xy) = (5,7) (W) Points: . Xs = xj4Ax=49408257; Ys = ystdy= 75-1265 | Setpoint (x53) = (6.6) (vi) Potnt6: ae Xe = ¥4AK=5.7 +0865; Yo = YstAy=65-1=55 Set point (x ye) = (6.5) ‘The pixel representation of line is shown in ig. Fig, P.1.21.3. - % 19) 7 of Line T2 3458 Fig. P2213: yeows # 10-788 Inthis case, Xe ~% Ya~ Yo hence positive slope jg X, = m-% 215-2513 Y, # Ya-Yi2 10-723 Wy, = 2x326 N- = 2x3-2x13=-20 © Determination of pixel positions (, Point: 88 1 Set pixel (yy) = (27) Py = 2¥,-K26-132-7 (W) Point 2 “ % 2 xyt1s24153 “Py <0 oe M7 G7 = Py+2Y=-7 462-1 = gels3eied oh s0 eh YEMET Set pixel (xy ys) = (4,7) Py = Pye 2¥.s-1+6 25 (iv) Point4: Hy Pytledees P, >0 oOMe SP ygtle7+1s8 wins —_ee ae Ge W Computer Alded Design (GTU) 133 Introduction Set pixel (xy ¥.) = (5,8) Set pixel (tio Yao) = (11,9) Py = P3+2Y,-2X Py = Py+2¥,=-11+6=-5 =5-202-15 (xi) Point 11: : (y/romess My = Xyqtteti+1=12 My = X+1=5+1=6 Pp <0 mR <0 Ya = ¥0=9 “Ys eB Set pixel (X1y Yus): = (12,9) Set pixel (xs, ys) = (6,8) Py = Py t2¥2-5+651 + Py = Pyt2¥e=-1546=-9 (ai Point 12: (vf) Point6: . Xp = Xye=12+1213 Xy = xy+1=6+1=7 Py > 0 Ps <0 Ya = Yutie9e1=10 A Ye = y528 g Set pixel (in ¥is) * (13,10) Set pixel (x ye) = (7,8) Py = Py t2¥e- 2X, =1-20=-19 Pe = Pst 2¥,=-946 (xiit) Point 13: ? | (vil Point7: 2 wy = xy +1 =13+1=14 My = xg 74128 Py <0 . us Ys = ¥n=10 ae Set piel (is,Yas)_ = (14,10) ‘Set pixel (x> y2) Py = Pp t2¥, Laie =-19+6=-13 (vill) Points: : (xiv) Point 14: My = Xy41584129: | My = X41 = 1441215 P,-> 0 Py <0 ie Ye = ot 2B+1=9 Yu # Y= 10 Set pixel (ro Y4) = (9,9): = Set pixel (Yi) = (15,10) Py = Py+2¥-—2K=3-202-17 ’ ‘The pixel representation is shown in Fig. P. 1.21.4 (x) Point 9 My = myt1=9+1=10 " Pp <0 is Ye =o 8 Set pixel (%» yo) = (10,9) t Py = Pot2¥a-17+6=-11 123468 8 10 11 12 13 14 15 x (%) Point 10: Fig. P. 1.214: Display of Line xy = 44121041211 Py <0 2 Yin = W959 1 | trom (1,0) 40 (10.8),W computer aided design (610) vs yu =3 * Estimation of slope: Hom = 10-129 Wr = 3-023 In this case, x, - x, > y,~y,, hence positive slope is less than 1 Therefore, ax = 1, * Estimation of X,and ¥,: X = y-xj=10-129 Ye = ya-yy=3-023 2, = 2x3= 2Y,-2K, = 2x3-2x9=~12 . Determination of pixel positions : @ Points; Setpinel &%y) = (1,0) Py = 2Y,-X = 6-9=-3 (i) Point2: wy = mt1s14122 R <0 oy =y20 Set pixel (x, ¥2) = (2,0) Py = Pyt2¥,=-346=3 (it) Point 3: "xy expeds24ie3 P, >0 ye yee1e04121 Set pixel (x ¥3) = (3,1) (iv) Point: Xe yt1s341=4. PB <0 * ve eyed Set pixel (xy ys) = (4,1) Py = Py42¥,=-946=-3 (v) Points: xy 2 xytda44155 PR <0 Ys = zl Set pixel (x5,¥s) = (5.4) Ps = Py42¥e= 34623 (i) Point: Xe = Ht12541=6 Ps > 0 Ye = Ystdae1=2 Setppixel (xy) = (6,2) Py = Py#2¥e-2X,83-122-9 (vil) Point 7: My = xt1=64157 1 Pe <0. 2 My 222 Set pixel (xj:y2) = (7,2) < P, = Py+2¥,=-946=-3 (vill) Points: My =x +i274128 P<0 oe Ye tye? Set pixel (ye) -= (8,2) Py = Pr+2¥2-346=3 (i) Points: Me = X+12841=9 Py oo" se Yo FYgtl= 24123 Sete (toy) = 0,3) Py = Py+2¥,-2X.=3-12=-9 (%) Point 10; Xp = %+1=94+1=10 Py <0 + Yo Wed Set pixel wy) (10,3) ‘The pixel representation of line is shown In Fig. P.1.215, ¥Computer Aided Design (GTU) 2.3.1 Advantages of Parametric Representation of Curves : Some of the advantages of parametric Tepresentation of curves are: (It can be easily used for representating closed and multivahied curves, 7 (U)_Itreplaces slopes by tangent vectors. Gu) For curves such as conics and cubics, the Parametric representation uses polynomials rather ‘than equations involving roots. Cv) tis suitable for partial curves, Therefore, parametric representation is more ‘Suitable and attractive for CAD applications. 2.4 TYPES OF CURVES ‘The basic geometric curves used in wire-frame ‘modeling can be divided into two types: ‘Types of Curves Analytic Curves: ©The curves which .are defined by the analytic equations are known as analytic curves, Examples of analytic curves + lines, circles, ellipses, parabolas, and hyperbolas. (2ammSynthetic Corves:, ‘© The curves which are defined by the set of data points are known as synthetic curves, © The synthetic curves’are needed when a curve is represented by a collection of data points. The synthetic curves are represented by the polynomials, «Examples of synthetic curves :Various types of splines (cubic spline, B-spline, beta-spline, mu- spline), and Bezier curves. ‘© Applications of synthetic curves The synthetic curves are used for representing profile of : car bodies, ship hulls, airplane wings, propeller blades, shoe insoles, bottles, etc. (4 Comparison of Analytic and Synthetic Curves : > Way iy | tba coartein Gt analytic aad atieg ca! ye comparison of analytic and synthetic curves given in Table 2.4 ‘Table 2.4.1: Comparison of Analytic and Sythe ung, es ayes | ake Pte carves defined by | The curves deing analytic equations are | by the set of day calledanalyticcurves. | polnts are known 2 synthetic curves |\ Gof tkamples of analytic | Examples curves: lines, circles, | synthetic ellipses, parabola, | Cubic hyperbola ete spl Beplnes map, Bezier curves, etc, ii)}-[‘The shapes of analytic |The shapes qf curves cannot be | synthetic curves ca modified, be modified ‘The parametric equations for above analytic are obtained in subsequent sections. wii ”> ‘W Computer Aided Design (GTU) 26 Curves and Surfaces LINES tots Line is the basic entity used in geometric modeling, (P-P,) =u (P2-Pa) 0) Consider the following two cases of straight lines. 1. Line Connecting Two End Points 2, Line Starting From Given Point, of Given Length and Direction 2.6.1 Line Connecting Two End Points : * Fig. 2.6.1 shows a straight line connecting two end points P, and P;. The parameter ‘u’ is set such that its ‘values are 0 and 1 at points P, and P; respectively. For any point P on line P, P,, the general value of parameter isu. z ‘ ig. 2.6.1 : Line Connecting Two End Points P, And P, Parametric equation of line : D (May 14, May 18, Doc. 19) Q. Develop the parametric equation for in ; Q.” Develop vector equation of line in parametric form. Hence , the vector Equation of line in parametric form is given by, P =Py+u(P.-Py) 0Sus1~(26.1) © “In scalar form, the parametric equation of line [Equation (2.6.1)] can be written as, x = xytu(em) y =yitu(ye-yi) OSuS1 & (262) z = %,+u(m-%) : ‘* Equation (2.6.2) can be used to generate the points on straight line, for display, by incrementing ‘u’ from 0 to 1 inssteps. 2 2, Tangent vector ofline: 7 °* ‘© Thetangent vector of the line P, Pais given by, PaPaoPh (2.6.3) + Inscalar form, the above Equation (2.6.3) of tangent vector can be written as, fies ¥ sir Osust 264) ee +> ‘The unit vector in the direction of line is given by, a PP) = Tp ip.cP.) (2.64 B= TPT" 1P2-Pil (2.65) 5 _ (PP) ” or fey (26.6) oe Lio L yeh 267) where, L = lengthoftheline=|Pz~Py| = VOa-m + Gay + CaP (2.6.8) 3, Locating points on existing line : “The position vectors for points Py, P, and P are Py, P, and P respectively. From Fig 2.6.1, Let P,P is a given line with =Oandu~=1Lat points "Py and Py respectively. Any offer potnt (like Ps, Ps Ps) fon the line or its extension has certain value of u, as shown'in Fi 2.6.2. The coordinates of any point on the line or its extension can be obtained by substituting the corresponding value of ‘u’ in Equation (2.6.1) or Equation (2.6.2)~computer Aided Design (GTU) The coordinates of any point by, % =X +Reosu Yo =ye+Rsinu my em ‘The coordinates of next point P, . son circle with Increment of Au are given by, : Xaoa = %+Reos (u+ Au) Yaor = yetRsin(u+ Au) Yer = % * Hence, ~&) ee = %+Rcosu-cosAu-Rsinu-sin Au Yass = Ye+Rsinucos Au+ Ros usin Au Znei® Ze * Substituting values of R cos u and R sin’ u from Equations (a) in Equations (c), we get, + Mast = Xet (aX) 608 AU ~(Yr—y.) sin AU Yast = Yot(Yn~Yo) C08 AU + (xy—X2) sin AU eet = % © Equations (2.7.2) represent recursive relationship for coordinates of points on circle. © The circle can start from any point and successive points with equal spacing can be calculated. © In recursive method, cos Au and sin Au have to be calculated only once. () (27.2) 2.7.3 Determination of Center and Radius of Circle From End Points of Diameter : © Fig. 2.7.2 shows a circle with a diameter having end points Py (xy Yx21 ) and Pz (Xz Yo 22). © Center of circle (P,): ‘The center 'P, of a circle is given by, P. =31P,+P2) Xi t+ Xz VitY2 Matz or Pe yened =| AT ory «© — Radlusofcircle (RJ): The radius 'R’ of circle is given by, R = $V Gre) Ow ae (2.7.4) Curves and Sug, P, 5 20% ¥2.25) Pyle Y=) z Fig. 2.7.2: Determination of Center and Radius of Cry from End Points of Diameter ‘CIRCULAR ARCS ‘* The circular arcs are considered as the special cae of circles, ‘* The parametric equation for circular arc [Fig, 261 ‘can be written as: x.= x,+Reosu y = yeRsinu | ususu, ay za where, (x, Yo %) = center of are R = radius of arc 1, = starting angle of are u, = ending angle of arc y Fig. 2.8.2 : Circular Areor % = 5.0 Yo = 0.2588 xs + 0.9659 ys- 1.1236 = 0.2588 x 6.81 + 0.9659 x 11.76 - 1.1236 or ye = 12.0 © The various points on the circle in first quadrant for Increment of angle 15° are given in Table P. 2.8.5. Table P. 2.8.5 Te loy 0 12.0 5.0 15 | 11.76 6.81 30 | 11.06 85 [ 45 | 9.9476 | 99469 60 BS 11.06 7s 6.81 11.76 90 5.0 12.0 2.9 ELLIPSES © Fig. 2.9.1 shows an ellips¢ with point P. ( % Yo %) as the center, while ‘A’ and ‘B’ as semi-major axis |-minor axis respectively. Parametric Equation of Ellipse : > (May 14) a De panne ot 2. z Fig. 2.9.1 : Representation of Ellipse with Center, Major Axis and Minor Axis x, +Acosu yetBsinu ¢ OSuS2% 5 % 2.9.2 Recursive Method : ‘The recursive equation for ellipse can be vite. mesa %e# (ta) 080 B (Fu Ye) sim AM yeertyet Oe-yOcosus$(xe-X)5Inu F255, Iaith 2.9.3 Inclined Ellipse : Fig. 2.9.2 shows an ellipse with major axis incline atan angle o. with X-axis. The parametric equation for inclined ellipse can be written as, .~ x = x¢Acos u+e0s o'-B sinifsin a Y = Yet Acosu- sin a's Bain u-cosa0 (uay's ‘+ Inorder to ensure the continuity and smooths? a synthetic curve, the various continuity conde? are imposed atthe data points. ‘+ There are three continuity conditions 41, Zaro-Order (Postion) Continuity ConstOr? 5 «© Fig. 2.12.1 shows a synthetic curve thot points P,, Pyand Py23, W Computer Aided Design (GTU) 2. 3. Second-Order (Curvature) continuity condition “\ ” Fig. 2.12.3: Second-Order (Curvature) Continuity Condition Fig. 2.12.3 shows a synthetic curve through data points P,, P,,and Ps. The second-order derivatives for section S, of ‘synthetic curve are given by, X"(u) = Gat 2d ¥'(u) = bay i+ 2by, 2 (u) = 6ay.Ut 2bo, ‘The second-order derivatives for section S; of Synthetic curve are given by, \ x" (u) = Gay, + boy \ yeo'senyuian, } UnteS US tar (8) passes on(h) 2" (u) = 6aq.U+2bze 4. Interpolation :In interpolation (ig. 212 4 curve passes through al the data points, 2. Approximation : Approximation [Fig, 2, tries to fit a smoother curve which may bec! the data points but may not pass through ma the data points. " aS (©) Approximation 12.4 : Interpolation and Approximation © Second-order or curvature continuity means the " second dervatives (radil of curvature) atu = u 3 TYPES OF SYNTHETIC CURVES for section S; of curve, are equal. to second derivatives (radii of curvature) atu section S, of curve. - ‘¢ Mathematically, ‘ Gay, Umar + 2biz = 62x Umin + 2b2y } - “0 Gay Upar t+ 2D3y. = 622y Ugun + 2ry © Second-order or curvature continuity is also vx for 64, Umar + 2D1z = 6822 Unin + 2bze known as C? ¢ontinulty, 2.12.2 Approaches of Generation of ‘Synthetic Curves: © There are two approaches of generation of synthetic curves: Major CAD/CAM softwares use three types 0! a> (May 11, May 14, Dec. 16, Dec. 19) @. Explain: Hermite cuble spline curve with neat sketch, = canta basen neato nie Os dee, .. Derive, rom fundamentals, eens ape: ‘the Hermite Cubic spline. Fepresent the equation in _mabictorm. a Dave general parametric equation for Hemi cable _Spconeinmess tom, STATE The name splines is drawn from the traditional drafting tool ‘spline’ or ‘French curves’. The cubic splines use ‘cubic polynomials for their parametric representation. 1. Form of parametric equation for cubic splines : The parametric equation for the cubic splines ‘can be written as, ‘ x(u) = au +bu+cutd, yu) = meringue fee (2142) z(u) = au'+b,u?+c,u +d, x(u) or P(u) = “te z(u) ay by de ay by cy dy e OSusi (214.2) nme allt ‘©The general form of Equation (2.14-1), in any of XY, or directions, can be written 2s, P(u) = au’+but+cu+d osust a or P(u) sive nfih osust sll? a (2.143) 2. Characteristics (Properties) of Hermite cuble spline (Fig. 2.14.1): > (May 17) State the proparties of Hermite Cubic Splines. f mo 224 () Hermite cubic spline uses two data points Po and P, atits ends; and bo w ie otange ects he po Fig. 2.14.1 : Hermite Cuble Spline Curve 3. Determination of polynomial coefficients : © Hermite cubic spline is drawn by using two end points of curve and the two tangent vectors at these points. Hence,” polynomial coefficients can be determined by knowing these two end points and the tangent vectors atthese endpoints. =, © The tangent vector at any point P (u) is given by, P(u) =3aut+2bure or 70) “seniei| | (2.144) Bace + Pointand tangent vector at u = From Equations (2.14.3) and (2.14.4), a - vom} : ern bade -@ 1a. fa) ‘ and, °P, sonia + (0) ‘i awl © Pointand tangent vector atu=1: From Equations (2.14.3) and (2.14.4), : a Py = out} 2) 4 JAided Design (GTU) > (May 12, Dec. 12, Dec. 13) @. Bokinine Serle cune, SOREN . Wile a detailed note on Bezier cuves, EEECEISEY ‘© It is not very convenient to change the shape of Hermite cubic splines. In order to provide more flexibility for changing the shape of curve, the curve mown as Bezler curve, is used. Bezier curve, developed -by P. Bezier at Ranault Automobile Company, France, is used for car surfaces. +725 Fig, 2.18.1: Bezier Curve © Bezier curve (Fig. 2.15.1) uses the given data points or yertices for generating the curve. The curve passes through the first and last data points while all other data points act as control . z 1. Parametric equation for Bezier curve : ‘The parametric equation for a Bezier curve, with (n + 1) data points, passing through the points Py and P, can be written as, reue PQ) = EPC Nu-uy-osust i=0 : as » 2S Ci Pul(-uy 1 or P (u)=Po (1-u)"+C (0,1) P, u (1-u)*-* + (n,2) Pi? (1=u)""? + ou + C(m, m= 1) Py-2u"-* (1-0) +P,u0sust -@) Osust (2.15.1) -— 1 where, CONT E=pT + } From Equation (2.15.1) it. {s seen that, unlike Curves and Surfaces Bezier curve for (n + 1) data points is n" degree polynomial. Properties (characteristics) of Bezier curves : D (Dec. 11, May 13, Dec. 14, May 17, May 19) plan properios of Bezler curve. ‘With neat sketch, explain the characteristics of Bezier curve and mention ts advantages. | SE How Hemite Cubic Spines curves are dforng fom Bezier curves ? “The degre of Bezier ourve with n contol points: (a) (net) --(b) (FI) (@) (+2) (6) (2) Derive equation of Beziers cuve wih 5 conto! ‘points. State the order of the curve generated by “these control points. ‘The Bezier curve does not use tangent vectors for controlling its shape. The shape of Bezier curve is ‘controlled by number of data points. This gives better flexibjlity in controlling the shape of the curve. The Bezier curve with (n + 1) data points is defined by the polynomial of n'* degree. The higher order polynomial gives higher-order continuity. (iil) The Bezier curve is symmetric with respect to ‘u’ and ‘(1 ~ uJ’. This means the sequence of control points (data points) ‘can be reversed without changing the shape of the curve. Gv) Each control point (Po Py, Pa. P, ) is most influential on the curve shape at u = i/n. For example, in case of Bezier curve with four control points, the control points Py, P,P, and Ps are most influential on the curve shape at u = 0, 1/3, 2/3, and respectively. (¥) A closed Bezier curve can be generated by closing its characteristic polygon ie. choosing Py and P, to ) becoincident. (ui) The flexibility of Bezier curve increases with increase in number of control points. Fig. 2.15.2 oa w Hermite cubic spline which is cuble polynomial, shows Bezier curves for various control points.Pr RT computer Aided Design (OTK) 2-42 wa Curves and Surfaces @ atu=0.25: P,(0.25) = 2x(1-025)'+6x0.25x (1-025)? +9 025% (1-025) +3 x0.25 or P, (0.25) = 2.156 and, (0.25) = 2x (10.25) +9x0.25 (1-025)? ae + 90.25% (1. - 0.25) +2x0.25 or P,(025) = 2563 ~ (Uy atu=05. P,(05) = 2x(1-05)'+6x05x (1-057 +9x0.5? x (1-05)+3x05? or Py(05) = 25 and P, (05) = 2x(1-05)+9x05x (1-05)? +905? (1-05) +2x05? ory (0S) = 2.75 : “@v) atu=0.75 (0.75) “= 2x(1-0.75)' + 6x0.75x(1- 0.75) +9 0.75% (1- 0.75) +3 0.75 or F(075) = 2044 abd P, (0.75) = 2x (1-075) +9x0.75x (1-075 +9x0.75% (1 - 0.75) +2x0.75* or P, (0.75) = 2.563 () atu=10: P,(L0) = 0+0+0+3x17=3 land P,(10) = 0+0+0+2x1?=2 6 Coordinate of points on Bezier curve: ©. ‘The-coordinates of points on curve are given In “erable P. 2.15.8 and plotted in Fig. P.2.15.8. 10 13,2)} 0.75 (2.844, 2.563) 05: (2.5, 2.75) flo | 025 Pie, 2)|(2.156, 2.563)| te Fig. P2158 hatte aint CURVES © ie > (May 12, May 13, May 16, Dec. 17) Cs < 2 Q;" Bitofty discuss about B-spline curve.- Q. Explain B-spline curve and mention its advantages. ‘Q.. Explain, with neat sketch, B-spline curve... ©, One of the problems associated with the Bezier curves is that with an increase in the number of control points (data points), the degree of the polynomial representing the curve increases. The (a + 1) number of control points give the polynomial of n* degree. This makes the parametric equation complicated and increases the ‘computation. In order to overcome this drawback of Bezler curves, B-spline curves are used. ‘© Bespline curve separates the degree of polynomial representing the curve from the number of given control points. While four control points can always generate a cubic Bezier curve, they can generate a linear, quadratic or cubic B-spline curve. B-spline curves (Fig, 2.16.1] are most widely used synthetic curves.Computer Aided Design (GTU) 2-43 * Advantages of B-spline curves: (B-spline curves allow local control over the shape of curve as against the global control in case of the Bezier curves. Whenever a single control point (or vertex) is moved, only those vertices around the moved vertex will be affected and the local portion of the curve is affected, while the rest remain unaffected. Fig. 2.16.1 shows local change in B-spline curve due to change in control point from P; to P3toPs. (W)_Im B-spline curves, the degree of polynomial Tepresenting the curve can be set independently of the number of control points. (li) Bespin curves give better control 7 (iv) B-spline curves permit to add or gga | numberof contol potas without chang 9 | degree of polynomial. mM Py ‘The comparison between Hermite cubic spline curve, Bezier curve and B-spline curve is given in Table 2.17.1, ‘Table 2.17.1 : Comparison between Hermite Cubic Spline Curve, Bezier Curve and B-spline Curve ~_B-Spline Curve Hermite cubic’ spline is | Bezier curve with |(al#/1) | B-spline curve with (#1) always [represented by pen a (datal points is represented geeulaaere by by polynomial of am) Im Hermite cuble spline | In Bezier curve, the | In Bspline curve, the curve, the st /degree of polynomial | independent of the | of the number of data | “number of data points. points. For drawing B-spline ‘two data points at are required. In Hermite cubic spline | In Bezier curve, the Shape | In B-spline curve, the curve, | control points. Whenever Lt at the | a single control point is ‘Whenever sing! || ends. Hence, control point is mo’ For drawing He cubic spline curve, 3 3 2