Calculus Third Edition: Chapter 12 Solutions

1. a. It looks like g(x) = sin(x), especially for small values of x.

b. They appear identical for –3.5 ≤ x ≤ 3.5.

c. − x11 ; It looks more like g.

11!

d. As terms are added, f looks like g on a larger interval.

2. a. Let f (x) = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d; f ′(x) = 3ax2 + 2bx + c, f ′′(x) = 6ax + 2b, f ′′′(x) = 6a.
From f ′′′(0), 6a = 18, a = 3. From f ′′(0) = 2b = –12, b = –6. From f ′(0) = c = 5 and
f (0) = d = –1. So f (x) = 3x3 – 6x2 + 5x – 1.
b. Use the method above or the Reverse Power Rule to generate each term.

3. a. This time we need a fourth-degree polynomial (at least).

Let h(x) = ax4 + bx3 + cx2 + dx + e, h′(x) = 4ax3 + 3bx2 + 2cx + d,
h′′(x) = 12ax2 + 6bx + 2c, h′′′(x) = 24ax + 6b, h(4)(24a), h(4)(0) = 24a = 48,
a = 2, h′′′(0) = 6b = –12, b = –2, h′′(0) = 2c = 4, c = 2, h′(0) = d = –2, h(0) = e = 2.
So h(x) = 2x4 – 2x3 + 2x2 – 2x + 2 and h(0.5) = 18 − 14 + 12 − 1+ 2 = 1 83
b. It should be a fairly good estimate because h(x) shares the same first four derivatives
with the function at x = 0, and 0.5 is near 0.

4. a. f(x) = e2x, f ′(x) = 2e2x, f ″(x) = 4e2x, f ′′′(x) = 8e2x

f(0) = e0 = 1, f ′(0) = 2e0 = 2, f ″(0) = 4e0 = 4, f ′′′(0) = 8e0 = 8
b. p3(x) = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d; p′(x) = 3ax2 + 2bx + c, p′′(x) = 6ax + 2b, p′′′(x) = 6a.
From p′′′(0), 6a = 8, a = 43 . From p′′(0) = 2b = 4, b = 4. From p′(0) = c = 2 and
p(0) = d = 1. So p3(x) = 4 x3 + 2x2 + 2x + 1.
3

5. a. This is called p1, because it has degree 1, f (0) = p(0), and f ′(0) = p′(0).
b. p2(x) = ax2 + bx + c, p2′(x) = 2ax + b, p2′′(x) = 2a, p2 = c = f (0),
f ′′ (0) f ′′ (0)
p2′ = b = f ′(0), p2′′(0) = 2a = f ′′(0), a = 2 , p2(x) = f (0) + f ′(0)x + 2 x2

c. The first three coefficients are the same, and for the x3 coefficient a
f ′′′ (0) f ′′ (0) f ′′′ (0) 3
p2′′′(x) = 6a = f ′′′(0), a = 6 , f (0) + f ′(0)x + 2 x2 + 6 x = p3(x)

f ′′ (0) f (n) (x)

d. pn(x) = f (0) + f ′(0)x + 2 x 2 + ...+ n! x n , because the nth derivative of xn is n!.

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6. a. four terms, third-degree
b. p1(x) = cx + d; p ′(x) = c, p (0) = d; From p ′(0) = c = 2 and p (0) = d = 1.
p1(x) = 2x + 1 ; This is a first-degree Taylor polynomial is a tangent line.
c. f ″(0) = 4e0 = 4; f ″(0) > 0, so f is concave up at x = 0. Therefore the tangent line,
y = p1(x) is below y = f(x) at values near x = 0, so p1(x) gives an underestimate of
f(–0.01).

7. a. f (x) = (x – 5)2 + 2
b. Answers vary. y = cos(x) has a locator point at (1, 0), so equations should be of the
form y = a cos(b(x – 2)) – a – 1 for any a, b.

lim ( (1− n3 ) )
3
8. a. (
lim 1− n3
n→∞
)3n = n→∞ n
= (e–3)3 = e–9 ≠ 0, so it diverges by the Divergence
Test.

( ) ⋅ lim ( ) = lim
ln(n+1)
a ln(n+1) 1/(n+1)
b. lim n+1
an = n+1
lim ln(n) = lim ln(n)
n
n+1 1/n ⋅(1) = 1 , so this series
n→∞ n→∞ n→∞ n→∞ n→∞
n
does not converge absolutely.
ln(n)
But, this is an alternating series. lim n = lim 1/n
1 = 0 (using l’Hôpital’s Rule), so it
n→∞ n→∞
converges conditionally by the Alternating Series Test.
ln(k+1)

c. lim
k→∞
ak+1
ak = lim (k+1)
n→∞
ln(k)
3
= lim
k→∞
( ln(k+1)
ln(k) ) ⋅ lim ⎛⎝
k→∞
k3 ⎞
(k+1)3 ⎠
= lim
k→∞
1/(k+1)
1/k ⋅(1) = 1 , so this
k3
series does not converge absolutely.
∞ ∞
This is dominated by ∑ k
k3
=∑ 1
k2
which converges, so it converges conditionally
k=1 k=1
by the Comparison Test (or Limit Comparison Test or Integral Test).
ak+1 (k+1)!e−k−1
d. lim = lim = lim k+1 = ∞ , so it diverges by the Ratio Test.
k→∞
ak
k→∞ k !e−k k→∞
e

9. Arc length = ∫
0
10
( x ′ )2 + ( y′ )2 dt = ∫
0
10
(ln(t + 1))2 + t − 10
t
( ) dt =
2 2

1
∫0
3 4
t dt ≈ 24.102 (using a calculator)
(ln(t + 1))2 + t 2 − t5 − 100

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 2π 2π
10. A= ∫0 1
2 (5 + cos(6θ ))2 dθ = ∫
0
1
2 (25 + 10 cos(6θ ) + cos2 (6θ ))dθ =
2π 2π
∫0 1
4 (50 + 20 cos(6θ ) + cos(12π) + 1)dθ = 1
4 (51θ + 20 ⋅ 16 sin(6θ ) + 12
1 sin(12θ ))
0
=
1 (51 ⋅ 2π) = 51π ≈ 80.111 un2
4 2

dy y′ (t )
11. dx = x ′ (t )
= cos(x), y′(t) = x′(t) cos(x).

Substitute into ( x ′(t))2 + ( y′(t))2 = 5 (speed).

(x′(t))2 + (y′(t))2 = 25
(x′(t))2 + (x′(t))2 cos2(x) = 25
(x′(t))2 = 25
2 1+cos (x)

x′(t) = ± 25 =± 5 ≈ ±4.616
1+cos2 (x) 1+cos2 (2)

f ′′ (0) f ′′′ (0) 3

12. p3(x) = f (0) + f ′(0)x + 2! x2 + 3! x = 7 – 3x + 9x2 – 5x3

13. D: lim
n→∞
3n+1 x n+1 /(n+1)2
3n x n /n 2
= lim 3 x ⋅
n→∞
( n+1n )2 = 3 x < 1 , so x < ± 13 and R = 1
3

( )
∞ 3n ± 1 n ∞
At x = ± , 1
3 ∑ n2
3
=∑ ±1
n2
which converges by the p-Series Test.
n=1 n=1

2π
14. A: Arc length = ∫ ( x ′(t))2 + ( y′(t))2 dt where
0
(x′(t))2 + (y′(t))2 = (–2 sin(t) + 2 sin(2t))2 + (2 cos(t) – 2 cos(2t))2 =
4 sin2(t) – 8 sin(t) sin(2t) + 4 sin2(2t) + 4 cos2(t) – 8 cos(t) cos(2t) + 4 cos2(2t) =
4(sin2(t) + cos2(t)) + 4(sin2(2t) + cos2(2t)) – 16(sin2(t) cos(t)) – 8(2 cos3(t) – cos(t)) =
8 – 8 cos(t)(2 sin2(t) + 2 cos2(t) – 1) = 8 – 8 cos(t)

15. B: y = r sin(θ ) = tan(θ ) sin(θ ), x = tan(θ ) cos(θ ) = sin(θ );

dy dy/dθ sec2 (θ ) sin(θ )+tan(θ ) cos(θ ) sec2 (θ ) sin(θ )+sin(θ )
dx = dx/dθ = cos(θ ) = cos(θ )
= (sec2(θ ) + 1) tan(θ )

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16. a. The first eight derivatives of cos(x) are –sin(x), –cos(x), sin(x), cos(x), –sin(x),
–cos(x), sin(x), cos(x). Evaluating these at 0 yields 0, –1, 0, 1, 0, –1, 0, 1.
So p8(x) = 1 – x2 + x4 − x6 + x8 .
2 4! 6! 8!

b. calculator window: x: [–6, 6], y: [–2, 2].

It is a good approximation for –3.6 ≤ x ≤ 3.6 (roughly).
n
∑ (−1)(2n)!x
n 2n
c. cos(x) =
n=0

d. (i) p8(0.5) – cos(0.5) ≈ 0

(ii) p8(2) – cos(2) ≈ 0.00027
(iii) p8(3) – cos(3) ≈ 0.0152

17. Method 1: f(x) = sin(x) f(0) = 0

f ′(x) = cos(x) f ′(0) = 1
f ″(x) = –sin(x) f ″(0) = 0
f ′′′(x) = –cos(x) f ′′′(0) = –1
f (4)(x) = sin(x) f (4)(0) = 0
f (5)(0) = cos(x) f (5)(0) = 1
f (6)(0) = –sin(x) f (6)(0) = 0
f (7)(0) = –cos(x) f (7)(0) = –1
p7(x) = x – x3 + x5 − x 7
3! 5! 7!

Method 2: − ( d
dx (1− x2
2! + x 4 − x6 + x8 )
4! 6! 8! )= x− x3
3! + x5
5! − x7
7!

18. a. f (n)(ex) = ex, so f (n)(0) = 1,

p7(x) = 1 + x + x2 + x3 + x4 + x5 + x6 + x7
2 3! 4! 5! 6! 7!
7 f (x)
p7(x) = ∑ xk
k!
x
k=0
p7(x)
b. See graph at right.
≈ [–2.49, 2.49] using a table of values for p7(x) – ex

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19. a. f ′(x) = (−1) −1 = 1 , f ′′(x) = (−1) −2 , f ′′′(x) = 2(3)
= 3! ,
(1−x)2 (1−x)2 (1−x)3 (1−x)4 (1−x)4
f (n)(x) = n! , f (n)(0) = n!
(1−x)n
pn(x) = 1 + 1 ⋅ x + 3! ⋅ x + ...+ n! ⋅ x = 1 + x + x + … + x .
2! ⋅ x 2 + 3! 3 n! n 2 n
2!
n
b. pn(x) = ∑ xk
k=1

20. a. q3(x) = 2 + p5(x – 5): q3 is p3 translated 5 units right and 2 units up.
b. The easiest one is (5, 3).

21. a. u = ln(3x), du = 3⋅ 13 dx = dx
d :∫ 1
x ln(8 x) dx =∫ du
u = ln u + C = ln ln(3x) + C , using
substitution.
b. f = sin(2x), dg = exdx, df = 2cos(2x)dx, g = ex:
∫ e x sin(2x)dx = e sin(2x) – 2 ∫ cos(2x)⋅ e x dx
x

f = cos(2x), dg = exdx, df = –2sin(2x)dx, g = ex:

∫ cos(2x)⋅ e x dx = e cos(2x) + 2 ∫ sin(2x)⋅ e x dx , so
x

∫ e x sin(2x)dx = e sin(2x) – 2(e cos(2x) + 2 ∫ e x sin(2x)dx

x x

∫ e x sin(2x)dx = e sin(2x) – 2e cos(2x) – 4 ∫ e x sin(2x)dx

x x

5 ∫ e x sin(2x)dx = ex(sin(2x) – 2 cos(2x))

∫ e x sin(2x)dx = e5 (sin(2x) – 2 cos(2x)) + C, using integration by parts twice and

x

then solving for the integral.

⎧ Ax + Bx = 0
c. 1 = A + B ⇒ ⎨ ⇒ A = −1, B = 1
x 2 −x ⎩ −A = 1
x x−1

∫ x2dx−x = ∫ −1 dx +
x ∫ x−1
1 dx = − ln x + ln x − 1 + C or ln x−1
x +C

d. ∫ 1 dx = ∫ 1 dx = ∫ 1 dx = sin −1 ( 2x ) + C
4−x 2 ⎛ x2 ⎞
4 ⎜ 1− ⎟
⎝ 4 ⎠ ( )
2 1− x
2
2

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 ∞ ∞
22. a. Compared to ∑ k2
k5
= ∑ 1
k
, which diverges by the p-Series Test.
k=0 k=0
2 5 k 5 +7
Or, lim k / k = lim = lim 1+ 7 = 1 , so it diverges by the Limit
k→∞ k 2 / k 5 +7 k→∞ k5 k→∞ k5
Comparison Test (Comparison Test).
∞ a 9
∫ = lim ∫
dj dj
b. Using u = ln( j), du = j : du = lim u
1/2 = ∞ , diverges by the
2 j ln( j) a→∞ j=2 u a→∞ 2
Integral Test (or Limit Comparison Test).

c. lim
j→∞
a j+1
aj = lim
j→∞
( j+1)10 ⋅0.9 j+1
j10 ⋅0.9 j
= lim
j→∞
( ) j+1 10
j ⋅ 0.9 = 0.9, so it converges absolutely by
the Ratio Test then Alternating Series Test.
∞ ∞
d. Compared to ∑ 1
n 5 −1000
<∑ 1
n2
, which converges by the p-Series Test. Adding
n=5 n=5
the finite term 1 for n = 4 to the series still keeps the series convergent.
2 6
1
an+1 (n+1)5 −1000 n 5 −1000
lim an = lim 1 = lim = 1 , so this series is only
n→∞ n→∞ n→∞ (n+1)5 −1000
5
n −1000
conditionally convergent.

! !
23. a. a(t) = dv
dt = −(−2)⋅ 2 , (−2)⋅ 1 = 4 , −23 = 1 ,− 1 at t = 2
t3 t3 t3 t 2 4

1+(1/t 2 ) t 2 +1
b. 5= = , 5(t2 – 2) = t2 + 1, 4t2 = 11, t = 11
4 = 11
2 ≈ 1.658
1−(2/t 2 ) t 2 −2

24. B: The curve is logistic (like A or B) and levels off at y = 0 and y = 800. (If P were 0 or
800, P′ should be 0).

25. This occurs when dP is a maximum, or d 2P =0.

dt dt 2
dP
dt ( 4001 P(800 − P) ) = 4001 (800 – 2P) = 0 ⇒ 800 – 2P = 400 ⇒ P = 400
400 sea lions, this is half of the carrying capacity.

π /4 π /4
26. A: d
dx (tan(x)) = sec2(x), so length = ∫0 1+ ( y′ )2 dx = ∫
0
1+ sec 4 (x) dx .

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27. E: Separate into parametric equations to solve for slope: y = (5 – 4cos(θ ))sin(θ ),
dy dy/dθ 5 cos(θ )−4 cos2 (θ )+4 sin 2 (θ )
x = (5 – 4cos(θ )) cos(θ ), dx = dx/dθ = −5 sin(θ )+8 cos(θ ) sin(θ ) =0
Therefore 5cos(θ ) – 4(cos2(θ ) – sin2(θ )) = 0
5cos(θ ) – 4cos(2θ ) = 0
5cos(θ ) = 4cos(2θ )

28. f (1) = 0 + 0 + 7 = 7, f ′(1) = 4(1 – 1) – 5 = –5, f ′′(1) = 4, which are the constant
coefficient, the x – 1 coefficient, and twice the (x – 1)2 coefficient. f (x) is g(x) shifted right
1 unit and up 6 units.

29. Let f (x) = a(x – 2)3 + b(x – 2)2 + c(x – 2) + d. Then f ′(x) = 3a(x – 2)2 + 2b(x – 2) + c,
f ′′(x) = 6a, f (2) = d = –1, f ′(2) = c = 5, f ′′(2) = 2b = –12, b = –6, and
f ′′′(2) = 6a = 18, a = 3: f (x) = 3(x – 2)3 – 6(x – 2)2 + 5(x – 2) – 1

30. a. This is the correct first degree polynomial because p1(1) = f (1) and p1′(1) = f ′(1)
(the slope of the line p1).
f ′′ (1)
b. p2(x) = f (1) + f ′(1)(x – 1) + 2 (x – 1)2 = 0 + 1(x – 1) – 1
2 (x – 1)2 = (x – 1) – 1
2 (x – 1)2

c. The next derivatives are 2 and −6 , which are 1 and – 16 at x = 1.

x3 x4 2

p2(x) = (x – 1) – 1
2 (x – 1)2 + 2 3
3! (x – 1) ,
p4(x) = (x – 1) – 1
2 (x – 1)2 + 2 3
3! (x – 1) –
3!
4 ! (x – 1)
4

= (x – 1) – 1
2 (x – 1)2 + 1 (x – 1)3 –
3
1 (x – 1)4
4

d. 0 ≤ x ≤ 5, –2 ≤ y ≤ 2
It approximates well near x = 1, or in the interval (0.3, 1.8).

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31. a. The first five derivatives are 1 , − 1 , 3 , − 15 , and 105
2 x 4 x 3/2 8 x 5/2 16 x 7/2 32 x 9/2
At x = 4, these are 4 , − 32 , 8 , − 11 , and 14 :
1 1 3 15 105
2 2 2
p5(x) = 2 + 4 (x – 4) – 2⋅32 (x − 4) + 8 (x − 4)3 − 1511 (x − 4)4 + 10514 (x – 4)5
1 1 2 3
6⋅2 24⋅2 120⋅2
= 2 + 4 (x − 4) − 64 (x − 4) + 512 (x − 4) − 16384 (x − 4) + 131072 (x − 4)5
1 1 2 1 3 5 4 7

b. p5 (5) = 2 + 14 (5 − 4) − 64
1 (5 − 4)2 + 1 (5 − 4)3 − 5 (5 − 4)4 +
512 16384 131072 (5 − 4)
7 5

= 2 + 14 − 64
1 + 1 − 5 +
512 16384 131072 ≈ 2.236
7

error: p5(5) – 5 ≈ 0.000008 or 8 ⋅ 10–6

c. p ′(x) == 14 − 32
1 (x − 4) + 3 (x − 4)2 − 5 (x − 4)3 + 35 (x − 4)4
512 4096 131072
p ′′(x) = − 32 +
1
256 (x − 4) − 4096 (x − 4) + 32768 (x − 4)
3 15 2 35 3

p ′′(4) = − 32 +
1
256 (4 − 4) − 4096 (4 − 4) + 32768 (4 − 4) =
3 15 2 35 − 1
32

32. f ′(x) = cos(x), f ′′(x) = –sin(x);

( ) + ( cos ( ) ) ( x − ) − ( ) ( x − π2 ) = 12 ( x − π2 ) = 1− 12 ( x − π2 )
sin π
2 2 2
p2(x) = sin π π π 2
2 2 2 2

33. a. 1+ e x (by the FTC)

dy dy/dt −2/ 1−4t 2
b. dx = dx/dt = −2 sin(2t ) = 1
sin(2t )⋅ 1−4t 2

y′
c. ln(y) = ln(xx) = x ln(x), d
dx [ln(y)] = d
dx [x ln(x)], y = ln(x) + x
x
= ln(x) + 1,
y′ = y[ln(x) + 1] or xx[ln(x) + 1].
d. y′ = csc[ln(x)] + x[–csc(ln[x]) cot(ln[x])] ⋅ 1
x = csc[ln(x)] – csc[ln (x)] cot[ln(x)]

34. d
dx (x2y – xy2) = d
dx (6), 2xy + x2y′ – 2xyy′ – y2 = 0, 2xy – y2 = y′(2xy – x2),
2 xy−y2
y′ = . At y = 1, x2 – x = 6, x2 – x – 6 = 0, (x – 3)(x + 2) = 0, x = 3 (in Q1).
2 xy−x 2
y′ = 6−1
6−9 = 5
−3 ; The tangent line is y = – 53 (x – 3) + 1 = – 53 x + 6.

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35. a. The slopes of the tangents are not parallel along either x- or y-values.
b. See graph at right. y
dy
c. y = −2xdx

∫ = ∫ −2x dx
dy
y
x
ln y = −x 2 + C
2
y = Ae− x
2
y = 3e− x
(since y(0) = 3)

36. a.
!
v(t) = 40 cos ( π6 ) , 40 sin ( π6 ) − 10t = 20 3, 20 − 10t , so x(t) = 20t 3 + C1,
y(t) = 20t – 5t2 + C2, and x(0) = 0, y(0) = 25; x(t) = 20t 3 , y(t) = –5t2 + 20t + 25
b. 0 = –5t2 + 20t + 25 = –5(t2 – 4t + 5) = –5(t – 5)(t + 1), t = 5
Angle: tan −1 ( ) = tan (
y′ (5)
x ′ (5)
−1 20−10(5)
20 3 ) = tan ( ) = tan ( ) ≈ 0.714 or 40.893º
−1 −30
20 3
–1
2
3

37. B: They intersect at: r2 = 8sin(2θ ) = 16 cos2(θ ), 16 sin(θ ) cos(θ ) = 16 cos2(θ ),

π /2 π /2
sin(θ ) = cos(θ ), θ = π
4 . A= 1
∫
2 π /4 (r1
2 − r22 )dθ = 1
∫
2 π /4 (8 sin(2θ ) − 16 cos (θ ))dθ
2

f (3)+ f (4) f (4)+ f (7) f (7)+ f (9)

38. B: 2 + 2 ⋅3+ 2 ⋅ 2 = 45 + 90 + 50 = 185

7
∑ (−1)(2n)!x
n 2n
39. a.
n=0

b. Task 1: As the degree of p increases, the interval of convergence between p and f

appears to become wider.
Task 2: p(x) will converge with f(x) for all values of x. lim pn (x) = cos(x)
n→∞

∞
∑ xk !
k
40. a. p(x) =
k=0

b. p(x) = 1+ x + x2 + x3 + ...+ xn + ...

2! 3! n!

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41. a. p ′(x) = (1+ x + + + ...+ + ...) = 1+ x + +
d
dx
x2
2!
x3
3!
xn
n!
x2
2!
x3
3! + ...+ xn
n! + ... = p(x)

b. ∫ p(x)dx = ∫ (1+ x + + + ...+ + ...) dx = C + x +

x2
2!
x3
3!
xn
n!
x2
2! + x3
3! + ...+ xn
n! + ... = p(x) + C
Same answer as part (a).

(x−1)2 3 n
42. ln(x) = (x – 1) – 2 + (x−1)
3 + ...+ (−1)
n+1 (x−1) + ...
n

43. area of a semicircle: 1

2 π r2
In this situation, r = ex – (–2x).
x −(−2 x ) ⎞ 2
π⎛e
4 4
∫ 1
0 2 ⎝ 2 ⎠
dx = π8 ∫0 (e x + 2 x )2dx

π π
44. 2∫ 1 [1− cos(θ )]2 dθ = ∫ [1− 2 cos(θ ) + cos2 (θ )]dθ
0 2 0
π
= ∫ ⎡⎣1− 2 cos(θ ) + 12 cos(2θ ) + 12 ⎤⎦ dθ
0
π
= 1.5θ − 2 sin(θ ) + 0.25 sin(2θ ) 0 = 1.5π ≈ 4.172 un 2

y 2 −1
∫ y2 −1 = ∫ dxx ∫ 2(y−1) − ∫ 2(y+1) = ∫ dxx
dy dy dy dy
45. dx = x ⇒ ⇒ (using partial fractions)
1
2 ln y − 1 − 12 ln y + 1 = ln x + C

= 2 ( ln x + C )
y−1
ln y+1

= e2( ln x +C ) = Cx 2
y−1
y+1

y − 1 = (y + 1)(Cx 2 )
y − 1 = Cx 2 y + Cx 2
y − Cx 2 y = Cx 2 + 1
y(1− Cx 2 ) = Cx 2 + 1
y= Cx 2 +1 ⇒ 2 = 1−C
C+1 ⇒ 2 − 2C = 2C + 1 ⇒ C = 1
1−Cx 2 3
1 x 2 +1
y= 3
= x 2 +3
1− 13 x 2 3−x 2

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46. a. See part (b) of problem 7-200.
1 1
∫0 x 2e x dx = x 2e x − 2xe x + 2e x 0 = (e – 2e + 2e) – (2) = e – 2
b. Use the same process as part (a), but multiply the terms by powers of 1 to undo the
3
Chain Rule.

∫ x 2e3x dx = ( 13 ) x 2e3x − 2 ( 13 ) ( 13 )3 e3x + C = 13 x 2e3x − 29 xe3x + 272 e3x + C

2
xe 3x + 2

c. Let f = x, df = 1dx, dg = sin(x) dx, g = –cos(x).

Therefore ∫ x sin(x) dx = −x cos(x) − ∫ cos(x) = –x cos(x) + sin(x) + C
d. Let f = sin(x), df = cos(x) dx, dg = sin(x) dx, g = –cos(x).
Therefore:
∫ sin2 (x) dx = − sin(x) cos(x) + ∫ cos2 (x) dx = − sin(x) cos(x) + ∫ (1− sin2 (x)) dx ⇒

∫ sin2 (x) dx = − sin(x) cos(x) + x − ∫ sin2 (x) dx

2 ∫ sin 2 (x) dx = − sin(x) cos(x) + x + C
− sin(x) cos(x)+x
∫ sin2 (x) dx = 2 +C
Another possible answer is ∫ sin 2 (x) dx = 2x − sin(2
4
x)
+ C using the fact that
sin(2x) = 2sin(x)cos(x).

x 2n+2 (2n)! x2
47. a. lim (2n+2)! ⋅ x 2n = lim (2n+1)(2n+2) = 0 Therefore the series converges for all x.
n→∞ n→∞

(n+1)2 (x+1)n+1 2
b. lim 2 n = lim (n+1) 2(x+1) = x + 1 ≤ 1 ⇒ –2 ≤ x ≤ 0
n→∞ n (x+1) x→∞ n
∞
For x = –2, ∑ n 2 (−1)n which is an alternating series, but lim an ≠ 0 .
n→∞
n=2
∞ ∞
For x = 0, ∑ n 2 (1)n = ∑ n2 which diverges by the Divergence Test.
n=2 n=2
Therefore the series converges on the interval (–2, 0).

( 2n−3 )
n+1 n+1 x n+1
c. lim
n→∞
( 2n−5 )
n n xn
= lim
n→∞
( (2n−3)n ) ( )x =
(2n−5)(n+1) n n+1
2n−3
1
2 x ≤ 1 ⇒ –2 < x < 2

∞
∑ ( 2n−5 )
−2n n
For x = –2, = 23 , 16
1 , − 1 , 81 which diverges by the Divergence Test.
216 4096
n=1
∞
∑ ( 2n−5 ) n
For x = 2, 2n = − 23 , 16 216 4096
1 , 1 , 81 which diverges by the Divergence Test.
n=1
Therefore the series converges on the interval (–2, 2).

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48. sin(x) = x – x3 + x5 − x7 + ...+ (−1)n+1 (2n+1)!
x +…
2n+1
3! 5! 7!
2 x4 x6 x 2n
cos(x) = 1 – x2 + 4! − 6! + ...+ (−1)n (2n)!
+…

ex = 1 + x + x2 + x3 + ...+ xn +…
2! 3! n!

(2 x)2 4 (2 x)2n
49. a. cos(2x) ≈ 1 – 2 + (24x)! − ...+ (−1)n (2n)! + ...

x4 + x8 − x12 + ...+ (−1)n x 4n

(2n)! + ...
b. cos(x2) = 1 – 2 4! 6!

50. a. cos(–x) = 1 – x2 + x4 − x6 + ...+ (−1)n x 2n +…

2 4! 6! (2n)!

b. e x = 1+ x1/2 + 2!
x + x 3/2 + ...+ x n/2 + ...
3! n!

c. sin(x2) = x2 – x6 + x10 − x14 + ...+ (−1)n+1 (2n+1)!

x +…
4n+2
3! 5! 7!

2
51. a. y = ex y(0) = e0 = 1
2
y′ = 2xe x y′(0) = 0e0 = 0
2 2
y′′ = 2e x + 4x 2 e x y′′(0) = 2e0 + 4(0)e0 = 2
2 2 2
y′′′ = 4xe x + 8xe x + 8x 3e x y′′′(0) = 0e0 + 0e0 + 0e0 = 0
2 2 2 2 2 2
y(4) = 4e x + 8x 2 e x + 8e x + 16x 2 e x + 24x 2 e x + 16x 4 e x
y(4)(0) = 4e0 + 0e0 + 8e0 + 0e0 + 0e0 + 0e0 = 12
1 + 0 x + 2 x 2 + 0 x 3 + 12 x 4
p4(x) = 0! 1! 2! 3! 4!

p4(x) = 1 + x2 + x4
2

∫ (1+ x + ) dx = x +
1
x4 x3 5 1
b. 2
2 3 + 10
x = 1+ 13 + 10
1 = 1 13 ≈ 1.4333
30
0 0
1
∫0 e x
2
c. Using a calculator: dx ≈ 1.46265
error ≈ 1.46265 – 1.43333 ≈ 0.0293

52. As x → 0, the higher order Maclaurin terms ( x5

5! , − x7
7! )
, etc. will approach 0 very fast.

( ) + ... = 1
3 5 7
x− x + x − x +...
lim sin(x)
= lim 3! 5! 7! = lim 1− x2 + x4 − x6
x x 3! 5! 7!
x→0 x→0 x→0

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 1− ⎛ 1− x2! + x4 ! − x6! +...⎞
2 4 6

( )
x 2 − x 4 + x 6 −...
1−cos(x) ⎝ ⎠ 3 5
53. lim x = lim x = lim 2 24 720
x = lim x
2 − 24
x + x − ... = 0
720
x→0 x→0 x→0 x→0

( )
2 4 6 2 4 6
cos(x 2 )−1 1− x2! + x4 ! − x6! +!−1 − x2! + x4 ! − x6! +!
54. ∫ x2
dx =∫
x2
dx = ∫
x2
dx = ∫ − 2!
1 + x2
4! − x4
6! +! dx =
3 5 n (2n−1)
x + x − x +!+ (−1) x
(2n−1)(2n)! + C
– 2! 3(4 !) 5(6!)
Note: Technically this expression is not well defined for x = 0.

55. a. cos(0) = 1, so its series starts with 1, and sin(0) = 0, so its series starts with x. Also,
cos(x) is even, and its Maclaurin series has terms of even degrees, and sin(x) is odd,
and its Maclaurin series has terms of odd degrees.

b. d
dx (x− x3
3! + x5
5! ) 2
− ... = 1− 3x3! + 55!
4
x − ... = 1− x2
2 + x4
4! − ..., so it works.

56. f ′(x) = 1 , f ′′(x) = − 1 , f ′′′(x) = 3 , which have values of 1 , − 1 , and 3 at x =

2 4 8 1.
2 x 4 x 3/2 8 x 5/2
p3(x) = 1 + 1
2 (x − 1) − 1 ⋅ 1 (x − 1)2 + 3 ⋅ 1 (x – 1)3 = 1 + 1 (x − 1) − 1 (x − 1)2 + 1 (x − 1)3 ,
4 2 8 3! 2 8 16
2 4 x6 .
so substitute in x2 + 1 for the former x. 1 + x2 − x8 + 16

57. a. f ′(x) changes from negative to positive at x = 3.

b. At x = 0, f ′(x) = 0 but does not cross the x-axis/change sign.
c. The slope of y = f ′(x) is non-negative in [–3, 0] and [2, 4]. This is when the derivative
is increasing.

58. a. The intersection is y = 12 = 4 x 3/2 + 1 , 9 = x3/2 + 1, 8 = x3/2, x = 4.

∫0 2π x (12 − 4 )
4
Using shells, V = x 3/2 + 1 dx ≈ 139.293 un3, using a calculator.

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 2/3
= x 3/2 + 1, ⎛ 16 − 1⎞
y y2 y2
59. y = 4 x 3/2 + 1 ; = x 3/2 + 1, =x
4 16 ⎝ ⎠
4/3
π ⎛ 16
y2
− 1⎞
h+4
V= dV
dt = d
dt ∫4 ⎝ ⎠
dy = up to a height of h.
4/3 ⎛ h+4 ⎛ y2 ⎞ 4/3 ⎞ dh 4/3
π ⎛ 16
y2
− 1⎞ ⎛ (h+4)2 ⎞
h+4
dV
dt = d
dt ∫4 ⎝ ⎠
dy = d
dh ⎜ ∫4 π ⎝ 16 − 1⎠ dy ⎟ ⋅ dt , 8 = π ⎝ 16
⎝ ⎠
− 1
⎠
⋅ h′,

4/3
8 = π ⎛ (4+4) − 1⎞
2
⋅ h′ = π ⋅ 34/3 ⋅ h′, h′ = 8 ≈ 0.5889 units/min
⎝ 16 ⎠ π ⋅34/3

2
d ln(y +1) =
2y
log2 (y2 + 1) = ln(2) ⋅ y2 +1 ⋅ 2y ⋅ y ′ = ⋅ log2(y2 + 1)
60. D: d 1 1
dx dx ln(2) 2
(y +1) ln(2)

2
61. C: error = p6 (0.5) − e−0.5 ≈ 0.00015

62. a. i. Yes, r = 13 . S = 1−1/3

5 = 15
2
ii. Yes, r = − 12 . S = 1−(−1/2)
100 = 200
3 = 66 23
iii. No, r = 52 . Since r > 1, this series diverges.

b. –1 < r < 1 or r < 1

c. Open interval. If r = 1, then the series will become infinitely large. If r = –1, then the
series has more than one possible sum.

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63. a. a = 1 and r = x, so S = 1 + x + x2 + x3 + x4 + … + xn + …
b. f (x) = 1−x
1 f (0) = 1−0
1 =1

f ′(x) = 1 f ′(0) = 1 =1
(1−x)2 (1−0)2
f ′′(x) = 2 3 f ′′(0) = 2 3 = 2
(1−x) (1−0)
f ′′′(x) = 6 f ′′′(0) = 6 4 = 6
(1−x)4 (1−0)
p(x) = 1 x 0 + 1 x1 + 2 x 2 + 6 x 3 + ...
0! 1! 2! 3!
p(x) = 1 + x + x2 + x3 + x4 + … + xn + … ; p(x) = S
c. –1 < x < 1; This is the interval of convergence for a geometric series where r = x.
∞
d. Open interval. When x = –1, ∑ (−1)n diverges by the Divergence Test.
n=1
∞
Likewise, when x = 1, ∑ (1)n diverges by the Divergence Test.
n=1

64. p(x) = 1 + x + x2 + x3 p(x) = 1 + x + x2 + x3 + x4

y y
p(x)

f (x) f (x)
x x

p(x)

p(x) = 1 + x + x2 + x3 + x4 + x5 p(x) = 1 + x + x2 + x3 + x4 + x5 + x6
y y
p(x)

f (x) f (x)
x x

p(x)

a. y = p(x) coincides with y = f(x) on –1 < x < 1.

b. f has a vertical asymptote at x = 1, so the radius of convergence is the distance from
the center to the asymptote.
c. The radius is the distance from the center of the Taylor series to either endpoint of the
interval of convergence.

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65. a. p(x) = 1 + x
3 + ( x3 )2 + ( x3 )3 + ...+ ( x3 )n + ...
b. converges on –3 < x < 3
c. interval of convergence for p is –1 < x < 1 … substitute x
3 : –1 < x
3 < 1 ⇒ –3 < x < 3

d. U= 4
3 x; m(x) = 1 + 4
3 x+ ( 43 x )2 + ( 43 x )3 + ...+ ( 43 x )n + ...

66. All series converge for all values of x. https://www.desmos.com/calculator/72hpoqnndi

67. a. 0.2
2 ( 4 + 2(12) + 2(23) + 2(39) + 59 ) = 21.1
2.8
b. f (2.8) = f (2) + ∫ f ′(x)dx = −5 + 21.1 = 16.1
2

c. (2, –5) → (2 + 0.2, –5 + 4(0.2)) = (2.2, –4.2)

(2.2, –4.2) → (2.2 + 0.2, –4.2 + 12(0.2)) = (2.4, –1.8)
(2.4, –1.8) → (2.4 + 0.2, –1.8 + 23(0.2)) = (2.6, 2.8)
(2.6, 2.8) → (2.6 + 0.2, 2.8 + 39(0.2)) = (2.8, 10.6) Therefore f(2.8) ≈ 10.6.
f ′′ (2) f ′′′ (2)
d. p3 (x) = f (2) + f ′(2)(x − 2) + 2! (x − 2) + 3!
2 (x − 2)3
p3 (x) = −5 + 4(x − 2) + 32 (x − 2)2 + 72 (x − 2)3
2! 3!
f(2.8) ≈ p3(2.8) ≈ 14.584
e. They were not very close. Given f ′, the graph of the original function becomes very
steep near x = 2.8 and is concave up. The trapezoidal approximation gives an
overestimate. Euler’s Method gives an underestimate. The function is changing too
rapidly at x = 2.8 to get a good approximation using these methods.

( )
0.2 sin(x) 0.2 0.2
∫ =∫ x2 x4 x3 5
68. x dx 1− 3! + 5! dx = x – 3(3!) + 5(5!)
x ≈ 0.199556
0 0 0
0.2
Note: Since 0.2 5 < 0.0001 we can ignore the last term above. x – x3 = 44
5(5!) 3(3!) 225
0

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 ∞ ∞
69. a. 1+1
3 6 + 11
1 + 1 + 1 + ... =
18 27 ∑ 1
n 2 +2
<∑ 1
n2
n=1 n=1
Therefore since all of the terms are positive, the series converges absolutely by
the Comparison Test.
∞ ∞
b. 1
2 + 19 + 28
1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + ...
65 126 217 ∑ 1
n 3 +1
<∑ 1
n3
n=1 n=1
Therefore since all of the terms are positive, the series converges absolutely by
the Comparison Test.
∞ ∞
c. ln ( ) + ln ( ) + ln ( ) + ... = ∑ ln ( ) = ∑ ( ln(n) − ln(n + 1) ) , which is a
1
2
2
3
3
4
n
n+1
n=1 n=1
telescoping series. The sum can be thought of as ln(1) – ln(∞), which diverges.
∞ ∞
d. –2 + 1 – 2
3 (
+ 12 − 25 + ... = − 21 − 23 − 25 − ... + ) ( 1+ 1
1 2 )
+ 13 + ... = ∑ −2
2n−1 + ∑ 1n
n=1 n=1
−2
Since lim 2n−1 = lim −2n = –1 and the harmonic series diverges, by the Limit
1 2n−1
n→∞ n n→∞
Comparison Test both series diverge. Hence the original series diverges.

(x−1)2 3 4 n
70. From problem 12-30: ln(x) ≈ p(x) = 0 + (x – 1) – 2 + (x−1)
3 −
(x−1) (x−1)
4 + ...+ n + ...
(x+1−1)2 3 4 n
Using substitution: ln(x + 1) ≈ 0 + (x + 1 – 1) – 2 + (x+1−1)
3 − (x+1−1)
4 + ...+ (x)n + ...
∞
∑ (−1)n+1 xn
n
Therefore: p(x) =
n=1

∞
71. a. p(x) = ∑ 3n x n+2 = 30 x 2 + 31 x 3 + 32 x 4 + ... = x 2 + 3x 3 + 9x 4 + ...
n=0
The polynomial does not have a first-degree term, therefore the coefficient of first
degree-term is 0.
The coefficient of second-degree term is 1.
f(0) is a local minimum because p′(0) = 2x + 9x2 + … = 0 and
p″(0) = 2 + 18x + … > 0.
b. p5(x) = x2 + 3x3 + 9x4 + 27x5
∫ p5 (x)dx = ∫ (x 2 + 3x 3 + 9x 4 + 27x 5 )dx = C + 13 x 3 + 43 x 4 + 95 x 5 + 276 x 6

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 3(2t+6)−2(3t ) 18
dy
dy (2t+6)2 4(t+3)2 −27(t−2)2
72. a. dx = dt
dx = −3(5) = −15 =
dt
10(t+3)2
(3t−6)2 9(t−2)2

dy −27(3−2)2
When t = 3, dx = =− 27 =− 3 = −0.075
10(3+3)2 360 40

d ⎛ −27(t−2) ⎞ d ⎛ −27(t−2) ⎞
2 2

b.
d2y
dx 2
= d
dx ( )=
dy
dx
d
dx ( −27(t−2)2
10(t+3)2 )= (
d
dt
−27(t−2)2
10(t+3)2 )⋅ dt
dx =
dt ⎜⎝ 10(t+3)2 ⎟⎠
dx
dt
=
dt ⎜⎝ 10(t+3)2 ⎟⎠
−5
3(t−2)2

−540(t−2)(t+3)2 +540(t+3)(t−2)2 −54(t−2)(t+3)( −(t+3)+(t−2) ) −54(t−2)(−5)

100(t+3)4 10(t+3)4 10(t+3)3
= −5 = −5 = −5
3(t−2)2 3(t−2)2 3(t−2)2

27(t−2) 3(t−2)2 81(t−2)3

= ⋅ −5 =
(t+3)3 −5(t+3)3
This is the concavity.

x 2n+2 (2n)! x2
73. a. lim (2n+2)! ⋅ x 2n = lim (2n+1)(2n+2) = 0 Therefore the series converges for all x.
n→∞ n→∞

(n+1)2 (x+1)n+1 (n+1)2 (x+1)

b. lim = lim = x + 1 ≤ 1 ⇒ –2 ≤ x ≤ 0
n→∞ n 2 (x+1)n x→∞ n2
∞
For x = –2, ∑ n2 (−1)n which is an alternating series, but lim an ≠ 0 .
n→∞
n=2
∞ ∞
For x = 0, ∑ n 2 (1)n = ∑ n2 which diverges by the Divergence Test.
n=2 n=2
Therefore the series converges on the interval (–2, 0).

( 2n−3 )
n+1 n+1 x n+1
c. lim
n→∞
( 2n−5 )
n n xn
= lim
n→∞
( (2n−5)(n+1) n
(2n−3)n ) ( )x =
n+1
2n−3
1
2 x < 1 ⇒ –2 < x < 2

∞
∑ ( 2n−5 )
−2n n
For x = –2, = 23 , 16
1 , − 1 , 81 which diverges by the Divergence Test.
216 4096
n=1
∞
∑ ( 2n−5 ) n
For x = 2, 2n = − 23 , 16 216 4096
1 , 1 , 81 which diverges by the Divergence Test.
n=1
Therefore the series converges on the interval (–2, 2).

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74. a. A Taylor series is a type of power series. Taylor series will accurately model a
non-polynomial function within an interval of convergence. A power series
converges when x − c < R , where R is the radius of convergence.
b. A Taylor series can be used to approximate a function near any x-value. First use
the Ratio Test to determine the radius of convergence, then test the endpoints.
c. A Taylor series is a special form of a power series that is infinitely differentiable
over a given interval. The interval of convergence tells us the values of x for which
the Taylor series accurately evaluates another function.

75. a. x –2 –1 –0.9 0 0.9 1 2

f(x) DNE DNE large (–) 0 ≈1

an+1 x n+1 /(n+1)

b. lim an = lim = lim x ⋅ n+1
n = x <1
n→∞ n→∞ x n /n n→∞
Yes, the Ratio Test confirms Julien’s conjecture. Note that f(–1) does not exist or that
the graph of y = f(x) has a vertical asymptote at x = –1 and polynomials cannot model
a vertical asymptote.
∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞
p(−1) = ∑ =∑ =∑ =∑ = −∑
n (−1)2n+1 (−1)2n (−1)
c. (−1)n+1 (−1) −1 1 ⇒ diverges
n n n n n
n=1 n=1 n=1 n=1 n=1
∞ ∞
p(1) = ∑ (−1)n+1 (1)n = ∑
n (−1)n+1
n ⇒ converges by the Alternating Series Test
n=1 n=1
Therefore the interval of convergence is (–1, 1].
2 2
d. p2(x) = x − x2 ; f(–0.9) ≈ −0.9 − (−0.9) 261 ; f(0.9) ≈ 0.9 − (0.9) = − 99
= − 200
2 2 2 200

e. x = 2 is outside the interval of convergence.

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 (−1)n+1 x 2n+2 /(2n+2)! −1x 2
76. a. cos(x): lim = lim = lim x2 = 0 for any x, so
n→∞ (−1)n x 2n /(2n)! n→∞
(2n+2)(2n+1)
n→∞
(2n+2)(2n+1)

the series converges for all x.

(−1)n+1 x 2n+3 /(2n+3)! −1x 2
sin(x): lim = lim = lim x2 = 0 for any x, so
n 2n+1 /(2n+1)! (2n+3)(2n+2) (2n+3)(2n+2)
n→∞ (−1) x n→∞ n→∞
the series converges for all x.
x n+1 /(n+1)! x
ex: lim = lim = 0 for any x, so the series converges for all x.
n→∞ x n /n! n→∞
n+1

b. i. cos ( 1x ) = 1 – 2 1x2 + 4 !1x 4 − 6!1x6 + ...+ (−1)n (2n)!1 x2n +…

(−1)n+1 /(2n+2)! x 2n+2 −1

lim = lim = lim 1 = 0 for any x,
n→∞ (−1)n /(2n)! x 2n 2
n→∞ x (2n+2)(2n+1) n→∞ (2n+2)(2n+1)x
2

so the series converges for all x.

ii. e x = 1+ x1/2 + 2!
x + x 3/2 + ...+ x n/2 + ...
3! n!
x (n+1)/2 /(n+1)! x
lim = lim = 0 for all x ≥ 0
n→∞ x n/2 /n! n→∞
n+1

iii. sin(x 2 ) = x 2 − x6 + x10 − x14 4n+2

+ ...+ (−1)n+1 (2n+1)!
x + ... ;
3! 5! 7!
(−1)n+2 (x 2 )4n+6 /(2n+3)! (−1)x 4
lim n+1 (x 2 )4n+2 /(2n+1)! = lim (2n+1)(2n+3) = 0 for any x, so the series
n→∞ (−1) n→∞
converges for all x.
c. Term-by-term substitution may result in a new radius of convergence.

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77. a. Predictions vary.
∞
b. i. f (x) = ∑ −3n−1 (x − 1)n−1
2n
n=1
n n /2 n+1
lim −3n−1(x−1) n−1
3 x−1
n = lim 2 <1 ⇒ x −1 < 2
3 so R = 2
3
n→∞ −3 (x−1) /2 n→∞
n
ii. f ′(x) = − 43 − 2(9) 3(27) n(3 )
8 (x − 1) − 16 (x − 1) − ...− n+1 (x − 1)
2 n−1 − ...
2

∫ f (x)dx = C − 12 x − 2(4)
3 (x − 1)2 − 9 (x − 1)3 − ...− 3 n−1
3(8) (x − 1)n − ...
n(2 n )
∞ ∞
f ′(x) = ∑ − n(3n )
∑ − (n−1)(3
n−1 )
iii. (x − 1)n−1 Note: f ′(x) = (x − 1)n−2 also works
2 n+1 2n
n=1 n=2
−(n+1)(3n+1 )(x−1)n /2 n+2 3(n+1)(x−1) 3(x−1)
lim = lim = lim <1 ⇒ x −1 < 2
n→∞ −n(3n )(x−1)n−1 /2 n+1 n→∞
2n
n→∞
2 3
∞
∫ f (x)dx = C + ∑ −3n−1 (x − 1)n
n(2 n )
n=1
−3n (x−1)n+1 /(n+1)2 n+1 3n(x−1) 3(x−1)
lim = lim = lim <1 ⇒ x −1 < 2
n→∞ −3n−1 (x−1)n /n(2)n n→∞
2(n+1)
n→∞
2 3

For both the derivative and integral series, R = 2

3 .
c. The radii of convergence are all the same.
d. For all three, since − 23 < x − 1 < 23 , I = ( 13 , 53 ) .

21 © 2017 CPM Educational Program. All rights reserved. Calculus

 Cn+1 (x−a)n+1 Cn+1 (x−a) Cn Cn
78. a. lim n = lim Cn < 1 or x − a < C ⇒ R= Cn+1
n→∞ Cn (x−a) n→∞ n+1

b. The radius of convergence depends on the ratio of successive coefficients as n → ∞.

c. f ′(x)= C1 + C2(x – a) + C3(x – a)2 + … + Cn(x – a)n–1 + …

Cn+1 (x−a)n Cn+1 (x−a) Cn Cn
lim n−1 = lim Cn < 1 or x − a < C ⇒ R= Cn+1
It is the same.
n→∞ Cn (x−a) n→∞ n+1

∫ f (x)dx = K + C0 x +
C1 C2 C3 C
d. 2 (x − a)2 + 3 (x − a)3 + 4 (x − a)4 + ...+ n+1
n (x − a)n+1 + ... ,

where K represents the constant of integration

Cn+1 (x−a)n+2 /(n+2) Cn+1 (x−a)(n+1) Cn+1 (x−a) Cn
lim n+1 = lim Cn (n+2) = lim Cn < 1 or x − a < C ⇒
n→∞ Cn (x−a) /(n+1) n→∞ n→∞ n+1
Cn
R= Cn+1
It is the same.

e. Term-by-term differentiation and integration guarantee the same radius of

convergence; term-by-term substitution does not.

0 1/2 (n−2)/2
f. d
dx e x = 1
2 x −1/2 + 1x2! + 3x
2(3!) + ...+ 2(n!)
nx + ...

(n+1)x (n−1)/2 /2(n+1)! x1/2

lim = lim = 0 for all x ≥ 0
n→∞ nx (n−2)/2 /2(n!) n→∞
n

Term-by-term differentiation will not change the radius of convergence of a Taylor

series.

79. a. Integration by parts, substitution, and partial fractions will not help in evaluating it.
2 2 2 2
b. 1 e0
5 + 15 e−0.2 + 15 e−0.4 + 15 e−0.6 + 15 e−0.8 ≈ 0.808
2 2 2 2 3
c. e− x ≈ 1+ (−x 2 ) + (− x2 ) + (− x3! ) = 1− x 2 + x4 − x6
2 6

∫0 ( )
1 1
d. 1− x 2 + x4 − x6 dx = x − x3 + 10
x − 5 x7 = 1− 13 + 10
1 − 1 = 26 ≈ 0.743
2 6 3 42 42 35
0

e. For part (b): use more rectangles. For part (d): use more terms.

22 © 2017 CPM Educational Program. All rights reserved. Calculus

 df
80. a. dt = kf(50000 – f )
df
b. f (50000− f ) = kdt
1
f (50000− f ) = a
f + 50000−
b
f
1 = (50000 – f )a + fb = 50000a + (b – a)f, a = 1
50000 , b=a= 1
50000

∫ 50000 ( f 50000−
1 ⋅ 1 + 1
f ) df = ∫ kdt

50000 ( ln f − ln 50000 − f ) = kt + C
1

f
50000− f
= e50000kt+C = Ae50000kt

f = 50000Ae50000kt – Afe50000kt ⇒ f = 50000 Ae50000kt

1+Ae50000kt

c. 4= 50000 A , 4 = 49996A, A = 1 : f= 50000e50000kt = 50000r t for some r:

1+A 12499 12499+e50000kt 12499+r t

2000 = 50000r10 , r ≈ 1.869 = e50000k: ln(1.869) = 50000k ⇒ k ≈ 1.251 × 10–5

12499+r10

f (t) ≈ 50000e50000kt or 50000e0.626t

12499+e50000kt 12499+e0.626t

81. a. f ′(x) = 1
2 x
e x + 1
2 x
xe x = 1
2 x
e x + 12 e x = 12 e x
(1+ ) = 1
x
1
2 e x
( )
1+ x
x

b. f ′(x) = –ksin2(kx) + kcos2(kx) = k(cos2(kx) – sin2(kx)) = kcos(2kx)

3x 2 ln(1+x 2 )−x 3⋅ 1 ⋅ 1 2 ⋅2 x 2
3 ln(1+x 2 )− x 2
2 ln(1+x 2 ) 1+x 2 2 2
c. f ′(x) = = x2 ⋅ 1+x
= x 2 ⋅ 3(1+x2 ) ln(1+x2 )−x
ln(1+x 2 ) (ln(1+x 2 ))1.5 1.5
(1+x )(ln(1+x ))

d. (
f ′(x) = sec2 p0 e− x
2
)⋅ p e 0
− x2 ⋅ (–2x)

82. ( x, 2e −(x−1)2
) is at distance 2
x 2 + 4e−2(x−1) , and it will suffice to maximize
2
x 2 + 4e−2(x−1) , which is at x ≈ 1.150 (using a calculator): ≈ (1.150, 1.955)

83. A:
3π /2
∫π /2 1 r 2 dθ
2 =∫
π /2
3π /2
1 ⋅ 8θ
2 π dθ = π4 ⋅ θ2
2 3π /2
π /2
= π2 (( 3π 2
2 ) − ( π2 )
2
) = π2 ⋅ π 2 ( 84 ) = 4π

23 © 2017 CPM Educational Program. All rights reserved. Calculus

84. A: I: At x = –2, e–2+2 – 1 = 0 and 4 – (–2)2 = 0, so y = f (x) is continuous there.
d (ex+2 – 1) = ex+2 = 1 when x = –2
II: dx d 2
dx (4 – x ) = –2x = 4 when x = –2
These disagree at x = –2, so f is not differentiable there.
III: At x = 0.5, 4 – (0.5)2 ≠ 4 – cos(0.5 – 0.5), so f is not continuous and thus not
differentiable there.

85. D: I, II, and III are each limits of slopes of secants around x = 2 on the graph of y = sin(x),
so each one equals the derivative of sin(x) at x = 2, or cos(2).

dy dy/dt
86. a. x′(t) = 6t2 – 30t + 24, y′(t) = 2t + 1, dx = dx/dt = 2t+1 or 2t + 1 = 0 ⇒ t = – 12
6t 2 −30t+24
dy dy/dt
b. dx = dx/dt = 2t+1 = undefined or 6t2 – 30t + 24 = 0
6t 2 −30t+24
t2 – 5t + 4 = 0
(t – 4)(t – 1) = 0
t = 4, 1

y
87. a. See graph at right. p4(x) = 1 – x2 + x4
2 4!
p4(x)
b. cos(0.5), because the approximation is better for x
closer to 0.
2 4 6
c. p6(x) = 1 – x2 + x4 ! − x6! . p6(0.5) should be a better x
f (x)
approximation because it uses more terms of the
Maclaurin Series.
d. The proximity of the x-value to x = 0 (for the
Maclaurin polynomial) and the degree of the
polynomial.

88. a. Answers vary.

b. n 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
pn(1.5) 0.5 0.375 0.417 0.401 0.407 0.405 0.406 0.405

c. The graph of the polynomial approaches ln(1.5) ≈ 0.405.

d. ln(1.5) ≈ 0.405465; a fourth-degree polynomial

24 © 2017 CPM Educational Program. All rights reserved. Calculus

89. a. The consecutive terms of the series alternate between positive and negative.
b.
term (x – 1)

term
value if
x = 1.5
The terms decrease and alternate in sign.
(1.5−1)4
c. The next (fourth-degree) term has an absolute value of 4 = 1
64 , which is the
largest that the error of p3(1.5) can be.
d. i. If the value of the terms increased, then the series would diverge.
ii. When an alternating series converges, consecutive values narrow in towards the
target value. In other words, the absolute value of each term is larger than the sum
of all remaining terms in the series.
(1.5−1)6
e. The absolute value of the sixth term is 6 = 1
384 . This is the value of the next
term of the Taylor series, p(x), that corresponds with the Taylor polynomial p5(x).

90. a. sin(2) ≈ 2 – 23 = 2 − 43 = 2
3! 3

b. The maximum error is the value of the next non-zero term in the Maclaurin series for
sin(x): 25 = 120
32 = 4
5! 15

c. actual error = sin(2) − 23 ≈ 0.243 < 0.266 = 4

15 = alternating series bound

91. Substitute into the series for ex : p4(x) = 1 – 2x + 4 x 2 − 8 x 3 + 16 x 4

2 3! 4!
32(0.5)5
f (0.5) ≈ p4(0.5) = 3
8 = 0.375 with error < 5! = 1201 ≈ 0.0083

actual error = e−1 − 0.375 ≈ 0.00712

p4′(x) = –2 + 4x – 4x2 + 8 x3
3
p4″(x) = 4 – 8x + 8x2
p4″′(x) = –8 + 16x
f ″′(0.5) ≈ p4″′(0.5) = –8 + 8 = 0

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 !
92. a. v(t) = x ′(t), y′(t) = 96, 96 − 32t

b. It hits the ground when y = 0. 96t – 16t2 = 0, 16(6 – t) = 0 ⇒ t = 0, t = 6

Speed (magnitude of the velocity vector) at t = 0 is 96 2 + 96 2 = 96 2
Speed at t = 6 is 96 2 + (96 − 192)2 = 96 2 ≈ 135.765
The speeds are the same, and in general a projectile’s speed, when launched from the
ground, is the same when it takes off and lands (neglecting wind resistance).

93. r cos(2θ ) = 4, r2cos(2θ ) = 16, r2(2cos2(θ ) – 1) = 16, 2r2 cos2(θ ) – r2 = 16,

2x2 – (x2 + y2) = 16, x2 – y2 = 16. The domain of r(θ ) are θ such that cos(2θ ) is positive:
( − π4 , π4 ) ∪ ( 34π , 54π ) (plus any multiple of 2π). The graph is a hyperbola, and the edges of
the domain of θ represent the asymptotes of the hyperbola, at θ = – π4 , π4 , 34π , and 5π
4 .

( ) ( )2 = π2 ⋅ 22 = 2π un3
ln(2) ln(2)
94. lim∫
a→−∞ a
π e2 x dx = lim π ⋅ 12 e2 x
a→−∞ a
= π2 e2 ln(2) − 0 = π2 ⋅ eln(2)

an+1 (n+1) ln(n+1)/3n+1 n+1 ⋅ ln(n+1) ⋅ 1

95. a. lim an = lim = lim = 13 < 1 , so it converges
n→∞ n→∞ (n ln(n))/3n n→∞
n ln(n) 3

absolutely by the Ratio Test (or Comparison of Limit Comparison Test).

∞
b. It has positive terms less than those of ∑ n3/2
1 , which converges (p-Series Test) so it
n=1
converges absolutely by the Comparison Test (or Limit Comparison Test).
ln(n) ln(n)
c. Since lim (−1)n+1 = lim = 12 , it diverges by the Divergence Test.
n→∞ ln(n 2 ) n→∞
2 ln(n)

d. Since lim
j→∞
−( j+1)2 /2 j+1
− j 2 /2 j
= lim
j→∞
( )⋅j+1 2 1
j 2 = 1
2 < 1 , it converges absolutely by the Ratio
Test (or Limit Comparison Test).

dy dy/dt y′ (t ) y′ (4)
96. B: dx = dx/dt = x ′ (t ) = π1/(2 t)
sin(π t )
; Since t = 4 x ′ (4) = π1/(2 4)
sin(4 π ) = 0
1/4 , which is undefined.

26 © 2017 CPM Educational Program. All rights reserved. Calculus

 dy
97. D: y2 dx – cos(x) = 0 y3 = 3sin(x) + C
dy
y2 dx = cos(x) y = (3sin(x) + C)1/3
y2dy = cos(x)dx, 3 = (3sin(0) + C)1/3 (since y(0) = 3)
∫ y2 dy = ∫ cos(x)dx 3 = C1/3 ⇒ C = 27
y3
3 = sin(x) + C y = (3sin(x) + 27)1/3

2
98. A: total cost = x(145 – 0.5(x – 80)) = 145x – (x – 80) 2x = 145x – x2 + 40x
The is maximized when the derivative = 0. 145 – x + 40 = 0 ⇒ x = 185
Then maximum when x = 185 is ⋅ 145(185) – 1852/2 +40(185) = $17112.50.

99. a. They all go through (1, 1) and have the same slope at x = 1. They are all concave up
at x = 1.
b. The graph of Curve A is the “curviest” at x = 1 and the graph of Curve C is the least
curvy at x = 1.
c. Curve C will give the best tangent line approximation at x = 0.6 because the curve is
closest to the line for a larger interval.
d. Answers will vary. Look at the coefficient of the 2nd degree term in the series, because
second derivatives indicate concavity.

100. a. p1(x) = f (0) + f ′(0)x

b. f ′ is an antiderivative of f ′′: f ′(x) – f ′(0) ≤ Mx, f ′(x) ≤ Mx + f ′(0)
x x
c. ∫0 f ′(t)dt ≤ ∫ (Mt + f ′(0))dt
0

f (x) – f (0) ≤ M ⋅ x2 + f ′(0) ⋅ x

2

f (x) ≤ M ⋅ x2 + f ′(0) ⋅ x + f (0)

2

d. Lx ≤ f ′(x) – f ′(0),
Lx + f ′(0) ≤ f (x)
x x
∫0 (Lt + f ′(0))dt ≤ ∫0 ( f ′(t)dt ,
Lx 2 + f ′(0)x ≤ f (x) – f (0)
2
2
L x2 + f ′(0)x + f (0) ≤ f (x)

e. L
2 x2 + f ′(0)x + f (0) ≤ f (x) ≤ M
2 x2 + f ′(0)x + f (0)

f. L
2 x2 + f (x) – p1(x) ≤ M
2 x2

27 © 2017 CPM Educational Program. All rights reserved. Calculus

 x1 x1 x1
g. ∫0 L dx ≤ ∫
0
f ′′′(x)dx ≤ ∫
0
M dx
Lx1 ≤ f ′′(x1) – f ′′(0) ≤ Mx1
x2 x2 x2
∫0 Lx1 dx1 ≤ ∫
0
( f ′′(x1 ) − f ′′(0))dx1 ≤ ∫
0
Mx1 dx1
x22
Lx22 ⋅ 1
2 ≤ f ′(x2) – f ′(0) – f ′′(0)x2 ≤ M ⋅ 2
x3 x3 x3 x22
∫0 Lx22 ⋅ 12 dx2 ≤ ∫
0
( f ′(x2 ) − f ′(0) − f ′′(0)x2 )dx2 ≤ ∫
0
M⋅ 2 dx2
x33 x32 x33
L⋅ 6 ≤ f ′(x3 ) − f (0) − f ′(0)x3 − f ′′(0) 2 ≤M⋅ 6
x33 x33
L⋅ 6 ≤ f (x3 ) − p2 (x3 ) ≤ M ⋅ 6

h. In general, L ⋅ x n+1 ≤ f (x) – pn(x) ≤ M ⋅ x n+1 .

(n+1)! (n+1)!

101. a. p3(x) = 1 + x + x2 + x3 , f (0.6) ≈ p3(0.6) = 1.816

2 6

4
b. Choose M = 3. error ≤ 3
4! 0.6 = 3888
240,000 = 0.0162

c. f (0.6) – p3(0.6) ≈ 0.00612, which lies between the bounds

102. a. p4 (x) ≈ 1− x2 + x4 2 4
; p4 (1) ≈ 1− 12 + 14 ! ⇒ cos(1) ≈ 13
2 4! 24

b. The next term is x6 . The associated derivative is sin(x). M = 1

6!
6
c. error ≤ 1
6! 0 −1 = 1
720 ≈ 0.00139

d. actual error = cos(1) − 13

24 ≈ 0.00136

4
103. f (4)(x) = (34)sin(3x) so choose M = 81. error ≤ 81
4! 0 − 0.1 = 81
240000 = 27
80000 = 0.0003375

28 © 2017 CPM Educational Program. All rights reserved. Calculus

104. a. f(0) = 0
The first few derivatives are:
f ′(x) 1 2 1 =1
f ′(0) 1+0
1+x
−2 x −2(0)
f ′′(x) = f ′′(0) = =0
(1+x 2 )2 (1+0)2
(1+x 2 )2 (−2)+2 x(2 x)2(1+x 2 ) (1+0)2 (−2)+2(0)(2(0))2(1+0)
f ′′(x) = f ′′(0) = = −2
(1+x 2 )4 (1+0)4
2 3
p(x) = 0 + 1x − 02!
x − 2 x , so the first two non-zero terms are x –
3!
1 x3.
3

b. g(0) = 0
The first few derivatives are:
g ′(x) = 2x g ′(0) = 2(0)4 = 0
1+x 4 1+0
2(1+x 4 )−2 x(4 x 3 ) 4 2−6(0)4
g ′′(x) = 4 2 = 2−64x 2 g ′′(0) = =2
(1+x ) (1+x ) (1+0 4 )2
(1+x 4 )2 (−24 x 3 )−(2−6 x 4 )2(1+x 4 )4 x 3 (1+x 4 )(−24 x 3 )+(6 x 4 −2)8 x 3 24 x 7 −40 x 3
g ′′′(x) = = =
(1+x 4 )4 (1+x 4 )4 (1+x 4 )4
24(0)7 −40(0)3
g ′′′(0) =
(1+0 4 )4
Three derivatives later part of the numerator will be non-zero at x = 0;
− 40 x 3 −240(1+x 4 )28 −240(1+0 4 )28
the becomes and = −240
(1+x 4 )4 (1+x 4 )32 (1+0 4 )32
https://www.desmos.com/calculator/pxe8f1ubhu
The first two non-zero terms are x2 – 240 ⋅ x6 = x2 − x6 .
6! 3

∫ (1+x)dx2 +1 = ∫ udu2 +1 = tan

–1
105. a. u = x + 1, du = dx; (u) + C = tan–1 (x + 1) + C using
substitution (or the reverse Chain Rule).
b. u = sin(x), du = cos(x)dx; ∫ udu
2 +1
= tan–1(u) + C = tan–1(sin(x)) + C using substitution

∫ sin2 (x)+1 dx = ∫
sin(2 x) 2 sin(x) cos(x)
c.
sin 2 (x)+1

u = sin2(x) + 1, du = 2sin(x)cos(x)dx; ∫ u1 du = ln(u) + C = ln(sin (x) + 1) + C

2

using a trigonometric identity, and substitution.

d. ∫ 2 ln(x)dx = 2x ln(x) – 2x + C by first simplifying and then using ∫ ln(x)dx .

29 © 2017 CPM Educational Program. All rights reserved. Calculus

 ∞
106. a. ∑ n22 dominates this series and converges, so it converges absolutely (since all terms
n=1
are positive) by the Comparison Test and Alternating Series Tests.
a j+1 ( j+1)!/(2 j+3)! j+1
b. lim aj = lim j !/(2 j+1)! = lim (2 j+2)(2 j+3) = 0 , so it converges absolutely by the
j→∞ j→∞ j→∞
Ratio Test and Alternating Series Tests.
2
an+1 (n+1)e−(n+1)
c. lim an = lim 2 = lim n+1
2n+1 = lim 1
2n+1 = 0 , so it converges absolutely
n→∞ n→∞ ne−n n→∞ ne n→∞ e
by the Ratio Test and Alternating Series Tests (or Integral Test).
ak+1 (2−(k+1))/((k+1)2 k+1 ) (1−k)k⋅2 k
d. lim ak = lim = lim = 12 , so it converges
k→∞ k→∞ (2−k)/k2 k n→∞ (2−k)(k+1)⋅2
k+1

absolutely by the Ratio Test and Alternating Series Tests (or Comparison or Limit
Comparison).

107. By the Pythagorean Theorem, d2 + ( x+20

2 ) = 20
2 2

where x = distance walked and d = boat’s distance. 20 ft 20 ft

( ( 2x + 10 )2 ) = dtd (202 ), 2dd ′ + 2 ⋅ 12 ( 2x + 10 ) x ′ = 0 ,

d ft
d
dt d2 +
20 + x ft
At x = 10, d = 20 2 − 15 2 = 175 ; 2 175 d ′ + 15(4) = 0
d′ = −60 = −6 ≈ –2.268, so ≈ –2.268 ft/sec
2 175 7

π /3 π /3
108. C: y′ = 1
cos(x)
(–sin(x)) = –tan(x), so arc length = ∫0 1+ ( y′ )2 dx = ∫
0
1+ tan 2 (x) dx =
π /3 π /3
∫0 sec 2 (x) dx = ∫
0
sec(x) dx (using the identity 1 + tan2(x) = sec2(x))

sin(θ ) cos(θ )
109. A: y = r sin(θ ) = 1+sin(θ ) , x = r cos(θ ) = 1+sin(θ )

= [1+sin(θ )] cos(θ )−sin(θ ) cos(θ ) cos(θ )

dy
dθ 2 =
[1+sin(θ )] [1+sin(θ )]2
− sin(θ )[1+sin(θ )]−cos(θ ) cos(θ ) − sin(θ )−1 −(sin(θ )+1) −1
dx
dθ = = = (1+sin(θ ))(1+sin(θ )) = 1+sin(θ)
[1+sin(θ )]2 [1+sin(θ )]2
3/2
At θ = π
6 ,
dy
dx =
dy/dθ
dx/dθ = 9/4
−1 = 2 ⋅9
3 4
( )
⋅ − 23 = − 3
3
3/2

30 © 2017 CPM Educational Program. All rights reserved. Calculus

 ! t 2 +2t
110. D: v(t) = x ′(t), v′(t) = −π sin(π t), = −π , 1/4+1 = −π , 59 at t = 1 ,
(t+1)2 (3/2)2 2

! π 2 +25
so v( 12 ) = π 2 + 25
81 = 9
sin(x 4 )−x 4 3 4 3 2 4 6 4 2
111. lim 12 = lim 4 x cos(x11)−4 x = lim 12 x cos(x )−16 x 10sin(x )−12 x =
x→0 x x→0 12 x x→0 12(11)x
4 5 4 9 4
lim 24 x cos(x )−144 x sin(x )−64 9
x cos(x )−24 x
=
x→0 12(11)(10)x
24 cos(x 4 )−816 x 4 sin(x 4 )−1152 x 8 cos(x 4 )+256 x12 cos 4 (x)−24
lim =
x→0 12(11)(10)(9)x 8
3 4 7 4 11 4 15 4
lim −3360 x sin(x )−1280 x cos(x )+7680 x 7sin(x )+1024 x cos(x ) =
x→0 12(11)(10)(9)(8)x
−10080 x 2 sin(x 4 )−10080 x 6 cos(x 4 )+134400 x10 sin(x 4 )+46080 x14 cos(x 4 )−4096 x18 sin(x 4 )
lim =
x→0 12(11)(10)(9)(8)(7)x 6
−20169 x sin(x 4 )−645120 x 5 cos(x 4 )+1747200 x 9 sin(x 4 )+1182720 x13 cos(x 4 )−258048 x17 sin(x 4 )−16384 x19 cos(x 4 )
lim =
x→0 12(11)(10)(9)(8)(7)(6)x 5
−79833600
Applying l’Hôpital’s Rule 12 times yields non-zero terms of 12! =− 1
6

112. lim
sin(x 4 ) − x 4
= lim
x4 − ( x12
3! + x 20
5! − x 28
7! )
+ ... − x 4
x→0 x12 x→0 x12
− x12 + x 20 − x 28 + ...
= lim 3! 5!
12
7!
x→0 x
= lim
x→0
( −1 + x 8
3! 5! − x16
7! ) + ... = −1
3! = −1
6

113. a. i. f(x) = b0(x – a)0 + b1(x – a)1 + b2(x – a)2 + … + bn(x – a)n + …
g(x) = c0(x – a)0 + c1(x – a)1 + c2(x – a)2 + … + cn(x – a)n + …
f (n) (x) g(n) (x)
ii. bn = n! and cn = n! , these are the coefficients of each term in the Taylor
series; In the context of this problem, it is given that b0 = f(0) = 0 and
c0 = g(0) = 0; b1 = f ′(a) and c1 = g′(a).
f (x) b0 (x−a)0 +b1 (x−a)1 +b2 (x−a)2 +b3 (x−a)3 +...+bn (x−a)n +...
b. lim g(x) = lim 0 1 2 3 n
x→a x→a c0 (x−a) +c1 (x−a) +c2 (x−a) +c3 (x−a) +...+cn (x−a) +...
⎛ b (x−a)1+b2 (x−a)2 +b3 (x−a)3 +...+bn (x−a)n +... ⎞
Since b0 = 0 and c0 = 0, = lim ⎜ 1 ⎟
x→a ⎝ c1 (x−a) +c2 (x−a) +c3 (x−a) +...+cn (x−a) +... ⎠
1 2 3 n

= lim
(
(x−a)1 b1 +b2 (x−a)1 +b3 (x−a)2 +...+bn (x−a)n−1 +... ) = b1
(
x→a (x−a)1 c1 +c2 (x−a)1 +c3 (x−a)2 +...+cn (x−a)n−1 +... ) c1
c. f ′(a) = b1 and g′(a) = c1

31 © 2017 CPM Educational Program. All rights reserved. Calculus

 2 )2 −8 x 2 (1+x 2 )
114. a. Taylor expansion for tan–1(x): f ′ = 1 , f ′′ = − 2x , f ′′′ = − 2(1+x ,
1+x 2 (1+x 2 )2 (1+x 2 )2
which have values of 1, 0, and –2 at x = 0.
tan–1 x = 0 + 1x + 0 x2 − 23!
3
x + ... = x − x3 +…
2! 3
x− ⎛ x− x3 +...⎞
3
−1 x 3 −... 3x 2 −...
⎝ ⎠
lim x−tan3 (x) = lim = lim 3
= lim 3
= ... = 1
x→0 x x→0 x3 x→0 x3 x→0 3x 2 3

2 3 2
x− x + x −... 1− 2 x + 3x −...
b. lim ln(x+1)
2 = lim 2 3 = lim 2 3 , which is no longer indeterminate.
x→0 x x→0 x2 x→0
2x

= lim
x→0
( 1
2x − 12 + 2x − x2
2 )
+ ... = ±∞ , therefore the limit does not exist.

9 15 9 15 8 14
x 3 − x + x +...−x 3 − x + x +... − 9 x + 15 x +...
c. = lim 3! 5! = lim 3! 5! = lim 3! 5! = ... = − 1 = − 16
x→0 x9 x→0 x9 x→0 9 x8 3!

(x−1)2 (x−1)3
ln(x) (x−1)− + −... 2 −...
d. lim x−1 = lim 2
x−1
3 = lim 1−(x−1)+(x−1)
1 =1
x→1 x→1 x→1

e. Taylor expansion for tan(x): f ′ = sec2(x), f ′′ = sec2(x) tan(x),

f ′′′ = 4 sec2(x) tan2(x) + 2 sec4(x) which have values of 1, 0, and 2.
tan(x) = 0 + 1x + 0 x2 3
+ 23!
x + ... = x + x3 +…
2! 3
3 x 3 +... 3x 2 +...
x+ x +...−x
lim tan(x)−x = lim 3 = lim 3 3 = lim 3 2 = ... = 1
x→0 x3 x→0 x3 x→0 x x→0 3x
3

⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎛ 3 ⎞
x− ⎜ x− x +...⎟ ⎞ x 3 +...
⎝ 3! ⎠
f. = lim ⎜ 1 − x ⎟ = lim ⎜
1 ⎟ = lim 3!
x→0 ⎜ ⎟⎠ x→0 ⎜ ⎛ 3 ⎞ ⎟ x→0
x 3 4
⎝ x− +... x ⎜ x− x +...⎟ x − x +...
2
3! ⎝ ⎝ 3! ⎠ ⎠ 3!

3x 2 +... 6 x +...
= lim 3! 3 = lim 3! 2 = 0
2 =0
x→0 2 x− 4 x +... x→0 2− 12 x +...
3! 3!

32 © 2017 CPM Educational Program. All rights reserved. Calculus