CE 236 – Research Method 1

Research Methodology
Objectives of the lesson:
1. Familiarize learners with the steps involved in conducting research.
2. Introduce learners to various research methodologies and techniques.
3. Help learners understand the qualities that define good research.
4. Equip learners with the skills necessary to plan, conduct, analyze, and report on research
effectively.
5. Encourage learners to think critically about research processes, methodologies, and
outcomes.
6. Emphasize the importance of replication and verification in research.
7. Improve learners' ability to communicate research findings clearly and effectively.
Types of Research
1. Descriptive vs. Analytical: Descriptive research aims to describe the present state of
affairs without the researcher's control over variables, often utilizing methods like surveys.
Analytical research, on the other hand, involves critical evaluation of existing information
or facts.
2. Applied vs. Fundamental: Applied research seeks immediate solutions to practical
problems, while fundamental research focuses on generalizations and theory formulation.
Applied research addresses specific issues faced by societies or organizations, while
fundamental research contributes to broadening scientific knowledge.
3. Quantitative vs. Qualitative: Quantitative research measures quantity and is applicable to
phenomena expressible in numerical terms, while qualitative research explores qualities or
kinds, especially in understanding human behavior and motivations.
4. Conceptual vs. Empirical: Conceptual research deals with abstract ideas or theories and
is common in philosophy and conceptual development. Empirical research relies on
observation and experience to draw conclusions, often through experiments.
5. Other Types: Research can also be classified based on purpose, time frame, environment,
or method. Examples include longitudinal research, field-setting research, clinical
research, historical research, conclusion-oriented research, and decision-oriented research,
among others.

Research Approaches
Research approaches can be broadly categorized into two main types: quantitative and qualitative.
1. Quantitative Approach: This approach involves generating data in numerical form that
can undergo rigorous quantitative analysis. It can be further divided into:

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a. Inferential Approach: Focuses on creating a database from which characteristics or

relationships of a population can be inferred. Typically, this involves survey
research where a sample of the population is studied to draw conclusions about the
entire population.
b. Experimental Approach: Characterized by a high degree of control over the
research environment, with manipulation of variables to observe their effects on
other variables.
c. Simulation Approach: Involves constructing artificial environments to generate
relevant information and data, allowing observation of dynamic system behavior
under controlled conditions. This method is particularly useful in business and
social sciences for modeling future conditions.
2. Qualitative Approach: This approach involves subjective assessment of attitudes,
opinions, and behavior. Research relies on the researcher's insights and impressions, and
results are often presented in non-quantitative form. Techniques such as focus group
interviews, projective techniques, and depth interviews are commonly used in qualitative
research.

Research Methods vs Research Methodology

Research methods and research methodology are distinct concepts in the realm of research.
Research Methods:
Research methods refer to the techniques used by researchers to conduct their studies. These
methods encompass various operations performed during the research process. They can be
categorized into three groups:
- Data Collection Methods: Used when existing data are insufficient to solve a problem.
- Statistical Techniques: Utilized to establish relationships between data and unknown
variables.
- Methods for Evaluating Accuracy: Employed to assess the reliability of research results.
Methods falling into the last two groups are often considered the analytical tools of research.

Research Methodology:
Research methodology is the systematic approach to solving a research problem. It can be viewed
as the science of studying how research is conducted scientifically. Research methodology
involves understanding the steps typically taken by researchers to study a problem, along with the
rationale behind these steps. Researchers need to not only grasp specific research techniques but
also understand the broader methodology. This includes:

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- Knowing which methods or techniques are relevant to a particular problem.

- Understanding the assumptions underlying various techniques.
- Evaluating decisions made during the research process before implementation.
- Designing methodology tailored to the specific research problem.
Research methodology encompasses various dimensions and extends beyond research methods. It
involves explaining the logic behind the methods chosen for a study and justifying why certain
methods are used while others are not. Research methodology addresses questions related to why
a study is undertaken, how the research problem is defined, why hypotheses are formulated, what
data are collected, which methods are adopted, and how data are analyzed. By considering research
methodology, researchers ensure that their study results can be evaluated effectively by themselves
and others.

Research Process
The research process is a systematic series of actions or steps essential for conducting
research effectively. While these steps may overlap and not strictly follow a prescribed sequence,
they provide a guideline for researchers to ensure a comprehensive and well-organized study. Let's
break down the key steps outlined in your description:

1. Formulating the Research Problem:

- Identifying and defining the research problem is the initial step. This involves
understanding the problem thoroughly, discussing it with colleagues or experts, and
reviewing existing literature related to the problem.
- The problem should be stated clearly and unambiguously, with specific terms and
objectives.
2. Extensive Literature Survey:
- Conducting a thorough review of existing literature relevant to the research problem is
crucial. This helps researchers gain insights, understand previous studies, and identify gaps
in knowledge.
- Various sources such as academic journals, conference proceedings, government reports,
and books should be explored during this phase.
3. Development of Working Hypotheses:
- Based on the literature survey and understanding of the research problem, researchers
formulate working hypotheses. These hypotheses guide the research process and focus
attention on important aspects of the problem.
- Hypotheses should be specific, testable, and clearly defined to facilitate hypothesis testing.
4. Preparing the Research Design:

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- Designing the research involves outlining the conceptual structure within which the study
will be conducted. This includes selecting appropriate research methods, techniques, and
procedures.
- The research design should align with the research purpose and objectives, ensuring
efficient data collection and analysis.
5. Determining Sample Design:
- Sampling involves selecting a subset of the population for study. Researchers must decide
on the sample design, which can be probability-based or non-probability-based.
- Various sampling techniques such as simple random sampling, systematic sampling,
stratified sampling, and cluster sampling are available, each suitable for different research
scenarios.
6. Collecting the Data:
- Data collection methods include observation, personal interviews, telephone interviews,
mailing questionnaires, and scheduling interviews.
- The choice of data collection method depends on factors such as the nature of the research,
available resources, and desired accuracy.
7. Execution of the Project:
- Implementing the research project involves ensuring systematic and timely data collection.
Proper training of interviewers, supervision, and quality control measures are essential
during this phase.
- Field checks may be conducted to address issues such as non-response and ensure data
quality.
8. Analysis of Data:
- Data analysis involves processing collected data, establishing categories, coding,
tabulating, and drawing statistical inferences.
- Statistical techniques are applied to analyze relationships, differences, and patterns in the
data.
9. Hypothesis-Testing:
- Hypotheses formulated earlier are tested using statistical tests such as Chi-square test, t-
test, or F-test.
- The results of hypothesis testing determine whether the hypotheses are supported or
rejected based on the data.
10. Generalizations and Interpretation:
- If hypotheses are upheld consistently, researchers may generalize findings or develop
theories. Interpretation involves explaining the findings in the context of existing theories
or frameworks.
11. Preparation of the Report or Thesis:
- Finally, researchers document their findings in a comprehensive report or thesis. The report
should follow a structured format, including preliminary pages, main text, summary of
findings, conclusion, appendices, bibliography, and index.

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- Writing should be concise, objective, and supported by relevant charts, illustrations, and
calculated confidence limits.

Criteria of Good Research

The criteria of good research outlined here are fundamental for ensuring the quality and reliability
of research outcomes. Let's break down these criteria and explain them further:
1. Clearly defined purpose and common concepts: Research should have a well-defined
objective, and the terminology and concepts used should be clear and commonly
understood within the field of study. This clarity helps in communicating the research
findings effectively and ensuring consistency in interpretation.
2. Sufficiently detailed research procedure: The methodology and procedures followed in
the research should be described in enough detail to allow other researchers to replicate the
study. Replication is crucial for validating the findings and building upon existing
knowledge.
3. Carefully planned procedural design: The research design should be meticulously
planned to minimize bias and maximize objectivity in the results. This includes
considerations such as sample selection, data collection methods, and experimental
controls.
4. Transparent reporting of flaws: Researchers should openly acknowledge any
shortcomings or flaws in the research design or execution and assess their potential impact
on the findings. This transparency helps in evaluating the reliability and validity of the
results.
5. Adequate data analysis and validation: The analysis of data should be thorough and
appropriate for the research objectives. Researchers should ensure the validity and
reliability of the data through rigorous analysis techniques and validation processes.
6. Conclusions grounded in data: Conclusions drawn from the research should be based
solely on the evidence provided by the data. Researchers should avoid making unsupported
claims or extrapolating beyond the scope of the findings.
7. Researcher's experience, reputation, and integrity: The credibility of the research is
enhanced if the researcher has relevant experience, a good reputation in the field, and
demonstrates integrity in conducting and reporting the research. These factors inspire
confidence in the validity of the findings.
Additionally, the qualities of good research mentioned further elaborate on the characteristics
that contribute to its effectiveness:
1. Systematic approach: Good research follows a systematic process with well-defined
steps, ensuring consistency and reliability in the outcomes. While creativity is valued,

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systematic methods help avoid guesswork and ensure a structured approach to problem-
solving.
2. Logical reasoning: Research should be guided by logical reasoning, employing methods
of induction and deduction to draw meaningful conclusions from the data. Logical
reasoning enhances the validity and coherence of research findings.
3. Empirical basis: Good research is grounded in empirical evidence, meaning it deals with
real-world phenomena and relies on concrete data for analysis. This empirical foundation
lends credibility to the research outcomes and their applicability to real-life situations.
4. Replicability: Research should be replicable, meaning that other researchers should be
able to reproduce the study's results using the same methodology. Replicability strengthens
the validity of research findings and fosters confidence in their reliability.