Unit-1

DC Generators

Syllabus
DC Machine-constructional features - principle of operation, EMF equation, methods of
excitation – circuit model, armature reaction - effects of armature reaction - cross magnetizing
and de-magnetizing AT/pole, commutation, power flow - losses - constant & variable losses,
build-up of EMF - OCC and load characteristics of shunt, series and compound generators,
parallel operation of DC shunt generators, Applications of DC generators
Purpose of equalizer rings and dummy coils

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Learning Outcomes
After reading this chapter, the reader will able to
 Explain the constructional details and operating principle of a DC generator
 Illustrate the action of commutator
 Derive the e.m.f. equation of a DC generator
 List the various types of DC generators
 Illustrate the concept of armature reaction
 Derive the expressions for demagnetizing and cross-magnetizing AT per pole
 Explain the concept of commutation
 Explain the methods of improving commutation
 Outline the characteristics of DC generators
 Illustrate the no-load saturation or magnetization characteristics of DC
generators
 Illustrate the load characteristics of DC generators
 Explain the voltage build-up process in a self-excited shunt generator
 Define critical field resistance and critical speed
 Find the critical field resistance from the magnetization characteristics of DC
generator
 Find the critical speed from the magnetization characteristics of DC generator
 Explain the parallel operation of DC generators
 Explain various losses in a DC machine
 Illustrate the power flow diagram of a DC machine
 Derive the condition for maximum efficiency of a DC machine
 List the various applications of DC generators
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1.1 Introduction
Electrical supply is available in two forms such as DC supply and AC
supply. Based on supply, the machines are classified into two types such as (i) DC
machines, and (ii) AC machines. In today's world, almost all land based electrical
power supply networks are AC systems of generation, transmission and
distribution. Thus, there is little need for large DC generators. Furthermore, AC
motors are used in industries wherever they are suitable or can give appropriate
characteristics by means of power electronic devices. Yet there remain important
fields of application when the DC machines can offer economic and technical
advantage. The wonderful thing about DC machines is

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its versatility.
DC machine is one of the most commonly used machines for electro-
mechanical energy conversion. Converters which are used continuously to convert
electrical input to mechanical output or vice-versa are called electric machines. An
electric machine is therefore a link between electrical system and a mechanical
system. DC machines are classified into two types such as (i) DC generators, and
(ii) DC motors. The machine which produces DC electrical power is known as DC
generator. An electric generator is a machine which converts mechanical
energy/power into electrical energy/power. The machine which produces
mechanical power is known as DC motor. An electrical motor is a machine which
converts electrical energy/power into mechanical energy/power. A DC machine
works as a DC generator when it is driven by a prime mover. The same machine
works as a DC motor when electrical energy is supplied to it. Therefore, the
constructional features of a DC generator and DC motor are the same. In this
chapter, we shall deal with various aspects of DC generators.
Applications:
DC generators place a major role in the following applications:
 These generators can provide wide range of voltage output and usually used
for testing purpose in the laboratories.
 These are used for general lighting.
 These are used to charge battery because they can be made to give constant
output voltage.
 These are used for giving the excitation to the alternators.
 These are also used for small power supply (such as a portable generator).
 These are used for supplying field excitation current in DC locomotives for
regenerative breaking.
 These are used as boosters to compensate the voltage drop in the feeder in
various types of distribution systems such as railway service.
 These are mainly used in series arc lighting.
 These are generally used for heavy power services because of their constant
voltage property.
 These are also used for driving a motor.

1.2 Working principle of a DC generator

An electric generator is a machine which converts mechanical energy into
electrical energy. All the generators work on a principle of dynamically induced
e.m.f., which is nothing but the Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction. It
states that, whenever a conductor cuts the magnetic flux, an e.m.f. induced,
which will cause a current to flow if the conductor circuit is closed. The direction
of induced e.m.f and hence current is given by Fleming’s right hand rule.
Therefore, the essential components of a generator are: (i) a magnetic field, (ii)
conductor or a group of conductors, and (iii) motion of the conductor w.r.t. a
magnetic field.

1.3 Working of Single Loop DC Generator

Figure (1.1) shows a single loop rectangular copper coil (ABCD) rotating
about its own axis in a magnetic field provided by either permanent magnets or
electromagnets. The two ends of the coil are joined to two sliprings which are
insulated from each other and from the central shaft. Two collecting brushes
(carbon or copper) press against the sliprings; their function is to collect the
current induced in the coil to external load resistance. The rotating coil may be
called armature and the magnets as field system.
Figure (1.1) shows a single loop coil forming two sides AB and CD able to
rotate between north pole ‘N’ and south pole ‘S’ of a permanent magnet. Assume
this as the starting point and fixing the direction of rotation as clockwise. It is
seen that the conductor coil sides ‘AB’ and ‘CD’ tries to move tangential or parallel
to the magnetic flux and therefore does not cut the magnetic flux and the induced

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voltage at this instant (and hence the current) is zero.

Figure (1.1): Conductor moving parallel to the direction of flux (00 position)
As the coil rotates from the 00 position to 900 in clockwise, the coil sides
begin to cut the magnetic flux at a gradually increasing rate and conductor comes
to the position as shown in figure (1.2). Hence magnitude of induced e.m.f. also
gradually increases and becomes maximum when the coil rotates by an angle 90 0.
As the coil rotates from the 900 position to 1800, again the coil sides AB and CD
are parallel to the flux lines as shown in figure (1.3). Under this condition the flux
linkage is gradually decreases and hence the induced e.m.f. also gradually
decrease and becomes zero at 1800. At this point, the coil has gone through a half-
revolution.

Figure (1.2): Conductor moving perpendicular to the direction of flux (900

position)

Figure (1.3): Conductor moving parallel to the direction of flux (1800 position)
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 Figure (1.4): Conductor moving perpendicular to the direction of flux (2700 position)
Again, as the coil rotates from position 1800 to 2700 as shown in figure (1.4),
the induced e.m.f. starts increasing from zero to maximum and attains maximum
value at 2700, but in opposite direction. As the coil again moves from 2700 to 3600
as shown in figure (1.1), the induced e.m.f. starts decreasing from its maximum
value and reaches to zero again. So, it completes the second half revolution. Thus,
during the second half-revolution, coil sides cut flux in directions opposite to that
which they did in the first half revolution, hence, the polarity of the induced
voltage reverses.
So, from the above discussion, it can be concluded that the e.m.f. induced
in the armature conductor of a DC generator is alternating in nature as shown in
figure (1.5). The conversion from AC induced e.m.f. into DC induced e.m.f. output
is obtained with the help of split ring commutator.

Figure (1.5): Sinusoidal wave form of induced e.m.f.

Action of commutator:
It is seen that the e.m.f. induced in the conductors is always sinusoidal and
commutator converts this sinusoidal e.m.f. into unidirectional e.m.f. Let us see,
how it happens. Figure (1.6) shows a split ring commutator having two segments
C1 and C2. It consists of a cylindrical metal ring cut into two halves or segments C1
and C2 respectively separated by a thin sheet of mica. The commutator is mounted
on but insulated from the rotor shaft. The ends of coil sides AB and CD are
connected to the segments C1 and C2 respectively as shown in figure 1.7(a). Two
stationary carbon brushes, 1 & 2 rest on the commutator and lead current to the
external load. With this arrangement, the commutator at all times connects the
coil side under S-pole to the +ve brush and that under N-pole to the -ve brush.

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 Figure (1.6): Split ring commutator

Figure (1.7): Action of commutator

In figure 1.7 (a), the coil sides AB and CD are under N-pole and S-pole
respectively. Note that segment C1 connects the coil side AB to point P of the load
resistance R and the segment C2 connects the coil side CD to point Q of the load.
Also note the direction of current through load. It is from P to Q. After half a
revolution of the loop (i.e., 180° rotation), the coil side AB is under S-pole and the
coil side CD under N-pole as shown in figure 1.7 (b). The currents in the coil sides
now flow in the reverse direction but the segments C1 and C2 have also moved
through 180° i.e., segment C1 is now in contact with +ve brush and segment C2 in
contact with -ve brush. Note that commutator has reversed the coil connections to
the load i.e., coil side AB is now connected to point Q of the load and coil side CD
to the point P of the load. Also note the direction of current through the load. It is
again from P to Q. The waveform of the current through the load circuit is as
shown in the figure (1.8). This current is unidirectional i.e. pulsating current but
not continuous like pure direct current.

Figure (1.8): Wave form of unidirectional current

1.4 Construction of a DC machine

DC machine whether a generator or motor with four poles is shown in
figure (1.9). In construction the DC machine consists of the following main parts.
(i) Yoke or Magnetic Frame
(ii) Armature core or stack
(iii) Armature winding
(iv) Poles and pole shoes
(v) Field winding
(vi) Commutator
(vii) Brushes and Brush holder
(viii) Inter poles
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 (ix) Shaft and Bearings

Figure (1.9): Schematic diagram of a 4-pole DC Machine

(i) Yoke or Magnetic Frame
Yoke is also called as magnetic frame. It is a circular steel ring, provides
protection to the rotating and other parts of the machine from moisture, dust etc.
It also provides mechanical support to the field poles and provides the necessary
magnetic path between the poles. It is made up of cast iron, silicon steel, cast
steel, rolled steel etc.
(ii) Armature core or Stack
Armature core is a rotating part (rotor) of the DC machine and is mounted
on the shaft. It is cylindrical in shape with slots to carry armature winding. The
schematic diagram of armature core is as shown in figure (1.10). It is made up of
silicon steel laminations having thickness of 0.3mm to 0.5mm in order to reduce
the eddy current losses. It may be provided with air ducts for the axial air flow for
cooling purposes. Cast steel or cast iron are used for the armature core.

Figure (1.10): Armature core of a DC machine

(iii) Armature winding
The slots of the armature core hold insulated conductors that are connected
in a suitable manner is known as armature winding. The armature conductors are
insulated from each other and from the armature core. Armature winding can be
wound by one of the two methods: lap winding or wave winding. It either generates
or receives the voltage depending on whether the unit is a generator or a motor. As
the armature winding carries entire current which depends on external load and
so it is made-up of conducting materials like copper.
(iv) Poles and pole shoes
Poles produce the magnetic flux when the field winding is excited. Each pole
is divided into two parts namely pole core and pole shoe. Pole core is a part on
which field winding is wound over. Poles are joined to the yoke with the help of

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bolts or welding as shown in figure (1.11). In modern design the pole is made-up of
with thin laminations of cast steel or cast iron.

Figure (1.11): Construction details of a field pole

Pole shoe serves the following two functions:
(i) Distributes the magnetic flux uniformly in the air gap and reduces the
reluctance of the magnetic path due to its larger cross section.
(ii) Supports the field winding.
(v) Field winding
Field coils or field windings are located on the pole core of the machine.
When the field winding excited, i.e. when the current is passed through the field
winding in a specific direction, it sets up magnetic field (i.e. magnetize the poles) in
the machine. It is usually consisting of copper wire and insulated from the poles.
It is made up of with conducting materials like aluminum, copper etc. The field
coils may be either shunt windings (in parallel with the armature winding) or
series windings (in series with the armature winding) or a combination of both.

Figure (1.12): Field winding

(vi) Commutator
The commutator is the mechanical rectifier, which converts AC voltage of
the rotating conductors to DC voltage. It collects the current from the armature
conductors and passes it to the external load via brush. It consists of several
segments normally equal to the number of slots. The segments are separated from
each other by thin mica insulation. It is cylindrical in structure and is made-up of
copper or bronze.

Figure (1.13): Fully assembled commutator

(vii) Brushes and brush holder
Brushes conduct the current from the commutator to the external circuit.
These are made-up of with material like carbon, graphite etc. A brush holder is
usually a metal box that is rectangular in shape. The brush holder has a spring
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that holds the brush in contact with the commutator. Each brush usually has a
flexible copper shunt or pigtail, which extends to the lead wires. Often, the entire
brush assembly is insulated from the frame and is made movable as a unit about
the commutator to allow for adjustment.
The brush is made up of carbon because
(i) it has high reliability to draw the current
(ii) since it has highly resistive material, spark can be avoided
(iii) as it is a hard material, it cannot be wasted while rubbing at the surface of the
commutator
(viii) Inter poles
Inter poles are similar to the main poles. These are connected between the
yoke and main field poles. They have windings in series with the armature
winding. Inter poles have the function of reducing the armature reaction effect in
the commutating zone. They eliminate the need to shift the brush assembly.
(ix) Shaft and Bearings
Shaft is made of mild steel with a maximum breaking strength. The shaft is
used to transfer mechanical power from or to the machine. These are normally
lubricated by grease or oil. The load end of the motor is the back end. The opposite
load end, most often the commutator end, is the front end of the motor.
The armature is mounted on a steel shaft, which is supported between the
two bearings. The bearings are either ball or roller type and are fitted in the end
housings. The function of the bearings is to reduce friction between the rotating
and stationary parts of the machine. Mostly high carbon steel is used for the
construction of bearings as it is very hard material

1.5 E.M.F equation of a DC generator

Let,  = flux per pole in Weber
Z = total number of armature conductors
= number of slots × number of conductors per slot
N = speed of the armature in rpm
A = number of parallel paths in the armature winding
P = number of poles of the generator
According to Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction, average e.m.f. induced
d
per conductor, e 
dt
Total Flux= Flux produced by each pole × No. of poles
dФ = Ф×P=PФ Webers
Time taken by a conductor for completing one revolution
dt =60/N sec
d P PN
e   
dt 60 / N 60
We know that here ‘Z’ conductors are distributed in ‘A’ parallel paths. So
effectively (Z/A) conductors need to be multiplied with e.m.f induced in one
conductor
Total e.m.f. generated between the armature terminals is given by,
Eg = average e.m.f. generated per conductor × no. of conductors in each parallel
PN Z ZN  P 
path     
60 A 60  A 
ZN  P 
 Eg    --- (1.1)
60  A 
For lap winding, A=P
For wave winding, A=2
For a given DC generator, Z, P & A are constants and hence generated e.m.f is
Eg  N  k N ; where k is a const. --- (1.2)
Solved Problem-1: A 4-pole DC generator having wave wound armature winding
has 51 slots, each slot containing 20 conductors. Find the generated voltage in the
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machine when speed is 1500 rpm and flux per pole is 60 mWb.
Solution: Given that
No. of poles, P = 4, No. of slots = 51
No. of conductors/slot = 20
Total no. of conductors, Z = 51  20 = 1020
Speed, N = 1500 rpm
Flux per pole, Ф=60 mWb
No. of parallel paths, A= 2 (for wave wound)
ZN  P  60 103 1020 1500  4
Generated e.m.f, Eg      3060 V
60  A  60  2
Solved Problem-2: A 4-pole DC generator has number of conductors 600 and flux
per pole is 0.02 Wb and speed is 1600 rpm.
(a) Calculate the generated e.m.f. if the armature is connected in
(i) Wave wound (ii) Lap wound
(b) If allowable current per path is 5A, calculate the power generated in each case.
Solution: Given that
No. of poles, P = 4, No. of conductors, Z = 600
Flux per pole, Ф=0.02 Wb, Speed, N = 1600 rpm
(a) For lap winding:
No. of parallel paths, A = P = 4
ZN  P  0.02  600 1600  4 
Generated e.m.f, Eg         320 V
60  A  60 4
Ia=armature current per path  no. of paths  5  4  20
Power generated, Pg  Eg I a  320  20  6.4 kW
(b) For wave winding:
No. of parallel paths, A=2
ZN  P  0.02  600 1600  4 
Generated e.m.f., Eg         640 V
60  A  60 2
Power generated, Pg  Eg I a  640 10  6.4 kW
1.6 Classification of DC generators
DC generators are generally classified into following types according to the
methods of their field excitation.
DC Generators

Separately Excited Self-Excited Generators

Generators

Series wound Shunt wound Compound wound

Generators Generators Generators

Long-shunt compound Short-shunt compound

Generators Generators
(1) Separately Excited Generators
Separately excited generators are those, whose field magnets are energized
from an external DC source as shown in figure (1.14).
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 Figure (1.14): Separately excited generator
Important relations:
Armature current, Ia = IL
Generated voltage, Eg= V+ IaRa+ BCD --- (1.3)
Power developed in the armature, Pg= EgIa
Power delivered to load, PL= VIL
Note: BCD= Brush contact drop, generally 1V per brush

(2) Self-excited Generators

Self-excited generators are those, whose field magnets are energized by the
current produced by the generators themselves. These generators consist of
permanent magnetic poles, in which there is always some magnetic flux is present
and is known as residual magnetism. Due to this residual magnetism, when the
armature is rotated, some e.m.f. and hence current is partially or fully passed
through the field coils, there by strengthens the residual flux.
Self-excited generators are classified according to the type of field
connection they use. There are three general types of field connections: series-
wound, shunt-wound (parallel), and compound-wound. Compound-wound
generators are further classified as long-shunt compound and short-shunt
compound.
(i) Series-wound Generator
In the series-wound generator, shown in figure (1.15), the field windings are
connected in series with the armature. Current that flows in the armature also
flows through the external circuit and through the field winding. The external
circuit connected to the generator is called the load circuit. A series-wound
generator uses very low resistance field coils, which consist of a few turns of large
diameter wire.
A series-wound DC generator has the characteristic that the output voltage
varies with load current. This is undesirable in most applications. For this reason,
this type of generator is rarely used in daily practice.

Figure (1.15): Series wound generator

Important relations:
Armature current, Ia = Ise= IL
Generated voltage, Eg = V+IaRa+IseRse+BCD --- (1.4)
Power developed in the armature, Pg= Eg Ia
Power delivered to load, PL= VIL
(ii) Shunt-wound Generators
In a shunt-wound generator as shown in figure (1.16), the field coils consist
of many turns of small wire. They are connected in parallel with the load. In other
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words, they are connected across the output voltage of the armature. In actual
use, the output voltage in a DC shunt-wound generator varies inversely as load
current varies. The output voltage decreases as load current increases because the
voltage drop across the armature resistance increases (E = IR).
Important relations:
Armature current, Ia = Ish+IL
Shunt field current, Ish= V/Rsh
Generated voltage, Eg = V+IaRa+ BCD --- (1.5)
Power developed in the armature, Pg= EgIa
Power delivered to load, PL= VIL

Figure (1.16): Shunt wound generator

(iii) Compound-Wound Generators
In a series-wound generator, output voltage varies directly with load
current. In the shunt-wound generator, output voltage varies inversely with load
current. A combination of the two types can overcome the disadvantages of both.
This combination of windings is called the compound-wound DC generator.
Compound-wound generators have a series-field winding in addition to a
shunt field winding, as shown in figure 1.17 (a) & (b). The shunt and series
windings are wound on the same pole pieces.
(a) Long-shunt Compound Generators: In which the shunt field winding is in
parallel with both armature and series field windings

Figure 1.17 (a): Long-shunt compound wound generator

Important relations:
Armature current, Ia =Ise= Ish+ IL
Shunt field current, Ish= V/Rsh
Generated voltage, Eg= V+IaRa+ IseRse+BCD --- (1.6)
Power developed in the armature, Pg= EgIa
Power delivered to load, PL= VIL
(b) Short shunt Compound-wound Generators: In which only shunt field
winding is in parallel with armature winding.
Important relations:
Armature current, Ia = Ish+ IL
Series field current, Ise= IL
Generated voltage, Eg= V+IaRa+ IseRse+BCD --- (1.7)
Power developed in the armature, Pg= EgIa
Power delivered to load, PL= VIL

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 Figure 1.17(b): Short-shunt compound wound generator
Solved Problem-3: A lap connected DC generator has 8-poles and 120 slots with
8 conductors in each slot. If the flux per pole is 0.035 Wb, then
(i) Find the generated e.m.f when the speed is 600 rpm.
(ii) What should be the speed of rotation if the induced e.m.f. is to be 500V?
Solution: Given that
No. of poles, P = 8
No. of slots = 120
No. of conductors per slot = 8
No. of conductors, Z = 120  8 =960
Speed N = 600 rpm
Flux per pole,  =0.035 Wb
No. of parallel paths, A=P=8 (lap wound)
ZN  P  0.035  960  600  8 
(i) Generated voltage, Eg         336 V
60  A  60 8
E A  60 500  8  60
(ii) Speed, N 2  2   893 rpm
ZP 0.035  960  8
Solved Problem-4: The armature of a 6-pole DC generator has a wave winding
containing 664 conductors. Calculate the generated e.m.f when the flux per pole is
0.06 Wb and the speed is 250 rpm. At what speed must the armature be driven to
generate an e.m.f of 250V if the flux per pole is reduced to 0.058 Wb?
Solution: Given that
No. of poles, P = 6
No. of conductors, Z = 664
No. of parallel paths, A= 2 (wave wound)
Flux per pole, 1  0.06Wb
Speed, N1 = 250 rpm
Generated e.m.f. Eg2 = 250V
Flux per pole,  2 =0.058 Wb
1ZN1  P  0.06  664  250  6 
Generated voltage Eg1         498 V
60  A 60 2
For a DC generator Eg  N
Eg 2  2 N 2

Eg1 1 N1
Eg 2  2 250 0.06
 N2    N1    250  130 rpm
Eg1 1 480 0.058
Solved Problem-5: A separately excited DC generator when running at 1200 rpm
supplies 200A at 125V to a circuit of constant resistance. What will be the current
when the speed is dropped to 1000 rpm and the field current is reduced to 80% ?
Armature resistance = 0.04Ω and total drop at brushes = 2V.
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Ignore saturation and armature reaction.
Solution: Given that
Speed, N1 = 1200rpm
Armature current I a1 =200A
Supply voltage V1 = 125V
Field current, I f 1 = I f
speed N2 = 1000rpm
Field current, I f 2 = 0.8 I f
Armature resistance, Ra = 0.04 
Brush contact drop, BCD = 2V
Eg1 =V1+ I a1 Ra +BCD=125+200  0.04 +2=135V
125
Load resistance (constant), R  = 0.625 
200
V2= I a 2 Ra = 0.625 I a 2
Eg 2 =V2+ I a 2 Ra +BCD= 0.625 I a 2 + 0.04 I a 2 +2 = 0.665 I a 2 +2
Eg Eg
For dc generator N  
 If
N 2 Eg 2 I f 1
= 
N1 Eg1 I f 2
1000 Eg 2 If
 =  .
1200 135 0 8 I f
1000 135  08
.
 Eg 2 = =90V
1200
90  2
 Eg 2 =90= 0.665 I a 2 +2  I a 2 = = 132.3 A
0.665
Solved Problem-6: A 4-pole DC shunt generator with wave connect armature has
armature and field resistances of 0.4 Ω and 50 Ω respectively and supplied to 50
lamps of 60W, 250V each. Calculate the (i) armature current, (ii) current per path,
and (iii) generated e.m.f.
Solution: Given that
No. of poles, P =4
No. of parallel path, A =Z (wave wound)
Armature resistance, Ra = 0.4
Field resistance, Rsh =50 
Terminal voltage, V = 250V
Total lamp load, PL = 60  50 = 3000W
PL 3000
IL = = =12A
V 250
V 250
I sh = = =5A
Rsh 50
(i) Total armature current, I a = I L + I sh =12+5=17A
I a 17 .
(ii) Current per path = = =85A
A 2
(iii) Generated e.m.f., Eg =V+ I a Ra =250+17  0.4 = 256.8V
Solved Problem-7: A series DC generator delivers a current of 150 A at 230V. Its
armature and series field resistances are 0.2Ω and 0.06 Ω respectively. Find

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(i) armature current, and (ii) generated e.m.f.
Solution: Given that
Load current, I L = 150A
Terminal voltage, V =230V
Series field resistance, Rse = 0.06 
Armature resistance, Ra = 0.2
(i) Armature current, I a = I L =150A
(ii) Generated e.m.f., Eg = V + I a Ra + IseRse= 230+150  0.2 + 150  0.06 = 269V
Solved Problem-8: A long shunt compound generator delivers a load current of
50A at 500V and has armature, series field and shunt field resistances of 0.05 Ω,
0.03 Ω and 250 Ω respectively. Calculate the generated voltage and the armature
current. Allow 1V per brush for contact drop.
Solution: Given that
Load current, I L = 50A
Terminal voltage, V = 500V
Armature resistance, Ra = 0.05
Series field resistance, Rse = 0.03
Shunt field resistance, Rsh =250 
Brush contact drop, BCD =2×1=2V
Long shunt compound generator.
V 500
Shunt field current, I sh = = =2A
Rsh 250
Armature current, I a = I L + I sh = 50+2=52A
Generated Voltage, Eg =V+ I a Ra + I se Rse +BCD
=500+52  0.05 +52  0.03 +2×1= 506.16V
Solved Problem-9: A short shunt compound generator supplies a current of 100A
at a voltage of 250V. If the shunt, series, and armature resistances are 50 Ω,
0.025Ω and 0.05Ω respectively. Calculate the (a) Generated voltage, and
(b) Power delivered to load. Allow a brush drop of 1V per brush.
Solution: Given that
Load current, I L =100A
Terminal voltage, V=250V
Shunt field resistance, Rsh =50 
Series field resistance, Rse = 0.025
Armature resistance, Ra = 0.05
Brush contact drop, BCD =2V
From the circuit diagram
I sh Rsh = V + I se Rse
V  I se Rse 250  100  0.025
 I sh =   5.05 A [ I se = I L =100A]
Rsh 50
Armature current, I a = I sh + I L = 5.05 +100 =105.05A
(a) Generated voltage
Eg =V+ I a Ra + I se Rse +BCD = 250+105.05  0.05 100  0.025+2= 259.75V
(b) Power delivered to load, PL =V I L =250  100 =25kW

1.7 Armature reaction

In a DC generator the armature current induces the armature flux and the
main poles induce the field flux. The effect of armature flux on the main field flux
is known as armature reaction. The armature reaction has two effects on the main
field flux
Dr. Ramana Pilla, Professor, Department of EEE, GMRIT-Rajam Page 14
 (i) Demagnetizing effect (or) weakens the main flux
(ii) Cross magnetizing effect (or) distorts the main flux.
Demagnetizing effect causes the reduction in generated voltage and the cross
magnetizing effect causes sparking at the brushes. So, it is very essential to
reduce the armature reaction effect in a DC generator.
As shown in the figure (1.18), we have to define two important terms MNA
and GNA. Here, Magnetic Neutral Axis (MNA) is defined as the axis along which
no e.m.f. is produced in the armature conductors, because at that time they move
parallel to the lines of flux. The brushes and commutator are always placed along
the axis of magnetic neutral and hence this axis ix called axis of commutation.
The MNA is always perpendicular to the resultant flux. In armature conductors,
reversal of current can take place across this axis. Geometric Neutral Axis (GNA)
is defined as the axis perpendicular to the stator field axis or polar axis.

Figure (1.18): Schematic diagram showing GNA and MNA

To understand the armature reaction, the following three cases are considered
Case-(i): When no load is connected to the machine

Figure (1.19): Flux set-up by 2-pole DC generator

Let us consider a 2-pole generator when there is no current in the armature
conductors as shown in figure (1.19). When there is no load on the generator, the
current in the armature conductors is zero and hence the flux produced is zero.
So, there is no armature reaction takes place in the generator. Under this
condition, there exists only the m.m.f of main poles, which produces the main
flux, ФM. This flux is distributed symmetrically with respect to the polar axis, i.e.
the central line of the north and south poles. In this case the MNA and GNA are
coinciding as shown in the figure. The brushes are shown here as touching the
armature conductors directly. But practically, the brushes touch the commutator
segments
So, when no-load is connected to the machine it is observed that
(i) Flux distribution is symmetrical with respect to the polar axis.
(ii) The magnetic neutral axis (MNA) coincides with the geometric neutral axis
(GNA).
Case-(ii): The armature conductors carrying current and no current flows in
the field coils
Figure (1.20) shows the flux set up by the armature conductors carrying
current and the field coils are unexcited i.e. no current in the field coils. The
direction of armature current is same as it would actually be loaded. The direction

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of current in armature conductors may be determined by Fleming’s right hand
rule. The current flows in the same direction in all the conductors lying under one
pole. The direction of flux produced by armature conductors may be determined
by right hand thumb rule/Corkscrew rule. The current direction is inwards in
conductors under N-poles (represented by cross marks) and outwards in
conductors under S–pole (represented by dot marks). These two currents produces
m.m.f and hence flux (  A ) through the armature in the downward direction as
shown in the figure (1.20)

Figure (1.20): The armature flux set-up by armature conductors

Case-(iii): Field current and armature current acting simultaneously
Under actual load conditions, the armature flux and main field flux exist
simultaneously in the generator as shown in figure (1.21). The armature flux is
produced by the current induces in the armature conductors while the field pole
flux is induced because of the main field poles. These two fluxes combines and
gives the resultant flux ΦR as shown in the figure (1.21).

Figure (1.21): Resultant flux distortion

When the field flux enters into the armature, they may get distorted. The
distortion increases the density of the flux in the upper pole tip of north-pole and
the lower pole tip of the south-pole. Similarly, the density of flux decreases in the
lower pole tip of the north-pole and the upper pole tip of the south-pole. The
resultant flux induces in the generator is shifted towards the direction of the
rotation of generator. The magnetic neutral axis of poles is always perpendicular to
the axis of the resultant flux. So, the MNA is continuously shifted with the
resultant flux
Before considering this reaction the MNA was in line with the GNA (refer to
figures (1.19) & (1.20). The MNA shift by an angle θ perpendicular to the resultant
m.m.f. due to which the brush takes a forward lead through an angle θ to lie in its
new position of MNA. Due to this shift, the armature current gets redistributed
and some armature conductors which were earlier under the influence of north
pole comes under the influence of south pole and vice-versa. The angle θ of shift of
magnetic neutral axis increases with the increase in armature current due to
increase in load. If the brushes are not shifted to this MNA, sparking may occur at
brush contact points.
1.7.1 Effects of Armature Reaction
The following are the effects of armature reaction on the machine:

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 (i) The effect of total flux reduction in the armature reaction is known as the
demagnetizing effect.
(ii) The resultant flux lines are distorted and there is a shift in the position of
magnetic neutral axis. In case of generator, the MNA moves in the direction
of rotation of the generator and opposite direction of rotation in the case of
motor.
(iii) If brushes are not shifted to MNA, sparking at brush contacts occur.
(iv) It reduces the e.m.f induced in the armature.
(v) The flux established in the neutral zone due to armature reaction generates
the voltage that causes the commutation problem.
(vi) The efficiency of the generator decreases.

1.7.2 Demagnetizing ampere turns per pole (ATd)

It is sometimes desirable to neutralize the demagnetizing ampere turns of
armature reaction. This is achieved by adding extra ampere turns to the main field
winding. We shall now calculate the demagnetizing ampere turns per pole (ATd).
Let, Z  Total no of armature conductors, and
I C  Current in each armature conductor
Ia
 …… for simplex wave winding 2θm
2
I
 a …… for simplex lap winding
P
 m = forward or backward lead in mechanical degree

Figure (1.22): Demagnetization and cross magnetization ampere turns

Total number of armature conductors lying at top and bottom of the armature,
4 m
i.e., in angles AOC and BOD   Z , causes demagnetization or weakens the
360
main flux.
As one turn consists of two conductors, so total number of turns between these
4 m Z
angles   , which lies under one pole pair
360 2
2 m
 Demagnetizing ampere turn per one pole pair   Z  IC --- (1.8)
360
2 m ZI C  m
 Demagnetizing ampere turn per pole     ZI C
360 2 360
m
i.e. ATd / pole   ZI C --- (1.9)
360

1.7.3 Cross magnetizing ampere turns per pole (ATC)

Consider the conductors on both sides of the MNA and falls within the
influence of the main pole flux. The conductors which lie between angles AOD and

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BOC constitute distorting field and called cross conductors. Their number is found
as follows:
Z
Total number of armature conductors/pole 
P
Z
Total number of turns/pole 
2P
Z
Total number of ampere turns/pole AT / pole   IC
2P
Cross magnetizing ampere-turns/pole= AT/pole-ATd/pole

ZI C  m  1  
 Cross magnetizing ampere-turns/pole    ZI C  ZI C   m 
2 P 360  2 P 360 
 1  
i.e. ATc / pole  ZI C    m  --- (1.10)
 2 P 360 
Point to remember: For neutralizing the demagnetizing effect of armature
reaction, an extra number of turns may be kept on each pole are determined from
the following expressions:
ATd
Number of extra turns/pole  ….. for shunt wound generator
I sh
AT
 d …... for series wound generator
Ia
In case the leakage coefficient ‘λ’ is given, multiply each of the above expression by
it.
Point to remember: If  e is forward lead in electrical degrees, then forward lead
2e
in mechanical degrees m for P number of poles is given as,  m 
P

1.7.4 Compensating Winding

For large DC machines which are subjected to very large fluctuations in
load, compensating windings and commutation poles are used to mitigate the
effect of armature reaction. The function of compensating winding is to neutralize
the cross-magnetizing m.m.f of the armature reaction. If there is a large load
fluctuation, the flux wave suddenly shifts forward and backward with respect to
the poles. This sudden shifting of flux wave form induces considerable e.m.f in the
armature coil undergoing commutation resulting an arcing between the
consecutive commutator segments to which the coil connected. This type of arcing
can extend to the adjacent commutator segment until it ultimately results in flash
over between the brushes. This can be avoiding by filling compensating winding in
the pole shoes of the main poles.

Figure (1.23): Compensating winding

Dr. Ramana Pilla, Professor, Department of EEE, GMRIT-Rajam Page 18
 A compensating winding is embedded in the pole faces parallel to the
armature and is arranged such that its ampere-turns are equal in magnitude and
opposite in direction to those of the armature conductors which lie opposite to the
pole faces as shown in figure (1.23). Compensating winding must neutralize the
cross-magnetizing ampere turns of the armature at all loads when it is connected
in series with the armature.
The no. of compensating windings to be used for a large machine under one pole
can be derived as follows:
Z
Number of armature conductors / pole =
P
Z
Number of armature turns/pole =
2P
Z pole arc
 Number of armature turns under one pole = 
2 P pole pitch
pole arc
In general, the value of ratio of is considered as 0.7.
pole pitch
 Number of armature turns under one pole for compensating winding
Z
= 0.7 
2P
ZI pole arc
 Number of armature ampere turns under one pole = c  -- (1.11)
2 P pole pitch
Solved Problem-10: A 200 kW, 400 V, 4-pole DC generator has 640 lap wound
conductors. It is given a brush lead of 2.5 angular mechanical degrees from the
geometric neutral. Calculate cross magnetizing turns per pole and demagnetizing
turns per pole. (Neglect shunt field current)
Solution: Given that
Output power, P0 = 200 kW
Terminal voltage, V = 400 V
Number of poles, P = 4
Number of parallel paths, A = 4 ( for lap wound generator A =P)
Number of conductors, Z =640
Lead of brushes m  2.5
P0 200 103
Armature current, I a    500 A
V 400
I 500
Current in each armature conductor, I C  a   125 A
P 4
Cross magnetizing ampere-turns/pole,
 1    1 2.5 
ATc  Z   m   I C  640    125  9440AT
 2 P 360   2  4 360 
Demagnetizing ampere turn per pole,
m 2.5
ATd   Z  IC   640 125  555.55AT
360 360
Solved Problem-11: A 400 V, 800 A, lap wound DC generator has 8 poles, 720
armature conductors. Calculate the number of armature ampere turns in the pole
face to give full compensation if the pole face covers 70% of pole spam.
Solution: Given that,
Terminal voltage, V = 400 V
Armature current, I a = 800 A
Number of poles, P = 8
Number of parallel paths, A = 8 ( for lap wound generator A =P)
Number of conductors, Z = 720

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 pole arc
= 70% = 0.7
pole pitch
I a 800
Current in each armature conductor I c    100 A
P 8
 The number of armature ampere turns under one pole
ZI pole arc 720  100
 c    0.7 = 3150 AT
2 P pole pitch 28
Solved Problem-12: A 6-pole, 120kW, 500V, wave wound DC shunt generator has
756 armature conductors. The shunt filed resistance 50 Ω when delivering full
load the brushes are displaced from the geometrical neutral axis by 24 electrical
degrees. Find the demagnetizing ampere turns/pole and cross magnetizing ampere
turns/pole. Also determine the number of additional shunt field turns required to
neutralize the demagnetizing effect.
Solution: Given that,
Output power, P0 = 120 kW
Terminal voltage, V = 500 V
Number of poles, P = 6
Number of parallel paths, A = 2 ( for wave wound generator A =2)
Number of conductors, Z =756
Lead of brushes e  24 electrical degrees
Shunt field resistance Rsh  50
P0 120 103
Load current, I L    240 A
V 500
V 500
Shunt field current, I sh    10 A
Rsh 50
We know for a DC shunt generator,
Armature current, I a  I L  I sh = 240 + 10 = 250 A
I 250
Current in each armature conductor, I C  a =  125 A
2 2
2
Lead of brushes in mechanical degrees,  m  e
P
2  24
 m   8
6
Cross magnetizing ampere-turns/pole,
 1    1 8 
ATc  Z   m   I C  756    125  5775AT
 2 P 360   2  6 360 
Demagnetizing ampere turn per pole,
m 8
ATd   Z  IC   756  125  2100AT
360 360
Additional shunt turns/pole required to neutralize the demagnetization,
ATd 2100
   210
I sh 10
Solved Problem-13: A 4-pole, 100 kW, 500 V, lap wound DC series generator has
756 armature conductors. The brushes are given an actual lead of 6 mechanical
degrees at full load. Calculate demagnetizing ampere turns/pole and cross
magnetizing ampere turns/pole. Also determine the number of additional series
turns required to neutralize the demagnetizing effect. (Assume leakage coefficient
= 0.9).
Solution: Given that,
Output power, P0 = 100 kW
Terminal voltage, V = 500 V
Dr. Ramana Pilla, Professor, Department of EEE, GMRIT-Rajam Page 20
Number of poles, P = 4
Number of parallel paths, A = 4 ( for lap wound generator A=P)
Number of conductors, Z = 756
Lead of brushes m  6
P0
Armature current, I a 
V
P 100 103
Load current, I L  0   200 A
V 500
We know that for a DC series generator,
Armature current, I a  I L = 200 A
I a 200
Current in each armature conductor, I c  =  50 A
P 4
Cross magnetizing ampere-turns/pole,
 1    1 6 
ATc  Z   m   I C  756    50  4095AT
 2 P 360   2  4 360 
Demagnetizing ampere turn per pole,
m 6
ATd   Z  IC   756  50  630AT
360 360
Additional series turns/pole required to neutralize the demagnetization
ATd 630
  Leakage coefficient   0.9  3
Ia 200
1.8 Commutation
The currents induced in the armature conductors of a DC generator are
alternating and a commutator is used to convert alternating current into
unidirectional current by reversing the negative part of the alternating current.
The reversal of current takes place along the MNA or brushes axis. Whenever a
brush spans two commutator segments, the winding element (or the coil
undergoing reversal of current) connected to those segments is short circuited.
The process by which current in the short-circuited coil is reversed while it crosses
the MNA is called commutation. Also, during this process, the direction of current
will change from one direction to other. The time during which the coil remains
short circuited is known as commutation period and generally it is around 0.0005
to 0.002 seconds.
If the current reversal i.e. changes from +Ic to zero and then to −Ic is
completed by the end of short circuit or commutation period (Tc), then the
commutation is ideal or smooth. If current reversal is not completed by that time,
then sparking is produced between the brush and the commutator which results
in progressive damage to both.
For the better explanation of commutation process, consider the following
assumptions:
 Armature winding is of lap wound with 2 poles, so that number parallel
paths for current are 2.
 Width of the commutator segment is equal to the width of the brush
 Current density at the surface of the brush is constant
 Commutator is moving from left to right and then the brush will move from
right to left.
 The current from each armature coil to commutator segment is IC.
 The output current from brush to load is 2IC
To explain commutation process, let us consider the following 5 positions.
Position-1: At first position, the brush is in contact with commutator segment '2'
as shown in figure 1.24(a). As the width of the commutator segment is equal to the
width of the brush, in this position the total areas of commutator and brush are in
contact with each other. So current Ic will flow from each coils B and C. Therefore,

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the total current conducted by the commutator segment into the brush at this
position will be 2IC.

Figure (1.24): Action of commutator

Position-2: When the armature starts to move right then the brush moves left
makes contact with commutator segment ‘2’ and just touches commutator
segment ‘1’, creating a partial short circuit across coil ‘B’ as shown in figure
1.24(b). At this position the contact area of segment 1 is ¼ and segment-2 is ¾ of
the total brush contact area. As the area of contact of the brush is more with
segment ‘2’ than with segment ‘1’, so segment ‘2’ receives 3/2 Ic from coils ‘C’ and
‘B’ whereas segment ‘1’ receives ½ Ic from coil ‘A’, the total current collected by the
brush remain same, i.e., 2Ic.
Position-3: At this position half of the brush surface is in contact with segment ‘1’
and the other half is with segment ‘2’ as shown in figure 1.24 (c). So, the brush
contact areas with the two segments ‘2’ and ‘1’ are equal. It is seen that the coil ‘B’
is completely short circuited causing the current through it reduced to zero. The
two currents of Ic each, passes to the brush directly from coil ‘A’ and ‘C’ as shown
in figure, the total current collected by the brush remain same, i.e., 2Ic.
Position-4: In this position, as shown in figure 1.24 (d) the brush contact area
with segment ‘2’ is decreasing rapidly whereas that with segment ‘1’ is increasing,
i.e. the contact area of segment ‘2’ is ¼ and segment ‘1’ is ¾ of the total brush
contact area. Coil B now carries ½ IC in the reverse direction which combines with
Ic supplied by coil ‘A’ to make up 3/2 Ic that passes from segment ‘1’ to the brush.
The other ½ Ic is supplied by coil ‘C’, and passes from segment ‘2’ to the brush,
again giving a total current of 2Ic at the brush.
Position-5: Figure 1.24(e) depicts the moment when coil ‘B’ is almost at the end of
commutation or short circuit period. When the brush is totally under contact with
commutator segment ‘1’ as shown in figure and disconnected with commutator
segment ‘2’ then current ‘Ic’ flows through the coil 'B' in anti-clockwise direction
and short circuit is removed. In this way the reversal of current or the process of

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commutation is done. At this position segment ‘1’ receives, the two currents of Ic
each, passes to the brush directly from coil ‘A’ and ‘b’, the total current collected
by the brush remain same. i.e., 2Ic.
Now the coil ‘B’ is commutated i.e., the current flowing through the coil is
reversed. If we move further right, then the coil ‘C’ is commutated. So, the same
process is repeated to all the coils if you keep on moving to the right. Thus, the
current in the armature conductors are reversed and we will get pure DC at
brushes.
If the commutation process or the reversal of current is completed by the
end of the short circuit time or the commutation period (Tc), the commutation is
called ideal commutation or linear commutation. If the current in the coil is not
able to reach its full value in the reversed direction, then the difference of the
current would pass from commutator to brush in the form of a spark. These
sparks will heat up the commutator surface and thus may damage it. This type of
commutation is called non ideal commutation or poor commutation. So, for
satisfactory commutation, it is necessary that the current in the coil undergoing
commutation reverses completely during the commutation period.

Figure (1.25): Ideal commutation

Reactance Voltage: In actual practice, the current in the short-circuited coil after
commutation period does not reach its full value. This is due to the fact that the
short-circuited coil offers self-inductance in addition to the resistance. The rate of
change of current is so great that the self-inductance of the coil sets up back
e.m.f. which opposes the reversal. Since the current in the coil has to change from
+Ic to -Ic, the total current change is 2Ic. If Tc is the time of short circuit and L is
the inductance of the coil, then the average value of the self-induced voltage is
di 2I 2 LI c
L  L c 
dt Tc Tc
2 LI c
 Reactance voltage = --- (1.12)
Tc

1.8.1 Methods of Improving Commutation

Improving commutation means to make current reversal in the short-
circuited coil as sparkless as possible. The following methods are used for
improving the commutation problem:
(i) Resistance commutation
(ii) E.M.F commutation
(iii) Compensating windings
(i) Resistance commutation
In this method of commutation, we use high electrical resistance brushes
for getting spark less commutation. This can be obtained by replacing low
resistance copper brushes with high resistance carbon brushes.
As shown in figure (1.26), the current IC from the coil C may reach to the
brush in two ways in the commutation period. One path is direct through the
commutator segment ‘2’ and to the brush and the 2nd path is first through the

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short-circuit coil ‘B’ and then through the commutator segment ‘1’ and to the
brush. When the brush resistance is low, then the current IC from coil C will follow
the shortest path, i.e. the 1st path as its electrical resistance is comparatively low
because it is shorter than the 2nd path.
When high resistance brushes are used, then as the brush moves towards
the commutator segments, the contact area of the brush with segment ‘2’
decreases and with segment ‘1’ increases. Now, as the electrical resistance is
inversely proportional to the contact area, then the resistance (R=ρl/A) R2 will
increase and R1 will decrease as the brush moves. Then the current will prefer the
2nd path to reach to the brush. Thus, by this method of improving commutation,
the quick reversal of current will occur in the desired direction.

Figure (1.25): Resistance commutator

(ii) E.M.F. Commutation
In this method, an arrangement is made to neutralize the reactance voltage
by producing a reversal voltage in the coil undergoing commutation. Reactance
voltage is defined as the voltage rise in the short circuit coil due to inductive
property of the coil, which opposes the current reversal in it during the
commutation period. The expression for reactance voltage is given as follows:
Reactance voltage=(coefficient of self-inductance)×(rate of change of current)
2I
 L if the commutation is linear --- (1.13)
Tc
2I
 1.11L  if the commutation is sinusoidal --- (1.14)
Tc
wb  wm
Where, Tc  time of commutation or short-circuit = second
v
wb  brush width in cm.
wm  width of mica insulation in cm.
v  peripheral velocity of commutator segments in cm/sec.
The reversal voltage can be archived by two ways:
(a) By shifting of brushes

Figure (1.26): Brush shifting in a generator

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In this method of improving commutation, the brushes are shifted forward
direction for the DC generator and in backward direction for the DC motor for
producing the sufficient reversing e.m.f. for eliminating the reactance voltage.
When the brushes are given the forward or backward lead then it brings the short
circuit coil under the influence of the next pole which is of the opposite polarity.
Then the sides of the coil will cut the necessary flux form the main poles of
opposite polarity for producing the sufficient reversing e.m.f. This method is rarely
used because for best result, with every variation of load, the brushes must be
shifted.

(b) By using Inter-poles: In this method of commutation, some small poles are
fixed to the yoke and placed between the main poles. These poles are called inter-
poles. Their polarity is same as the main poles situated next to it for the generator
and for the motor the polarity is same as the main pole situated before it. The
inter-poles induce an e.m.f in the short circuit coil during the commutation period
which opposes reactance voltage and give spark-less commutation.

Figure (1.27): Reversal of voltage by inter-poles

(iii) Compensating Windings: This is the most effective mean of eliminating the
problem of armature reaction and flash over by balancing the armature m.m.f.
Compensating windings are placed in the slots provided in pole faces parallel to
the rotor (armature) conductors.
The major drawback with the compensating windings is that they are very
costly. Their use is mainly for large machines subject to heavy overloads or
plugging and in small motors subject to sudden reversal and high acceleration.

1.9 Characteristics of DC generator

Characteristic is the graph between the two dependent quantities. The
characteristic of the DC generators explains the relations between the load,
excitation, speed and terminal voltage through graph. Following are the three
important characteristics of a DC generator.
(i) Open Circuit Characteristic (OCC)
(ii) Internal or Total Characteristic and
(iii) External Characteristic.
(i)Open Circuit Characteristic (OCC) (E0 versus If)
This curve shows the relation between the generated e.m.f. at no-load (E0)
and the field current (If) at constant speed. It is also known as magnetization
characteristic or no-load saturation curve. Its shape is practically the same for all
generators whether separately excited or self-excited. The data for OCC curve are
obtained experimentally by operating the generator at no load and constant speed
and recording the change in terminal voltage as the field current is varied.
(ii) Internal or Total Characteristic (E versus Ia)
This curve shows the relation between the generated e.m.f. on load (E) and
the armature current (Ia). The e.m.f. E is less than E0 due to the demagnetizing
effect of armature reaction. Therefore, this curve will lie below the open circuit
characteristic (OCC). It cannot be obtained directly by experiment. It is because a
voltmeter cannot read the e.m.f. generated on load due to the voltage drop in
Dr. Ramana Pilla, Professor, Department of EEE, GMRIT-Rajam Page 25
armature resistance. The internal characteristic can be obtained from external
characteristic if winding resistances are known because armature reaction effect is
included in both characteristics.
(iii) External Characteristics (V versus IL)
This curve shows the relation between the terminal voltage (V) and load
current (IL). The terminal voltage V will be less than E due to voltage drop in the
armature circuit. Therefore, this curve will lie below the internal characteristic. It
can be obtained by making simultaneous measurements of terminal voltage and
load current (with voltmeter and ammeter) of a loaded generator. This
characteristic is of great importance in judging the suitability of a generator for a
particular application.

1.10 Characteristics of a Separately Excited DC Generator

Figure (1.28) shows the circuit diagram of a separately excited DC generator
which is excited with a constant DC source.

Figure (1.28): Separately excited DC generator

(i) Open Circuit Characteristics (OCC)
The data for OCC curve is obtained by operating the generator on no-load at
constant speed. The plot of this curve is practically same for all types of
generators, whether they are separately excited or self-excited. The field current
(If) is increased from zero in steps and the corresponding values of
generated e.m.f.(E0) is recorded using a voltmeter connected across the
armature terminals. On plotting the relation between E0 and If, we get the
open circuit characteristic as shown in figure (1.29).

Figure (1.29): OCC of separately excited DC generator

Now, from the e.m.f. equation of a DC generator, we know that Eg=kФ. Hence, the
generated e.m.f. should be directly proportional to field flux (and hence, also
directly proportional to the field current). However, even when the field current is
zero, some amount of e.m.f. is generated (represented by OA in figure (1.29). This
initially induced e.m.f. is because there exists some residual magnetism in the
field poles. Due to the residual magnetism, a small initial e.m.f. is induced in the
armature. As the field current is increased, the flux also proportionately increases,
as does the voltage. Thus, OCC follows a straight line (linear, AB portion).
However, at some value of field current If, the magnetic circuit (i.e. poles) gets
Dr. Ramana Pilla, Professor, Department of EEE, GMRIT-Rajam Page 26
 saturated. Hence any further increase in field current (beyond point C in figure
1.29) will not increase the flux. Therefore, the generated voltage will remain almost
constant with the increase in field current. That is why the upper portion of the
curve is almost flat.
(ii) Internal and external characteristics or Load characteristics
Let us consider a separately excited DC generator giving its no load voltage
E0 for a constant field current. If there is no armature reaction and armature
voltage drop in the machine, then the voltage will remain constant. Therefore, if we
plot the rated voltage on the y-axis and load current on the x- axis then the curve
will be a straight line and parallel to x-axis as shown in figure (1.30). Here, line AB
indicating the no load voltage (E0).
But when the generator is loaded, the voltage falls due to armature reaction
and armature voltage drop, thereby giving slightly dropping characteristics. If we
subtract from ‘E0’ the values of voltage drops due to armature reaction for different
loads, then we get the value of ‘E’ , the e.m.f. actually induced in the armature
under load conditions. Curve AC is plotted in this way and it is known as the
internal characteristic.
External characteristic lies below the internal characteristic because it
takes into account the voltage due to armature circuit resistance (IaRa), i.e.
V=E-IaRa. Hence, curve AD is plotted in this way and it is known as the external
characteristic. Hence, curve AD is plotted in this way and it is known as the
external characteristic.

Figure (1.30): Load characteristics of separately excited DC Generator

1.11 Voltage Build-up in a Self-excited Shunt Generator

A self-excited generator is also known as DC shunt generator, as the field
winding is connected in parallel with the armature. Thus, the armature voltage
supplies the field current. This type of generator supplies its own field excitation.
Consider a shunt generator. If the generator is run at a constant speed,
some e.m.f. will be generated due to residual magnetism in the main poles. This
small e.m.f. circulates a field current which in turn produces additional flux to
reinforce the original residual flux. When flux is increased, generated e.m.f. is
increased which further increases the flux and so on. The plot between the
generated e.m.f. and the shunt field current is as shown in figure (1.31). In the
plot, the line OA represents the shunt field resistance line. As shown in figure
(1.31), e1 is the induced e.m.f. due to residual magnetism which appears across
the field circuit and causes a field current i1 to flow. The flux due to these current
aids residual flux and hence generates a larger induced e.m.f. e2. In turn, this
increased e.m.f. e2 causes an even larger current i2 which creates more flux for a
still larger e.m.f. e3 and so on. This process of voltage build-up will continue until
that point where the field resistance line crosses the magnetization curve, that is,

Dr. Ramana Pilla, Professor, Department of EEE, GMRIT-Rajam Page 27

point P in the figure (1.31). Here the process stops. The induced voltage produced,
when impressed across the field circuit, produces a current flow that in turn
produces an induced voltage of the same magnitude as shown in figure.

Figure (1.31): Voltage build-up of in DC shunt generator

(i) Conditions for voltage build-up in a DC shunt generator
We may summarize the conditions necessary for the build-up of a self-
excited shunt generator as follows:
a) There should be some residual magnetism in the poles.
b) For the given direction of rotation, the shunt field coils should be properly
connected. That is, the coils should be connected such that the flux
generated by the field current aids the residual flux.
c) When excited at no load, the shunt field resistance should be less than the
critical resistance.
d) When excited on load, the shunt field resistance should be more than a
certain minimum value of resistance
(ii) Critical Field Resistance
The voltage build-up in a generator depends upon field circuit resistance. If
the field circuit resistance is R1 (line OA), then generator will build-up a voltage E01
as shown in figure (1.32). If the field circuit resistance is increased to R2 (line OB),

Figure (1.32): Determination of critical field resistance

the generator will build up a voltage E02, slightly less than E01. As the field circuit
resistance is increased, the slope of resistance line also increases. When the field

Dr. Ramana Pilla, Professor, Department of EEE, GMRIT-Rajam Page 28

resistance line becomes tangent (line OC) to OCC, the generator would just excite.
If the field circuit resistance is increased beyond this point (say line OD), the
generator will fail to excite. The field circuit resistance represented by line OC
(tangent to OCC) is called critical field resistance, RC for the generator. So,
the critical field resistance is defined as the maximum field circuit resistance for a
given speed at which the shunt generator would excite. It should be noted that
generator will build up voltage only if field circuit resistance is less than critical
field resistance.
(iii) Critical Speed
The critical speed is defined as the minimum speed of the armature which is
required to build-up e.m.f. by the generator; so all the generators works above the
critical speed. In other words, the speed at which the machine just excites for the
given field circuit resistance is called the critical speed of a shunt generator

Figure (1.33): Determination of critical speed

It is known that as speed changes, the open circuit characteristics also
changes, similarly for different shunt field resistances, the corresponding lines are
also different. The speed for which the given field resistance acts as critical
resistance is called the critical speed, denoted as NC. Thus, if the line is drawn
representing given Rsh then OCC drawn for such a speed to which this line is
tangential to the initial portion, is nothing but the critical speed NC. Graphically
critical speed can be obtained for given Rsh. It can be determined as follows:
 Drawn OCC for given speed N1.
 Draw a line tangential to this OCC say OA.
 Draw a line representing the given Rsh say OB.
 Select any field current say point C.
 Draw vertical line from C to intersect OA at D and OB at F.
 Then the critical speed NC can be obtained as
NC CF

N1 CD
CF
 NC  N1  --- (1.15)
CD
1.12 Characteristics of DC Shunt Generator
In a DC shunt generator, the shunt field is in parallel to the armature.
Here, let us discuss open circuit characteristics and load characteristics of it.
(i) Open circuit characteristic or magnetization curve
The OCC or no-load saturation curves for self-excited generators whether
shunt or series connected, are obtained in a similar way. The field winding of the
generator whether (shunt or series wound) is disconnected from the machine and
connected to an external source of direct current as shown in figure (1.34). The
field or exciting current (If) is varied rheostatically and its value read on the
ammeter (A). The machine is driven at constant speed by the prime mover and the
generator e.m.f on no-load is measured by voltmeter connected across the

Dr. Ramana Pilla, Professor, Department of EEE, GMRIT-Rajam Page 29

armature. The field current is increased by suitable steps, starting from zero, and
the corresponding values of E0 are measured. On plotting the relation between If
and E0 a curve of the form shown in figure 1.34(b) is obtained. Due to residual
magnetism in the poles, some e.m.f is generated even when If =0. Hence, the curve
starts a little way up. The straight curvature at the lower end is due to magnetic
inertia. It is seen that the first part of the curve is practically straight. This is due
to the fact that at low flux densities, reluctance of iron path being negligible (due
to high permeability), total reluctance is given by the air-gap reluctance which is
constant. Hence, the flux and consequently, the generated e.m.f. is directly
proportional to the exciting current. However, at high flux densities, where μ is
small, iron path reluctance becomes appreciable and straight relation between E0
and If no longer holds good. In other words, after point B, saturation of poles
starts. However, the initial slope of the curve is determined by air-gap width.

Figure (1.34): Open circuit characteristics of a DC shunt generator

Critical resistance for shunt generator:
Now, connect the field winding back to the armature and run the machine
as shunt generator. Due to residual magnetism in the poles, some e.m.f. and
hence current, would be generated. This current while passing through the field
coils will strengthen the magnetism of the poles. This will increase the pole flux
which will further increase the generated e.m.f. Increased e.m.f. means, more
current which further increases the flux and so on. This mutual reinforcement of
e.m.f. and flux proceeds on till equilibrium is reached at some point like ‘B’ as
shown in figure 1.35 (b). The point lies on the resistance line OA of the field
winding. Let R be the resistance of the field winding. Line OA is drawn such that
its slope equals the field winding resistance i.e. every point on this curve is such
that volt/ampere = R.

Figure (1.35)
The resistance line OA represents smaller resistance to which the
machine will build up and represent the maximum voltage OD. If field resistance
is increased, then slope of the resistance line increases, and hence the maximum
voltage to which the generator will build up at a given speed, decreases. If field
resistance increased so much that the resistance line dose not cut the OCC at all
(like OF) then obviously the machine will fail to excite, there will be no "build-up"
of the voltage. If the resistance line just lies along initial straight-line portion of

Dr. Ramana Pilla, Professor, Department of EEE, GMRIT-Rajam Page 30

OCC, then with that value of field resistance, the machine will just excite. The
value of the resistance represented by the tangent to the curve OCC, is known as
critical resistance RC for a given speed.
(ii) Internal and external characteristics or Load characteristics
It is observed that, the induced e.m.f. is not dependent on the load current
I L or armature current I a . But as load current increases, the armature current
I a also increases to supply load demand, as I a increases, armature flux
increases. Now, let us discuss the nature of internal and external characteristics.
If there were no armature reaction and armature voltage drop, then the
voltage would have remained constant as shown in the figure (1.36) by the
horizontal line AD. It is known that, the main filed flux pattern gets distorted due
to the armature reaction and hence, lesser flux gets linked with the armature
conductors. This reduces the induced e.m.f., so, curve AB shows internal
characteristic of a DC generator.

Figure (1.36): Load characteristics of DC shunt generator

External characteristic lies below the internal characteristic because it takes
into account the armature resistance drop i.e. IaRa drop. The values of V are
obtained by subtracting IaRa from corresponding values of E i.e. V=E-IaRa. Hence,
curve AC is plotted in this way and is known as the external characteristics. But
the value of armature resistance is very small; the drop in terminal voltage as
IL changes from no load to full load is very small.

1.13 Characteristics of a DC Series Generator

In a DC series generator, the field winding is in series with the armature
winding. Since it carries the load current, the series field winding consists of only
a few turns of thick wire. In this section, let us discuss no-load saturation
characteristics and load characteristics of DC series generator.
(i) Open circuit characteristic or magnetization curve
The OCC curve for a self-excited generators whether shunt or series wound
is shown in above figure (1.37). Due to the residual magnetism in the poles, some
e.m.f (=OA) is generated even when If =0. Hence, the curve starts a little way up.
The slight curvature at the lower end is due to magnetic inertia. It is seen that the
first part of the curve i.e. AB is practically straight, due to negligible reluctance at
lower flux densities; hence the total reluctance given by the air gap reluctance is
constant. Hence, the flux and consequently, the generated e.m.f is directly
proportional to the exciting current. After point B, saturation of pole starts and
hence the straight relation between E and If no longer holds good. However, the
initial slope of the curve is determined by air-gap width. OCC for higher speed
would lie above this curve and for lower speed, would lie below it.

Dr. Ramana Pilla, Professor, Department of EEE, GMRIT-Rajam Page 31

 Figure (1.37): OCC of a DC series generator
(ii) Internal and external characteristics or Load characteristics
In the series generator, load connected across the armature terminals. As
load current increase, series field current increases ( I L  I se  I a ) and hence flux is
also increase as series field current is directly proportional to flux. Therefore,
induced e.m.f. E also increases. The internal characteristics is obtained by
subtracting the drop due to the demagnetizing effect of armature reaction from the
no load voltage. So, the induced e.m.f. ( E g ) will be less than the no load voltage
( E0 ). Hence, the curve OC is slightly dropping from the open circuit characteristic
curve AB as shown in figure (1.38). Here, the curve OC is called the internal
characteristic of the series wound DC generator.

Figure (1.38): Characteristics of a DC series generator

It is known that, for series generator E  V  I a ( Ra  Rse ) by neglecting other
drops. As load current I L increases, armature current I a increases. Thus the drop
I a ( Ra  Rse ) increases and terminal voltage V  E  I a ( Ra  Rse ) decreases. But, the
value of armature resistance is very small, the drop in terminal voltage as
I L changes from no load to full load is very small. The curve OD is called external
characteristics of DC series generator as shown in figure (1.38).
The series generators are obviously not suited for applications requiring
good voltage regulation. Therefore, they have been used very little and only in
special applications for example, as voltage booster. The generator is placed in
series with a supply line. When the current consumption is increase, the
generated voltage of the series machine goes up because the magnetic field current
is increases.

Dr. Ramana Pilla, Professor, Department of EEE, GMRIT-Rajam Page 32

1.14 Characteristics of a DC Compound Generator
The compound wound generator has both shunt and series field windings. If
the magnetic flux produced by the series winding assists the flux produced by the
shunt winding, then the machine is said to be cumulative compounded. If the
series field flux opposes the shunt field flux, then the machine is called the
differentially compounded. The characteristics mainly depending on the type of
field connections i.e. cumulatively compound or differentially compound generator.
In the differential compound generator, the net flux, Ф= Фsh- Фse decreases as
the load increases. Therefore, the terminal voltage is decreases very quickly as the
load current increases. The cumulatively compound generator depending on the
number of series field turns may be classified into (i) Over compound, (ii)flat or
level compound, and (iii) under compound. The characteristic of DC compound
wound generator are as shown in figure (1.39).
(i)Over compound generator: In this case the number of series field turns are
greater than the number of shunt field turns, so the net flux and hence the
terminal voltage increases as the load current increases.
(ii)Level or flat compound generator: In this case the number of series field
turns are equal to the number of shunt field turns. So, the terminal voltage
remains constant for any value of load current, which is within the limits.
(iii) Under compound generator: In this case the number of series field turns are
less than the number of shunt field turns. So, the net flux decreases as the load
current increases and hence the terminal voltage decreases.

Figure (1.39): Characteristics of DC compound generator

Solved Problem-14: The OCC data of a 6-pole, 200 V shunt generator having 720
lap connected armature conductors running at 1000 rpm is as follows:
I f (Amp) 0 0.5 1 2 3 4 5
E0 (Volt)
20 60 120 195 240 260 285
Calculate (i) Critical filed resistance, (ii) Critical speed for field circuit resistance
80Ω, and (iii) Residual flux/pole.
Solution: Given that,
Number of Poles, P =6
Terminal voltage, V = 200 V
Number of conductors, Z= 720
Number of parallel paths, A = 6 (for lap winding A= P)
Speed of armature N = 1000 rpm
OCC curve for the given data is shown in above Figure.
From OCC curve,
GD 258
(i) Critical field resistance = Slope of the line AB  =  103.2
DF 2.5
Dr. Ramana Pilla, Professor, Department of EEE, GMRIT-Rajam Page 33
(ii)Draw a field resistance line Rsh  80  . So, slope of the line is 80  and equation
is E0  Rsh I f = (80) (2.5) = 200V
EF N C
Therefore, Critical speed can be obtained as from the curve as 
DF N
200 N
  C
258 1000
 N C  775rpm

(iii) We have, e.m.f. equation for DC generator as

ZN P
Eg  
60 A
(7250)(1000) 6
 200  
60 6
   0.0016Wb
Hence, residual flux /pole = 1.6 mWb
Solved Problem-15: A separately excited generator the magnetization
characteristics at 1500 rpm is as follows:
I f (Amp) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
E0 (Volt)
72.5 117.5 165 206.5 241 266 285 297.5
Determine the no-load terminal voltage of the machine when runs at 1000 rpm
with 30Ω field circuit resistance.
Dr. Ramana Pilla, Professor, Department of EEE, GMRIT-Rajam Page 34
Solution: Given that,
Speed of the armature, N = 1500 rpm
While, E0 is required for N 2  1000 rpm it is necessary to find new table for OCC by
using the relation E  N
E1 N1
 
E2 N 2
1000
 E 2  E1   0.66 E1
1500
I f (Amp) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
E0 (Volt) 47.85 77.55 108.9 136.29 159.06 175.56 188.1 196.35
The OCC curve is drawn by using new table data as shown in the figure

Now, draw field resistance line Rsh  30 . From the graph Rsh  30 line touches
OCC curve at point ‘A’.
Therefore, the corresponding no-load generated voltage form the graph E0 =172 V
1.15 Parallel Operation of DC generators
1.15.1 Reasons for parallel operation of DC generators
For supplying peak loads, it is necessary to operate two or more generators
in parallel. In most of the power stations, it is generally observed to have several
smaller generators operating in parallel than one larger generator capable of
taking care of maximum peak load. The reasons for connecting DC generators in
parallel are mentioned below:

Dr. Ramana Pilla, Professor, Department of EEE, GMRIT-Rajam Page 35

(i) Continuity of power supply: In case of breakdown of generator, the supply of
power will not get disturbed. If something goes wrong in one generator, the
continuity of power can maintain by other healthy units.
(ii) Higher efficiency: The performance and efficiency of a DC generator is high
at rated load conditions. The load on the system is non-uniform, i.e., sometimes
maximum and sometimes minimum. During period of light load, one or more units
may be shut down, and those remaining operate at their rated capacity; there by
efficiency increases.
(iii) Easy repair and maintenance: For routine maintenance and inspection at
the power stations, a unit must be shut down for a certain period. So, repairing
and overhauling (maintenance) is convenient. Consequently, the cost of standby
unit is much less when several units are installed.
(iv) Easy to increase plant capacity: The growing need of electricity for
increasing population shows the future need of excess generation. The plant
capacity can be increased by connecting more generators in parallel.
(v) Non-availability of single large unit: In many situations, a single unit of
desired large capacity may not be available. In that case several smaller units can
be operated in parallel to meet the load requirement. Generally, a single large unit
is more expensive.
(vi) Economy of power generation: The operating cost and cost of energy
generated are reduced when several generators operate in parallel.

1.15.2 Requirements for parallel operation of DC generators

Before operating two or more DC generators in parallel, the following
conditions need to fulfill:
(i) Voltages of both the machines should be same: The no load voltages of both
generators should be adjusted to the same value; otherwise, current will
circulate through the two machines that will cause additional losses.
(ii) Polarities of both the generators must be identical: The polarity of the
voltages of two generators must be same; otherwise, large current will
circulate in the armature windings of the generators which will damage the
windings.
(iii) Generators should have identical external characteristics: The external
characteristic curve of the two generators should be identical; otherwise, the
generator will not share the load properly.
(iv) Generators should have an equalizer connection: For the case of
compound generators in parallel there must be an “equalizer” connection to
make the operation stable, otherwise, there will be motorization, i.e. one of the
generator will act as a motor.

1.15.3 Parallel operation of DC shunt generators

Consider a busbar and two generators are to be connected in parallel as
shown in figure (1.40). The positive and negative terminals of the bus bars are
connected to the positive and negative terminal of the generator respectively. Let
us assume that that the shunt generator G1 is already connected to the busbar
and delivering the load. The shunt generator G2 needs to be connected in parallel
with the existing shunt generator, when the load on the first shunt generator is
increases beyond its rated capacity.
The procedure for paralleling two DC shunt generators is provided as follows:
1. Generator G1 is connected to bus bars i.e., S1 is closed, S3 is closed, CB-1 is
closed. Generator G2 is initially not connected to the bus bars i.e., S2 is open, S4
is open and CB-2 is open
2. Generator G2 is brought to rated speed by prime mover and now the switch S4
and circuit breaker CB-2 are closed. The excitation of generator G2 is adjusted
such that the voltage in voltmeter V2 is equal to the bus bar voltage.
3. Generator G2 can now be connected in parallel with generator G1 by closing
the switch S2. However, this generator G2 is said to be floating generator, since
the generated e.m.f. in this generator is equal to bus bar voltage, hence cannot

Dr. Ramana Pilla, Professor, Department of EEE, GMRIT-Rajam Page 36

supply any load.

Figure (1.40): Two shunt generators connected in parallel

4. To supply load from generator G2, the induced e.m.f. is increased by giving the
additional amount of excitation from the field. So that, the field current
increases and it can deliver some current.
5. The load can be shifted from one generator to another generator by adjusting
the field excitation. The total load can be shifted on to one generator by shutting
down the other generator.
6. To shut-down a generator, the load current is made zero which is indicated in
the corresponding ammeter, then the related switches S and CB are made open.

1.15.4 Load Sharing between two generators

The load sharing between shunt generators connected in parallel can be
easily regulated because of their drooping characteristics. The load may be shifted
from one generator to another merely by adjusting the field excitation. If the field
excitation is changed, then the voltage of the generator will change and hence the
current output of the generators. Let us discuss the load sharing of two generators
which have unequal no-load voltages as shown in the figure (1.41).

Figure (1.41): Load sharing between two generators

Let E1, E2 = no-load voltages of the two generators
R1, R2 = armature resistances of the two generators
I1, I2 = currents supplied to the load by two generators
I =total load current shared by two generators
V = common terminal voltage (bus-bar voltage)
The external characteristic of the two generators can now be expressed as:
V  E1  I1R1 --- (1.16)
V  E2  I 2 R2 --- (1.17)

Dr. Ramana Pilla, Professor, Department of EEE, GMRIT-Rajam Page 37

Total load current, I  I1  I 2 --- (1.18)
Solving above equations for I1 and I2, will get the load shared by two generators as
E1  E2 IR2
I1   --- (1.19)
R1  R2 R1  R2
E  E2 IR1
I1  1  --- (1.20)
R1  R2 R1  R2
Above eqns. (1.19) & (1.20) clearly indicate that the current supplied by each
generator consists of two components (i) independent of load current (ii) dependent
upon load current. First component exists when the generated e.m.fs of two
generators running in parallel are different, which certainly causes the circulating
current to flow producing heat loss. This component would exist even at no load
and can be avoided only when the e.m.fs generated by the two generators are
equal. Second component shows clearly that the load current divides itself
inversely as the armature resistance of the generators.
If the load on the generators is a fixed resistance R, eqns. (1.16) & (1.17) can be
rewritten as,
E1  V  I1R1  IR  I1R1  ( I1  I 2 ) R  I1R1
 E1  ( I1  I 2 ) R  I1R1 --- (1.21)
E2  V  I 2 R2  IR  I 2 R2  ( I1  I 2 ) R  I 2 R2
 E2  ( I1  I 2 ) R  I 2 R2 --- (1.22)
Solving equations (1.21) & (1.22), we get
( E1  E2 ) R  E1R2
I1  --- (1.23)
R( R1  R2 )  R1R2
( E  E1 ) R  E2 R1
I2  2 --- (1.24)
R( R1  R2 )  R1R2
Load current is given by
( E1  E2 ) R  E1R2 ( E2  E1 ) R  E2 R1 E1R2  E2 R1
I  I1  I 2    --- (1.25)
R( R1  R2 )  R1R2 R( R1  R2 )  R1R2 R( R1  R2 )  R1R2
Terminal voltage is given by
 E1R2  E2 R1  E1R2  E2 R1
V  IR   R  --- (1.26)
 R( R1  R2 )  R1R2  R1  R2  ( R1R2 / R)
Using the eqns. (1.23) & (1.24), the load shared by each generator operating
in parallel can be determined.
Solved Problem-16: Two 220 V DC generators each having linear external
characteristics operates in parallel. One generator has a terminal voltage of 260 V
on no-load and 220 V when supplying 40 A, while the other has a terminal voltage
of 270 V on no-load voltage of 220 V at 50 A. Calculate the output current of each
machine, the bus bar voltage and output of each machine when the total load is
70 A.
Solution: Given that
Total load current supplied by the generators, I = 70 A
For generator 1:
Voltage drop for 40 A = 260 - 220 = 40 V
40
Voltage drop/Amperes, R1 =  1V / A
40
For generator 2:
Voltage drop for 50 A = 270 - 220 = 50 V
50
Voltage drop/Amperes, R2 =  1V / A
50
Let I1  Current output of generator 1
I 2  Current output of generator 2
Dr. Ramana Pilla, Professor, Department of EEE, GMRIT-Rajam Page 38
  I1  I 2  70 A --- (1)
For DC generators, e.m.f. equation is given by E  V  I a Ra
For generator 1, V  260  I1  1 --- (2)
For generator 2, V  270  I 2  1 --- (3)
From eqns. (2) & (3), we get
I 2  I1  10 --- (4)
By adding eqns. (1) & (4)
2 I 2  80  I 2  40 A
I 2  10  I1  10  30  40 A
(i) Load shared by generators: I1=30A, I2=40A
(ii) Output voltage of each generator V  260  30  1  230V ( from eqn. (2))
 Bus-bar voltage, V=230V
(iii) Output of generator 1, P1  V1I1  230  30  6.9kW
Output of generator 2, P2  V2 I 2  230  40  9.2kW
Solved Problem-17: Two shunt generators are operating in parallel to supply a
load of 2000 A. Each machine has an armature resistance of 0.05 Ω and shunt
field resistance of 50 Ω. The e.m.f. induced in one machine is 240 V and that
induced in the other machine is 260 V. Determine terminal voltage and output of
each machine.
Solution: Given that
E.m.f. induced in generator 1, E1 = 240 V
E.m.f. induced in generator 2, E2 = 260 V
Armature resistance of generator 1 = 0.05Ω
Armature resistance of generator 2 = 0.05Ω
The total load current = 2000 A
Let I1  Current supplied by generator 1,
I 2  Current supplied by generator 2
Then I1  I 2  2000 A
 I 2  2000  I1 --- (1)
V
The shunt field current I sh1  I sh2 
50
V
The armature current of generator 1, I a1  I1  I sh1  I1  --- (2)
50
V
The armature current of generator 2, I a 2  I 2  I sh2  I 2 
50
V
 I a 2  (2000  I1)  --- (3)
50
For generator 1,
V
V  E1  I a1Ra1  240  ( I1  )  (0.05)
50
 1.001V  240  0.05 I1 --- (4)
For generator 2,
V  E2  I a 2 Ra 2
V
 260  ( I 2  )(0.05)
50
 1.001V  260  0.05(2000  I1)
 1.001V  160  0.05I1 --- (5)
From eqns. (4) & (5), we have

Dr. Ramana Pilla, Professor, Department of EEE, GMRIT-Rajam Page 39

240  0.05I1  160  0.05I1
 0.1I1  80  I1  800 A
 I 2  2000  I1  2000  800  1200 A
(i) From eqn. (4) output terminal voltage can be obtained as
1.001V  240  0.05  800
 V  199.8V
(ii) Output of generator 1, P1  VI1 = (199.8)× (800) = 159.84 kW
Output of generator 2, P2  VI 2 = (199.8) × (1200) = 239.76 kW
Solved Problem-18: Two shunt generators are running in parallel. The no-load
voltage of each generator is 230 V. Generator 1 is rated at 180 kW and its full load
voltage is 200 V. Generator 2 is rated at 200 kW and its full load voltage is 185 V.
Determine the bus-bar voltage when the total load is 3000 A and output current of
each generator.
Solution: Given that,
The total load current supplied by the generators, I = 3000 A
No load voltage of each generator = 250 V
Let x1 , x2 = load carried by each generator in terms of percentage of rated load
P1 , P2 = load carried by each generator in watts
V = bus-bar voltage
For generator 1:
x
V  230  (230  200) 1
100
 V  230  0.3x1 --- (1)
1000
P1  180 x1  --- (2)
100
For generator 2:
x
V  230  (230  185) 2
100
 V  230  0.45x2 --- (3)
1000
P2  200 x2  --- (4)
100
From eqns. (1) & (3), we have
0.3 x1  0.45 x2
0.45
 x1  x2  1.5 x2 --- (5)
0.3
The sum of the power delivered by both the generators is
P  P1  P2
 1000   1000 
180 x1     200 x2    V  3000
 100   100 
Now, replacing V and x1 , we get
 1000   1000 
180  1.5 x2     200 x2    (230  0.45 x2 )3000
 100   100 
 2.7 x2  2 x2  690  1.35x2
690
 x2   114.04%
6.05
 Bus-bar voltage, V = 230 - 0.45×114.04= 178.68 V
The division of load between the two generators is obtained as
P1  100
x1  --- (6)
180  1000

Dr. Ramana Pilla, Professor, Department of EEE, GMRIT-Rajam Page 40

 P2  100
x2  --- (7)
200  1000
Eqn.(6) x P 200
 1  1
Eqn.(7) x2 P2 180
x VI 10
 1  1
x2 VI 2 9
 10 I1  13.5I 2 --- (8)
But, we have I1  I 2  3000 --- (9)
Multiply eqn.(9) by a factor 10 on both sides
10 I1  10 I 2 30000 --- (10)
From eqns. (8) & (10), we have
13.5I 2  10 I 2  30000
 23.5I 2  30000
 I 2  1276.5 A and I1  1723.5 A
Hence, output currents of generators 1 and 2 are 1723.5 A and 1276.5 A.
Solved Problem-19: A DC generator and a DC battery operating in parallel supply
a total load current of 50 A, the terminal voltage of the generator falls from 120 V
on load to 110V at 50 A. The e.m.f. of the battery is constant and is equal to 118
V. Determine the current supplied by the generator and the battery and also find
the terminal voltage. The resistance of the battery is 0.05Ω.
Solution:
Let IG is the current supplied by the generator
I B is the current supplied by the batter
Given, IG  I B  50 A --- (1)
120  110
Voltage drop/ampere for a generator, R1   0.2 V / A
50
For generator V  120 0.2IG --- (2)
For battery V  118  0.05 I B --- (3)
From eqns. (2) & (3), we get
120  0.2IG  118  0.05I B --- (4)
After solving, eqns. (1) & (4), we can get
IG  18 A and I B  32 A
 Terminal voltage, V  120  0.2IG  116.4 volts
Solved Problem-20: Three DC generators are connected to the common load.
Generator 'A' has a constant e.m.f. of 400V and internal resistance of 0.2 Ω.
Generator 'B' has a constant e.m.f. of 420V and internal resistance of 0.4 Ω.
Generator 'C' has a constant e.m.f. of 440V and internal resistance of 0.6 Ω.
Determine current and power output from each generator when the load voltage is
380 V.
Solution: Given that,
Terminal or load voltage, V = 380V
The e.m.f. and internal resistances of the three generators are given as
E A  400V & RA  0.2
EB  420V & RB  0.4
EC  440V & RA  0.6
For generator A:
From e.m.f. equation of a DC generator is
E A  V 400  380
IA    100 A
RA 0.2

Dr. Ramana Pilla, Professor, Department of EEE, GMRIT-Rajam Page 41

 Output power of generator A, PA  VI A = 380×100= 38 kW
For generator B:
From e.m.f. equation of a DC generator is
E  V 420  380
IB  B   100 A
RB 0.4
 Output power of generator B, PB  VI B = 380×100 = 38 kW
For generator C:
From e.m.f. equation of a DC generator is
E  V 440  380
IC  C   100 A
RC 0.6
 Output power of generator C, PC  VIC = 380×100= 38 kW
Solved Problem-21: A shunt generator gave the following results in the OCC test
at a speed of 1500rpm.
Field current, A 1 2 3 4 6 8 10
E.M.F, V 90 185 251 290 324 345 360
The field resistance is adjusted to 50 Ω and the terminal is 300 V on load.
Armature resistance is 0.1 Ω and assuming that the flux is reduced by 5% due to
armature reaction, find the (i) load supplied by the generator, and (ii) generator
output.
Solution: Given that
Rsh=50 Ω, V=300volts, Ra=0.1 Ω
Field current=V/Rsh=300/50=6A
With this shunt current, the induced e.m.f. as seen from the given table (we need
not draw the OCC) is 324 V.
Due to armature reaction, the flux and hence the induced e.m.f. is reduced to 0.95
of its no-load value.
Hence, induced e.m.f. when generator is no load = 324 × 0.95 = 307.8 V
Armature drop at the given load = 307.8 − 300 = 7.8 V
IaRa = 7.8  Ia = 7.8/0.1 = 78 A
(i) Load current = 78 − 6 = 72 A
(ii) Generator output = 72 × 300= 21.6 kW
Solved Problem-22: The following is the magnetization characteristics of a DC
shunt generator driven at 1000 rpm.
If in A 1 2 4 6 8 10
E0 in V 160 260 390 472 522 550
Determine:
(i) The voltage to which it will excite on open circuit.
(ii) The approximate value of the critical resistance of the shunt circuit.
Take the armature and field resistance are 0.4 Ω and 60 Ω respectively
Solution:

Dr. Ramana Pilla, Professor, Department of EEE, GMRIT-Rajam Page 42

(i) Draw the OCC as shown in figure, draw the shunt resistance line (60 Ω) as
usual. The intersection of shunt resistance line and OCC. gives the open circuit
voltage of 540 V.
(ii) To find the critical resistance, draw the line (OL) which tangential to the initial
straight part of the OCC. The slope of (OL) gives the critical resistance. Take any
point on line (OL), it is seen, critical resistance =400/2.5 = 160Ω
Solved Problem-23: The following table gives the OCC data of a DC shunt
generator at 300 rpm.
Field amperes 0 2 3 4 5 6 7
Armature volt 7.5 92 132 162 183 199 212
(i) Plot the OCC for 375 rpm and determine the voltage to which the machine will
excite if field circuit resistance is 40 Ω.
(ii) Determine the load current supplied by the generator, when its terminal voltage
is 200 V. Take armature resistance 0.3 Ω. Assume speed to constant and
armature reaction may be ignored.
(iii) What additional resistance would have to be inserted in the field circuit to
reduce the voltage to 200 V at 375 rpm (no-load).
Solution: Speed of the armature, N = 300 rpm
While, E0 is required for N2  375rpm it is necessary to find new table for OCC by
using the relation E  N
E1 N1
 
E2 N 2
375
 E2  E1   1.25E1
300
So, the e.m.f. induced at 375 rpm would be increased 1.25E0 corresponding to
different shunt field current values. A new table is given with the voltages
multiplied by the above ratio.
Field amperes 0 2 3 4 5 6 7
Armature volt 9.4 115 165 202.5 228.8 248.4 265
(i) The new OCC at 375 rpm is shown in the following figure. Line OL represent 40
Ω line. The voltage corresponding to point L to which the machine will excite if the
field circuit resistance is 40 Ω =255 V.

(ii) In this case, shunt field resistance = 40 Ω

Terminal voltage = 200 V
∴ Field current = 200/40 = 5 A
Generated e.m.f. for exciting (field) current of 5 A = 228.8 V
For generator, Eg  V  I a Ra

Dr. Ramana Pilla, Professor, Department of EEE, GMRIT-Rajam Page 43

 Eg  V 228.8  200
Ia    96 A
Ra 0.3
∴ Load current, IL=Ia-If=96-5=91A
(iii) From the figure, it is clear that for exciting the generator to 200 V, field
current should be 4 A.
Field circuit resistance = 200/4 = 50 Ω
∴ Additional resistance required =50-40=10 Ω

1.16 Losses in a DC Machine

A DC generator converts mechanical power into electrical power and a DC
motor converts electrical power into mechanical power. Thus, for a DC generator,
input power is in the form of mechanical and the output power is in the form of
electrical. On the other hand, for a DC motor, input power is in the form of
electrical and output power is in the form of mechanical. In a practical machine,
whole of the input power cannot be converted into output power as some power is
lost in the conversion process. This causes the efficiency of the machine to be
reduced. Efficiency is the ratio of output power to the input power. Thus, to design
rotating DC machines with higher efficiency, it is important to study the losses
occurring in them. Various losses in a rotating DC machine (generator or motor)
can be characterized as follows:
(i) Copper losses
(ii) Iron losses or core losses
(iii) Mechanical losses
All these losses appear as heat and thus raise the temperature of the
machine and also lower the efficiency of the machine.

Figure (1.41): Losses in a DC machine

(i) Copper Losses
The power lost in the form of heat in the armature winding of a DC machine
is known as copper loss. These losses occur due to currents in the various
windings of the machine. Copper loss is an I2R loss, which increases as current
increases. The amount of heat generated is also proportional to the resistance of
the conductor.
These losses occur in armature and field copper windings. Copper losses
consist of armature copper loss, field copper loss and loss due to brush contact
resistance. Copper loss is minimized in armature windings by using large diameter
wire. The various copper losses in a DC machine are
(a) Armature copper losses= Ia2 Ra
(b) Shunt field copper losses= Ish2 Rsh
(c) Series field copper losses= Ise2 Rse
(ii) Iron losses or core losses
These losses occur in the armature of a DC machine and are due to the
Dr. Ramana Pilla, Professor, Department of EEE, GMRIT-Rajam Page 44
rotation of armature in the magnetic field of the poles. Iron losses consists of
(a) Hysteresis losses
(b) Eddy current losses
(a) Hysteresis losses (Wh)
Hysteresis loss is a heat loss caused by the magnetic properties of the
armature. This loss is due to the reversal of magnetization of the armature core.
When the core passes under one pair of poles, it undergoes one complete cycle of
magnetic reversal. The frequency of magnetic reversal is given by, f=PN/120
(where, P = no. of poles and N = Speed in rpm)
Hysteresis losses are given by
Wh = Bmax1.6 fV watts ---(1.27)
Where =Steinmetz hysteresis coefficient
V=volume of the core material in ‘m3’
Bmax= maximum flux density in ‘Wb/m2’ or ‘Tesla’
f= frequency of magnetic reversals in ‘Hz’
In order to reduce the hysteresis losses in a DC machine, armature core is
made up of heat-treated silicon steel laminations. After the steel has been formed
to the proper shape, the laminations are heated and allowed to cool. This
annealing process reduces the hysteresis loss to a low value.
(b) Eddy Current Losses (We)
When the armature core rotates in the magnetic field, an emf is also
induced in the core according to the Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction.
Though this induced emf is small, it causes a large current to flow in the body due
to the low resistance of the core. These currents that are induced in the armature
core are called eddy currents. The power dissipated in the form of heat, because of
the eddy currents, is called as eddy current loss.
The eddy current losses are given by
We=KBmax2 f2 V2t2 watts --- (1.28)
Where Bmax=maximum flux density in ‘Wb/m ’ or ‘Tesla’
2

K=proportional constant
t= thickness of each lamination in ‘m’
V=volume of the core material in ‘m3’
f= frequency of magnetic reversals in ‘Hz’
In order to reduce these losses, the armature core is built up of thin
laminations insulated from each other by a thin layer of varnish.
(iii) Mechanical losses
The losses associated with mechanical friction of the machine are called
mechanical losses. These losses occur due to friction in the moving parts of the
machine-like bearing, brushes etc. and windage losses occur due to the air inside
the rotating coil of the machine.
(a) Friction losses: E.g bearing friction and brush friction
(b) Wind age losses: E.g air friction of rotating armature
These losses depend upon the speed of the machine. But for a given speed, they
are practically constant.
Stray losses
Magnetic and mechanical losses are collectively known as stray losses.
i.e., stray losses = magnetic losses + mechanical losses --- (1.29)
Constant Losses (Wc)
For shunt and compound generators field copper losses are constant and stray
losses are also constant. Hence field copper losses and stray losses combinedly
called as constant losses.
i.e., constant losses = Field copper losses + stray losses --- (1.30)
Therefore, for shunt and compound generators
Total losses = Wc + armature copper losses --- (1.31)
1.17 Power flow diagram of a DC machine
The most convenient method to understand these losses in a dc generator
or a DC motor is using the power flow diagram. The diagram visualizes the
amount of power that has been lost in various types of losses and the amount of
Dr. Ramana Pilla, Professor, Department of EEE, GMRIT-Rajam Page 45
power which has been converted into the output. Following are the typical power
flow diagrams for a DC generator and a DC motor.
Case-1: For DC generator
The various power stages in the case of a DC generator are shown below:

Figure (1.42): Power flow diagram of a DC generator

The following three types of efficiencies can be determined for a DC generator
(i) Mechanical efficiency
B electrical power developed in armature Eg I a
m   
A mechanical power input BHP  735.5
(ii) Electrical efficiency
C Electrical power output VI
e   
B Electrical power developed in armature Eg I a
(iii) Overall or commercial efficiency
C Electrical power output VI
c      m  e
A Mechanical power input BHP  735.5
It is obvious that overall efficiency is the product of mechanical and electrical
efficiencies. For good generators, its value may be as high as 95%.
Case-2: For DC Motor
The various power stages in the case of a DC motor are shown below:

Figure (6.3): Power flow diagram of a DC motor

The following three types of efficiencies can be determined for a DC motor
(i) Electrical efficiency
B Driving power in the armature Eb I a
e   
A Electrical input power VI
(i) Mechanical efficiency
C Mechanical power output BHP  735.5
m   
B Driving power in the armature Eb I a
(iii) Overall or commercial efficiency
C mechanical power output BHP  735.5
c      m  e
A electrical power input VI

1.18 Condition for maximum efficiency

Condition for maximum efficiency for DC generator or DC motor is same.
For DC generator the condition for maximum efficiency is derived as follows:
Generator output = VIL
Generator input = Generator output + total losses
= VIL+WC + Ia2Ra --- (1.32)
For shunt generator Ia = IL + ISh = IL = I
Dr. Ramana Pilla, Professor, Department of EEE, GMRIT-Rajam Page 46
 power output VI 1
Efficiency,    
power input VI  WC  I a Ra 1  ( IRa  WC )
2

V VI
To get the maximum efficiency, the denominator should be minimum.
 IRa WC 
d
i.e., 1  V  VI   0
 dI 
R W 1
 a  C . 2 0
V V I
 I R  WC
2
--- (1.33)
Hence, the efficiency of a DC machine is maximum when the variable losses are
equal to constant losses.
The load current corresponding to maximum efficiency is given by
WC
I 2 Ra  WC  I  --- (1.34)
Ra
Thus, the efficiency increases with increase in load current, reaches a maximum
value when load current equals to the value given by eqn.(6.8) and then starts
decreasing.
Solved Problem-24: A 230V DC shunt generator has a full load current of 150A.
Its armature and field resistances are 0.1 Ω are 230 Ω respectively. The stray
losses are 1500W. Find the (i) prime mover output in kW, when the generator is on
full load, (ii) full load efficiency, and (iii) load current at which generator efficiency
is maximum.
Solution: Given that
Terminal voltage, V = 230V
Load current, IL = 150A
Armature resistance, Ra = 0.1 
Field resistance, Rsh = 230 
Stray losses = 1500W
V 230
Shunt field current, I sh    1A
Rsh 230
Armature current, I a  I L  I sh  150  1  151A
Armature copper losses  I a2 Ra  1512  0.1  2280W
Shunt field copper losses  I sh2 Rsh  12  230  230W
Total losses  WC  Armature copper losses
 Stray losses  I sh2 Rsh  I a2 Ra
 1500  230  2280  4010W
Generator output= VI L  230 150  34500W
(i) Prime mover o/p = Generator i/p
= Generator o/p +total losses
= 34500 + 4010 =38510W=38.51kW
generator o / p 34500
(ii) Full load efficiency,  gen.  100 = 100  89.6%
generator i / p 38510
(iii) Load current corresponding to max. efficiency
Wc 1500  230
I  .
 131.5 A
Ra 01
Solved Problem-25: The shunt generator delivers full load current of 200A at
240V. The shunt field resistance is 60 Ω and full load efficiency is 90%. The stray
losses are 800W. Find (i) armature resistance, and (ii) current at which the
maximum efficiency occurs.
Solution: Given that

Dr. Ramana Pilla, Professor, Department of EEE, GMRIT-Rajam Page 47

 Terminal voltage, V = 240V
Full load current, IL=200A
Field resistance Rsh = 60 
Full load efficiency,  = 90%
Stray losses = 800W
V 240
Shunt filed current, I sh =   4A
Rsh 60
Armature current, I a = I L  I sh = 200+ 4=204A
shunt field copper losses= I sh 2 Rsh = 42  60  960W
Generator output, VIL= 240×200 =48000W= 48 kW
generator output 48000
Generator input = =  53.333 kW
efficiency 0.9
Total losses = Generator i/p – Generator o/p =53.333-48=5.333 kW
(i) Constant losses, Wc = shunt
field copper losses + stray losses = 960+800 = 1760W
 Total losses = Wc + I a 2 Ra
5333= 1760 + I a 2 Ra
5333  1760
 Ra = 2
 0.0858
204
(ii) Load current corresponding to maximum efficiency
Wc 1760
I   143.18 A
Ra 0.0858
Solved Problem-26: A 100 kW, 460V, DC shunt generator has armature
resistance of 0.11 Ω and shunt field resistance of 170 Ω. The iron, friction and
windage losses equal to 3260W. Calculate the efficiency of the generator
at half full load.
Solution: Given that
Output power, PL =100 kW
Terminal voltage, V= 460V
Armature resistance, Ra=0.11 
Stray losses = 3260 W
PL 100 103
Load current, I L    217.4
V 460
V 460
shunt field current, I sh    2.7 A
Rsh 170
217.4
I L at half full load   108.7 A
2
I a at half full load  108.7  2.7 =111.4A
Armature copper losses at half full load = I a 2 Ra = 111.42  0.11  1365W
Shunt field copper losses at half full load= I sh 2 Rsh = 2.7 2 170  1239.3W
Total copper losses at half full load =1365+1239.3=2604.3W
Total losses at half full load = stray losses + copper losses at half full load
=3260 +2604.3 = 5864.3W
100
Output at half full load =  50kW
2
Efficiency at half full load,
power output 50
1  100 = 100  89.5%
2
FL power output  losses 50  5.864

Dr. Ramana Pilla, Professor, Department of EEE, GMRIT-Rajam Page 48

 Solved Problem-27: A DC shunt motor working on 500 V supply takes 5 A on no-
load. Its armature and shunt field resistance are 0.2 Ω and 250 Ω respectively.
Find the efficiency of the motor when taking 80 A on full-load.
Solution: Given that
Terminal voltage, V= 500V
No-load current, IL0=5A
Armature resistance, Ra=0.2 
Shunt field resistance, Rsh=250 
V 500
Shunt field current, I sh    2A
Rsh 250
At no-lad:
No-load armature current, I a 0  I L 0  I sh  5  2  3 A
No-load armature copper losses = I a 0 2 Ra = 32  0.2  1.8W
Shunt field copper losses = I sh 2 Rsh = 22  250  1000W
Motor input=VIL0=500×5=2500W
Assume that the losses will be constant at all the loads
 Constant losses, Wc  2500 1000 1.8  1498.2W
On-load:
Load current, IL=80A
Armature current, I a  I L  I sh  80  2  78 A
Armature copper losses = I a 2 Ra = 782  0.2  1216.8W
Total losses= constant losses +armature copper losses =1498.2 +1216.8 = 2715W
Motor input=VIL=500×80=40000W
power input  losses 40000  2715
Motor efficiency,motor  100  100  93.2%
power input 40000

1.19 Applications of DC Generators

The various applications of DC generators are as listed below:
S.No Type of generator Applications Examples
1. Separately excited Used for speed control of DC Ward-Lenord system of
generator motors over a wide range. speed control, electro
Widely used where wide range plating
of terminal voltage is required.
2. Shunt generators Used as exciters for supplying Battery charging, excitation
the current required to excite of alternators, in the
the field of AC generators. process of electro-plating
etc.
3. Series generator Used as boosters to Series arc lighting, series
compensate drop in the DC incandescent lighting, DC
distribution systems. locomotives etc.
4. Compound Flat compound generators are Railway circuits, arc
generator used where constant voltage is welding sets, elevator
required for different loading motors, incandescent
conditions. lamps etc.
Over compound generators are
used to compensate drop in
feeders.

Review Questions
1. Explain basic principle of operation of a DC generator.
2. Explain the construction details of DC machine.
3. Classify DC Generators based on field excitation with neat diagrams.

Dr. Ramana Pilla, Professor, Department of EEE, GMRIT-Rajam Page 49

 4. Draw the schematic diagram of a DC series generator and also write the e.m.f.
equation.
5. Define armature reaction in DC machine and explain with schematic diagram.
6. Describe the effects of armature reaction on the operation of DC generator.
7. Explain different types of armature windings.
8. Differentiate lap and wave windings in a DC machine.
9. Derive the e.m.f. equation of a DC generator.
10. How the cross-magnetizing and demagnetizing ampere turns/pole in a DC
machine are calculated?
11. Briefly explain the process of commutation in a DC generator.
12. What is the function of compensating winding in a DC machine?
13. Explain the differences between lap and windings.
14. Derive the expressions for de-magnetizing and cross-magnetizing ATs per pole
in case the brushes are given a lead of θ degrees from GNA in case of
generator.
15. What is armature reaction and what are its adverse effects on the operation of
a DC machine?
16. Define commutation and explain different methods of improving commutation
in DC machine.
17. What is the purpose of interpoles in a DC generator?
18. Differentiate between demagnetization and cross magnetization conductor.
19. State the causes of sparking at brush of a DC generator.
20. List different losses in a DC motor, and sate which are variable losses.
21. Explain different losses and power stages in a DC motor.
22. Draw and explain the power flow diagram of a DC motor.
23. Explain what is meant by core losses in a DC motor.
24. Explain the terms (a) Hysteresis losses, (b) eddy current losses, and (c) stray
losses in a DC motor.
25. Explain friction and windage losses in a DC motor.
Exercise problems
1. A 2-pole lap wound generator has 200 conductors on armature. It is driven by
prime mover at a constant speed of 600rpm. If the flux per pole is 0 .1Wb,
calculate the generated e.m.f.? [Ans: Eg=200V]
2. A 4 pole DC generator with wave wound armature he 51 slots containing
20 conductors per slot. The voltage induced is 357V and the speed is 1500
rpm. Calculate the flux per pole? [Ans: Φ =7 mWb]
3. The armature of a 4 pole DC generator has a wave wind containing 650
conductors. Calculate the generated e.m.f. when the flux per pole is 0.055 Wb
and the speed is 300 rpm. Calculate the speed at which the armature must be
driven to generate an e.m.f 550 V, if the flux per pole is reduced
to 0.05 Wb. [Ans: Eg=536.52V, N=339 rpm]
4. A DC generator has an armature e.m.f if 100 V when the useful flux per pole is
0.02 Wb and the speed is 800 rpm. Calculate the generated e.m.f (a) with the
same flux and a speed of 100rpm (b) with the flux per pole of
0.024mWb and a speed of 900 rpm.[Ans: (a) Eg =125, (b) Eg =135V]
5. A separately excited DC generator with constant excitation is connected to a
constant load. When the speed is 1200rpm, it delivers 120A at 500V. At what
speed will the current be reduced to 60A? Armature resistance is
0.1  .Armature reaction may be ignored.[Ans: N2  600rpm ]
6. A series generator delivers a current of 100A at 250V. Its armature and series
field resistances are 0.1  and 0.055  respectively. Find (a) Armature current,
and (b) Generated e.m.f [Ans: (a) I a =100A, (b) Eg =265.5V]
7. A 6-pole DC generator rune at 850rpm and each pole has a flux of 12 mWb. If
there are 150 conductors in series between each pair of brushes, what is the
value of generated e.m.f.? [Ans: Eg =153V]

Dr. Ramana Pilla, Professor, Department of EEE, GMRIT-Rajam Page 50

8. A 400V, DC compound generator has an armature series field and shunt field
resistance of 0.5  , 1  and 200  respectively. Calculate the generated voltage
while delivering 40A to external circuit for both long shunt and short shunt
corrections. [Ans: 503.3V, 501.2V]
9. A short shunt DC compound generated supplies 7.5kW at 220V. The shunt field,
series field and armature resistances are 100  , 0.4  and 0.6  respectively.
Calculate the induced e.m.f. [Ans: Eg =255.5V]
10. A shunt generator has full load current of 195A at 250V. The stray losses are
720W and the shunt field resistance is 50  , it has full load efficiency of 90 %.
Find the armature resistance and current correspond to maximum efficiency?
[Ans: Ra =0.0862  , I 2 =151.2A]
11. A 200V shunt generator supplies a load current of 120A at the rated speed of
800rpm. The armature and shunt field resistances are 0.02  and
110  respectively. If the efficiency of the machine is 88%, then determine
(a) Armature and shunt field copper loss, (b) stray losses, and
(c) B.H.P of the prime mover.
[Ans: (a) 297.7W, 440W (b) 2862W (c)B.H.P=48.78 HP]
12. A series generator running at 1200rpm supplies a current of 200A at 250V on full
load. The armature, series field and inter pole resistances are 0 .1  , 0.03  and
0.02  respectively. If the stray losses of the machine are 4000W, find the
efficiency and torque exerted by the prime mover on full load.
[Ans: 83.33%, 477.3N-m]
13. A shunt generator delivers 195A at a terminal voltage of 250V. The armature and
shunt field resistances are 0.02  and 50  respectively. The iron and friction
losses equal to 950W. Find (i) E.M.F. generated, (ii) copper losses, and
(iii) commercial, mechanical, and electrical efficiencies
[Ans: (i) 254 (ii) 2050W (iii)94.2%, 98.16%, 96%]
14. The wave connected armature of a 2-pole, 200V generator has 400 conductors and
runs at 300rpm. Calculate the useful flux per pole. If the number of turns in each
coil is 1200, what is the average value of e.m.f. induced in each coil on breaking
the field if the flux dies away completely in 0.15second? [Ans: 0.1Wb, 800V]
15. Determine the number of conductors on each pole piece required in a
compensating winding for a 6-pole lap-wound dc armature containing 286
conductors. The compensating winding carries full armature current. Assume
ratio of pole arc/ pole pitch = 0.7. [Ans: 6]
16. For a given compound DC machine, Net field current obtained from characteristic
is equal to 7.5 A, where shunt field current is equal to 5 A, armature current is
505 A, demagnetizing current equal to 0.95 A and shunt field winding of 1000
turns at rated speed of 1000 rpm. What will be the series field turns? [Ans: N =7]
17. A 4-pole, 70 kW, 500 V, wave wound DC series generator has 620 armature
conductors. The brushes are given an actual lead of 8 mechanical degrees at full
load. Calculate demagnetizing ampere turns/pole and cross magnetizing ampere
turns/pole. Also determine the number of additional series turns required to
neutralize the demagnetizing effect. [Ans: ATd = 964; ATc = 4460; T =15]
18. Two shunt generators each with an armature resistance of 0.01Ω and field
resistance of 20 Ω run in parallel and supply a total load of 4000 A. The e.m.fs are
respectively 210 V and 220V. Calculate the bus-bar voltage and output of each
machine. [Ans: Vbus=184.9V, P1=462.25kW, P2=277.35kW]
19. Two shunt generators operating in parallel deliver a total current of 250 A. One of
the generators is rated 50kW and other 100kW. The voltage rating of each
machine is 500 V and have regulation of 6% and 4%. Assume linear
characteristics, determine (i) the current delivered by each machine, and (ii)
terminal voltage. [Ans: Vt=481.25V, I1=62.5 A, I2=187.5A]
20. The open-circuit characteristic of a separately excited DC generator driven at 1000
rpm is as follows:
Field current, A 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6
E.M.F, V 30 55 75 90 100 110 115 120
Dr. Ramana Pilla, Professor, Department of EEE, GMRIT-Rajam Page 51
 If the machine is connected as shunt generator and driven at 1,000 rpm and
has a field resistance of 100 Ω, find (i) open-circuit voltage and exciting current,
(ii) the critical resistance and (iii) resistance to induce 115 volts on open circuit
[Ans: (i) 100V, 1A (ii)150Ω, (iii)82.1 Ω]
21. The magnetization characteristic for a 4pole, 110V, 1000 rpm shunt generator
is as follows:
Field current, A 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
OC voltage, V 5 50 85 102 112 116 120
Armature is lap-connected with 144 conductors and field resistance is 45Ω.
Determine (i) voltage the machine will build up at no-load, (ii) the critical
resistance, (iii) the speed at which the machine just fails to excite, and (iv)
residual flux per pole. [Ans: (i) 118V, (ii)100Ω, (iii)445rpm (iv)2.08mWb]
22. The OCC of a DC generator driven at 400 rpm is as follows:
Field current, A 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Voltage, V 110 155 186 212 230 246 260 271
Find (i) voltage to which the machine will excite when run as a shunt generator
at 400 rpm with shunt field resistance equal to 34 Ω, (ii) resistance of shunt
circuit to reduce the OC voltage to 220 V, (iii) critical value of the shunt field
circuit resistance, and (iv) the critical speed when the field circuit resistance is
34 Ω. [Ans: (i) 255V, (ii)40.7Ω, (iii)62.2 Ω (iv)218rpm]
23. Two shunt generators are running in parallel has a no-load voltage of 250 V
and has an external characteristics straight line over their operating ranges.
Generator 1 is rated at 300 kW and its full load voltage is 220 V. Generator 2 is
rated at 250 kW and its full load voltage is 214 V. Determine the bus-bar
voltage when the total load is 4000 A and output current of each generator.
[Ans: Vt=202.25V, I1=2360.7A, I2=1639.3A]
24. From magnetization characteristic at If = 7.1 A, Ea = 225 V at 1000 rpm. What
will be the terminal voltage at speed 950 rpm? [Ans: 214V]
25. A 250 volts DC motors takes 4 A on no-load. Find its efficiency, when it
delivers a line current of 60 A on full load and run as a generator. The
armature and field resistance and 0.3Ω and 250 Ω respectively
[Ans:84.73%]
26. A 500V shunt motor takes 4A on no load. The armature resistance including
that of brushes is 0.2 and the field current is 7A. Estimate the output and
efficiency when input current is (a)20A, and (b)100A [Ans: (a)79.3%(b)92.1%]
27. A 4 pole, 250V, wave-connected DC shunt motor gives 10kW, when running at
1000r.p.m and drawing armature and field currents of 60A and 1A
respectively. It has 560 conductors. Its armature resistance is 0.2 Ω. Assume a
drop of 1V per brush, determine (a) total torque;(b) useful torque; (c) useful
flux per pole (d) rotational losses (e) efficiency
[Ans:(a)135.22 N-m. (b)95.49N-m (c) 0.0126 Wb (d) 4160 W (e) 65.57%]

Dr. Ramana Pilla, Professor, Department of EEE, GMRIT-Rajam Page 52