ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY IN SPORTS (HKE 105)

THE SKELETAL SYSTEM

Skeletal has been defined by various authorities in various ways. A summary of

the various definitions are as follows: -

The skeletal system can simply be defined as the arrangement of bones in the
body. Some others defined it as the bony frame work in all vertebrate animals.
The skeleton also referred to the body and cartilaginous frame work of the body,
there are about 206 bones attached to each other by means of muscles, ligaments
and capsules to form joint and both assembly of the bones is referred to as
skeleton.

A skeleton contains a soft tissue called cartilage; this is tough and flexible
materials that form the skeleton of a developing body. This account for the reason
why the bone of children do not break easily but as the children grow older,
mineral deposit such as Calcium, phosphorous, sodium and magnesium replace
most of the cartilages and make it hard, rigid and compact, this process is called
ossification. The skeleton system therefore forms the frame work of the body such
that without it we won’t be able to perform movement such as walking or
grasping. The slightest hit on the head or chest could damage the brain or heart, it
will even be impossible to chew food. The specialized branch of medicine that
deals with preservation and maintenance of the skeleton system or articulations
(joint) and association structures is called orthopedics.

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STRUCTURE OF THE HUMAN SKELETON

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FUNCTIONS OF HUMAN SKELETON

The human bones perform several numerous roles among them are:-

1. It forms protective cases around the delicate and vital organs such as the
lungs and the heart in the chest cavity. Several other organs are also
protected from injury by the skeleton system e.g the brain been protected by
the skull bone, the spinal cord protected by the vertebrate and the internal
reproductive organs protected by the pelvic bone.
2. It provides places for muscle attachment, bones serve as levers to which
muscle are attached, when the muscle contract bones acting as levers and
moveable joint acting as fulcrum to provide movement.
3. It assists in locomotion, the skeleton enables us move segments of our body
through the provision of places of attachment to the body. This result to our
ability to be able to perform various movements like flexion, extension,
abduction, adduction, supination, pronation, etc.
4. It helps in manufacture of red blood cell, red marrow in certain bones is
capable of producing blood cells, a process called hematopoisis.
5. It assists in breath by the movement of the ribs. When individual inhales
oxygen, the ribs expand to enable the lungs to accommodate as much
oxygen as possible and when that individual exhales, the ribs contracts and
come back to is normal position. The expansions of the ribs here enable the
individual to be able to breathe effectively.
6. It serves as reservoir where minerals are deposited in the bone marrow,
upon demand; such minerals are distributed to the various part of the body
that required them. The main principal stored minerals are calcium,
phosphorous and potassium.
7. It give posture and dignity to the body, the human body maintain particular
shape when we stand up right, when we sit, when we squat, when we bend
forward or backward etc. maintaining this shape wouldn’t have be possible
without the skeleton.

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TYPE OF SKELETON
There are two types of Skeletons in animals.
1. Exco Skeleton
2. Endo Skeleton.

EXO SKELETON
An exo skeleton is the skeleton which is outside the body. An external skeleton
which occurs in arthropods such as insect.

ENDO SKELETON
An endo skeleton is a skeleton which is inside the body. An internal skeleton
which occurs in mammals, birds and reptiles. An endo skeleton can be classified
into two.

i. Axial skeleton
ii. Appendicular skeleton

TYPES OF BONES
There are five types of bones namely:
1. Long bone
2. Short bone
3. Flat bone
4. Irregular bone
5. Sesamoid bone

LONG BONE:
They have greater length than width and consist of diaphysis and some epiphysis
e.g. metacarpals, metatarsals and phalanges have only one epiphysis, the femur
has four, some others have two. long bones are slightly curved for strength. A
curved bone is structurally designed to absorb the stress of body weight at several
different points so that the stress will be evenly distributed. If such bone were
straight, the weight of the body will be unevenly distributed and the bone will
easily fracture. Examples of long bones are; humerus, ulna, radius, femur, tibia,
fibula, metacarpal, metatarsals, phalanges, etc.

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SHORT BONES
They are somewhat cube shape and nearly equal in length and width, their texture
is spongy shape at the surface. They have some thin layers of compact bones e.g
carpals and tarsals.

FLAT BONES
The are generally thin and compose of two or more parallel plates. Flat bones can
afford considerable protection and provide extensive area for muscle attachment
e.g scapular, pelvis, skull.

IRREGULAR BONES
This are bones with complex shape and cannot be categorized into any of the three
above, such bones include the vertebrate (crevice and lumber vertebrate).
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SESAMOID BONE
It is a small bone in-between the femur, fibular and tibia, sesamoid bone develops
much pressure that brings about a slowing down of movement and also increased
a movement (Walking or running).

DIVISION OF SKELETON
The human skeleton is divided into two, axial and appendicular skeleton.
- Axial skeleton comprises bones of the upper or the bones that form the
upright portion of the body e.g the skull, cervical bones, vertebrate column,
sternum and the ribs. All together making 80 bones.
- Appendicular skeleton comprises the bones of both the upper and lower
limbs and the pelvis. All together making 126 bones. Examples of
appendicular skeleton are humerus, ulna, radius, carpals, tarsals, phalanges,
femur, scapular, fibula, tibia, etc.
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ARTICULATIONS
Bones are too rigid to bend without causing damage, fortunately the skeleton
system which are held together by flexible collective tissue of various locations in
the body provide movement of the segment. All movements that change the
position of the body part occur at the joint. You can understand the importance of

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joint if you imagine how a cast over the knee (patella) joint prevents flexing the
leg.
Articulation (Joint) is a point of contact between bones, between cartilages or
between teeth. The scientific study of joints is referred to as arthrology. The
structures of a joint determine how it functions, some joints permit no movement,
others permit slight movement and still others afford considerable movement. In
general, they closer the fit is the point of contact, the stronger the joint. A tightly
fitted joint permit no movement or movement restricted. The looser the fit, the
greater the movements, unfortunately loosely fitted joint are prone to dislocation.
Movement at joint is also determine by the structure (shape) of the articulating
bones, the flexibility (tension or tartness) of the connective tissue, ligaments and
joint capsules that bind bone together and the position of ligament, muscles and
tendons.

CLASSIFICATION OF ARTICULATION.
There are two classifications of articulations based on the amount of movement
possible, the structure of the articulating bone and the tissue binding the bone
together. Basically, from the degree of movement we have the ‘functional
articulation’. Concerning the typed of articulating bones and the tissue that bond it
together, we have the ‘structural articulation’. It can therefore be categorically
stated that the two types of articulations are the functional articulation and
structural articulation.

FUNCTIONAL ARTICULATION
There are three type of function articulation base on the degree of movement
possible. These are:-
1. Synarthrosis (permits no movement)
2. Amphiarthrosis (permits slight movement)
3. Diarthrosis (permits free movement)

STRUCTURAL ARTICULATION
The structural classification of joint is based on the presence or absent of synovial
(Joint) cavity (Space between the articulating bones) and the kind of connective
tissue that bond the bones together. Structurally, joints are classified as FIBROUS
in which there is no synovial cavity and the bones are held together by fibrous
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connective tissue, CARTILAGINOUS in which there is no synovial cavity and
the bones are held together by cartilages, and SYNOVIAL in which there is
presence of synovial cavity and the bones forming the joint are united by a
surrounding articular capsule and frequently by accessory ligament.

FIBROUS JOINT
There is no synovial cavity (no space between the articulating bones), the bones
are held together by a thin layer of fibrous tissue or dense fibrous tissue. They
permit no movement. They are three types of fibrous joints, these are:
- Suture
- Syndensmoses
- Gomphoses
Suture: -
Found between bones of the skull, articulating bones separating by a thin layer’s
fibrous tissue. Example of suture is lamdoidal suture which is located between
occipital and parental bone. (Permit no movement; Synarthrotic).

Syndensmoses:-
Articulating bones united by dense fibrous tissue, they permit slit movement
(Amphiarthrotic) Example in the body is the distal end of tibia and fibula.

Gomphoses:-

Cone shaped peg fits into a socket, articulating bone separated by peridontal
ligament, permits no movement (Synarthrotic). Example is the root of teeth
(Socket).

CARTILAGENOUS JOINT

Another joint that has no synovial cavity is cartilaginous joint where articulating
bones are tightly fixed or bond together like in fibrous joint. They permit little or
no-movement, they are two types of cartilagenous joints, these are:-

Synchodrosis:-

Synphysis

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Synchodrosis:-

It is a catilagenous joint in which the connective material is highlyn cartilage and

permit no movement. Synchodrosis are the temporary joint between diaphysis and
epiphIsis of a long bone and the permanent joint between the ribs and the stenum.

Synphysis

A synphysis is a cartilageous joint in which the connective material is a broad,

flat disc of fibrous cartilage which permits slight movement.

SYNOVIAL JOINT

In synovial joint, there is presence of synovial cavity (there is space between the
articulating bones). The space is called synovial because of the presence of the
cavity and the arrangement of the articular capsule and accessory ligament.
Synovial joint are freely moveable joint (Diarthrotic), Synovial joint are divided
into six (6) subtypes.

1. Gliding Joint
2. Hinge joint
3. Pivot Joint
4. Ball and Socket Joint
5. Saddle Joint
6. Ellipsoidal

 GLIDING JOINT: - A synovial joint in which the opposed surfaces are

flat or only slightly curved, so that the bones slide against each other in a
simple and limited way. The synovial vertebrate joints are gliding joints,
and many of the small bones of the carpals and tarsals meet in gliding
joints. Called also as plane joint.
 HINGE JOINT: - A synovial joint that allows movement in only one
plane, through the presence of pair of collateral ligaments that run on either
side of the joint. Examples are the elbow and the interphalangeal joints of
the digits. The jaw is primarily a hinge joint, but it can also move somewhat
from side to side. The carpal and tarsal joints are hinge joints that also allow
some rotary movement, also called ginglymis.

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  PIVOT JOINT: - A joint in which one bone pivots within a bony or an
accessary ligamentous ring allowing only rotary movement, an example is
the joint between the first and second cervical vertebrate (the atlas and
axis).
 BALL AND SOCKET JOINT: - A synovial joint in which the rounded or
spheroidal surface of one bone (ball) moves a cup-shaped depression
(Socket) on other bone, allowing greater freedom of movement than any
other type of joint, also called spheroidal joint.
 SADDLE JOINT:- The articulating surfaces are reciprocally saddle-
shaped and permit movement of all kinds, though not rotation e.g
interphalangeal joints in the dog.
 ELLIPSOIDAL JOINT: - Circumference of the joints is an ellipse with
the articular surfaces longer in one direction than the other.

DEFINITION OF TERMS

a. MUSCULAR SYSTEM: muscular system is an organ system consisting of

skeletal, smooth and cardiac muscles. It permits movement of the body,
maintains posture and circulates blood through the body.
b. MUSCLE: is a red meat in the body of an animal. Or muscle is the fleshy
part of the body.

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DIAGRAME OF THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM

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 Types of Muscles
According to Howie Baum (2018) there are 3 types of muscles in the body
namely:
1. Skeletal Muscle
Skeletal muscles are the only muscles that can be consciously controlled.
They are often call voluntary or straited muscles. They are attached to
bones, and contracting the muscles causes movement of those bones.
Any action that a person consciously undertakes involves the use of skeletal
muscles. Examples of such activities include running, chewing, and writing,
jumping, swinging, dancing, walking, etc
2. Smooth Muscle
Smooth muscle lines the inside of blood vessels and organs, such as the
stomach, and is also known as visceral or non straited muscle.
It is the weakest type of muscle but has an essential role in moving food
along the digestive tract and maintaining blood circulation through the
blood vessels. Smooth muscle acts involuntarily and cannot be consciously
controlled.
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3. Cardiac Muscle
Located only in the heart, cardiac muscle pumps blood around the body.
Cardiac muscle stimulates its own contractions that form our heartbeat.
Signals from the nervous system control the rate of contraction. This type of
muscle is strong and acts involuntarily.

Some basics differences between striated and non straited muscles

S/N VOLUNTARY OR STRIATED INVOLUNTARY OR NON-STRIATED
1 They are striated, meaning they They are non striated, meaning they
are not smooth are smooth
2 They are controlled by the will They cannot be consciously
e.g. the will to run, jump, dancecontrolled by will e.g. blood
etc. circulation and emptying of the
bladder
2 They are attached to the bone of They are the blood vessels and
the skeletal thus the name muscles of the internal organs of the
skeletal muscles body
4 They are of different sizes and They are appear in bundles
shapes
5 They work antagonistic to each Their contraction is in uniform
other such that when one is
contracting, the other is
relaxing.
Some Basics Examples of Muscles and their Location

S/N NAME OF THE LOCATION

MUSCLE
1 Frontalis Frontal Bone (forehead)
2 Orbicularis Oculi Top eyelids
3 Thyroid gland In the neck
4 Trachea Just beneath the thyroid muscle
5 Masseter Muscle of the mandible bone
6 Oesophagus Throat
7 Clavicles In the chest, covering some rib bones

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8 Deltoid Shoulder bone
9 Biceps Upper Humerus
10 Triceps Back Humerus
11 Trapezius Scapulae bone
12 Rectus femoris
13 Sartorius

Around femur
14 Pectineus
15 Adductor longus
16 Adductor Magnus
17 Pubis
18 Urethra
19 Rectum
20 Patella

Around Tibia
21 Tendon of Quadriceps

and fibula
femoris
22 Tibialis
23 Extensor Digitorum Longus
24 Flexor Digitorum Longus
25 Pronators Muscle of the Elbow

TYPES OF MUSCLE MOVEMENTS

1. Adduction...is the moving of a body part toward the mid-line of the body.
2. Abduction…is moving a body part away from the body.
3. Flexion…Flexion means bending a joint to decrease the angle between two
bones or two body parts.
4. Extension…extension is straightening and extending of the joint to increase
the angle between two bones or body parts.
5. Rotation… and last, rotation involves movement of a body part around an
axis.

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The main functions of the muscular system are as follows:

 Mobility. The muscular system's main function is to allow movement. ...

 Stability. Muscle tendons stretch over joints and contribute to joint stability.
...
 Posture. ...
 Circulation. ...
 Respiration. ...
 Digestion. ...
 Urination. ...
 Childbirth

THE MAIN FUNCTIONS OF THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM ARE AS FOLLOWS:

1. Mobility
The muscular system’s main function is to allow movement. When muscles
contract, they contribute to gross and fine movement.

Gross movement refers to large, coordinated motions and includes:

 walking
 running
 swimming

Fine movement involves smaller movements, such as:

 writing
 speaking
 facial expressions

The smaller skeletal muscles are usually responsible for this type of action.

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Most muscle movement of the body is under conscious control. However, some
movements are reflexive, such as withdrawing a hand from a source of heat.

2. Stability

Muscle tendons stretch over joints and contribute to joint stability. Muscle
tendons in the knee joint and the shoulder joint are crucial in stabilization.

The core muscles are those in the abdomen, back, and pelvis, and they also
stabilize the body and assist in tasks, such as lifting weights.

3. Posture

Skeletal muscles help keep the body in the correct position when someone is
sitting or standing. This is known as posture.

Good posture relies on strong, flexible muscles. Stiff, weak, or tight muscles
contribute to poor posture and misalignment of the body.

Long-term, bad posture leads to joint and muscle pain in the shoulders, back,
neck, and elsewhere.

4. Circulation

The heart is a muscle that pumps blood throughout the body. The movement of
the heart is outside of conscious control, and it contracts automatically when
stimulated by electrical signals.

Smooth muscle in the arteries and veins plays a further role in the circulation of
blood around the body. These muscles maintain blood pressure and circulation in
the event of blood loss or dehydration.

They expand to increase blood flow during times of intense exercise when the
body requires more oxygen.

5. Respiration

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Breathing involves the use of the diaphragm muscle.

The diaphragm is a dome-shaped muscle located below the lungs. When the
diaphragm contracts, it pushes downward, causing the chest cavity to get bigger.
The lungs then fill with air. When the diaphragm muscle relaxes, it pushes air out
of the lungs.

When someone wants to breath more deeply, it requires help from other muscles,
including those in the abdomen, back, and neck.

6. Digestion

The muscular system allows for movement within the body, for example, during
digestion or urination.

Smooth muscles in the gastrointestinal track or GI tract control digestion. The GI

tract stretches from the mouth to the anus.

Food moves through the digestive system with a wave-like motion called
peristalsis. Muscles in the walls of the hollow organs contract and relax to cause
this movement, which pushes food through the esophagus into the stomach.

The upper muscle in the stomach relaxes to allow food to enter, while the lower
muscles mix food particles with stomach acid and enzymes.

The digested food moves from the stomach to the intestines by peristalsis. From
here, more muscles contract to pass the food out of the body as stool.

7. Urination

The urinary system comprises both smooth and skeletal muscles, including those
in the:

 bladder
 kidneys
 penis or vagina
 prostate

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  ureters
 urethra

The muscles and nerves must work together to hold and release urine from the
bladder.

Urinary problems, such as poor bladder control or retention of urine, are caused
by damage to the nerves that carry signals to the muscles.

8. Childbirth

Smooth muscles in the uterus expand and contract during childbirth. These
movements push the baby through the vagina. Also, the pelvic floor muscles help
to guide the baby’s head down the birth canal.

9. Vision

Six skeletal muscles around the eye control its movements. These muscles work
quickly and precisely, and allow the eye to:

 maintain a stable image

 scan the surrounding area
 track moving objects

If someone experiences damage to their eye muscles, it can impair their vision.

10. Organ protection

Muscles in the torso protect the internal organs at the front, sides, and back of the
body. The bones of the spine and the ribs provide further protection.

Muscles also protect the bones and organs by absorbing shock and reducing
friction in the joints.

11. Temperature regulation

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Maintaining normal body temperature is an important function of the muscular
system. Almost 85 percent of the heat a person generates in their body comes
from contracting muscles.

When body heat falls below optimal levels, the skeletal muscles increase their
activity to make heat. Shivering is one example of this mechanism. Muscles in the
blood vessels also contract to maintain body heat.

Body temperature can be brought back within normal range through the relaxation
of smooth muscle in the blood vessels. This action increases blood flow and
releases excess heat through the skin.

FACTS ABOUT THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM

1. Muscles make up approximately 40 percent of total weight.

2. The heart is the hardest-working muscle in the body. It pumps 5 quarts of
blood per minute and 2,000 gallons daily.
3. The gluteus maximus is the body’s largest muscle. It is in the buttocks and
helps humans maintain an upright posture.
4. The ear contains the smallest muscles in the body alongside the smallest
bones. These muscles hold the inner ear together and are connected to the
eardrum.
5. A muscle called the masseter in the jaw is the strongest muscle by weight. It
allows the teeth to close with a force of up to 55 pounds on the incisors or
200 pounds on the molars.

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