Hawassa University – Institute of Technology MEng 1063 - Strength of Materials 1

MEng 1081 – Strength of Materials

Chapter – 1
Basic Concepts of Stress

1.1 Introduction

Basic terms and Definitions:

Rigid Body: A rigid body is an idealization of a solid body of finite size in which deformation
is neglected. In other words, the distance between any two given points of a rigid body remains
constant in time regardless of external forces exerted on it

Deformable body: A deformable body is a physical body that deforms, meaning it changes its
shape or volume while being acted upon by an external force.

Elasticity: The property which enables a material to change its dimension, volume, or shape in
direct response to a force effecting such a change and to recover its original form upon the
removal of the force.

Elastic: If a material returns to its original size and shape on removal of load causing
deformation, it is said to be elastic. Elastic limit is the limit up to which the material is perfectly
elastic.

Elastic stress is the maximum stress or force per unit area within a solid material that can arise
before the onset of permanent deformation. When stresses up to the elastic limit are removed, the
material resumes its original size and shape. Stresses beyond the elastic limit cause a material to
yield or flow, for such materials the elastic limit mark the end of elastic behavior and the
beginning of plastic behavior.

 The strength of any material relies on the following three terms: Strength, Stiffness and
Stability.

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Strength means load carrying capacity, or it is the ability to withstand an applied stress without
failure. The applied stress may be tensile, compressive, or shear. Stiffness means resistance to
deformation or elongation, and Stability means ability to maintain its initial configuration.

Load
In any engineering structure or mechanism the individual components will be subjected to
external forces arising from the service conditions or environment in which the component
works. If the component or member is in equilibrium, the resultant of external forces will be zero
but, nevertheless, they together place a load on the member which tends to deform that member
and which must be reacted by internal forces which are set up within the material.
If a cylindrical bar is subjected to a direct pull or push along its axis as shown in the Fig. 1.1,
then it is said to be subjected to Tension or Compression. Typical example of tension are the
force present in towing ropes or lifting hoists, while compression occurs in the legs of your chair
as you sit on it.

Fig. 1.1 Tension and Compression

In the SI system of units load is measured in Newton, although a single Newton, in engineering
terms, is a very small load. In most engineering applications, therefore, loads appear in SI
multiples, i.e. Kilo-Newton (KN) or mega-Newton (MN).
There are a number of different ways in which load can be applied to a member.

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Types loads:
1. Dead loads: static in nature such as the self -weight of the roof.
2. Live loads: fluctuating in nature, does not remain constant such as a weight of a vehicle
moving on a bridge.
3. Tensile loads – Pulling load along its axis
4. Compressive loads – Pushing load along its axis
5. Shearing loads – Load acts parallel and to slide over a surface.
6. Impact or shock loads caused by sudden blows.
7. Fatigue, Fluctuating or alternating loads, the magnitude and sign of the load changing
with time.

Deflection due to condition of Loading.

Fig. 1.2 Deflection due to condition of Loading.

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1.2 Stress
Consider an element of continuous (no voids) and cohesive (no cracks, breaks and defects)
material subjected to a number of externally applied loads as shown in Fig. 1.3a). It is supposed
that the member is in equilibrium.

Fig. 1.3. External and internal forces in a structural member

If we now cut this body, the applied forces can be thought of as being distributed over the
cut area A as in Fig. 1.3b. Now if we look at infinitesimal regions ΔA, we assume the resultant
force in this infinitesimal area is ΔF. In fact, ΔF is also a distributed force. When ΔA is
extremely small, we can say that the distributed force ΔF is uniform. In other words, if we look
at the whole sectioned area, we can say that the entire area A is subject to an infinite number of
forces, where each one (of magnitude ΔF) acts over a small area of size ΔA. Now, we can define
stress:

Stress is a measure of the internal reaction between elementary particles of a material in

resisting separation, compaction, or sliding that tend to be induced by external forces.
Mathematically, it is expressed as the ratio of the load applied to the cross sectional area.

( )= =

Normal Stress and Shear Stress

The force is a vector that has both magnitude and direction. But in the stress definition,
we only consider the magnitude of the force. Obviously, this may easily confuse us. Let’s still
take patch ΔA as an example. As we can see, force ΔF is not perpendicular to the sectioned

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infinitesimal area ΔA. If we only take the magnitude of the force into account, apparently, the
stress may not reflect the real mechanical status at this point. In other words, we need to consider
both magnitude and direction of the force.
Now let’s resolve the force ΔF in normal and tangential direction of the acting area as Fig. 1.3b.
The intensity of the force or force per unit area acting normally to section A is called Normal
Stress, (sigma), and it is expressed as

If this stress “pulls” on the area it is referred as tensile Stress and defined as Positive. If it
“pushes” on the area it is called Compressive Stress and defined as Negative.
The intensity or force per unit area acting tangentially to A is called Shear Stress, η (tau), and it
is expressed as:

Double shear

Fig. 1.4 Shear

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Units of Stress

The units in the SI system is the Newton per square meter or Pascal, i.e.: Pa = N/m2
In engineering, Pa seems too small, so we usually use:
Kilo Pascal KPa (=Pa×103) e.g. 20,000Pa=20kPa
Mega Pascal MPa (=Pa×106) e.g. 20,000,000Pa=20MPa
Giga Pascal GPa (=Pa×109) e.g. 20,000,000,000Pa=20GPa

Problem 1.1:
An 80 kg lamp is supported by a single electrical copper cable of diameter d = 3.15 mm. What is
the stress carried by the cable.

To determine the stress in the wire/cable we need the cross sectional area A of the cable and the
applied internal force F:

× 0.003152
= = = 7.793 × 10
4 4
= = 80 × 9.81 = 78
So, = = = 100.6
. ×

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Allowable Stress
From Example 1.1, we may concern whether or not 80kg would be too heavy, or say 100.6MPa
stress would be too high for the wire/cable, from the safety point of view. Indeed, stress is one of
most important indicators of structural strength. When the stress (intensity of force) of an
element exceeds some level, the structure will fail. For convenience, we usually adopt allowable
force or allowable stress to measure the threshold of safety in engineering. Moreover, there are
following several reasons that we must take into account in engineering:
• The load for design may be different from the actual load
• Size of structural member may not be very precise due to manufacturing and assembly
• Various defects in material due to manufacturing processing.

One simple method to consider such uncertainties is to use a number called the Factor of Safety,
F.S., which is a ratio of failure load Ffail (found from experimental testing) divided by the
allowable one Fallow

. .=

If the applied load is linearly related to the stress developed in the member, as in the case of
using = F/A, then we can define the factor of safety as a ratio of the failure stress fail to the
allowable stress allow

Usually, the factor of safety is chosen to be greater than 1 in order to avoid the potential failure.
This is dependent on the specific design case. For nuclear power plant, the factor of safety for
some of its components may be as high as 3. For an aircraft design the higher the F.S, the heavier
the structure, therefore the higher in the operational cost. So we need to balance the safety and
cost.

Problem1.2:
In Problem 1.1, if the maximum allowable stress for copper is = 50 . determine the
minimum size of the wire/cable from the material strength point of view.

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Obviously, the lower the allowable stress, the bigger the cable size. Stress is an indication of
structural strength and elemental size.
In engineering, there are two significant problems associated with stress as follows.

Problem (1.1) Stress Analysis: for a specific structure, we can determine the stress level. With
the stress level, we then justify the safety and reliability of a structural member, i.e. known size
A and load F, to determine stress level: = F/ A.

Problem (1.2) Engineering Design: Inversely, we can design a structural member based on the
allowable stress so that it can satisfy the safety requirements, i.e. known material’s allowable
stress allow and load F, to design the element size: A ≥ F/ allow.

1.3 Strain

Deformation

Whenever a force is applied to a body, its shape and size will change. These changes are referred
as deformations. These deformations can be thought of being either positive (elongation) or
negative (contraction) in sign as shown in Fig. 1.5.

Fig. 1.5 Deformation due to applied axial forces

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It is however very hard to make a relative comparison between bodies or structures of different
size and length as their individual deformations will be different. This requires the development
of the concept of Strain, which relates the body’s deformation to its initial length.

Normal Strain
The elongation (+ve) or contraction (−ve) of a body per unit length is termed Strain.

Fig. 1.6 Generalized deformations due to applied forces

Let’s take the arbitrarily shaped body in Fig. 1.6 as an example. Consider the infinitesimal line
segment AB that is contained within the unreformed body as shown in Fig. 1.6(a). The line AB
lies along the n-axis and has an original length of ΔS. After deformation, points A and B are
displaced to A’ and B’ and in general the line becomes a curve having a length ΔS’ the change in
length of the line is therefore ΔS-ΔS’. We consequently define the generalized strain
mathematically as

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Average Normal Strain

If the stress in the body is everywhere constant, in other words, the deformation is uniform in the
material (e.g. uniform uniaxial tension or compression) as shown in Fig. 1.5, the strain can be
computed by:

Change in length ( )
Strain (ε) =
Original length ( )

i.e. the change in length of the body over its original length.

Unit of Strain
From the above equations of strain we can notice that the normal strain is a dimensionless

quantity since it is a ratio of two lengths. Although this is the case, it is common in practice to

state it in terms of a ratio of length units. i.e. meters per meter (m/m)

Usually, for most engineering applications ε is very small, so measurements of strain are in

micrometers per meter (µm/m) or (µ/m). Sometimes for experiment work, strain is expressed as a

percent, e.g. 0.001m/m = 0.1%.

A normal strain of 480µm for a one-meter length is said:

ε= 480×10-6 = 480(µm/m) = 0.0480% = 480µ (micros) = 480µs (micro strain)

Problem 1.3: In Problem 1.1, if it is measured that the cable was elongated by 1.35 mm due to

the weight of the light, what would its strain be?

Change in length ( )
Strain (ε) =
Original length ( )

0.00135
= = 900 × 10 = 900
1.5

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Types of Strain

1. Longitudinal or Linear Strain: Strain that changes the length of a line without
changing its direction. Can be either compressional or tensional.
2. Compression strain: Longitudinal strain that shortens an object.
3. Tension strain: Longitudinal strain that lengthens an object.
4. Shear strain: Strain that changes the angles of an object. Shear causes lines to
rotate.
5. Infinitesimal Strain: Strain that is tiny, a few percent or less. Allows a number of
useful mathematical simplifications and approximations.
6. Finite Strain: Strain larger than a few percent. Requires a more complicated
mathematical treatment than infinitesimal strain.

1.4 Stress-Strain relationship

Material Test and Stress-Strain Diagram

In order to compare the strengths of various materials it is necessary to carry out some
standard form of test to establish their relative properties. One such test is the standard
tensile test in which a circular bar of uniform cross section is subjected to a gradually
increasing tensile load until failure occurs. Measurements of the change in length of a
selected gauge length of the bar are recorded throughout the loading operation by means
of extensometers and a graph of load against extension or stress against strain is produced
as shown in Fig. 1.7.

The Stress-Strain diagram consists of 4 stages during the whole process, elastic, yielding,
hardening and necking stages respectively. From yielding stage, some permanent plastic
deformation occurs. About 90% of engineering problems only concern the elastic
deformation in structural members and mechanical components. Only 10% of
engineering work concerns plastic and other nonlinear stage (e.g. metal forming). In this

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subject, we are only involved in the linear elastic region, in which the relationship
between the strain and stress is linear.

Fig. 1.7 Material test and Stress-Strain Diagram

1.6 Elasticity and Hooke’s Law

Elasticity is the property which enables a material to change its dimension, volume, or
shape in direct response to a force effecting such a change and to recover its original form
upon the removal of the force.

Hooke’s Law: It states that providing the limit of proportionality of a material is not
exceeded, the stress is directly proportional to the strain produced. i.e., with in the elastic
limit, the stress is directly proportional to the strain. This stress-strain linear relationship
was discovered by Robert Hook. In fig.1.7 (stress-strain diagram), for the first part of the
test it will be observed that Hooke’s law is obeyed. i.e. the material behaves elastically
and stress is proportional to strain, giving the straight line graph indicated.

Hooke’s law, in its simplest form is therefore states that: stress ( ) is directly proportional
to strain (ε).

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i.e. = , this constant is called Modulus of Elasticity or Young’s modulus (E)

=Eε

Hooke’s law in shear

Within elastic limit its simplest form of Hooke’s law in shear states that shear stress (η) is
directly proportional to shear strain (ϕ).

Shear stain (ϕ) is the ratio of lateral displacement of a layer to its distance from the fixed
reference.

Fig. 1.8 Shear strain

= , this constant is called Modulus of rigidity or Shear modulus (G)

1.7 Young's Modules and Shear Modules

i. Modulus of Elasticity (or) Young’s modulus

Within the elastic limit of materials, i.e. within the limits in which Hooke’s law applies, it
has been shown that

= = = ×

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Young’s modulus E is generally assumed to be the same in tension or compression and

for most engineering materials has a high numerical value. E.g. E= 200 × 109 N/m2 for
Steel. The actual value of Young’s modulus for any material is normally determined by
carrying out a standard tensile test on a specimen of the material.

ii. Modulus of rigidity (or) Shear modulus

Shear modulus, G is the shear analog to Young's modulus: shear stress divided by shear
strain in an elastic material.

ℎ
= =
ℎ ∅

Bulk (or) Volume Modulus of Rigidity

It is defined as the ratio of normal stress (on each face of a solid cube) to volumetric
strain and is denoted by the letter K.

n
K
V
Volumetric strain:
It is defined as the ratio between change in volume and original volume of the body

change in volume  v
v  
Original volume V

Relation among the three Modules (E, G and K) and υ

Relation between E and G

E= 2G (1+υ)

Relation between E and K

E =3K (1-2υ)……………..proof

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1.8 Poisson’s ratio and relation between Modules

Poisson’s ratio (υ) is a measure of the amount by which a solid "spreads out sideways"
under the action of a load from above.

Consider the rectangular bar of Fig. 1.9 subjected to tensile load. Under the action of this
load the bar will increase in length by amount δL giving a longitudinal strain in the bar of

Fig. 1.9 –Three dimensional bar applied tensile force

The bar will also exhibit, however, a reduction in dimension laterally, i.e. its breadth and depth
will both reduce. The associated lateral strain will both be equal, will be of opposite sense to the
longitudinal strain, and will be given by:

= =

Providing the load on the material is retained within the elastic range the ratio of the lateral and
longitudinal strain will always be constant. This ratio is termed Poisson’s ratio.

−
Lateral Strain
Poisson’s ratio (ϑ) = =
Longitudnal Strain

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The negative sign of the lateral strain is normally ignored to leave the Poisson’s ratio
simply as a ratio of magnitude. It must be remembered, however, that the longitudinal
strain induces compressive lateral strain. For all materials 0≤ υ≤ 0.5, for rubber υ=0.5 and
For Cork (material used for a bottle stopper) υ=0

Strain in Lateral Direction

For bars subjected to a tensile stress ζx, the strains in the y and z planes are:

……………………..(*)

1.9 Thermal Stress

Thermal Deformation

When the temperature of a body is changed, its overall size will also change. In other
words, temperature change may cause the dimension or shape change in the material.
More specially, if the temperature increases, generally a material expands. Where as if
the temperature decreases, the material will contract. It is supposed that this is a common
sense for anyone.

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Fig. 1.10 Thermal and mechanical deformation

For the majority of engineering materials this relationship is linear. If we assume that the
material is homogeneous and isotropic, from experiment, we can find a linear relation
between thermal deformation and temperature change as:

= ×∆ ×

Where:

α: Coefficient of thermal expansion , units are strain per oC

ΔT: algebraic change in temperature (oC ) (increase +; decrease −)

δT: algebraic change in length (“+” = elongation; “−” = contraction)

Thermal Strain

Coupled Strain Status

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If we consider both mechanical strain εζ and thermal strain εT in the structure as shown
in Fig. 1.8(b), by referring to Eq. (*), the total strains in all directions would be computed
as:

Problem -1.4

A square steel rod 20 mm x 20 mm in section is to carry an axial load (compressive) of 100

KN. Calculate the shortening in a length of 50 mm. E = 2.14  108 KN / m 2
Solution:
Area A = 0.02  0.02  0.0004 m 2
Length l  50 mm (or) 0.05 m
P  100 KN

E  2.14 10 8 KN / m2
Shortening of the rod  l :
P 100
Stress  1    250000 KN / m 2
A 0.0004

Stress
E
Strain

Stress 
Strain  
E E

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250000

2.14  10 8
l 250000

l 2.14  10 8

250000
 l   0.05
2.14  10 8

= 0.0000584 m (or) 0.0584 mm

Hence the shortening of the rod = 0.0584 mm.

Poisson’s ratio.

The ratio of lateral strain to the longitudinal strain is a constant for a given material, when
the material is stressed within the elastic limit. This ratio is called Poisson’s ratio and it is
generally denoted by 1/m (or)  .

Lateral strain

Longitudinal strain

Problem -1.5

A metal bar 50 mm x 50 mm section is subjected to an axial compressive load of 500 KN.

The contraction of a 200 mm gauge length is found to be 0.5 mm and the increase in
thickness 0.04 mm. find E and µ.
Solution:

b = 50 mm, t = 50 mm

Area = 50  50  2500mm 2

P = 500 KN

Length, l = 200 mm,  l  0.5mm.

Increase in thickness, t  0.04mm

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Young’s Modulus:

pl
l
AE

500 10 3  200

0.5   E  80KN / mm 2
2500  E
Poission’s Ratio:
Lateral strain

Linear strain

.
= =

Linear strain = 0.0025

ℎ ℎ
=
ℎ

.
= = 0.0008

Lateral strain

Linear strain

0.0008
= = 0.32
0.0025

= 0.32

Problem – 1.6

The following observations were made during a tensile test on a mild steel specimen 40 mm
in diameter and 200 mm long. Elongation with 40 KN load (within limit of proportionality)
 l  0.0304 mm, yield Load = 161 KN, Maximum Load = 242 KN, Length of specimen at
fracture = 249 mm.
Determine:
i. Young’s Modulus of Elasticity
ii. Yield point stress

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iii. Ultimate stress

iv. Percentage elongation.

Solution:

i. Young’s Modulus of Elasticity (E):

P 40
Stress,     3.18  10 4 KN / m 2
A  2
0.04
4
 l 0.0304
Strain, e    0.000152
l 200
Stress 3.18  10 4
E 
Strain 0.000152
 2.09 10 8 KN / m2
(ii) Yield point Stress:
Yield po int load
Yield point stress 
area
161
  12.8 10 4 KN / m 2

0.042
4
(iii) Ultimate Stress:
Maximum load
Ultimate stress =
Area

242
  19.2  10 4 KN / m 2

0.042
4
(iv). Percentage Elongation:

Percentage elongation =

249  200
  0.245
200
Percentage Elongation = 24.5 %

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