CV-212: MECHANICS OF SOLIDS-II

Lecture 09
STRESS AND STRAIN
TRANSFORMATION

Courtesy of:
PROF. DR. MOHAMMAD ASHRAF
ELASTIC CONSTANTS
Relation between 𝐺, 𝐸 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜗: The relation between modulus of rigidity (G), modulus of elasticity (E) and Poisson’s ratio (𝜗)
can be obtained by considering a pure state of stress as shown in the figure. The principle stresses corresponding to this
state of stress are:
𝜎1 = 𝜏 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜎2 = −𝜏
The shearing strain and principal strains corresponding to this state of stress are given by:
𝜏
𝛾=
𝐺
1 1 𝜏
𝜀1 = 𝜎1 − 𝜗𝜎2 = 𝜏 − 𝜗 −𝜏 = 1+𝜗
𝐸 𝐸 𝐸
1 1 𝜏
𝜀2 = 𝜎2 − 𝜗𝜎1 = −𝜏 − 𝜗 𝜏 = − 1 + 𝜗
𝐸 𝐸 𝐸
𝛾𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝛾 𝜀1 − 𝜀2
As we know that: = =
2 2 2
𝜏 1 𝜏 𝜏 𝜏
= 1+𝜗 − − 1+𝜗 = 1+𝜗
2𝐺 2 𝐸 𝐸 𝐸
𝐸
⇒𝐺= −− −(𝑎)
2 1+𝜗
ELASTIC CONSTANTS
Volumetric Strain or Dilatation: When an elastic material is subjected to normal stress, the strains
that are produced will cause its volume to change. The change in volume per unit differential volume is
known as volumetric strain or dilatation denoted by “e”. 𝑒 = 𝛿𝑉/𝑑𝑉
Consider a three dimensional principle state of stress as shown in the figure. The principle strains are
given by:
1
𝜀1 = 𝜎1 − 𝜗 𝜎2 + 𝜎3
𝐸
1
𝜀2 = 𝜎2 − 𝜗 𝜎1 + 𝜎3
𝐸
1
𝜀3 = 𝜎3 − 𝜗 𝜎1 + 𝜎2
𝐸
The length of each side of the differential stress element, after application of stresses are:
𝑑𝑥 ′ = 1 + 𝜀1 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 ′ = 1 + 𝜀2 𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑧 ′ = 1 + 𝜀3 𝑑𝑧
ELASTIC CONSTANTS
Volumetric Strain or Dilatation: The change in volume is:
𝛿𝑉 = 𝑑𝑥 ′ 𝑑𝑦 ′ 𝑑𝑧 ′ − 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
𝛿𝑉 = 1 + 𝜀1 1 + 𝜀2 1 + 𝜀3 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 − 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
𝛿𝑉 = 1 + 𝜀1 + 𝜀2 + 𝜀1 𝜀2 + 𝜀3 + 𝜀1 𝜀3 + 𝜀2 𝜀3 + 𝜀1 𝜀2 𝜀2 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 − 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
As strain is a small quantity, the product of two or three small quantities may be neglected.
𝛿𝑉 = 1 + 𝜀1 + 𝜀2 + 𝜀3 − 1 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
𝛿𝑉
𝛿𝑉 = 𝜀1 + 𝜀2 + 𝜀3 𝑑𝑉 ⇒ 𝑒 = = 𝜀1 + 𝜀2 + 𝜀3 −−− −(𝑏)
𝑑𝑉
Thus dilatation is equal to sum of the linear strains.
Using the stress-strain relations, the volumetric strain may be written as:
𝛿𝑉 1 1 1
𝑒= = 𝜎 − 𝜗 𝜎2 + 𝜎3 + 𝜎 − 𝜗 𝜎1 + 𝜎3 + 𝜎 − 𝜗 𝜎1 + 𝜎2
𝑑𝑉 𝐸 1 𝐸 2 𝐸 3
1 − 2𝜗
𝑒= 𝜎1 + 𝜎2 + 𝜎3 −− −(𝑐)
𝐸
ELASTIC CONSTANTS
Bulk Modulus or Volume Modulus of Elasticity: For a hydro-static state of stress, the ratio of hydro-
static stress (𝜎) to volumetric strain (e) is known as bulk modulus denoted by k.
𝜎
𝑘=
𝑒
For hydro-static state od stress:
𝜎1 = 𝜎2 = 𝜎3 = 𝜎
1 − 2𝜗 1 − 2𝜗
𝑒= 𝜎+𝜎+𝜎 = 3𝜎
𝐸 𝐸
𝜎 𝐸
𝑘= = −− −(𝑑)
𝑒 3 1 − 2𝜗
For most metal 𝜗 = 1/3, therefore 𝑘 = 𝐸, i.e the bulk modulus is equal to the modulus of elasticity of the
material.
If we assume that the material did not change its volume i.e. 𝛿𝑉 = 0, then 𝑒 = 0 and k would be infinite.
As a result, Eq. d would then indicate the theoretical maximum value for Poisson’s ratio to be 𝜗 = 0.5
ELASTIC CONSTANTS
Example 2.1:If the rectangular block length a = 4.0-inch, width, b = 2.0-inch and height, c = 3.0-inch is
subjected to a uniform pressure of p = 20 psi, determine the dilatation, bulk modulus and the change in
length of each side. Take E = 600 psi, υ = 0.45.
Solution: For the given block, the hydro-static stress is:
𝜎1 = 𝜎2 = 𝜎3 = 𝜎 = −20 𝑝𝑠𝑖
The dilatation is:
1 − 2𝜗 1 − 2𝜗 1 − 2 0.45
𝑒= 𝜎1 + 𝜎2 + 𝜎3 = 3𝜎 = 3 −20 = −0.01
𝐸 𝐸 600
The bulk modulus (k) is:
𝐸 600
𝑘= = = 2000 𝑝𝑠𝑖
3 1 − 2𝜗 3 1 − 2 0.45
Now the hydro-static strain is:
1 𝜎 −20
𝜀 = 𝜎−𝜗 𝜎+𝜎 = 1 − 2𝜗 = 1 − 2 0.45 = −0.00333
𝐸 𝐸 600
ELASTIC CONSTANTS
Example 2.1:
Now the change in length of each side is:
𝛿𝑎 = 𝜀𝑎 = −0.00333 4 = −0.01333 𝑖𝑛
𝛿𝑏 = 𝜀𝑏 = −0.00333 2 = −0.00667 𝑖𝑛
𝛿𝑐 = 𝜀𝑐 = −0.00333 3 = −0.01000 𝑖𝑛
The negative signs indicate that each dimension is decreased
ELASTIC STRAIN ENERGY
When an elastic body is subjected to external loads, stresses and strains are induced in the body. The energy stored
in an elastic body due to the straining motion is known as elastic strain energy.
For a uniaxially loaded bar, if a graph is drawn between the deformation produced (𝛿𝐿) and the internal load (P),
then the strain energy is the area under curve given by:
1
𝑈 = 𝑃 𝛿𝐿
2
Now for uniform stress, 𝑃 = 𝜎𝐴 and 𝛿𝐿 = 𝜀𝐿
1 1
𝑈 = 𝜎𝐴 𝜀𝐿 = 𝜎𝜀 𝐴𝐿
2 2
The elastic strain energy per unit volume is:
1
𝑈/ 𝐴𝐿 = 𝜎𝜀
2
Thus area under stress-strain curve gives strain energy per unit volume known as strain energy density. Now using
Hook’s law:
𝑈 1 1 𝜎 𝜎2
𝑢= = 𝜎𝜀 = 𝜎 =
𝑑𝑉 2 2 𝐸 2𝐸
ELASTIC STRAIN ENERGY
Total Strain Energy: For a 3D state of stress subjected to principal stresses 𝜎1 , 𝜎2 and 𝜎3 , the total elastic strain
energy per unit volume is:
1
𝑢𝑇 = 𝜎 𝜀 + 𝜎2 𝜀2 + 𝜎3 𝜀3
2 1 1
1 2 1 2 1 2
𝑢𝑇 = 𝜎 − 𝜗 𝜎1 𝜎2 + 𝜎1 𝜎3 + 𝜎 − 𝜗 𝜎1 𝜎2 + 𝜎2 𝜎3 + 𝜎 − 𝜗 𝜎1 𝜎3 + 𝜎2 𝜎3
2𝐸 1 2𝐸 2 2𝐸 3
1 2
𝑢𝑇 = 𝜎1 + 𝜎22 + 𝜎32 − 2𝜗 𝜎1 𝜎2 + 𝜎2 𝜎3 + 𝜎1 𝜎3
2𝐸
The total strain energy may be divided in to two components; energy associated with volumetric changes and
energy associated with shear distortion.

Dilatation Strain Energy: The energy associated with volume changes may be obtained by subjecting the stress
element to an average stress, 𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑒 = 𝜎1 + 𝜎2 + 𝜎3 /3 in all tree directions:
1 2 2 + 𝜎 2 − 2𝜗 𝜎
3 1 − 2𝜗 2
𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑒 + 𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑒 + 𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑒 + 𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑒 = 𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑒
2𝐸 2𝐸
1 − 2𝜗
𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝜎1 + 𝜎2 + 𝜎3 2
6𝐸
ELASTIC STRAIN ENERGY
Distortion Energy: The energy associated with shear strain is known as distortion strain energy. For a 3D state of stress, the
maximum in-plane shearing stresses are:
𝜎1 − 𝜎2 𝜎2 − 𝜎3 𝜎3 − 𝜎1
𝜏12 = , 𝜏23 = and 𝜏31 =
2 2 2
1 1 𝜏12 𝜏23 𝜏31
𝑢𝑑 = 𝜏12 𝛾12 + 𝜏23 𝛾23 + 𝜏31 𝛾31 = 𝜏12 + 𝜏23 + 𝜏31
2 2 𝐺 𝐺 𝐺
1 1 𝜎1 − 𝜎2 2 𝜎2 − 𝜎3 2 𝜎3 − 𝜎1 2
2 2 2
𝑢𝑑 = 𝜏 + 𝜏23 + 𝜏31 = + +
2𝐺 12 2𝐺 2 2 2
1
𝑢𝑑 = 𝜎1 2 + 𝜎2 2 − 2 𝜎1 𝜎2 + 𝜎2 2 + 𝜎3 2 − 2 𝜎2 𝜎3 + 𝜎3 2
+ 𝜎1 2
− 2 𝜎3 𝜎1
8𝐺
1
𝑢𝑑 = 2 𝜎1 2 + 2 𝜎2 2 + 2 𝜎3 2 − 2 𝜎1 𝜎2 − 2 𝜎2 𝜎3 − 2 𝜎3 𝜎1
8𝐺
1
𝑢𝑑 = 𝜎1 2 + 𝜎2 2 + 𝜎3 2 − 𝜎1 𝜎2 − 𝜎2 𝜎3 − 𝜎3 𝜎1
4𝐺
1
For 2D state of stress, 𝜎3 = 0, 𝑢𝑑 = 𝜎1 2 + 𝜎2 2 − 𝜎1 𝜎2
4𝐺
𝜎1 2
For uniaxial state of stress, 𝜎2 = 0, 𝑢𝑑 =
4𝐺
THEORIES OF FAILURE
• When an engineer is faced with the problem of design using a specific material, it becomes important to place an
upper limit on the state of stress that defines the material’s failure.
• If the material is ductile, failure is usually specified by the initiation of yielding, whereas if the material is brittle, it
is specified by fracture.
• These modes of failure are readily defined if the member is subjected to a uniaxial state of stress, as in the case of
simple tension. However, if the member is subjected to biaxial or triaxial stress, the criterion for failure becomes
more difficult to establish.
• Various theories of failure exist which relates the test results performed in uniaxial direction to biaxial and triaxial
state of stress.
• No single theory, however, can be applied to a specific material at all times. This is because the material may
behave in either a ductile or brittle manner depending on the temperature, rate of loading, chemical environment,
or the way the material is shaped or formed.
• When using a particular theory of failure, it is first necessary to calculate the normal and shear stress at points
where they are the largest in the member.
• Once this state of stress is established, the principal stresses at these critical points must then be determined,
since each of the theories is based on knowing the principal stress.
THEORIES OF FAILURE
Maximum Shear-Stress (Guest’s) Theory: This theory results from the observation that in a ductile
material slip occurs during yielding along critically oriented planes. This suggests that the maximum shear
stress plays the key role, and it is assumed that yielding of the material depends only on the maximum
shear stress that is attained with in an element.
In a simple tension test, the critical shear strength at yielding of the specimen is equal to half of the yield
strength of the material.
𝜎𝑦𝑝
𝜏𝑐𝑟 =
2
For 2D state of stress the absolute maximum shear stress is given by:

𝜎1 − 𝜎2
2
𝜎1
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
2
𝜎2
2
According to this theory,
Failure commences when maximum shear stress in a body reaches the maximum shear stress at yielding of the
specimen in a simple tension test.
THEORIES OF FAILURE
Maximum Shear-Stress Theory:
𝜎1 − 𝜎2 𝜎𝑦𝑝 𝜎1 − 𝜎2 𝜎𝑦𝑝 𝜎1 𝜎2
≤ ⇒ ≤± ⇒ − ≤ ±1 −−− − 1
2 2 2 2 𝜎𝑦𝑝 𝜎𝑦𝑝
𝜎1 𝜎𝑦𝑝 𝜎1 𝜎𝑦𝑝 𝜎1
≤ ⇒ ≤± ⇒ ≤ ±1 −−− − 2
2 2 2 2 𝜎𝑦𝑝
𝜎2 𝜎𝑦𝑝 𝜎2 𝜎𝑦𝑝 𝜎2
≤ ⇒ ≤± ⇒ ≤ ±1 −−− − 3
2 2 2 2 𝜎𝑦𝑝

Eq. (1), (2) and (3) should be satisfied to avoid shear failure in a ductile material.

At yielding:
𝜎1 𝜎2
− = ±1 −−− − 4
𝜎𝑦𝑝 𝜎𝑦𝑝
𝜎1
= ±1 −−− − 5
𝜎𝑦𝑝
𝜎2
= ±1 −−− − 6
𝜎𝑦𝑝

A plot of the above equations gives yield criteria based on maximum shear stress. Any point lying inside the closed figure is safe
condition while the boundary of closed shape and its outside area belong to failure condition.
THEORIES OF FAILURE
Maximum Distortion-Energy (Mises Yield) Theory: This theory is also applicable to ductile materials and is based on the distortion
energy stored in a stress element due to shear deformation. According to this theory:
Failure commences when the distortion energy in a body reaches the distortion energy at yielding of the specimen in a simple tension
test.
The distortion energy at yielding of specimen in a simple tension test is given by:
2
𝜎1 2 𝜎𝑦𝑝
𝑢𝑑 = =
4𝐺 4𝐺
For two dimensional state of stress, the distortion energy is:
1 2 2
𝑢𝑑 = 𝜎 + 𝜎2 − 𝜎1 𝜎2
4𝐺 1
At the commencement of failure:
2
1 2 2
𝜎𝑦𝑝
𝜎 + 𝜎2 − 𝜎1 𝜎2 =
4𝐺 1 4𝐺
2 2
𝜎1 𝜎2 𝜎1 𝜎2
⇒ + − =1
𝜎𝑦𝑝 𝜎𝑦𝑝 𝜎𝑦𝑝 𝜎𝑦𝑝
This is equation of an ellipse , a plot of which is shown in the figure.
THEORIES OF FAILURE
Comparison of Maximum Shear Stress and Distortion Energy Theories:

As the maximum shear stress theory is based on the absolute maximum shear
stress produced in a body and the distortion energy theory is based on the energy
associated with shear deformation which is a function of both shear stress and
shear strain, the difference between the two theories is not large.

Comparison of the two theories is shown in the figure.

Maximum shear stress theory is more conservative than the other. Any condition
which is which is safe according to maximum shear stress theory will be safe
against distortion theory.

The large discrepancy occurs when two principle stresses are equal but of opposite
sign (the case of pure torsion). The maximum shear stress theory limit the stress to
𝜎𝑦𝑝 /2 = 0.5𝜎𝑦𝑝 while the distortion theory limit the stress to 𝜎𝑦𝑝 / 3 = 0.557𝜎𝑦𝑝
THEORIES OF FAILURE
Maximum Normal Stress Theory:
Brittle materials, such as gray cast iron, tend to fail suddenly by fracture with no apparent
yielding. In a tension test, the fracture occurs when the normal stress reaches the ultimate
strength of the material. Experiments on brittle material have shown that the ultimate stress at
fracture of a brittle material is only slightly affected by the presence of orthogonal stress.
The maximum normal stress theory was proposed by W. Rankine in mid 1800s which states that:
When a brittle material is subjected to a multiaxial state of stress, the material will fail when a
principal stress in the material reaches a value that is equal to the ultimate normal strength of the
material in a simple tension test.
Mathematically:
𝜎1
𝜎1 ≤ ±𝜎𝑦𝑝 ⇒ ≤ ±1.0
𝜎𝑦𝑝
𝜎2
𝜎2 ≤ ±𝜎𝑦𝑝 ⇒ ≤ ±1.0
𝜎𝑦𝑝
A plot of the above equations is shown in the figure.
THEORIES OF FAILURE
The Maximum Strain Theory:
This theory, which is based on principle strain instead of principle stress, was proposed by French Elasticin B. d.
Saint Venant (1797-1886). However, experimental evidence does not corroborate with this theory. According to this
theory:
A ductile material begins to yield when the maximum principle strain reaches the strain in which yielding occurs in
simple tension test.
For two dimensional state of stress, principle strains are given by:
1 1 −𝜗
𝜀1 = 𝜎1 − 𝜗𝜎2 , 𝜀2 = 𝜎2 − 𝜗𝜎1 , 𝜀3 = 𝜎1 + 𝜎2
𝐸 𝐸 𝐸
𝜎𝑦𝑝
For simple tension test: 𝜀𝑦𝑝 =
𝐸
At yielding:
1 𝜎𝑦𝑝 𝜎1 𝜎2
𝜎1 − 𝜗𝜎2 = ± ⇒ −𝜗 = ±1
𝐸 𝐸 𝜎𝑦𝑝 𝜎𝑦𝑝
−𝜗 𝜎𝑦𝑝 𝜎1 𝜎2 1
𝜎1 + 𝜎2 = ⇒ + =−
𝐸 𝐸 𝜎𝑦𝑝 𝜎𝑦𝑝 𝜗
THEORIES OF FAILURE
Comparison of Yield and Fracture Criteria:
Comparison of some classical experimental results with
the yield and fracture criteria are shown in the figure.

Note the particularly good agreement between the

maximum distortion theory and experimental results of
ductile materials.
However, the maximum normal stress theory appears to
be best for brittle materials and can be unsafe for ductile
materials.
THEORIES OF FAILURE
Non-isotropic Materials:
The three theories discussed before are applicable to materials
having same strengths in both tension and compression.

Some materials such as rock, cast iron, concrete and soils have
drastically different strengths in tension and compression.
In 1885, Dagunet modify the maximum shear stress theory to
consider different strengths in tension and compression. A. A.
Griffith redefined the Dagunet theory by using the concept of
elastic strain energy.
Mohr’s Failure Criterion is based on three different experiments
performed on material; tension test, compression test and shear
test. Mohr’s Circles are drawn for each case and failure envelope
is obtained.
THEORIES OF FAILURE
THEORIES OF FAILURE
THEORIES OF FAILURE
THEORIES OF FAILURE