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ACOUSTIC EMISSION
Acoustic Emission Waves and Propagation
The displacement waveform is basically a steplike function corresponding to the permanent
change associated with the source process. The corresponding velocity and stress
waveforms are basically pulselike. The width and height of the primitive pulse depend
on the dynamics of the source process. Source processes such as microscopic crack jumps
and precipitate fractures are often completed in a few microseconds or fractions of a
microsecond, so the primitive pulse has a correspondingly short duration. The amplitude and
energy of the primitive pulse vary over an enormous range from submicroscopic
dislocation movements to gross crack jumps. The primitive wave radiates from the source in
all directions, often having a strong directionality depending on the nature of the source
process. Rapid movement is necessary if a significant amount of the elastic energy liberated
during deformation is to appear as an acoustic emission.
The form of the primitive wave is profoundly changed during propagation through the
medium, and the signal emerging from the sensor has little resemblance to the original pulse.
This transformation of the AE waveform is important both to the researcher interested in
source function analysis and to the practical NDT inspector interested in testing
structures. The researcher who wants to determine the original source waveform uses
broadband sensors and performs a detailed analysis of the early part of the received signal.
This is an important but very demanding line of inquiry. It may take an hour of computer time
to process a single waveform. Most materials-oriented researchers, along with NDT
inspectors, are interested in broader statistical features of the AE activity and do not need
to know the precise details of each source event. They use narrowband sensors and
electronic equipment that measures only a few features of the received waveform but is
able to process hundreds of signals per second. The salient wave propagation factors are
different for these two lines of work, as discussed below.
Factors in Source Function Analysis.
Factors in Source Location and Typical AE Measurements. Whereas source function analysis
utilizes only the first part of the AE waveform, mainstream AE technology accepts the
waveform in its entirety. The later part of this waveform is made up of many components
reaching the sensor by a variety of paths. Typically, the highest peak in the waveform is
produced, not by the first component, but by the constructive interference of several of the
later components. The AE wave bounces around the testpiece, repeatedly exciting the sensor
until it finally decays away. This decay process may take 100 s in a highly damped,

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nonmetallic material or tens of milliseconds in a lightly damped, metallic material--much

longer than the source event, which is usually finished in a few microseconds or less.
It is important to understand that the shape of the received waveform is
fundamentally the result of these wave propagation processes. Other important aspects
of wave propagation in typical AE testing are attenuation and wave velocity.
Attenuation is the loss of signal amplitude due to geometric factors and material damping
as the wave travels through the material. Attenuation governs detectability at a distance
and is therefore an important factor in choosing sensor positions and spacing. Acoustic
emission procedures typically call for attenuation measurements to be made before a test
and specify permissible sensor spacing based on these measurements.
Wave velocity is an additional factor to be considered when AE technology is used for source
location. Source location is an important technique that is widely used both in laboratory
studies and in structural testing. It is particularly significant in testing large structures, for
which AE inspection is used to identify active regions for conclusive follow-up inspection
with other NDT methods. Large cost savings have been realized through this combination
of global AE inspection and focused inspection by other methods.
There are several strategies for source location. Zone location places the source within a
broad area. Point location places the source precisely, by calculating from the relative
arrival times of the AE wave at several sensors. Wave velocity is involved in these
calculations. The attainable accuracy is governed by wave propagation processes and depends
on such factors as geometry, plate thickness, and contained fluids. In effect, these factors
render the wave velocity uncertain and this leads to errors in source location. In favorable
cases, the attainable accuracy is better than 1% of the sensor spacing; in unfavorable cases,
worse than 10%.
Acoustic Emission Sensors and Preamplifiers
The key element in an AE resonant sensor is a piezoelectric crystal (transducer) that converts
movement into an electrical voltage. The sensor is excited by the stress waves impinging on
its face, and it delivers an electrical signal to a nearby preamplifier and then to the main
signal-processing equipment. The preamplifier can be miniaturized and housed inside
the sensor enclosure, facilitating setup and reducing vulnerability to electromagnetic noise.
Sensor Response. One of the most sought-after properties in an AE sensor is high
sensitivity. Although high-fidelity, flat frequency response sensors are available, most
practical AE testing employs resonant-type sensors that are more sensitive, as well as less
costly, than the flat frequency response type. These sensors have one or more preferred
frequencies of oscillation, governed by crystal size and shape. These preferred

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frequencies actually dominate the waveform and spectrum of the observed signal in
typical AE testing.
Acoustic Emission Waveform Transformation. In addition to the wave propagation
factors discussed earlier, the transformation of a single AE waveform is further
compounded by the sensor response. When a resonant sensor is excited by a broadband
transient pulse, it rings like a bell at its own natural frequencies of oscillation. Therefore, the
electrical signal at the sensor output is the product of this ringing, thus compounding the
effects of multiple paths and multiple wave modes by which the wave travels from source to
sensor. A typical AE signal from a piezoelectric sensor is shown in Fig.; the radical difference
between this observed signal and the simple waveform at the source cannot be
overemphasized.

Frequency Response. By selecting a resonant sensor from the wide range available, one
can effectively choose the monitoring frequency. This is a useful feature that allows the
inspector to make a suitable trade-off between the desired detection range and the prevailing
noise environment. In practice, the vast majority of AE testing is well performed with sensors
that are resonant at about 150 kHz.
Preamplifier Response. The signals generated by the sensor are amplified to provide a
higher, more usable voltage. This is accomplished with a preamplifier, which is placed close
to (or even inside) the sensor so as to minimize pickup of electromagnetic interference. The
preamplifier has a wide dynamic range and can drive the signal over a long length of cable
so that the main instrumentation can be placed hundreds of meters from the testpiece if
necessary.
The preamplifier typically provides a gain of 100 (40 dB) and includes a high-pass or
bandpass filter to eliminate the mechanical and acoustical background noise that prevails at
low frequencies. The most common bandpass is 100 to 300 kHz, encompassing the 150 kHz

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resonant frequency of the most commonly used sensor. Other operating frequencies can be
used, but there are limitations. At lower frequencies, there are increasing problems with
mechanical background noise.
At higher frequencies, the wave attenuates (damps out) more rapidly, and the detection
range of the sensor will be smaller. Choice of operating frequency is therefore a trade-off
between noise and detection range. Lower frequencies are used on pipelines, where
detection range is at a premium, and in geological work because rocks and soils are
highly attenuating. Higher frequencies are used to test steam lines in electricity generating
stations, where background noise is unusually high.
Attainable Sensitivity. Preamplifiers inevitably generate electronic noise, and it is this
noise that sets the ultimate limit to the smallest movement detectable with AE equipment.
The smallest signal that can be detected is about 10 V at the transducer output, corresponding
to a surface displacement of about 25 pm (1 × 10 -6 in.) for a typical high-sensitivity sensor.
This sensitivity is more than enough for most practical NDT applications.
Installation. Typically, the sensor is coupled to the testpiece with a fluid couplant and is
secured with tape, an adhesive bond, or a magnetic hold-down device. In some applications,
however, the AE sensor may be mounted on a waveguide.
After the sensor is installed and connected to the monitoring equipment, system performance
is checked by "lead break" before monitoring begins. This involves the breaking of a lead
pencil near the sensor to verify the response from an acoustic signal. Properly
performed, the lead break delivers a remarkably reproducible signal that closely
matches the "point impulse loading" source discussed above.
Instrumentation Principles
During an AE test, the sensors on the testpiece produce any number of transient signals. A
signal from a single, discrete deformation event is known as a burst-type signal. Burst-
type signals vary widely in shape, size, and rate of occurrence, depending on the structure and
the test conditions. If there is a high rate of occurrence, the individual burst-type signals
combine to form a continuous emission. In some cases, AE inspection relies on the detection
of continuous emission.
The instrumentation of an AE inspection provides the necessary detection of continuous
emissions or detectable burst-type emissions. Typically, AE instrumentation must fulfill
several other requirements:

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· The instrumentation must provide some measure of the total quantity of detected
emission for correlation with time and/or load and for assessment of the condition of the
testpiece
· The system usually needs to provide some statistical information on the detected AE
signals for more detailed diagnosis of source mechanisms or for assessing the significance of
the detected signals
· Many systems can locate the source of detectable burst-type emissions by comparing the
arrival times of the wave at different sensors. This is an important capability of great
value in testing both large and small structures
· The systems should provide a means for discriminating between signals of interest
and noise signals from background noise sources such as friction, impact, and
electromagnetic interference
Instruments vary widely in form, function, and price. Some are designed to function
automatically in automated production environments. Others are designed to perform
comprehensive data acquisition and extensive analysis at the hands of skilled researchers.
Still others are designed for use by technicians and NDT inspectors performing routine tests
defined by ASME codes or ASTM standards.

Signal Detection and Emission Counts. After sensing and preamplification, the signal is
transmitted to the main instrument, where it is further amplified and filtered. Next is the
critical step of detecting the signal. This is accomplished with a comparator circuit, which
generates a digital output pulse whenever the AE signal exceeds a fixed threshold
voltage. The relationship between signal, threshold, and threshold-crossing pulses is shown in
Fig. 8. The threshold level is usually set by the operator; this is a key variable that
determines test sensitivity. Depending on instrument design, sensitivity may also be
controlled by adjusting the amplifier gain.
One of the oldest and simplest ways to quantify AE activity is to count the threshold-
crossing pulses generated by the comparator (Fig.). These acoustic emission counts are
plotted as a function of time or load, either as an accumulating total or in the form of a count
rate histogram. The all-hardware AE systems of the early 1970s could draw these count and
count rate displays on x-y recorders as the test proceeded, and much of the early AE literature
presents results in this form.

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Following figure , a typical plot of this type, shows cumulative counts as a function of applied
load during a rising-load test on a precracked specimen of high-strength steel. The vertical
scale is 10,000 counts full-scale. The vertical steps on the first parts of the plot are
individual AE events. The larger events score several hundred counts each. By 35 kN
(8000 lbf), 10,000 counts have been accumulated. The pen resets to the bottom of the graph,
and resumes plotting. As the load rises, the AE rate increases, and the individual events are no
longer discernible on the plot. As the specimen approaches failure, there are multiple resets of
the pen corresponding to the generation of hundreds of thousands of AE counts.

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Hit-Driven AE Systems. All-hardware systems reached an apex of development in the

late 1970s, but they were eventually superseded by computer-based systems. The
development of AE technology coincided with the development of computers, and
computers were probably used earlier for AE inspection than for any other NDT method.
Computers were first used for AE multichannel source location systems around 1970.
Although source location was the first task (and a very advanced one), computers soon
came into use for the more general purposes of AE data storage, analysis, and display. At the
same time, personnel involved in AE inspection became interested in other signal
features of burst-type emissions beyond the threshold-crossing counts (see the section "Signal
Measurement Parameters" in this article).
These trends led to a new principle of AE instrumentation that has dominated the
technology ever since. This principle involves the measurement of key parameters of each
hit, that is, each AE signal that crosses the threshold. A digital description of each hit
is generated by the front-end hardware and is passed in sequence with other hit
descriptions through a computer system, which provides data storage, a variety of graphical
displays, and replay for posttest analysis.
Signal Measurement Parameters. The five most widely used signal measurement
parameters are counts, amplitude, duration, rise time, and the measured area under the
rectified signal envelope (MARSE) (Fig.). Some tests make do with fewer parameters, and
some tests use others, such as true energy, counts-to-peak, average frequency, or spectral
moment. However, the five principal parameters have become well standardized and accepted
through the market processes of the last 10 years.

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Along with these signal parameters, the hit description passed to the computer
typically includes important external variables, such as the time of detection, the current
value of the applied load, the cycle count (if it is a cyclic fatigue test), and the current level of
continuous background noise. The length of the total hit description is usually between 20 and
40 bytes.
Amplitude, A, is the highest peak voltage attained by an AE waveform. This is a very
important parameter because it directly determines the detectability of the AE event.
Acoustic emission amplitudes are directly related to the magnitude of the source event, and
they vary over an extremely wide range from microvolts to volts. Of all the
conventionally measured parameters, amplitude is the one best suited to developing
statistical information in the form of distribution functions. The amplitudes of acoustic
emissions are customarily expressed on a decibel (logarithmic) scale, in which 1V at the
transducer is defined as 0dBae, 10 V is 20dBae, 100 V is 40dBae, and so on.
Counts, N, are the threshold-crossing pulses (sometimes called ringdown counts)
discussed above. This is one of the oldest and easiest ways of quantifying the AE signal.
Counts depend on the magnitude of the source event, but they also depend strongly on the
acoustic properties and reverberant nature of the specimen and the sensor.
MARSE, sometimes known as energy counts, E, is the measured area under the rectified
signal envelope. As a measure of the AE signal magnitude, this quantity has gained
acceptance and is replacing counts for many purposes, even though the required circuitry is
relatively complex. MARSE is preferred over counts because it is sensitive to amplitude as
well as duration, and it is less dependent on threshold setting and operating frequency. Total
AE activity must often be measured by summing the magnitudes of all the detected events; of
all the measured parameters, MARSE is the one best suited to this purpose.
Duration, D, is the elapsed time from the first threshold crossing to the last. Directly
measured in microseconds, this parameter depends on source magnitude, structural
acoustics, and reverberation in much the same way as counts. It is valuable for
recognizing certain long-duration source processes such as delamination in composite
materials, and it can be useful for noise filtering and other types of signal qualification.
Rise time, R, is the elapsed time from the first threshold crossing to the signal peak.
Governed by wave propagation processes between source and sensor, this parameter can
be used for several types of signal qualification and noise rejection.
Multichannel Considerations. Measurement of the signal proceeds simultaneously on every
channel that detects (is hit by) the AE wave. Acoustic emission systems are available in sizes
from 1 channel to over 100 channels, depending on the size and complexity of the

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structure to be tested. Typical laboratory systems have 2 to 6 channels, while most

structural tests are accomplished with 12 to 32 channels.
An individual AE event may hit just one channel or it may hit many channels, depending on
the strength of the event, the wave attenuation in the structure, and the sensor spacing.
Therefore, an early task for the multichannel system is to determine whether a group of
closely spaced hits on different channels is from the same source event. Depending on the
system design, this can be accomplished either in hardware or in software. The second, third,
and later hits from a source event can be either retained for the purposes of source location or
discarded to keep the data clean and simple. After this task of event/hit identification has been
performed, the system can deal in event descriptions as well as hit descriptions. The event
description usually includes channel identification and relative timing information for
all the channels involved, along with the signal characteristics of the first hit and perhaps the
other hits as well.
The stream of hit (or event) descriptions is passed through a central processor that coordinates
the tasks of data storage, display, and operator communications. In larger systems, these
tasks can be divided among several processors. In many systems, the entire stream of hit
descriptions is stored to disk; this provides unlimited posttest analysis capability. Full data
storage is a vital aspect of applied AE technology. It reduces dependence on the on-site
operator for ultimate test results, allowing him to concentrate on the vital task of correct data
collection (Ref 11).
Data Displays. A software-based, hit-driven AE system can produce many types of graphic
displays. The operator is not limited to what can be observed during the test, because the
results can be refined, filtered, and redisplayed in any manner during the posttest analysis.
Broadly, AE data displays can be classed as:
· History plots that show the course of the test from start to finish
· Distribution functions that show statistical properties of the emission
· Channel plots showing the distribution of detected emissions by channel
· Location displays that show the position of the AE source
· Point plots showing the correlation between different AE parameters
· Diagnostic plots showing the severity of AE indications from different parts of the structure

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