SAnet CD BasicPsychologyforHumanResourcePractitioners

2nd Edition
BASIC PSYCHOLOGY FANIE KRUGER

for Human Resource Practitioners
JANIE STEYN
2nd Edition
MARIANA BOTHA
The unique dynamics of the South African socio-political and economic environment make WALTA HERRON
human resources an interesting, yet challenging, field for practitioners. Basic Psychology for
Human Resource Practitioners 2nd Edition is a step-by-step guide covering all the essential
aspects of human resources, making it ideal for undergraduate students, but it will also be a
useful resource for personnel management. An update of the 1996 edition, this second edition
draws on more recent resources, and uses practical examples that reflect new developments
in the field of human resources, particularly South African legislation.
In the first part the psychology of individual behaviour is discussed. The authors explain
why phenomena such as individual differences, human abilities, personality and the learning
process are important in the development of the individual in the economic environment.
The second part sets out the measuring of attitudes and roles in the work environment. Aspects
such as social perception, group dynamics, characteristics of groups and group behaviour are
dealt with.
Topics covered in the third part include the historical development of human resource man-
MARIANA BOTHA, WALTA HERRON

agement, the current status of human resource management in South Africa and the various
human resource functions.
FANIE KRUGER, JANIE STEYN

Key features of Basic Psychology for Human Resource Practitioners include:
• study objectives that guide students through the individual chapters
• a theoretical basis in step with modern developments in the field of
human resources worldwide
• clear examples particularly relevant for South African students
• activities and ‘test yourself’ questions, which allow students to test their
understanding of the field of human resources.
This new edition will empower its readers to utilise – and maximise – the opportunities that
the dynamic environment of human resources offers.
BASIC PSYCHOLOGY
for Human Resource Practitioners
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Basic Psychology for
Human Resource
Practitioners
2nd Edition
F Kruger
J Steyn
M Botha
W Herron
Basic Psychology for Human Resources Practitioner.indb 1 11/12/2014 10:53:20 AM

Basic Psychology for Human Resource Practitioners
First published 2015
First print published 1996
Second edition 2015
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Contents
About the authors ............................................................................. iv
Chapter 1: Individual differences ................................................ 1
Chapter 2: Human abilities ......................................................... 22
Chapter 3: Personality .................................................................. 41
Chapter 4: Frustration and conflict ........................................... 71
Chapter 5: Stress, alcoholism and drug addiction ............... 91
Chapter 6: Perception ................................................................ 112
Chapter 7: The learning process and memory ................... 138
Chapter 8: Attitudes ................................................................... 162
Chapter 9: Social perception .................................................... 181
Chapter 10: Role theory .............................................................. 201
Chapter 11: Group dynamics ..................................................... 216
Chapter 12: Group characteristics.............................................. 227
Chapter 13: Group process ......................................................... 250
Chapter 14: The historical development of human

resource management .......................................... 262
Chapter 15: Human resource management in

South Africa today.................................................. 275
Chapter 16: The human resource role ..................................... 292
Bibliography ...................................................................................... 303
Index ...................................................................................... 308

About the authors
Fanie Kruger is a contract lecturer at the Departments of Human
Resource Management and Psychology at UNISA and previously
worked as a chief researcher at the Human Sciences Research
Council. He obtained a BA, BA Hons (Pscychology), BA Hons
(Philosophy) and Masters in Psychology (cum laude) from the
University of Pretoria. He is the co-author of a book on Research
Methodology, as well as the author of published works on
personnel management, organisational climate and several reports
on attitude studies which were completed at the Human Sciences
Research Council.
Janie Steyn is the Head of Programme in the Commerce Faculty

and manager for the BCom Hons programmes at Midrand
Graduate Institute (MGI). She is also lecturing Organisational
Behaviour for the BCom Hons programme and supervises
research projects for postgraduate and undergraduate students at
MGI, and postgraduate students at Southern Business School. She
started her academic career at the Nort-West University where
she obtained a BCom degree cum laude, and then went on to do
her BCom Hons (Industrial Psychology) at Unisa while working
as a Personnel Practitioner at ESKOM. She also holds an MPhil
(Leadership in Performance and Change) from the University
of Johannesburg and a Post Graduate Teaching Diploma from
Unisa. She is a registered Chartered HR Practitioner with the
South African Board for Personnel Practice (SABPP).
Mariana Botha is currently working as a Human Resources Officer

at Automotive Leather Company that is situated in Lesotho. She
has a BA (Industrial Psychology and Anthropology) and a BA
Hons (Industrial Psychology) from Unisa. Mariana is a registered
Psychometrist (Independent Practice) with the Health Professions
Council of South Africa, and specialises in this field. She has
obtained her experience and knowledge in both the corporate
and public sectors and assisted and advised organisations, teams
and individuals on growth and development since 2002. She
was a lecturer at Midrand Graduate Institute (MGI) in the field
of Human Resource Management and is still involved in the
academic arena as an external examiner for Unisa.

about the authors v
Walta Herron is responsible for coordinating and developing the research project
module(s) (undergraduate and postgraduate), as well as supervising research
projects at both levels. She holds a BSocSc (Social Work) at UOFS; BA Hons
(Social Work) at Unisa; MA (Mental Health in Social Work) at Unisa; and a BA
Hons (Advanced HR and Labour Relations) at Rand Afrikaanse Universiteit
(now University of Johannesburg). She has many years of experience as a social
worker and HR/Labour Relations Manager. She lectured Social Work and
Sociology at the University of Namibia before moving to Gauteng where she
lectured HR, Labour Relations and Management of Training at Allenby. For the
past 10 years she has been lecturing HR, Labour Relations and Management of
Training at Midrand Graduate Institute (MGI).

chapter
Individual
1 differences
1.1 Introduction .............................................................................. 2

1.2 The origin of behaviour differences .............................................. 3
1.2.1 Heredity and environment ............................................... 3
1.2.1.1 Heredity ............................................................ 4
1.2.1.2 Environmental influences ............................. 7
1.2.1.3 Research ........................................................... 9
1.2.1.4 Heredity versus environment ...................... 11
1.3 Differences in work behaviour ........................................................ 12
1.3.1 Factors that lead to differences in work behaviour ... 13
1.3.1.1 Individual variables ......................................... 13
1.3.1.2 Situational variables ....................................... 14
1.4 Selection and placement ................................................................. 17
1.4.1 Differences in work potential .......................................... 17
1.4.2 Economic, personal, social and legal considerations... 17
1.4.2.1 Economic considerations ............................. 17
1.4.2.2 Personal considerations ................................ 18
1.4.2.3 Social considerations...................................... 18
1.4.2.4 Legal and contractual considerations ....... 19
1.5 Summary .............................................................................................. 19
Self-evaluation ............................................................................................... 20

2 basic psychology for human resource practitioners
Study objective
When you have studied this chapter, you should be able to:
■■ outline the origin of behaviour differences;
■■ explain how the genetic composition of individuals is formed;
■■ define individual differences resulting from direct and indirect hereditary influences;
■■ describe the nature of environmental influences;
■■ portray the characteristics of environmental influences;
■■ distinguish between the contributions of heredity and environment to individual
differences; and
■■ recognise the importance of individual differences with regard to selection and
placement in the industry.
1.1 Introduction
The industry is composed of different individuals who each perform specific
tasks or labour within some or other institution such as an organisation. The
fact that major or small differences exist between individuals and between the
various jobs that they do, forms the basis of the efficient functioning of such
organisations or institutions. Individual differences are also closely linked to
the function of personnel management as such because it is the explicit task of
the personnel department to prevent the occurrence of ‘square pegs in round
holes’. A personnel manager must be mindful of individual differences and
have sufficient knowledge of the differences between people in order to ensure
employee happiness. This task becomes extremely complicated when different
institutions are taken into consideration. Similar types of individuals may well
perform similarly doing the same tasks but their performance would differ within
different institutions or working groups.
The fact that different individuals are not perfectly suited to their jobs or
organisations is often portrayed in the occurrence of differences between
individuals with regard to factors such as variation in terms of service, work
attendance, work injuries, productivity, etc.
The differences between individuals in industry are usually based on
observing work behaviour. We can observe, for example, that A produces three
units in an hour and B ten, or that C is absent from work ten days a month
and D one day. Rather than judging purely by overt work behaviour, however,
further investigation is necessary. Occurrences that are less noticeable than work
behaviour, but may also explain differences in work behaviour, are discussed
in this chapter. These occurrences are made up of physiological and genetic
characteristics and environmental influences.

individual differences 3
1.2 The origin of behaviour differences

The causes of differences in human behaviour can be ascribed to
hereditary and environmental factors. The influence of these two factors on the
origin of individual differences in human behaviour will now be discussed.
1.2.1 Heredity and environment

People consist of a living structure that enables them to execute actions and behaviour.
This human structure comes into being when the generative cells of a man and
woman merge during fertilisation after sexual intercourse or artificial insemination.
This process leads to the birth of a unique individual who, technically speaking,
inherits a living and developed structure from his/her parent.
From the moment of conception people are subject to environmental
influences that play an important role in the development of the person and the
formation of individual differences. In this regard, we distinguish between pre-
natal and post-natal environmental influences.
It is important to distinguish between genotype and phenotype (Jordaan &
Jordaan, 1998) before we discuss the concepts heredity and environment:
❏❏ Genotype
The term genotype refers to the total genetic composition of a person that is
determined by the genetic blueprint that is received from his/her parents at
conception.
Example
If John’s mother and father both have genes for blue eyes, John will have blue eyes
because only the recessive gene for blue eyes is available for transfer. Environmental
influences cannot influence or change the colour of John’s eyes. (Refer points 1.2.1.1
and 1.2.1.4.)
❏❏ Phenotype
The term phenotype refers to the observable characteristics of a person.
The phenotype is determined by the interaction between the genotype and
pre-natal as well as post-natal environmental influences. The phenotype is
therefore not determined entirely by the genotype.
Example
If Agnes inherited exceptional intellectual abilities from her parents (genotype), it is still
necessary to develop these abilities through the correct nutrition before birth, good
academic training, etc.

Should her intellectual abilities then be measured at the age of 12 years, her performance
in such a test will represent her phenotype. (Refer points 1.2.1.1, 1.2.1.2 and 1.2.1.4.)
1.2.1.1 Heredity
Hereditary material
Initially it was believed that chromosones, found in the nucleus of every cell of
man, animal and plant, were the carriers of genetic information that determine
the inheritance of certain traits. Later it was determined that genes, that are
arranged on the chromosome like beads on a necklace, are the actual carriers of
genetic information (Jordaan & Jordaan, 1998).
In 1953, a heredity unit was discovered that is even smaller than a gene,
namely the DNA molecule (deoxyribonucleic acid). It was found that the DNA
molecule is the carrier of genetic information in biochemical code form. The
DNA in the fertilised ovum thus contains all the information for the forming of
the human organism.
A single fertilised ovum or zygote therefore contains a DNA blueprint of
hereditary material that originates from the nucleus of the male sperm cell and
the nucleus of the female ovum. The DNA blueprint of such a fertilised ovum or
zygote is called the genotype which interacts with the environmental influences
and results in the phenotype (refer point 1.2.1). The phenotype then, forms the
physical appearance and psychological characteristics of an individual (Jordaan
& Jordaan, 1998).
Fertilisation process
The nuclei of the immature sperm cells of the man and the immature ovicells
of the woman contain 46 chromosomes that are arranged in pairs. Through the
process of meiosis, the number of chromosomes in the mature sperm cells of the
man and the mature ovum of the woman is reduced from 46 to 23.
This reduction ensures that when a zygote comes into existence during
conception (the merging of a mature sperm cell from the man with a mature
ovum from the woman), the zygote will have 46 chromosomes again (23 from
the man and 23 from the woman). The hereditary material of male and female
therefore establishes in equal parts in the zygote (Jordaan & Jordaan, 1998).
Process of cell division
Through the process of mitosis or cell division, the zygote develops from the pre-
natal stage to a unique mature individual (refer Fig 1.1). The DNA blueprint is
carried from cell to cell during the development and in this manner all new cells
contain the hereditary material of both parents. The body cells that are formed
in this way differentiate through specialised processes into skin, bone, muscle,
nerve and blood cells each with a particular function (Jordaan & Jordaan, 1998).

Figure 1.1 Development of the zygote
Individuality
The number of genetically different germ cells (gametes) that both males and
females can produce is calculated to be about eight million. Any two of these
different germ cells with different chromosome compositions can merge during
the process of conception. Except in the case of identical twins, it is highly
improbable that two people with identical genetic compositions will exist. Major
differences between people and even between members of the same family are
engineered through this process (Jordaan & Jordaan, 1998).
Gender determination
Gender is one of the
clearest forms of
genetic determination.
Microscope investiga-
tions show that the 46
chromosomes of the
woman are arranged
in 23 similar pairs. The
chromosomes are of
equal size and shape.
In the man, 44 of the
46 chromosomes are
arranged in similar pairs.
One chromosome of the
remaining pair (the 23rd
pair) is very similar to
the chromosomes of the
woman. This chromo-
some is big and is known Figure 1.2 Different chromosome combinations
on the 23rd pair
as the X chromosome.

The other chromosome of the 23rd pair is much smaller and is called the Y
chromosome. The Y chromosome thus differs in structure and size from the
X chromosome (Jordaan & Jordaan, 1998). The woman therefore has an XX
combination of the 23rd pair of chromosomes and the man an XY combination
(refer Fig 1.2). The Y chromosome carries the genetic code for masculinity. It is
the father’s sperm cell that determines the sex of a child as follows (refer Fig 1.3):
■■ The gender of a child is female if the ovum of the mother is fertilised by a
male sperm cell with an X chromosome (X + X = girl) (refer Fig 1.3).

■■ The gender of the child is male if the ovum of the mother is fertilised by a
male sperm cell with a Y chromosome (X + Y = boy) (refer Fig 1.3).
Figure 1.3 Sex determination
Direct and indirect influences

According to Minton and Schneider (1980), heredity has, on the one hand, a
direct influence on the structural characteristics of the individual, for example
build, gender, colour of the eyes and blood type (refer to point on genotype). On
the other hand, it has an indirect influence with regard to biological characteristics
such as the quality of eyesight.

Example
Sipho can have the potential for excellent eyesight due to his genetic material but
because of environmental influences (by having measles as a child), his vision can be
considerably weakened (refer point 1.2.1).
Activity
1. See whether you can determine the direct influence of heredity. Try and find a family
where both parents have blue eyes and verify if all the children have blue eyes as
well (refer point 1.2.1).
2. Study the physical appearance of people that you come into contact with and note
how they differ from one another. Write down how many differences you notice.
1.2.1.2 Environmental influences

Nature of environmental influences
There is a tendency to view environmental influences purely as social-psychological
stimuli that come from outside (for example climate, behaviour of the group,
people we live with and the media).
Minton and Schneider (1980) argue that the environment can be described
as everything that is not genetic in nature. This includes the influence of people’s
‘internal environment’ (conditions that influence the body cells).
Example
Here we can consider pre-natal diseases such as rubella (German measles) that may
result in physical disabilities such as deafness and mental retardation.
Characteristics of environmental influences

Environmental influences already have an influence on the child in the pre-
natal stage. Factors such as radiation and rubella can cause mental retardation in
the foetus. Morris, Maistro and Levine (2002) refer to the investigations of
Harrell, Woodyard and Gates in 1955 which proved that pre-natal nutrition can
also have an influence on intelligence.
The birth process is, according to the French obstetrician Frederick Leboyer,
a traumatic experience in itself for every individual and complications at birth
can harm the development of the individual. Leboyer is a supporter of the birth
process taking place in a soft, soothing atmosphere because a person who is born
in this way will be more socially adaptable (Morris et al, 2002).
The post-natal environment leads to more drastic differences between
individuals than the pre-natal environment. The development of an individual

is especially influenced by the social environment (the individual’s home

circumstances, social class, peer group, formal education, religious background
and exposure to media).
Human behaviour does not occur in a cultural vacuum. It is strongly affected
by events, values, trends and beliefs of our own culture. Therefore our behaviour
is prescribed by cultural beliefs – how we should marry, how many children we
should have, etc (Baron, Branscombe & Byrne, 2009). Each culture has its own
behaviour patterns which are often transferred from one generation to the next.
This is portrayed by research that has proven that some cultural groups are
inclined to produce aggressive individuals while aggression is present to a lesser
extent in other cultural groups (Minton & Schneider, 1980).
The education patterns of some cultural groups are more thorough and
uniform so that the individuals within such a community display fewer individual
differences. Cultural communities that are characterised by conflicting and
different education patterns produce individuals who differ from one another
to a greater extent.
Brody and Brody (1976) proved that individuals from smaller families tend to
be more intelligent than those from big families. The deduction is made that this
is due to environmental influences because there is no proof that children from
big families receive weaker genetic material from their parents.
It can be said that the bigger the family, the less attention is devoted to
each individual child. The order of birth also plays an important role because
the younger children are intellectually less stimulated than the older children.
The physical environment also plays an important role with regard to the
occurrence of differences between individuals. Every physical environment places
unique demands for survival on individuals and therefore individuals will adapt
differently to different physical environments.
Example
Inhabitants of South Africa will, in many instances, display work behaviour that is different
from that of inhabitants of Iceland. Due to the huge difference in climate, South Africans
will, to a greater extent, be busier outdoors than inhabitants of Iceland.
Activity
1. Think of your behaviour patterns and habits. How did it come about that you display
certain forms of behaviour and habits? Who do you think influenced each of your
forms of behaviour the most?
2. Describe the behaviour of the different cultural groups that you come into contact
with. How do the forms of behaviour differ from one another?

3. Judge your position with regard to the family into which you were born. In other
words the number of children in your family and whether you are the eldest,
youngest or second eldest child (etc) in the family. Do you agree with the
statement that children from smaller families tend to be more intelligent than
children from large families?
4. Compare the behaviour of people in Africa with that of people in Europe (or any
other continent). List the differences that you note.
1.2.1.3 Research
Different methods are used to determine the relative contribution of genetic
factors to behaviour. These are executed by means of three methods of research,
namely family studies, twin studies and studies with adopted children.
Family studies
In these studies the nature and extent of specific characteristics in a selected family
are researched (Louw, 1988). The researcher first selects a group of individuals
(group A) amongst whom a characteristic such as criminal behaviour or mental
retardation occurs. The researcher then selects a group of individuals (group B)
amongst whom the characteristics do not occur.
It is then established to what extent the characteristics occur in the families of

group A and group B. If the characteristics occur to a greater extent in group A
than in group B, the deduction can be made that the characteristics are hereditary.
Criticism of these studies is that it is impossible to study the families in such a
way that the effect of the environment is eliminated completely.
Family members generally do not only share the same genetic background
but also the same environment. The extraordinarily high occurrence of musicians
in the family tree of Johann Sebastian Bach does not necessarily prove that
musical talent is hereditary. The fact that the children grow up in the presence of
outstanding musicians can play an equally important part in the development of
an interest in and talent for music (Louw, 1988).

Twin studies
One of the most important methods of studying genetic factors is with the aid
of identical and non-identical twins who have grown up in the same and in different
environments. Identical twins originate from a single fertilised ovum (zygote).
The zygote divides into two and these twins are called monozygotic (identical
twins). Their genetic material is identical. Dizygotic twins (non-identical twins)
develop from two separate fertilised ova and the relationship between them is
therefore the same as that between ordinary brothers and sisters (Jordaan &
Jordaan, 1998).
The underlying assumption in studies of twins is that phenotypic differences (refer

point 1.2.1) between monozygotic twins should be ascribed to environmental
factors, while phenotypic differences between dizygotic twins should portray the
combined influences of heredity and environment.
It has been found that dizygotic (non-identical) twins who grow up together (in
a relatively similar environment) show greater differences in intelligence than
monozygotic (identical) twins who grow up together.
Additional research was done by Arvey, Bouchard, Segal and Abraham (Baron
et al, 2009) on the influence of genetic material on job satisfaction. Monozygotic
(identical) twins were separated at an early age and then raised apart. The
research results showed that job satisfaction of these pairs of monozygotic twins
correlated significantly after several years. The findings confirmed the role of
genetic factors on job satisfaction in the field human resources.
Ordinary brothers and sisters (that is, not twins) who grow up together (in
a relatively similar environment) show greater differences in intelligence than
monozygotic twins. Monozygotic twins who grow up in different environments
show greater differences in intelligence than monozygotic twins who grow up
together (in a relatively similar environment).
The deduction can thus be made that:

■■ the lesser difference in intelligence between identical twins on the one hand
and the greater difference in intelligence between non-identical twins/ordinary
siblings on the other hand, are the result of genetics (heredity); and
■■ the difference in intelligence between identical twins who grew up in
separate environments can be ascribed to the influence of the environment.

Studies with adopted children

These studies comprise the study of children who were adopted shortly after birth.
The behavioural characteristics of adopted children are compared between those
of their natural parents and their adopted parents. In this manner, environmental
factors are largely eliminated.
Louw (1988) refers to a comparative study (a control group was used) by
Heston (1970) in which 47 people with schizophrenic mothers were involved.
These people were all adopted within the first month after birth.
The outcome of the research indicated that of the 47 people (experimental
group), five were schizophrenic. No schizophrenia occurred in the control group.
It was concluded that heredity plays a significant role but that to a large extent
environmental factors also determine whether the ‘potential’ for schizophrenia
will appear.
Activity
1. Find a pair of monozygotic (identical) twins. Study their appearance, behaviour,
scholastic performance, job types, etc. To what extent do these factors correspond?
Do they differ in one aspect at least?
2. If possible, study the same aspects with a pair of dizygotic (non-identical) twins.
3. Then study these aspects with ‘ordinary’ siblings.
4. Which of these three groups differ the most?
1.2.1.4 Heredity versus environment

A point of difference that originated decades ago is to what extent heredity
and environment each contribute to the development of the mature individual.
According to Jordaan and Jordaan (1998) two approaches exist:
■■ Some geneticists allege that heredity alone determines people’s development,
independently of environmental influences.
Example
Individuals are virtually born as engineers, doctors or artists regardless of the social class
they grow up in, the school they attend, the attention they receive from their parents, etc.
■■ Others allege that development is completely dependent on the environment

and that each person is born with the same potential.
Example
If Lindiwe grows up in the city, she will probably, due to urban environmental influences,
follow an academic career. Her inborn abilities will not have any influence. If Bruce grows
up in the country he may become a farmer, regardless of his inborn abilities.

McCormick and Tiffin (1975) claim that heredity is of great importance

in determining basic traits (for example height, weight and strength) and
that the environmental influences are unclear in this regard. Environmental
influences generally have a decisive influence on aspects such as personality
traits and interests. It appears that heredity factors determine an individual’s
potential level of intellectual ability. Environmental influences, however, play an
important part in realising intellectual potential.
Example
If Frans has the genetic potential to become an engineer (heredity factor), the right
environmental influences (a stable home, availability of a school, university and
engineering firm) are needed to practically realise this potential.
1.3 Differences in work behaviour

Before we commence with the discussion of factors that influence work behaviour,
it is necessary to indicate that differences in work behaviour occur according to
different dimensions. We can distinguish between quantitative and qualitative
dimensions:
❏❏ Quantitative dimension
According to McCormick and Ilgen (1992), most work-related behaviour can be
quantified, that is the behaviour can be measured. The amount of work that has
been done can be calculated in relevant units for each type of work behaviour.
Example
We can calculate the number of crates packed in an hour as well as the number of
days absent within one month, term of duty, attitudes (as measured on an attitude
scale), physiological data such as heart rate, energy consumption, work satisfaction (as
measured by a work satisfaction questionnaire), etc.
❏❏ Qualitative dimension
This dimension of work behaviour focuses on the qualitative nature thereof. The
qualitative dimension is chiefly evaluative in nature, that is, behaviour is judged
according to values such as good/bad or satisfactory/unsatisfactory.
Example
After a worker has manufactured 20 tables within a certain period of time (quantitative
dimension), each table is evaluated to determine whether the worker has produced
good or bad work. Each table must comply with set standards (qualitative dimension).

In the qualitative evaluation, behaviour is therefore usually compared with a pre-

determined standard or more often with the behaviour of other workers.
Example
If Thabo is absent ten times per month and Gladys is absent once, we can make the
deduction that Thabo’s attendance is poor and that Gladys’ is good.
1.3.1 Factors that lead to differences in work behaviour

Individuals differ in their job performance either on a quantitative or qualitative
level. The job performance of a number of workers is measured in terms of the
number of units produced and this is expressed in a diagram called a normal
distribution (refer Fig 1.4) (McCormick & Ilgen, 1992).
The letters A, B and C on the horizontal axis indicate the number of
units produced. The vertical axis indicates the number of workers whose job
performance was measured (refer Fig 1.4).
Figure 1.4 A normal distribution diagram to measure job performance
It can be deduced from Fig 1.4 that the job performance of the workers differs
in the following manner: Most workers show an average performance (B) and
fewer show a below average (A) or above average (C) performance. The reason
for the differences in job performance can, according to McCormick and Ilgen
(1992), be ascribed to individual and situational factors or variables.
1.3.1.1 Individual variables

Research findings indicate that quantitative differences in work behaviour can
be partly attributed to individual differences such as the following: abilities,
aptitude, intelligence, personality, age, gender, physical characteristics, interests
and motivation (McCormick & Ilgen, 1992).

Differences in abilities, aptitude and intelligence are discussed in Chapter 2,

personality, interest and motivation in Chapter 3 and physiological hereditary
characteristics in point 1.2.1.1 of this chapter. Differences in age and sex are
now examined:
❏❏ Age
Singleton (1989) found that meaningful differences occur in people’s work
behaviour between the ages of 18 and 55 years. Apart from changes in visual
and auditory ability, a meaningful decrease in short-term memory occurs with
the passing of time, while work behaviour is also slower.
According to Welford (1979), the best work behaviour in the industry is
delivered by workers in the 30-40 year age category. Those under 30 years of age
have not acquired the necessary energy and social skills. People above 40 years
of age are hindered by a decrease in sensory abilities and are less active in the
execution of heavy physical labour. People older than 40 years, however, show
more stability in their work behaviour than those younger in age.
❏❏ Gender
Little research has been done on the difference between men and women in
job performance and it appears that most differences are based on the learned
perception of a gender role that arises from a person’s cultural background.
As far as physical labour is concerned, differences do occur because women
generally are physically of a slighter build than men. Men may also work in jobs
that require physical exertion, heat tolerance and uncomfortable body posture
more easily than women do (Singleton, 1989).
Greenberg and Baron (2008) maintain that the greater physical strength and
stamina enable men to respond less adversely to stressors in the workplace.
Men also respond more to extrinsic motives such as money and success while
women are concerned about their personal satisfaction in the workplace (Baron
& Byrne, 2000).
Activity
1. Examine the work behaviour of people from different age groups. Write down the
types of differences that you notice in their work behaviour.
2. Note any differences in the work behaviour of men and women.
1.3.1.2 Situational variables

These differences are related to the influences of the external environment and
can be divided into two categories, namely working conditions and social
variables:

❏❏ Working conditions
Working conditions comprise working methods, the design and condition of work
equipment, work space and layout of the work place as well as the physical work
environment (factors such as noise, temperature, illumination, etc). According
to Singleton (1989), climatic conditions have a major determining influence on
differences in work behaviour.
Example
In a tropical area, shoes can be manufactured in the open air. Artisans will be able to
handle the materials that shoes are made of with their hands and feet. A cold area
will necessitate shoes being manufactured mechanically and indoors (in a factory).
Instead of artisans, there may be process controllers who only handle the materials and
manufactured shoes when machines are ‘loaded’ and ‘unloaded’.
Figure 1.5 Cramped workspace
❏❏ Organisational and social variables

Greenberg and Baron (2008) explain that these variables mainly refer to factors
such as the role of culture in an organisation. The role will influence the form
(characteristic) of organisational culture, for example, the internal affairs such
as sense of identity, mission and standards of behaviour.
The dominant influence of culture on human development results in human
abilities and paired work behaviour differing from culture to culture. Greenberg
and Baron (2008) differentiate between four forms of organisational culture:
■■ Hierarchy: The organisation has an internal focus on stability and control.
■■ Market: The organisation is concerned with stability and control, but is also
external in orientation.
■■ Clan: The focus of the organisation is on high levels of internal cohesiveness,
flexibility and discretion.

■■ Adhocracy: The organisation emphasises flexibility, focuses on the external

environment and is highly innovative.
Some of the variables mentioned above can be described in objective terms (for
example the size of an organisation or the monetary value of an incentive system).
Other variables are of a subjective nature (for example workers’ attitudes and
perceptions, the management style in an organisation, relationships between
organisations and trade unions, the nature of supervision and the meaningfulness
of the job).
In contrast to the working conditions, organisational and social variables lead
mainly to differences in workers’ attitudes to labour. (Attitudes are discussed
in Chapter 8.) The different attitudes that workers show towards labour, result
indirectly in differences in job performance, work attendance, etc.
Example
Peter develops a negative attitude to his job because of a poor salary. Margaret has a
positive attitude to her job because she is paid a good salary. Peter will probably be
absent more often than Margaret. Their attendance is due to their respective attitudes.
We can see that variables exist which influence human and/or work behaviour.
Theoretically speaking, each job has its own unique number of variables that in
turn differ from other jobs. In the one instance, this can be a difference relating
to the combination of specific variables, and in the other, it can be due to the
relative importance of the variables.
Example
Certain variables are more important in one kind of job than in another. Eye-hand
coordination is of lesser importance to an accounts manager than to an artisan
(McCormick & Ilgen, 1992).
Activity
1. Consider your behaviour in winter and in summer (for example, how hard you work,
when you usually go on holiday, whether you work indoors or outside, etc). Write
down the differences of which you can think.
2. Write down the job performances of a couple of people that you know. Indicate
the cases in which the workers’ performance is average, above average or below
average. What are the reasons for the differences in job performance?
3. Now write down your perception of those people who are happy in their jobs and
those who are not. Compare their work attendance, job performance, overtime
worked, etc. Note any differences.

1.4 Selection and placement

1.4.1 Differences in work potential
According to Greenberg and Baron (2008), the process of staff selection and
placement is described by the term person-fit-job. Person-fit-job is the degree to
which the unique blend of characteristics of an individual worker is suited for
success in a particular job. The more closely the individual’s intelligence, abilities
(Chapter 2), traits, personality (Chapter 3) and attitudes (Chapter 8) will match
the requirements of the job, the more productive and satisfied the individual will
be (Greenberg & Baron, 2008).
Selection and placement are based on information that is obtained from
application forms, interviews, test registers, employee records and performance
evaluations. This information can be used to compare the abilities of candidates
and also offers the criteria for evaluating a candidate. Psychological tests (for
example tests relating to the measurement of personality or aptitude) offer
valuable information, as the information gathered from the tests can establish a
candidate’s possible job success.
1.4.2 Economic, personal, social and legal considerations

Individual differences generally play an important part in the screening and
placement of individuals (refer point 1.4.1). According to McCormick and
Tiffin (1975), effective selection and placement are extremely important from an
economic, personal, social and contractual point of view.
1.4.2.1 Economic considerations

Optimal use of all production factors including the labour force is of major
importance to most organisations. Individual differences in the ability and
efficiency of different workers necessitate that each worker is placed in a position
where he/she can be successful.
Example
If Mashilo is an expert in the field of computer technology, he would probably not be
very successful if he was employed as a chef.
Another economic consideration is the cost of labour turnover (the number of

workers who leave and must be replaced within a given period of time). A high
labour turnover results in the process of recruitment of candidates, interviewing,
testing, training, etc having to be repeated often, resulting in increased costs.

Correct selection and placement combat high staff turnover, as from the
employer’s point of view, it ensures that the most suitable worker is selected
and placed in a position where he/she will be happy and remain in service for
a longer period of time.
1.4.2.2 Personal considerations

It is important that workers are placed in jobs where their unique knowledge,
experiences, skills, aptitude and abilities best match the job requirements.
Example
If Martin is a qualified electronic engineer with ten years of experience in electronic
maintenance and is also a competent person with leadership skills, he would probably
be successful in his new job as manager of an engineering firm.
A person’s job satisfaction is a direct result of his/her ability to execute tasks. The
ability to do a job is an essential basis although it is not necessarily sufficient for
job satisfaction.
Example
Sarah is an expert in the field of computer technology. She experiences partial job
satisfaction as manager of the computer department, but may still feel unhappy because
her salary is insufficient and her office is too cramped.
1.4.2.3 Social considerations

Habitually, people are intent on improving their standard of living and living
conditions. This stems from the needs and goals of the community as a whole
and, in order to achieve this, a high premium is placed on the optimal use of
human potential. This is currently achieved by attempts to offer everybody who
can benefit, training opportunities and career guidance. Social consideration is
also of prime importance in job situations so that human talent can be best
utilised by placing workers in jobs where they will be successful.
Example
It is in the interest of the organisation if Brad is a successful personnel manager. However,
if he studied with the aid of a public service bursary and at a university financed by
the community, it would also be important to the community that he is a success. Brad
will, of course, also experience satisfaction as an individual.

1.4.2.4 Legal and contractual considerations

Legal considerations are related to the stipulations of service contracts and
the requirements of trade unions. The majority of employees sign a contract
with employers at the time of employment. If the individual differences between
people are not taken into consideration at the time of placement, it could, after
a while, become evident that the placement of the individual has been a mistake.
Consequently, not much can be done about the situation as both parties are
under contractual obligation.
In cases where no service contract has been entered into, an employer is not
able to dismiss a worker purely on the grounds of incorrect placement.
Example
A union representative may appeal against the dismissal and demand reinstatement of
a worker belonging to that trade union.
1.5 Summary
The origin of human behaviour can be attributed to the influence of heredity and
the environment. In this regard we can distinguish between the genotype (the
total genetic composition of an individual) and the phenotype (the development
of the individual that is determined by interaction between heredity and the
environment).
Heredity occurs as a result of the transfer of genetic information that is found
on the chromosomes in the cell nuclei of the female ovum and the male sperm cell.
Genetic information is transferred to the fertilised ovum (zygote) at conception
and also to all other cells during the developmental or cell division process.
Gender is determined by the sperm cell of the father. If the ovum of the
woman is fertilised by a male sperm cell with an X chromosome, the gender
is female (XX) and in the case of a Y chromosome male (XY).
Heredity has a direct influence on the individual (for example eye colour,
gender and blood type) and an indirect influence (for example clarity of eyesight).
Environmental influences are influences on people that are not genetic in
nature. We can distinguish between pre-natal influences (radiation, rubella, etc),
influences that take place during the process of birth (traumatic experiences)
and post-natal influences (social environment, cultural factors, family size, birth
order and physical environment).
Research on the contribution of genetic factors has been carried out with the
aid of family studies, twin studies and studies with adopted children. It appears
that, in general, intelligence is hereditary but the environment also makes an
important contribution.

A moot point exists with regard to the contribution that heredity and the
environmental influences make to the development of the mature individual. It
appears that environmental influences determine factors such as personality and
interests and that intellectual abilities are hereditary, but environmental influences
are needed to reach intellectual potential.
Individuals differ in their work behaviour in terms of quantitative (behaviour is
measured in units or amounts) and qualitative (behaviour is evaluated according
to satisfactory/unsatisfactory) dimensions.
Differences in work behaviour or job performance are largely caused
by individual variables (abilities, aptitude, intelligence, age, gender, etc)
and situational variables (working conditions as well as organisational and
social variables).
Individual differences are of great importance during selection and placement of
workers. Selection and placement are done by means of comparing the differences
between individuals that are obtained from applications, interviews, personality
tests, etc. The differences between people are also important in view of economic,
personal, social and legal/contractual considerations.
Self-evaluation
1. Distinguish between the concepts genotype and phenotype. Illustrate your answer
by means of examples. (6)
2. Describe the process of heredity in terms of the following factors:
(a) hereditary material (5)
(b) meiosis (5)
(c) process of cell division (5)
(d) gender determination (10)
3. Define environmental influences according to those described by Minton and
Schneider (1980). (4)
4. Discuss the following three characteristics of environmental influences in full:
(a) pre-natal influences
(b) influences during the process of birth
(c) post-natal influences (12)
5. A and B are identical twins (monozygotic), C and D are non-identical twins
(dizygotic), E is a six-year-old boy and F is his ten-year-old sister. All three of
these pairs of children grew up in the same home. Indicate which differences/
similarities in terms of intelligence can be expected amongst the pairs with
regard to research that has been done in this field. (4)
6. Discuss heredity versus environmental influence in full with the use of examples. (10)
7. Distinguish between the quantitative and qualitative dimensions of work
behaviour by means of work-related examples. (10)

8. Name and comprehensively discuss, using examples, any two individual

variables that lead to differences in work behaviour. (12)
9. Name and discuss comprehensively by means of examples any two situational
variables that lead to differences in work behaviour. (20)
10. Discuss the importance of individual differences with regard to selection and
placement in the industry in terms of the following factors (use relevant
examples):
(a) differences in work potential (10)
(b) economic considerations (5)
(c) personal considerations (5)
(d) social considerations (5)
(e) legal/contractual considerations (5)

chapter
Human
2 abilities
2.1 Introduction .............................................................................. 23

2.2 The nature of the concept ‘ability’ ................................................ 23
2.3 Types of abilities .............................................................................. 26
2.3.1 Cognitive intelligence or mental ability ........................ 26
2.3.1.1 Nature of cognitive intelligence .................. 26
2.3.1.2 The functional approach .............................. 27
2.3.1.3 The structural approach ............................... 28
2.3.1.4 The measurement of intelligence ............... 29
2.3.2 Physical abilities .................................................................. 31
2.3.3 Mechanical abilities ............................................................ 32
2.3.3.1 The nature of mechanical abilities ............. 32
2.3.3.2 Testing of mechanical abilities ..................... 33
2.3.4 Psycho-motor abilities ...................................................... 33
2.3.4.1 The nature of psycho-motor abilities ........ 33
2.3.4.2 Types of psycho-motor abilities .................. 33
2.3.4.3 Examples of psycho-motor tests in use ... 35
2.3.5 Sensory abilities .................................................................. 36
2.3.5.1 Visual abilities .................................................. 36
2.3.5.2 Hearing abilities .............................................. 38
2.4 Summary .............................................................................. 39
Self-evaluation .............................................................................. 40

human abilities 23
Study objective
■■ define the concept ‘human ability’;
■■ describe the nature of intelligence, mechanical abilities and psycho-motor abilities;
■■ distinguish between the different types of psycho-motor abilities;
■■ portray the functional and structural approaches to intelligence;
■■ explain how people observe visually and by hearing; and
■■ outline the ways in which intelligence, hearing and mechanical, psycho-motor and
visual abilities can be measured.
2.1 Introduction
In Chapter 1, we gained an idea of the extent to which people may differ from
one another. These differences also imply that people will have different abilities.
We may often refer to the fact that ‘A has a talent for painting’ or ‘B is brilliant
with figures’ or ‘C has an aptitude for the arts’, etc. People therefore refer to
concepts such as ability, aptitude, talent and giftedness in others which produce
certain behaviour patterns.
It stands to reason that human abilities will be viewed as the most important
element in trade and industry because, without the ability to execute these
activities, any form of labour or work behaviour is inconceivable. In this chapter,
the concept ‘ability’ will be discussed in terms of intellectual, mechanical and
psycho-motor abilities.
2.2 The nature of the concept ‘ability’

According to McCormick and Ilgen (1992), people differ in their capacity to
obtain certain skills which are necessary for performing specific activities. These
capacities are called ‘aptitudes’. Aptitudes are basic abilities and the measuring
of these abilities also predicts job success in the industry.
Abilities can be described as the hereditary or acquired characteristics of a
person that enable him/her to display or learn behaviour or performance of a
certain kind (Plug, Meyer, Louw & Gouws, 1997).
Example
Jabu, a worker, crafts a beautiful piece of furniture. He possesses a hereditary characteristic
(his hands) and an acquired characteristic (he learnt how to work with wood) and the
two characteristics enable him to execute the task.
Greenberg and Baron (2008) describe abilities as mental and physical capacities
for performing various tasks. The concept ‘ability’ is closely related to a person’s

other characteristics. Consequently it is necessary to distinguish ability from

other characteristics and also to indicate which components fall under the term
‘ability’. Ability can be divided into two categories or components.
The first component refers to an existing or already developed ability or
skill to display specific behaviour or to execute a specific task. It consists of the
following factors:
❏❏ Skill
A skill can be defined as a dexterity at performing specific tasks which has been
acquired through training or experience.
Example
Jabu has acquired the skill to manufacture furniture.
❏❏ Capability
This is the manifested proficiency to execute a specific task and it is determined
by the hereditary aptitude of an individual as well as by formative influences of
the environment.
Example
Jabu was born with two hands (hereditary aptitude) and he completed a course in
furniture manufacturing (formative influence of the environment). Accordingly, he can
now build a display cabinet with ease (he has a manifested proficiency).
The second category or component of ability does not refer to the learned or
manifested proficiency but to the fact that the person should be able to acquire
the ability with relative ease. All these elements originate from the specific
characteristics which the person has inherited, namely:
❏❏ Aptitude
A hereditary ability to achieve in a specific task or activity in the future (Plug et
al, 1997).
Example
When Jabu was born with two hands, he was already disposed to be able to make
furniture in the future.
❏❏ Potential
The characteristic that enables a person to display behaviour or characteristics
of a specific kind at a later stage (Plug et al, 1997).

human abilities 25
Example
Jabu was born with two hands and this is a characteristic that will enable him to
manufacture furniture one day.
❏❏ Giftedness
A basic, chiefly hereditary, ability to develop and acquire skills. According to Plug
et al (1997), the term is generally used in a wide sense for a person’s aptitude and
therefore largely means the same as the term ‘aptitude’ above.
❏❏ Talent
A high degree of hereditary aptitude in a specific area, for example, music (Plug
et al, 1997).
When the above-mentioned elements are brought into relation with one
another, they appear to differ in terms of their origin and extent. These links can
be highlighted by the following illustration:
Example
The more knowledge Joan has of the engine of a car (her skill) and the greater her
aptitude for mechanical work, the greater her ability as a mechanic.
Hereditary characteristics provide Joan with the potential to master certain types of tasks
relatively easily. The existence of the potential results in Joan having a definite aptitude in
the specific area (type of task).
The wider the variety and the higher the intensity of the aptitude, the more gifted Joan
will be. When Joan possesses a high degree of aptitude in a specific area, she is referred
to as someone with talent. Giftedness thus refers to a wide spectrum of aptitudes while
talent refers to a high degree of aptitude in single areas (types of tasks).
Ability can therefore be seen as comprising two components, namely skills (existing
proficiency) and aptitude (to become proficient quickly and easily) that complement
each other. The more skills Joan has at a given point in time (combined with her aptitude
in that specific area), the greater her ability.
Activity
1. Describe in your own words the difference between an aptitude and a skill.
2. Write down a list of abilities that you or someone that you know have (for example,
driver, writer, etc). Try and divide these abilities according to:
(a) skill or capability; and
(b) aptitude, potential, giftedness and/or talent.

2.3 Types of abilities

According to McCormick and Ilgen (1992), the different human abilities cannot
be distinguished from each other quite so clearly. Different writers also do not
categorise all abilities into the same types. For the purpose of this chapter, human
abilities can be categorised under the following headings:
■■ cognitive intelligence (mental ability);
■■ physical abilities;
■■ mechanical abilities;
■■ psycho-motor abilities; and
■■ sensory abilities.
2.3.1 Cognitive intelligence or mental ability

2.3.1.1 Nature of cognitive intelligence
Cognitive can be regarded as the most important form of intelligence within the
field of human resources. According to Greenberg and Baron (2008), cognitive
intelligence consists of learning from experience, understanding complex ideas,
adapting effectively to the environment, engaging in various forms of reasoning
and overcoming obstacles with careful thought. The authors also refer to practical
intelligence (the ability to solve practical problems of everyday life) and tacit
knowledge (the knowledge that one has to be able to get things done).
Jordaan and Jordaan (1998) say that cognitive intelligence or ability can be
viewed as one concept that we use to describe activities of a specific standard.
Intelligence also determines the yardstick for the speed with which activities are
executed. For the purpose of this paragraph cognitive intelligence and intelligence
will be regarded as a synonym.
Example
If Julius can solve a mathematical problem within ten minutes and Sammy takes half an
hour to solve the same problem, the deduction can be made that Julius probably has a
higher cognitive ability or intelligence than Sammy.
Intelligence is also based on the strength or degree of difficulty of tasks that have
to be executed.
Example
Sally can complete an arithmetic addition within ten minutes and Elizabeth manages to
add, divide and multiply within ten minutes. The deduction can be made that Elizabeth’s
mental ability is probably better than that of Sally’s.

human abilities 27
According to Jordaan and Jordaan (1998), there are two main points of departure
with regard to intelligence, namely the functional and structural approaches. The
authors describe the difference between the functional and structural approaches
by comparing them with the use and composition of a car:
■■ The functional nature of a car tells of the uses of a car, which is to transport
people, to take part in rallies, to be used as a status symbol, etc. In the same
manner, intelligence serves as a functional purpose for people.
■■ The structural nature of a car is indicative of the fact that a car consists of a
metal body with rubber wheels and an engine. When we refer to the structural
approach of intelligence, we refer to the parts that intelligence consists of.
2.3.1.2 The functional approach

Plug et al (1997) describe the functional nature of intelligence as the ability to:
■■ effectively deal with and apply abstract concepts;
■■ see connections and master new learning material; and
■■ effectively adapt to new circumstances or situations.
Louw and Swiegers (1988) describe the components that make up the functional
approach as follows:
❏❏ Abstract reasoning
The ability to think abstractly lies at the core of intelligence. The ability to think
abstractly indicates how well a person can argue, make deductions, see relations,
abstract and apply principles, etc. This view of intelligence, therefore, places a
great deal of emphasis on characteristics such as judgement, creativity and insight.
This approach is criticised on the basis that intelligence is being described in
terms of concepts such as judgement, creativity and insight which are difficult to
define and measure.
❏❏ Learning ability
Intelligence is also the ability to learn. This refers especially to the ability to
master subject-matter, the speed of learning and the ability to learn from tuition
and experience.
Criticism against this approach is based on the perception that non-intellectual
factors such as motivation, memory and attention are disparaged. There are
other factors, apart from intelligence, that determine a person’s learning ability.
❏❏ Adaptability
Intelligence is also viewed as the ability to effectively adapt to the environment.
People should be able to adapt their conscious thought processes in such a way
that their behaviour is altered and a suitable adaptation to changing circumstances
and new demands of life is made.

This approach is criticised because emotional factors also help people to adapt
to changing circumstances. Supporters of this view often confuse emotional
adaptation with intellectual adaptation. Furthermore, this approach is also seen
as a passive view of people’s mental ability. People do not only adapt to the
environment; they also use their mental ability to change the environment to
suit themselves.
Modern psychologists view each of the above approaches as too limited and
prefer an integrated, comprehensive description or definition of intelligence (Louw
& Swiegers, 1988).
Wechsler (Louw & Swiegers, 1988) describes intelligence as the individual’s
global ability to act purposefully, think rationally and deal with his/her environment
effectively. Intelligence is viewed as global as it identifies an individual’s behaviour
as a whole. Intelligence is composed of elements of ability that are not entirely
independent of each other, but that can still be distinguished from one another.
Louw and Swiegers (1988) believe that intelligence is not identical to the sum
of the mental abilities. The reasons for this are as follows:
■■ the final product of intelligence depends on the way in which the different
abilities are combined;

■■ other factors such as motivation, idealism and sense of duty also play a part
in intelligent behaviour; and

■■ despite a person owning an excess of a given ability (for example, to think
abstractly), it may contribute only marginally to the behaviour as a whole.
2.3.1.3 The structural approach

The structural approach emphasises the study of the composition of intelligence:
the identification of factors that form the basis of intelligence. Theories abound
with the composition of intelligence. Well-known examples of these theories
include Spearman’s two-factor theory, Guilford’s three-dimensional theory,
Thurstone’s multi-factor theory and the hierarchical models of intelligence.
Spearman’s two-factor theory
According to Spearman, all forms of intelligent behaviour can be expressed as
a function of two factors. These aspects are general intelligence (fundamental
intellectual abilities common to all forms of intellectual behaviour) known as
factor G and factor S which is specific intelligence or intellectual ability (Louw
& Swiegers, 1988).
Example
Factor G plays an important role in Thabo’s arithmetic ability and to a lesser degree in
his mechanical tasks where factor S is important.

human abilities 29
Guilford’s three-dimensional theory

Louw & Swiegers (1988) inform us that Guilford rejected the idea of a general
factor (G). He distinguished between three dimensions of intellectual reasoning,
namely:
■■ acts or operations (how the intellect functions);
■■ content (information used for intellect functioning); and
■■ products (intellectual process results).
Thurstone’s multi-factor theory

Thurstone’s research indicates that a person’s total intellectual ability is dependent
on seven primary mental abilities (group factors) namely:
■■ verbal understanding (V): understanding words;
■■ word fluency (W): to read and write fluently;
■■ spatial abilities (S): forming visual-spatial ideas);
■■ numeric ability (N): working with numbers, for example, adding and
subtracting;
■■ memory (M): storing and recalling information;
■■ perceptual ability (P): speed with which objects are observed accurately; and
■■ reasoning ability (R): planning and solving problems in view of rules,
principles and experience).
Thurstone eventually concluded that the seven primary mental abilities

do not exist independently of each other and that a general intellectual ability
plays a role in each of the above group factors (Smit, 1991).
The hierarchical models of intelligence
The general intelligence factor (G) is seen in this instance as the fundamental
factor. Approximately 40 per cent of all intellectual behaviour can be explained
by factor G. From the general factor, two primary group factors develop, namely:
■■ verbal-numeric-educational group factor; and
■■ practical-mechanical-spatial-physical group factor.
Each of the primary factors divides into secondary group factors. The division
of the various factors form a hierarchical pattern and each branch forms smaller
elements of a formerly greater whole (Louw & Swiegers, 1988).
2.3.1.4 The measurement of intelligence

Calculation of the intelligence quotient (IQ)
The intelligence quotient (IQ) was adopted from the German psychologist Stern
and applied by Terman. The term IQ subsequently became known world-wide.
In order to calculate IQ, Terman multiplied the ratio of the mental age (MA) to
the chronological age (CA) by 100 (Louw & Swiegers, 1988).

MA
IQ = × 100
CA
The above formula is composed of the following symbols:
■■ IQ: the mental ability or intelligence quotient of an individual.
Example
Thandeko has an IQ of 100. Beatrice has an IQ of 120. Beatrice is more intelligent than
Thandeko.
■■ MA (mental age) is the level of intellectual development in terms of the

chronological age that the person whose IQ is being measured has reached. It
is the mental ability of a person without his/her actual age being taken into
consideration. A person can be 14 years old yet have the mental ability of a
person that is 16 years of age.
■■ CA (chronological age) is a person’s actual age (calculated from his/her date
of birth).
Example
Robin is a four-year-old person (CA) with a mental age (MA) of six. A’s IQ can now be
6 (MA)
calculated as follows: × 100 = 150 (IQ)
4 (CA)
Mandy is a six-year-old person (CA) with a mental age (MA) of four. B’s IQ can be
4 (MA)
calculated as follows: × 100 = 67 (IQ)
6 (CA)
According to Jordaan and Jordaan (1998), there is a measure of consistency

between mental age (MA) and chronological age (CA).
Example
A three-year-old with an MA of two will have an MA of four at the age of six, an MA of
six at the age of nine years and an MA of eight at the age of 12 years.
MA 2 4 6 8
= = = = = 67 (IQ)
CA 3 6 9 12
The calculation of the IQ for adults sometimes creates a problem. This stems
from the assumption that mental age remains relatively static after the age of
16 years. In other words, most IQ tests show no improvement in performance
after the age of 16 years. According to Louw and Swiegers (1990), this approach
is viewed as unscientific because certain IQ tests do indeed indicate intellectual
growth after the age of 16 years.

human abilities 31
2.3.1.5 Intelligence tests

Several intelligence tests have been in use in South Africa for quite some time.
Well-known examples of a group test and an individual test will now be discussed.
The Otis Mental Test
The Otis Mental Test is an example of a group test (more than one person can
be tested at the same time) that gives a quick indication of a testee’s general
intellectual ability (Smit, 1991). It has been adapted to South African conditions
by the National Bureau for Educational and Social Research.
According to Siegel, the Otis Mental Test has a high predictive validity for the
selection of a wide variety of careers. It has been applied especially successfully for
the selection of crane operators and drivers. Reliable results were also obtained
in the selection of supervisors, foremen and salespeople. Super and Crites
concurred that the difficulty value of the test is too low for higher intelligence
levels (for example, university students) (Smit, 1991).
The Wechsler-Bellevue Intelligence Test
The Wechsler-Bellevue Intelligence Test is used as an individual intelligence
test (only one person can be tested at a time). Wechsler, the drafter of the test,
lays claim to the fact that the test is not merely an intelligence test but that it
also has clinical value. The test was adapted to South African conditions and
standardised by the erstwhile National Institute for Personnel Research (NIPR).
The test consists of six verbal sub-tests (general information, general reasoning,
arithmetical reasoning ability, number repetition, similarities and vocabulary)
and five non-verbal sub-tests (picture completion, joining of objects, blocks
patterns, number symbol replacement and picture arrangement). This test can be
used for people between the ages of 20 and 59 years.
Activity
1. Frik has a mental age (MA) of 16 and a chronological age (CA) of 14. Calculate his
IQ according to the data supplied above.
2.3.2 Physical abilities

Greenberg and Baron (2008) describe physical abilities as the capacities to
engage in physical tasks required to perform a job. Jobs differ from each other
and therefore require different physical abilities. Greenberg and Baron (2008)
highlight that the following types of physical abilities are applicable in the field
of human resources:
■■ Strength: The ability to apply physical force.
Example
A worker loads a large bag of potatoes onto a truck.

■■ Flexibility: Ability to move one’s body in an agile manner.
Example
A construction worker must climb up a building to repair the roof.
■■ Stamina: Ability to endure physical activity over prolonged periods.
Example
A mineworker has to spend a whole day working underground in a dusty mine shaft.
■■ Speed: Ability to move quickly.
Example
A worker must quickly repair a dangerously leaking gas pipe.
Activity
1. Write down the various types of jobs of which you can think.
2. Determine whether the jobs require physical abilities by taking note of strength,
flexibility, stamina and speed.
2.3.3 Mechanical abilities

2.3.3.1 The nature of mechanical abilities
Although most mechanical work includes physical activities, mechanical
ability refers more to the cognitive mental aspects of such work than the physical
or motor aspects. In this respect, two categories of mechanical ability can be
distinguished (McCormick & Ilgen, 1992):
■■ Comprehension of mechanical relations is based on knowledge acquired
from experience with mechanical apparatus and tools. This ability is known
as the general mechanical aptitude.
Example
To identify tools and their specific purposes.
■■ Perception and manipulation of spatial relations is required in the execution of

tasks where visualisation of the physical relation between objects is required.
Example
To dismantle and re-assemble the carburettor of a car.

human abilities 33
Activity
1. Make a list of the technical careers of which you can think. Determine whether each
career requires mechanical abilities, by taking note of:
■■ experience of mechanical apparatus; and
■■ perception and manipulation of spatial relations.
2.3.3.2 Testing of mechanical abilities

The Purdue Mechanical Adaptability Test was developed to determine which
candidates would be successful in careers or training programmes that require
mechanical abilities and interests. This test measures experience in mechanical,
electrical and related activities and is known as a test of general mechanical
aptitude. Both general mechanical aptitude and spatial visualisation ability
are especially required for jobs such as artisans, motor mechanics, repairmen/
-women, draftsmen/-women and engineers.
2.3.4 Psycho-motor abilities

2.3.4.1 The nature of psycho-motor abilities
The term ‘psycho-motor’ consists of ‘psycho’ (the role of the brain and the
nervous system) and ‘motor’ (muscle movement). We normally refer to psycho-
motor abilities as dexterity, manipulative ability, motor ability, eye-hand
coordination and related skills that are executed by muscle tension. These tasks or
skills uniformly require a greater or lesser degree of visual control (McCormick
& Ilgen, 1992).
2.3.4.2 Types of psycho-motor abilities

Several types of psycho-motor abilities exist. The following list of psycho-motor
activities is based on factor analytical calculations performed by Fleishman and
others (Theologus, Romashko & Fleishman, 1970):
❏❏ Choice reaction time

This is the ability to select or initiate a
response when the response must be selected
from two or more alternative choices or stimuli.
Example
A worker selecting bad apples from a conveyer
belt must have the ability to quickly remove those
apples that do not meet the requirements.

❏❏ Reaction time
This is the speed with which a single
response can be given to a single stimulus.
Example
The high reaction time required of a typist to
type quickly or a packer who has to pack a
certain number of boxes onto a lorry within
an hour.
❏❏ Manual dexterity
Manual dexterity is to execute deft and
coordinated movements with the hand or
with the hand and arm simultaneously.
Example
Dexterity is particularly important for doing
woodwork or mechanical repairs (motor
mechanic).
❏❏ Rate control
Rate control is the ability to make timely
and anticipated motor adjustments, relative
to the changes that occur in the speed or
direction of a forward-moving object.
Example
Rate control is required of a pilot – the air speed of the aeroplane must be continuously
controlled in accordance with the rate at which the aeroplane loses height during the
preparation for landing.
❏❏ Speed of limb movement

Speed of limb movement is the speed with
which discrete movements can be executed
with the arm and leg.
Example
A gymnast who executes movements on the horizontal bar
must be able to execute fast and correct movements with
his/her arms and legs.

human abilities 35
❏❏ Wrist-finger speed
Wrist-finger speed involves the discrete movements that are executed with the
fingers, hands and wrists.
Example
Stella, a surgeon, must make different movements
at a fast rate with her fingers, hands and wrists
in her daily tasks, such as making an incision,
inserting stitches, etc.
❏❏ Finger dexterity
Finger dexterity is the ability to make deft and
coordinated movements with the fingers.
Example
Finger dexterity is important for the deft handling
of objects such as screws, little gears of a watch,
paintbrushes, etc.
❏❏ Precision control
Precision control is the execution
of controlled muscle movements
necessary for the setting up or tuning
of machinery or control mechanisms.
Example
A motor mechanic must have the ability to tune the carburettor of a car to ensure that
the correct amount of fuel is consumed.
2.3.4.3 Examples of psycho-motor tests in use

A typical job that requires psycho-motor abilities is that of packer. Research
has shown that the Purdue Pegboard Test and Minnesota Rate of Manipulation
Test are equally successful in measuring the psycho-motor abilities of packers
(McCormick & Ilgen, 1992). The Purdue Pegboard Test, for example, consists
of a board, 45 cm × 30 cm with 50 small holes drilled in two rows. At the top
end of the board are cavities in which small pegs are stored. The testee is asked
to insert as many pegs into the holes as possible. The number inserted within 30
seconds is an indication of the person’s finger dexterity.

Activity
1. Write down a few examples of tasks that, according to you, require psycho-motor
abilities.
2. Carefully observe a few people who execute these tasks.
3. Note the way in which the movements are executed as well as the speed thereof.
4. Categorise each task according to the types of psycho-motor abilities described in
point 2.3.4.2.
2.3.5 Sensory abilities

In spite of the fact that people have five senses, only the two that record the
most stimuli (vision and hearing) are discussed here. A detailed discussion of the
process of observation follows in Chapter 6.
2.3.5.1 Visual abilities

According to Plug et al (1997), visual observation takes place through the
observation of light by the eye. Thereafter, the perceptions are interpreted by the
central nervous system. The light stimuli firstly lead to visual perceptions such as
colour and brightness, but the interpretation thereof results in the perception of
further factors such as shape, distance, movement, space, contrast, depth, visual
illusions, observation and uniformity.
The following factors influence visual ability:

❏❏ Acuity of vision
Acuity of vision is the ability to distinguish elements that lie close together in the
visual field (Plug et al, 1997). An individual’s acuity of vision is usually expressed
in relation to the acuity of vision of the ‘average’ or ‘normal’ eye.
Example
Anna has acuity of vision of 3/6 (Anna can distinguish visual elements from one another
at a distance of three metres). The normal eye can distinguish the elements at a distance
of six metres.
The Snellen chart is used in industry to determine acuity of vision by establishing

whether a person is able to read letters on a chart from a specified distance (Plug
et al, 1997). In industry, acuity of vision will play an important part during the
selection of candidates for jobs such as drivers, pharmacists, watchmakers and
office workers (McCormick & Ilgen, 1992).

human abilities 37
Activity
1. List a few careers. Now try and establish which of these careers require acuity of
vision and which do not.
❏❏ Colour differentiation
Colour vision refers to a person’s ability to observe all colour schemes in the
spectrum into which light is broken up and to distinguish the different colours
from one another.
Colour blindness is fairly common in the population. It indicates a total or
partial inability to observe colour nuances or differences. People who are colour
blind cannot distinguish certain colours from one another, even though the visual
observation of shape is not influenced (Plug et al, 1997).
Example
Susan will be able to observe the shape of a traffic light but will not be able to distinguish
the red light from the green light.
The most common form of colour blindness is the inability to distinguish between
some nuances of red, green and grey.
Activity
1. Write down three careers that would be pursued with great difficulty by people who
are colour blind.
❏❏ Perception of depth
According to Plug et al (1997), perception of depth is related to the localising of
objects in an observed space. This takes place on two levels, namely the distances
of objects from the observer (egocentric depth) and the distances of objects from
another object (relative depth).
Although visual observation of depth is more accurate, hearing and feeling
(sense of touch) also play a part in the perception of depth. Perception of depth
and perception of colour in the industry are measured by means of the ‘Ortho-
rater’. Perception of depth is an essential ability when, for example, technical and
architectural drawings have to be inspected.
Activity
1. Determine how many levels you can perceive in the figure.
2. Visit your local bookstore and look at three-dimensional (3-D)
pictures. Try and see deeper dimensions in the pictures.

❏❏ Other factors
Apart from acuity of vision, colour differentiation and perception of depth which
influence people’s visual observation, there are other influences as well, for
example, short and long-term eye diseases, eye injuries, astigmatism, squints,
amblyopia and night blindness.
2.3.5.2 Hearing abilities

Hearing can be described as the observation of sound by
means of the ear and the interpretation thereof by the central
nervous system (Plug et al, 1997). Sound stimuli result in
the sensation of hearing. Furthermore, hearing comprises
the interpretation of such sensations through identification
of the various sound stimuli such as speech, music or rain.
Plug et al (1997) explain that the most important auditory
perceptions are pitch (the frequency of a sound wave) and
loudness (amplitude of the sound wave).
Measurement of hearing
People’s hearing abilities can be measured by means of an audiometer
(acoumeter). The instrument is used to measure acuteness of hearing at different
sound frequencies. Sound frequencies are the number of sound waves that reach
the listener per second. The human ear responds only to sound with frequencies
of about 20 to 20 000 hertz (20 to 20 000 waves per second) (Plug et al, 1997).
The intensity of sound indicates the volume or loudness thereof. The louder the
sound, the higher the intensity (for example, in the case of a ‘screaming’ circular
saw in a factory) and the lower the loudness, the lower the sound intensity (for
example, a whisper). The intensity of sound is expressed in decibels. An almost
inaudible whisper is almost equal to ten decibels while the sound of a jet plane
can reach 120 decibels which can be painful and even harmful to the ear.
Implication for the industry
People differ with regard to their ability to hear and consequently this has
implications for the employer in terms of selection and placement of personnel.
Workers with hearing defects, illnesses or injuries will obviously not be suited
to activities that rely on sensitive hearing. Such workers will, for example, not
be able to tune a piano. It is also important that the intensity of sound in some
work environments be measured and kept within limits to prevent hearing
damage to workers. Research has proven that noise above 90 decibels has a
detrimental influence on complex mental tasks, tasks that require dexterity and
speed and tasks that require meticulous observation. Hearing damage to workers
is generally experienced as a result of lengthy periods of exposure to sound with
a high frequency (Ribeaux & Poppleton, 1985).

human abilities 39
Activity
1. List a number of careers. Now try and determine in which careers good hearing is
of the utmost importance and in which it is not.
2.4 Summary
The concept ‘ability’ can be described as hereditary or acquired characteristics of
a person that make behaviour possible. We can distinguish between abilities that
have been acquired (skill and proficiency) and abilities that are hereditary (aptitude,
potential, giftedness and talent). Furthermore, we can also distinguish between
different types of abilities such as intelligence (mental ability), physical abilities,
mechanical abilities, psycho-motor abilities and sensory abilities.
Intelligence is examined from a functional and structural approach. The
functional approach refers to the functions or uses of intelligence (abstract
reasoning, ability to learn and adaptation to circumstances). The structural
approach refers to the composition of intelligence (for example, the seven primary
mental abilities according to Thurstone). The calculation of the intelligence
quotient (IQ) is done by using the formula:
MA
IQ = × 100
CA
The ratio between the mental and chronological ages generally remains
constant over the years while some research indicates that intelligence can actually
improve after the age of 16. Intelligence is measured by means of group tests (the
Otis Mental Test) and individual tests (the Wechsler-Bellevue Intelligence Test).
Physical abilities are divided into strength, flexibility, stamina and speed.
Mechanical abilities are divided into general mechanical aptitude (for example,
the ability to identify or use tools) and perception and manipulation of spatial
relations (for example, the ability to dismantle and assemble a carburettor).
Psycho-motor ability consists of abilities such as dexterity, manipulative
ability, motor ability, eye-hand coordination, muscle tension and visual control.
Visual ability consists of the observation and interpretation of light stimuli and is
influenced by factors such as acuity of vision, colour differentiation and perception
of depth.
Hearing consists of the observation and interpretation of sound. The human
ear responds to the intensity or loudness of sound (measured in decibels) and
the pitch or frequency thereof (measured in hertz).

Self-evaluation
1. Discuss the nature of the concept ability, with regard to the following factors:
(a) definition of ability (5)
(b) components or categories that comprise ability. Illustrate your answer with
industry-related examples (20)
2. Discuss the three components on which the functional approach of intelligence
is based. (10)
3. List and describe the primary mental abilities that intelligence is composed of
according to Thurstone’s multi-factor theory. (15)
4. Steve has a mental age (MA) of 16 years and a chronological age (CA) of 14
years. Calculate Steve’s intelligence quotient (IQ) according to the given data.
Show your calculations. (5)
5. List and discuss one example of a group test and one example of an individual
test that can be used to measure IQ. (10)
6. Discuss the nature of physical and mechanical abilities with regard to the
categories of which they are composed. Use relevant work-related examples
to illustrate your answer. (6)
7. Describe the types of psycho-motor abilities with the use of work-related
examples. (24)
8. Discuss three factors that influence visual ability. Use examples. (9)
9. Discuss people’s hearing ability in terms of the following:
(a) name the instrument that is used to measure hearing (1)
(b) the nature and measurement of the intensity of sound (6)
(c) the nature and measurement of sound frequency (3)
(d) the implication of hearing as an ability for workers in industry (5)

chapter
Personality
3
3.1 Introduction .............................................................................. 42
3.2 Nature of personality ........................................................................ 43
3.3 The origin and development of personality ............................... 44
3.3.1 Genetic determinants ........................................................ 45
3.3.2 Environmental determinants ........................................... 46
3.3.2.1 Physical environmental determinants ....... 46
3.3.2.2 Social and cultural determinants ................ 46
3.3.2.3 Specific events ................................................. 48
3.3.3 Personal determinants ...................................................... 48
3.4 Personality theories ........................................................................... 49
3.4.1 Psycho-dynamic approach theories .............................. 49
3.4.1.1 Sigmund Freud’s psycho-analytic theory . 49
3.4.2 Learning theory or behaviourism .................................. 52
3.4.2.1 Skinner’s theory of extreme
behaviourism ................................................... 52
3.4.3 Dimensional approaches .................................................. 53
3.4.3.1 Sheldon’s constitutional typology .............. 53
3.4.3.2 Cattell’s factor analytical model
of personality ................................................... 55
3.4.4 Humanistic approaches .................................................... 57
3.4.4.1 The self-actualisation theory of Maslow ... 57
3.5 Personality measurement .. ............................................................... 59
3.5.1 Objective testing ................................................................ 60
3.5.1.1 Self-rating ......................................................... 60
3.5.1.2 The South African Personality
Questionnaire .................................................. 60
3.5.1.3 The 16-Personality Factor Questionnaire
(16PF) ................................................................ 61
3.5.1.4 Criticism of the self-rating method ............ 62
3.5.2 Objective/subjective testing ............................................ 62
3.5.2.1 Rating by others ............................................. 62
3.5.2.2 Rating interviews ............................................ 64
3.5.3 Subjective testing ............................................................... 65
3.5.3.1 Projective techniques .................................... 65
3.5.3.2 The Rorschach Inkblot Test .......................... 65
3.5.3.3 The Thematic Apperception Test ............... 66
3.6 Summary .............................................................................. 67
Self-evaluation .............................................................................. 68

Study objective
■■ define the term ‘personality’;
■■ outline the origin and development of personality;
■■ describe and explain the different personality theories; and
■■ explain how personality can be measured.
3.1 Introduction
The term ‘personality’ is frequently used when we speak about someone or
voice a value judgement about someone. We say, for example, ‘A has a strong
personality’ or ‘B has a very weak personality’ or even that ‘the supervisor has no
personality’. These are value judgements (the degree of excellence that is ascribed
to a person).
When we study people’s personalities scientifically, we do not use value
judgements but rather try to describe, understand and predict people’s behaviour
in various situations.
Example
Brandon would like to work in an office with other colleagues while Stephanie prefers to
work alone in her own office.
Brandon and Stephanie each has a unique personality.
Example
When Brandon and Stephanie are reprimanded by the supervisor, both will try to protect
their egos. Brandon will react by banging his door very hard while Stephanie will gossip
about the supervisor afterwards with the other workers.
In spite of unique personality traits, human behaviour is generally predictable,

as indicated in the above example where both Brandon and Stephanie protect
their egos.
We can, therefore, see that the diverse personalities of people can have
important implications within the organisation. For instance, a worker without
the required personality traits for a specific job, will not be able to function
productively. It is important to know what personality is, how it originates, how
personalities differ and how they can be measured.

personality 43
3.2 Nature of personality

Personality is the unique and relatively stable patterns of an individual’s
behaviour, thoughts and emotions and how these patterns are expressed in
the interaction between objects, people in their environment and each other
(Greenberg & Baron, 2008).
According to Greenberg and Baron (2008) the most important dimensions of

work-related personality traits are:
■■ Extraversion is the urge to seek stimulation and enjoy the company of others.
■■ Agreeableness is the tendency to be compassionate to other people.
Compassion ranges from being good-natured, trusting, etc on the one side, to
being irritable, suspicious, etc on the other.
■■ Conscientiousness is the tendency to strive for competitiveness or achievement.
This dimension ranges from well-organised, careful behaviour on the one side
to disorganised, impulsive on the other.
■■ Neuroticism is the ability to experience unpleasant emotions easily. These
characteristics range from poised, calm, composed behaviour at the one end
to nervous, anxious, highly-strung and hypochondriacal behaviour on the
other.
■■ Openness to experience is the capacity to enjoy new experiences and ideas.
Traits range from imaginative, witty, broad-interest characteristics on the one

side to conservative and narrow interests on the other.
Personality can also develop gradually as a dynamic process. When personality is

measured or examined at any given point in time, the term merely indicates the
pattern of characteristics at that moment in a person’s life.
Example
Matthew was a shy, withdrawn boy at school. When he started his career he exhibited
leadership qualities and now likes to address people in public as the manager of the
organisation for which he works.
From this example, it appears that personality reflects a certain pattern of

characteristics at a given time.
Cattell, Eber and Tatsuoka (1970) in turn emphasised the predictability of
behaviour. According to him, one of the most important goals of the study of
the nature of personality is that which makes possible a prediction of a person’s
behaviour in a specific situation.

Example
Lindiwe applies for a management position in an organisation. The results of the
personality test indicate that Lindiwe is someone who does not communicate easily.
Consequently, it can be predicted that Lindiwe will not be suited to a management
position where good communication skills are a prerequisite.
It is also important to distinguish between concepts such as ‘personality’,

‘character’ and ‘temperament’.
Personality and character
In the early years of psychology, these concepts were considered to be
synonymous. Nowadays, character is considered as an aspect of personality that
relates to ethical standards and moral behaviour. It also refers to the degree to
which people attempt to act in accordance with their own moral standards (Plug
et al, 1997).
Temperament
A person’s temperament is the result of the interaction between genetic (biological)
and environmental factors and can be seen as the first manifestation of personality
(Gormly & Brodzinsky, 1989). Temperament is the aspect of personality which
is concerned with emotion. Three forms of temperament can be distinguished:
■■ difficult adjustment to routine resulting in bad moods as well as irregular
sleeping and eating habits;

■■ easy adaptation to routine and good-natured moods; and
■■ inactive people who react slowly to stimuli.
Activity
1. Describe the important dimensions of work-related personality traits.
2. Human behaviour is generally predictable on the grounds of personality traits. Write
down two situations in which your behaviour mirrored your personality traits.
3. Identify a situation where you behaved in accordance with your character.
4. State which form of temperament suits you best.
3.3 The origin and development of

personality
The remaining question is why people act in the ways that they do and how
personalities originate and develop. Meyer (1988) distinguishes between genetic,
environmental and personal determinants.

personality 45
3.3.1 Genetic determinants

Inherited genes have a large influence on the personality development of
individuals throughout their life. It is important to remember that the relationship
between genetic factors and a psychic characteristic such as personality is far more
complex than the relationship between genetic factors and physical attributes (Meyer,
1988).
Example
It is easier to determine that Charl is Graham and Sheila’s son from his physical
appearance rather than from judging his personality.
At this stage, there is no clarity as to how genetic factors directly influence

personality (Griffen & Moorhead, 1986). Genetic factors do have an
indirect influence on personality formation. Factors such as physical attractiveness,
height, build and other factors influence the self-image of people.
Example
Andries, who is remarkably short, unconsciously tries to dominate other people to
compensate for his lack of height.
Apart from isolated cases where identical twins are born with the same genetic
composition, all individuals differ from one another genetically. Heredity can,
therefore, determine individual personality differences (Coleman, Butcher &
Carson, 1980).
Example
If Amanda is born with a physical handicap due to heredity and Linah is attractive and
well-built, their personalities might be different. Amanda may develop a poor self-image
and Linah a more positive one.
It can be concluded that the hereditary characteristics and the physical

environment that people grow up in co-determine their personality development.
The more anatomic the characteristic, the greater the possibility that genetic
factors are dominant and the role of the environment less so. The more the
characteristic has to do with psychic functioning (for example, attitudes and
interests), the smaller the role of genetic determinants and the greater the role of
the environment (Meyer, 1988).
Example
The colour of Elmon’s eyes is determined purely by genetic factors. The fact that he is
an artistic person can be determined, in greater measure, by his attending art school
than by hereditary factors.

3.3.2 Environmental determinants

Supporters of this approach believe that personality development can be
attributed wholly to the influence of the environment. In this respect, we can
distinguish between physical and social (or cultural) environmental factors as
well as specific events.
3.3.2.1 Physical environmental determinants

Non-ideal physical environmental conditions can affect the psychic development
of a person in so far as they harm the physiological basis of behaviour. When
poor environmental conditions, such as malnutrition, impair the physiological
growth of an individual, it can have a direct influence on his/her personality
development. The psychic development of children is indirectly influenced by
unhealthy social conditions such as poverty, tension and fear (Meyer, 1988).
Research shows that stimulation from the environment has an important
influence on the child’s psychic development. This is evident from findings that
city and rural children show different rates of psychic development and reach
different levels of development. According to Munn (1961), it was found that
city children, for example, have higher IQs than rural children.
3.3.2.2 Social and cultural determinants

According to Meyer (1988), social and cultural influences are transferred to
the individual by means of the process of socialising. Socialising involves the
interaction of an individual with other individuals and groups such as parents,
friends, teachers, etc. Various forms of communication offered by the press, radio
and television also play a role.
The process of socialising begins with the people with whom the developing
person has intimate contact. They are known as significant other people. During
a child’s early years, such people consist of his/her parents or other members
of the family. Personality characteristics (self-concept, self-image, security and
human relationships) are determined largely by significant other people (for
example, the child’s mother or other family members).
Example
Betty’s mother criticised Betty continuously when she was a child. She later developed
a poor self-image.
As children grow older, they develop friendship ties and come into contact
with teachers, life partners and work colleagues. These people are all from a
specific social group and culture and the developing individual absorbs the values,
norms and cultural characteristics of this social group.

personality 47
Meyer (1990) explains that a child’s peer group (people of the same age),
especially during adolescence, plays a significant role in a person’s development
process.
Example
Nomsa’s friends are rebellious and intransigent with figures of authority. Consequently,
she too develops a defiant personality and shows aggression towards authoritative
figures.
An individual’s development is influenced by the wider community groups of

which he/she is a member. People who belong to the same socio-economic class,
pursue the same career, are members of the same church, gender or ethnic group,
share communal beliefs. These beliefs and norms are unique to each group and
appear mostly in the form of social roles that the individual acquires.
Example
Nomsa has learnt how to care for her own children from her mother.
The nature of the society and the social climate play an important role in the
development of the person. A harmonious climate will have a different impact
on the development of people than a violent society will have.
Example
People who grew up during a war will most probably exhibit more aggressive personality
traits than those who grew up in times of peace.
It can be deduced that the status of a group can have an important influence
on the development of self-concept or self-image and mental well-being of an
individual member of such a group. If a child develops in a community where he/
she is considered to be inferior, it will have a lasting effect on his/her personality
development. This mostly occurs in political minority groups or groups that
form part of the lower socio-economic classes.
Example
Ivan has grown up in a poor neighbourhood and people have looked down on his
family and scorned them for their poverty. Ivan will probably suffer from a feeling of
inferiority later in life.

3.3.2.3 Specific events

Specific events can influence the development of personality (Griffin & Moorhead,
1986). A turning point in a person’s life, as a result of a traumatic event such as
an accident that he/she experienced, can influence the personality of a person.
Example
An extremely spontaneous and extroverted person can become withdrawn after a car
accident and experience feelings of guilt in this regard.
3.3.3 Personal determinants

According to Meyer (1988), personal determinants can determine personality
development in the following ways:
■■ Characteristics of personality can be seen as the totality of an individual’s
characteristics at a specific moment as they have combined at that time due

to collective influences of development.
Example
Bianca and Rosinah are born identical twins with the same genetic potential. At the age
of ten years, Bianca loses her hand in an accident. Rosinah can do certain things with
two hands that Bianca cannot. The two now gradually develop differently so that Rosinah
has self-confidence and Bianca suffers from an inferiority complex. The personalities of
Rosinah and Bianca therefore change and are not determined by birth.
■■ An individual’s personality is not determined by genetic or environmental

determinants but by the individual because he/she has the freedom to develop
differently in spite of his/her genes and the environment in which he/she
grows up.
Example
Selby is born with a physical defect and grows up in poverty. Given his hereditary factors
and his environment, he should develop a low self-image. However, Selby decides not
to let his handicap and poor environment influence him. He later develops enough self-
confidence to be appointed as a manager in his job.
■■ The belief that personal attributes have a determining influence on the

formation of personality implies that the development of personality is fairly
unpredictable. The individual is seen as the creator of the world in which he/
she lives. His/her development is not purely a passive reaction mechanism as
is evident from the previous example.

personality 49
Example
Nobody would have predicted that Selby could hold a management position.
Activity
1. Give an objective description of a couple of your personality characteristics or those
of someone you know well.
2. State to what extent these characteristics are the result of genetic, environmental
and/or personal determinants.
3.4 Personality theories

Meyer, Moore and Viljoen (1994) explain that personality theories can be
divided into four categories namely the psycho-dynamic approach to personality
(depth psychology), learning theory (behaviourism), the dimensional approach to
personality and the humanistic approach to personality.
3.4.1 Psycho-dynamic approach theories

The psycho-dynamic approach to personality or depth psychology explains the
personality and behaviour of people as the result of forces within a person in
which they are largely unaware. The most well-known supporters of this
theory are Freud and his followers (psycho-analytic theory), Adler (individual
psychology) and Jung (analytic theory). Since Freud established the basis for the
psycho-dynamic approach, his theory is discussed.
3.4.1.1 Sigmund Freud’s psycho-analytic theory

Dimensions of personality
Freud was the first to pay attention to the different levels of consciousness,
distinguishing between consciousness (the conscious), and the non-conscious.
Freud saw the conscious as a flow of thought that only temporarily comes to a
person’s attention.
Freud then divides the non-conscious into the pre-conscious and the
subconscious or the unconscious. The pre-conscious contains contents or
thoughts that a person can recall at any time. The subconscious contains socially
unacceptable urges, wishes, thoughts, emotions and unpleasant memories that
a person continuously displaces from the conscious. Because these unpleasant
impulses are repressed, they appear in our dreams or when we have a slip-of-the-
tongue (the so-called ‘Freudian slips’).

Example
Tom’s parents abused him as a child and he experienced pain and fear. As an adult, Tom
has unpleasant memories of the abuse but denies and represses these memories by
not thinking about them at all. These unpleasant memories, however, appear in Tom’s
dreams. He frequently dreams of child abuse.
The personality structure

Personality is divided into the id, ego and super-ego.
■■ The id is the unconscious, congenital biological factor that consists of basic
life drives such as hunger, thirst, sex drives and death urges. The drives
are focused on immediate gratification with no consideration of reality or
morality.
■■ The ego is the reality factor that develops from birth through contact with
the environment. The ego experiences a feeling of identity, thought and

adaptation within the external world. The ego acts as ‘mediator’ and must
maintain harmony in the personality by satisfying the demands of the id and
super-ego in a socially-acceptable way. In this manner, the well-being and
survival of the individual are ensured.
Example
When the sex drive is activated in an immoral way by the id and the super-ego displaces
this drive based on moral beliefs, the ego will try to find a balance. Sex is then viewed
by the ego as permissible within an existing relationship.
The super-ego correlates with the conscience and morality. The super-ego
represses the immoral urges of the id. A child thus gradually identifies with the
moral beliefs of his/her parents.
Example
As a child, Joyce learns that it is wrong to steal from someone else. If she was to steal
something, her conscience would worry her because it is not in accordance with the
moral beliefs of her parents.
Dynamics of personality
In given circumstances, the ego is intent on maintaining balance between the
impulsiveness of the id and the moral concerns of the super-ego. When the
balance is disturbed, the individual experiences fear and the ego uses defence
mechanisms to alleviate the fear. Defence mechanisms distort reality to make
it easier for the person to handle fear (Papalia & Olds, 1995). (Examples of
defence mechanisms are discussed in Chapter 4.)

personality 51
Psycho-sexual development
Freud believed that the mature person’s personality is the result of childhood
development. He distinguished between five different phases of development
which correspond with the anatomical areas (body parts) of the child. The
libido (sexual energy) is focused on a certain body part during each phase of
development, in order to experience sexual pleasure:
■■ Oral phase: suck and bite action (nought to two years);
■■ Anal phase: interest in bowel movement and retention (two to three years);
■■ Phallic phase: interest in the genital organs (three to six years);
■■ Latent phase: association with children of the same gender (six to 12 years);
and
■■ Genital phase: heterosexual relationships form (from 13 years onwards).
Freud believed that a deviant personality development can be ascribed to a

fixation in a specific phase of development. The mature person is characterised
by traits that correspond with such a phase because the development of the
person has become fixated in a particular phase.
Example
Shaun’s physical development became fixated during the oral phase. Characteristic of
this phase is the pleasure that the child derives from sucking and biting actions. Later in
life, Shaun can be described as an oral type of person because he is extremely fond of
activities such as eating, drinking, talking or smoking.
Criticism of Freud’s theory

Freud was criticised because he over-emphasised the sexual aspects,
especially with respect to childhood development. He relied too much on
the memories and fantasies of neurotic adults and that his views of the human

ego were very narrow-minded. His psychological analysis of women was

viewed as deficient.
Activity
1. Think of a few cases where your urges clashed with the values of society. How did
your ego solve the problem?
3.4.2 Learning theory or behaviourism

The learning theorists declare behaviour to be the result of learning and
environmental influences (Meyer, Moore & Viljoen, 1997). In this regard, we
distinguish between three approaches, namely:
■■ the extreme behaviourism theory of Skinner;
■■ Dollard and Miller’s Drive Reduction Theory; and
■■ the Social Learning Theory of Bandura and others.
3.4.2.1 Skinner’s theory of extreme behaviourism

Skinner believed that all behaviour and learning processes can be explained
without referring to biological needs or conscious experiences. He claimed that
behaviour could be explained by the influence that environmental factors have
on a person. Skinner viewed the concept of personality as superfluous because
behaviour is the result of that which is learned and thus negated aspects such as
freedom of choice, responsibility and dignity.
Skinner’s theory rests on the process of operant or instrumental
conditioning (refer Chapter 8). Operant conditioning takes place when an
organism presents a variety of responses in a given situation (Meyer, 1988).
Skinner identified positive reinforcement when one of the responses was
strengthened because the result was obtaining a reward. The reinforcement
can also be negative. Negative reinforcement takes place when the response
is punished. If the reinforcement is given from time to time, the response will
be repeated.
Example
As a child, Tammy was punished by her parents each time she communicated with other
people. As an adult, she is quiet and withdrawn and prefers working alone in her office.
Skinner’s learning methods are used in different industrial situations as in the

case of increase in productivity (Meyer et al, 1997).

personality 53
Example
People who work hard are rewarded and those who are lazy are punished.
Activity
1. From your own experience, list some examples in which your personality behaviour
was shaped from environmental circumstances.
3.4.3 Dimensional approaches

Dimensional approaches are based on the assumption that personality is the
result of an individual’s specific physical or psychological characteristics. In this
respect, Meyer, Moore and Viljoen (1990) distinguish between the constitutional
approach (Sheldon), the needs theory (Murray) and the factor analytical approach
(Cattell). For the purposes of this study, Sheldon’s constitutional typology and
Cattell’s factor analytical approach are discussed.
3.4.3.1 Sheldon’s constitutional typology

Nature of the constitutional personality theory
The constitutional personality approach is based on the belief that a close bond
exists between a person’s build and his/her behaviour. This is probably the oldest
personality theory (Meyer et al, 1990; Morris et al, 2002). Sheldon’s theory is
that a person has a genetically-determined make-up and that personality develops
in accordance with morph genotypes (types of build). The environment cannot
have a real influence on, nor change the personality type.
Example
According to this approach Khoza is a tall slender person. His build will determine his
personality.
Structure of the constitutional personality theory

According to Sheldon, a person’s build can be determined by three basic physical
dimensions namely endomorphy, mesomorphy and ectomorphy (refer Table
3.1). Most people have all three types of the characteristics. However, one of the
characteristics is always dominant. Sheldon calls these characteristics the somato-
types of people.
After various studies, Sheldon came to the conclusion that there is a close
link between somato-types and temperament. In this regard, he argued that
temperament can be measured according to three basic dimensions and that each
of these dimensions corresponds with a specific build or somato-type.

Sheldon called the three somato-types Viscerotonia, Somatotonia and

Cerebrotonia. According to the author the viscerotonia type is usually interested
in social contact, relaxed and loves physical comfort and food. The somato-type
applicable here is endomorphy.
As far as the somatotonia type is concerned, these people are very assertive,
have physical courage, are adventurous and love activity. The somato-type
applicable here is mesomorphy.
Cerebrotonia types are inhibited, love their privacy, are selfconscious and
hypersensitive. The somato-type applicable here is called ectomorphy (Meyer et
al, 1990).
Table 3.1 Endomorphy, Mesomorphy and Ectomorphy
Endomorph. A person with a round body and soft appearance.

Such a person’s skeleton and muscle system are relatively
underdeveloped while the abdomen is overdeveloped.
Mesomorph. A person who is characterised by angles and

hardness. The frame and the muscle system are relatively
overdeveloped and the body is strong and tough.
Ectomorph. A person who is slender and delicate with a flat

chest and long thin limbs.
Criticism of Sheldon’s theory

The fact that the subjects’ temperaments and physical builds were not determined
independently by different researchers is criticised. Researchers measured both
physical build and temperament and so could only observe the characteristics
that they had expected to find.

personality 55
People’s characteristics can develop according to their build. They act in a certain
way because that is what is expected of them.
Example
The community has a stereotype or expectation that a person with a strong build is very
assertive and should have physical courage. As such, people in this community that
have mesomorphic builds may eventually act in this manner.
Activity
1. Study your own build and that of your friends. In each case, categorise this according
to the viscerotonia/endomorphy; somato-tonia/mesomorphy; and cerebrotonia/
ectomorphy classifications.
2. Motivate whether you feel that Sheldon’s theory is valid or not, based on your
findings.
3.4.3.2 Cattell’s factor analytical model of personality

Nature of Cattell’s theory
Factor theories, such as that of Cattell, are closely related to trait theories in
the sense that personality traits are viewed as the basic elements of personality
(Meyer et al, 1997). Cattell’s factor analytical model of personality consists of
a set of postulates regarding personality that are based on the results of factor
analysis.
Factor analysis can be described as a statistical technique that indicates
patterns of inter-relationships in a set of variables. Accordingly, Cattell’s theory
is based on the relationship between the natural elements of personality. These
relationships are described as factors, which in turn, are basic personality traits.
These traits are therefore representative of the natural elements of personality.
A further basic concept of Cattell’s theory is that personality enables one
to predict how a person will act in a given situation (Meyer et al, 1997). This
concept is of special importance to personnel practitioners since it is often
necessary, for example, during selection, to predict how a person will act in a
work situation.
Structure of Cattell’s personality theory
Cattell views personality traits as the basic structural elements of personality.
He describes traits as reasonably permanent and as broad behaviour tendencies
(Meyer et al, 1997). According to Cattell, traits must be underlying to the
observable behaviour of an individual.

Example
We say that Jason is a lazy person as he has a lazy disposition. This can be seen as a
circular argument which does not supply any useful information about Jason. To say that
Jason is honest, disciplined and thoughtful because he has an underlying trait of high
ego strength provides much more information about Jason.
■■ According to Engler (1985), Cattell distinguishes between surface traits and

source traits. Surface traits are a set of related behaviour forms.
Example
Brigitte is honest, has integrity and acts in a disciplined way.
■■ Source traits refer to underlying variables that determine the surface traits.
Example
Brigitte has a strong ego (source trait), and so she acts in an honest, disciplined and
thoughtful way (surface trait).
■■ Surface traits determine our behaviour and are divided according to origin
into constitutional traits and environmentally-moulded traits. Constitutional
traits are hereditary and biological-genetic in nature while environmentally-
moulded traits originate from the influences of our physical and social
environments.
■■ Surface and source traits are divided according to the way in which these
traits are expressed in behaviour. Engler (1985) explains that, in this respect,
Cattell distinguishes between dynamic traits (the traits that motivate a person
to display certain behaviour), temperamental traits (how individuals act in
order to reach their goals) and ability traits (these have bearing on how
effectively individuals reach their goals).
On the grounds of factor analysis, Cattell defined 16 basic temperamental ability

traits that he viewed as the building blocks of personality. These 16 traits (16PF)
and their composition are explained in point 3.5.1.3.
Humanistic view of Cattell’s theory
Cattell strongly emphasised the unique pattern of traits that exist for each
individual and that these patterns are a determinant for the behaviour of each
individual. Consequently, a person’s conscious motives are more important to
him than unconscious urges. This is mirrored by his view that each individual
acts in the ‘here and now’ and that no two individuals have the same amount of
alike traits.

personality 57
Activity
1. Identify the most important difference between Freud’s psycho-analytic theory and
Cattell’s factor analytical model.
3.4.4 Humanistic approaches

The psycho-dynamic approach and learning theory assumes that personality
is formed by determinants such as environmental factors or congenital and
unconscious factors over which we have no control. In contrast to the above,
the humanists maintain that the psycho-dynamic approach and learning theory
denies human potential. According to the humanists, people are rational,
adaptable and able to determine their own fate.
Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers are among the most well-known supporters
of the humanistic approach. Maslow’s theory is of particular importance in the
commercial world, as he emphasised aspects such as the motivation of people
to self-actualise in society. His theory can be used as an explanation for people’s
motivation to work.
3.4.4.1 The self-actualisation theory of Maslow

Nature of the self-actualisation theory
Plug et al (1997) describe this theory as the tendency of individuals to develop
their own intrinsic natures. Maslow believes that this intrinsic nature of people
is not only intent on satisfying the basic needs (hunger, thirst, sexuality, etc), but
also on the expression of personal values, goals and plans. The environment
plays an important role in this, as people need a favourable environment to
realise their nature.
Example
Ellah is born in a country where food is readily available. As such, she will be able to
satisfy her basic need (hunger) with ease.
Maslow holds an optimistic view of people because he acknowledges the positive

nature of people, their dignity and their active will to grow. People function as
an integrated whole, in other words all aspects of the personality are interwoven
with each other (Meyer et al, 1997).
Example
When Ellah is hungry, it is not her unconscious hunger urge that is functioning on its
own; it is Ellah (as an integrated whole) who is hungry. Accordingly, Ellah, as a human
being, strives for self-actualisation on all levels.

Dynamics of the self-actualisation theory

Maslow distinguishes between lower and higher level needs in an individual. The
optimally-developed person functions on the highest level (self-actualisation).
The highest level is reached only when the lower level needs have been satisfied
and are satisfied regularly. (Refer Fig 3.1.)
Figure 3.1 Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
Hierarchy of needs
Physical needs. The strongest of all the needs are the physical needs that are
focused on physical survival and biological maintenance of the body (the need
for food, water, sleep and sex). A person who is hungry and has no food will not
deem the other needs as important until the physical needs have been satisfied.
Security needs. Once physical needs have been satisfied, security needs
emerge. When these are dominant, the personality functioning is focused on the
fulfilment of security needs, stability, protection, structure, order, maintenance
of law, etc. This is evident in the choice of a career to ensure financial security, a
savings account, life insurance, etc.
Need for affiliation and love. When the physiological, security and material
needs are satisfied on a regular basis, a person becomes aware of his/her own
need to belong somewhere and to someone and to receive and give love (Meyer
et al, 1997). The individual, during this phase, spends time with friends, marries
and identifies with other people in his/her neighbourhood.
Need for self-esteem. Maslow believes that this level refers to people’s need
to evaluate themselves positively. When the need for love and affiliation has been
satisfied, the need for self-esteem arises. According to Maslow (1970), the need
for self-esteem consists of two sub-categories:
■■ Needs that are based on what the person can accomplish. The individual wants
to feel that he/she is capable, that he/she can achieve, has self-confidence and
is independent.

personality 59
■■ The need to be respected by other people. The individual wants his/her status
to be acknowledged, he/she wants to feel important, appreciated and wants
to be treated with dignity.
Need for self-actualisation. When a person’s other needs are satisfied on a regular
basis, the person reaches the level of self-actualisation (the need to be everything
that he/she is capable of being). Meyer et al (1997) also distinguish between two
ways of reaching actualisation, namely:
■■ The need to know and understand (including the search for justice, truth and
meaning).
■■ Aesthetic needs, for example, to appreciate art and strive for perfection.
Application of Maslow’s theory

Maslow’s theory has played an important role in the commercial world and
many of his principles are still followed today. According to Meyer et al (1997),
Maslow was a supporter of the eupsychian work circumstances which means
that a worker must not only be able to fulfil his/her needs for food, clothing
and protection, but that the worker’s need for self-actualisation must be
acknowledged.
Activity
1. Write down what you do at different times of the day.
2. Link each form of behaviour to one of the five levels of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs.
3.5 Personality measurement

Example
When Thabang applies for a job with an organisation, the employer would like to know
what can be expected of Thabang. In other words, the employer will want to establish
Thabang’s level of intelligence, whether he is emotionally stable, how he interacts with
people, etc.
In order to determine this, the employer can ask Thabang to complete some personality
tests. Such measurement of his personality relies on the formulation of a theory (as in the
case of personality theories. Refer point 3.4). Greenberg and Baron (2008) maintain that
the most popular methods by means of which the employer can determine Thabang’s
personality are:
■■ Objective/subjective testing. Thabang’s behaviour at work is rated by others by
means of, for example, a semantic differential or his personality characteristics are
evaluated by means of structured or semantic unstructured interviews.
■■ Objective testing. Thabang completes questionnaires and inventories from which
his personality can be deduced (self-rating).

■■ Subjective testing. Thabang is asked to describe pictures, figures, abstract shapes,

etc. In this way, his personality can be deduced by the tester (projective techniques).
Personality measurement in South Africa may only be performed by registered
psychologists.
3.5.1 Objective testing

3.5.1.1 Self-rating
According to Thorndike and Hagen (1969), the objective self-rating method
can be described as a standard number of questions that measure facets of an
individual’s life history, feelings, preferences or behaviour in a standard manner.
The response is then scored with the aid of a standardised master score key. Smit
(1991) asserts that in contrast to intelligence, aptitude and competency tests which
mainly test the intellectual system of the person, self-rating questionnaires (as in
the case of projective techniques) predominantly measure the non-intellectual
systems of behaviour (emotions, traits, attitudes, interests and fantasies). We can
distinguish between the following self-rating questionnaires:
■■ value scales;
■■ attitude and measuring scales (refer Chapter 8); and
■■ personality questionnaires.
The South African Personality Questionnaire (SAPQ) and the 16-Personality

Factor Questionnaire (16PF) will now be discussed briefly.
3.5.1.2 The South African Personality Questionnaire

Nature of the SAPQ
According to Steyn (1974), the SAPQ focuses on the normal functioning of
the individual. The questionnaire is compiled in such a way as to measure
personality traits that are relevant to the day-to-day life of the individual in
various situations. The SAPQ is very useful for trade and industry as well as for
the purpose of career guidance.
Composition of the SAPQ
The SAPQ measures five bipolar personality traits:
■■ social responsiveness (interpersonal involvement);
■■ anxiety (how intensely a person responds to threats);
■■ hostility (how friendly or hostile a person is);
■■ flexibility (how rigid or adaptable a person is); and
■■ dominance (a person’s assertive or submissive role in social relations).

personality 61
Application of the SAPQ

The questionnaire consists of 150 items that each contain two statements about
the behaviour of two imaginary people. The statements represent opposite poles
of the characteristic (for example, anxiety) that is measured by each item.
The testee must indicate on a four-point scale to what extent his/her behaviour
corresponds with one of the two imaginary people (Huysamen, 1980).
3.5.1.3 The 16-Personality Factor Questionnaire (16PF)

Nature of the 16PF scale
Cattell et al (1970) describe the 16PF as a questionnaire that stems from
thorough research and is not based on arbitrary scales (randomly composed).
The questionnaire focuses on measuring basic concepts of the total human
personality structure. The 16PF is viewed as a valid measuring instrument of the
primary personality factors.
Composition of the 16PF
The 16PF measures 16 personality traits, each of which is identified by means
of factor analysis. Factor analysis is a statistical technique that measures the
relationships between all measurable variables and then classifies the variables
in groups according to specific factors. Usually a name is given to each factor
(group of variables). Cattell calls these (primary) factors, first-order factors.
(Refer Table 3.2.)
Table 3.2 Personality factors of the 16PF
Low score Factor High score

(Sten score 1 to 3) (Sten score 8 to 10)
Reservation A Warm-heartedness
Less intelligent B More intelligent
Emotional instability/Lower ego Emotional stability/Higher ego strength
C
strength
Submissiveness E Dominance
Sober F Carefree
Weaker super-ego strength G Stronger super-ego strength
Shyness H Socially presumptuous
Unyielding I Emotionally sensitive
Security L Mistrust
Practical M Imaginative/Unconventional
Alertness N Shrewdness

Low score Factor High score

(Sten score 1 to 3) (Sten score 8 to 10)
Poise O Guilt prone/Apprehensive
Conservatism Q1 Radicalism
Group dependence Q2 Self-sufficiency
Lower self-concept Q3 Higher self-sentiment
Lower impulse level Q4 Higher impulse level
Source: Smit (1991:301)
Second-order factors can be identified because these primary factors are related
to each other. Second-order factors are viewed as the broad influences that offer
an explanation for the correlation (the relation or dependence) between the
primary factors (Smit, 1991). Cattell used the method to identify the following
second-order factors:
■■ introversion versus extroversion;
■■ low anxiety versus high anxiety;
■■ emotional dependency versus unemotional realism; and
■■ submissiveness versus independence.
3.5.1.4 Criticism of the self-rating method

Although self-rating questionnaires are an economical method of measuring
personality, problems that influence the validity of the measurement do occur:
■■ Questions could be ambiguous and be interpreted differently by the testees.
■■ The testees complete the questionnaires themselves and so could give
dishonest responses. A fairly intelligent testee can, for example, deduce which
responses should be given to indicate socially acceptable behaviour. Certain
questionnaires like the 16PF are developed to determine the testee’s honesty,
and in so doing, an extent of this problem is overcome.
3.5.2 Objective/subjective testing

3.5.2.1 Rating by others
Nature of rating
Rating by other people is described as the observation of spontaneous behaviour of
subjects in certain situations and in specific circumstances in so that a reliable
picture of the true behaviour of the subject can be obtained.
Example
It is easier to observe a worker, Lungile, in his work situation while he is unaware and
then to decide whether he is hardworking or lazy.

personality 63
Welman, Kruger and Mitchel (2005) describe this type of rating as a method
by which a rater assesses the behaviour of the participants. In some cases,
raters are familiar with the participant’s behaviour and base their ratings on the
memory of such behaviour. Participants are rated on the basis of their execution
of tasks. For example, the characteristics of a person are rated on a semantic
differential (hardworking versus lazy) (refer Chapter 8).
Application of rating
Smit (1991) ascertained that observation and evaluation of the behaviour of the
subject consist of different levels of observer involvement and can take place in
natural or controlled situations (refer Chapter 8).
Rating can be done with the aid of different techniques, for example, rating
scales and interviews.
Rating scales
According to Welman et al (2005), rating scales comprise a collection of items
that consist of a continuum of between three and nine rank-ordered scale points
(for example, from ‘very responsible’ on the one end to ‘very irresponsible’ on
the other). The rater has to evaluate the subject in terms of each of the items, so
that the evaluation reflects the subject’s position in each specific item involved.
These scales correspond, to a large extent, with attitude scales (refer Chapter 8).
There are certain requirements that the application of a rating scale must meet:
■■ The description of the personality characteristics must be clear so that the
reviewer knows exactly what to rate.
Example
The reviewer must know that the scale item refers to the person’s conscientiousness and
not to any other characteristic.
■■ The items on each scale end must be described in such a way that the reviewer
knows exactly what is meant by the item.
Example
The reviewer must know that the item refers to the subject’s conscientiousness and not
to his/her punctuality.
■■ The items on the scale ends must be defined in terms of concrete behaviour. Words
such as good, poor, average, excellent, etc must not be used (Huysamen, 1980).
Example
The items must refer to concrete behaviour such as punctuality versus non-punctuality.

3.5.2.2 Rating interviews

Welman et al (2005) point out that interviews as data-collecting methods vary
from completely unstructured to those that are completely standardised and
structured. Cases should be clearly distinguished from therapeutic or counselling
interviews in which the objectives are to support or help clients. The aim of these
rating interviews are, for example, to evaluate a worker’s achievement.
Rating interviews are used when a quick decision is necessary regarding a
person’s suitability for a specific position, for example during selection and
placement (Meyer, 1988).
There is a significant difference between structured and unstructured interviews.
In a structured interview the interviewer uses a collection of questions from
a previously compiled questionnaire. The course of a structured interview is
planned and questions focus on a specific issue. Unstructured interviews are
informal and are used to explore a general idea of interest in depth. In structured
interviews previously compiled interview schedules are used in a face-to-face
situation. The responses are recorded. In unstructured interviews there are no
pre-determined lists of questions and they do not follow a previously-determined
scheme. The interviewer does not take the lead during the interview but rather
allows the subject to voice topics for discussion (Welman et al, 2005). During
unstructured interviews, careful note is taken of non-verbal behaviour (facial
expressions and body language).
Criticism of rating interviews

The threat of instrumentation (Welman et al, 2005) refers to the errors of
judgement made by raters. Raters are often influenced by their own stereotypes
and prejudices about candidates. Some raters may be more tired, experienced
or bored than others. As a result, the findings of raters will not always be valid.
This may result in ratings where candidates may be evaluated too positively or
negatively.
Example
Ron is from Pretoria and applies for a job. The reviewer does not like Pretoria so he rates
Ron very low on the rating scale.
Rating is a costly method of personality measurement.
Activity
1. Draw up a rating scale that consists of seven points (refer to semantic
differential, Chapter 8) and evaluate a colleague in terms of the following items:
(a) lazy worker versus conscientious worker
(b) fast worker versus slow worker

personality 65
3.5.3 Subjective testing

3.5.3.1 Projective techniques
During projective techniques, the testee is expected to ascribe explanations to
a set of cards that contain pictures, inkblots, etc. The pictures or figures are
usually unstructured, vague and ambiguous. The cards can thus be interpreted in
various ways. The testees react unconsciously according to their own personality
composition. The presumption is that testees reveal their personality in this
manner and the tester interprets the testee’s responses.
According to Smit (1991), we can distinguish between the following projective
techniques:
■■ association (Rorschach Inkblot Test);
■■ construction (Thematic Apperception Test);
■■ completion (Sachs Sentence Completion Test);
■■ choice (the Szondi Test); and
■■ expression (Draw-a-man Test).
Two of the most important projective techniques are the Rorschach Inkblot
Test and Murray’s Thematic Apperception Test.
3.5.3.2 The Rorschach Inkblot Test

Nature of the Rorschach Inkblot Test
The Rorschach Inkblot Test is a projective technique that aims at determining
the testee’s emotional and impulsive tendencies. Possible mental disturbance and
introversion of the testee can be deduced as well as what his/her intelligence is.
The test offers a total image of the testee’s personality (Plug et al, 1997).
Composition of the Rorschach Inkblot Test
The Rorschach Inkblot Test is composed of ten cards on which inkblots appear.
Five of these inkblots consist of achromatic colours (different shades of grey),
two consist of mainly achromatic colours and red (mainly black with red stains)
and three of chromatic colours (different colours) (refer Fig 3.2).
Application of the Rorschach Inkblot Test
The tester begins by showing each of the cards to the testee and the testee
responds by saying what each card could portray. The tester carefully notes
down the verbal response as well as other behaviour patterns of the testee. Note
is taken, for example, of silences, the time it takes a testee to respond, how he/
she holds the card and other non-verbal behaviour.
During the next stage, the tester asks what led the testee’s responses and
which characteristics of the inkblots led to these responses.

The responses are then categorised and evaluated according to factors such as:
■■ observation and movement that the testee has perceived from the cards;
■■ the contents that were assigned to the inkblots (what the inkblot represents);
■■ light and shadow noticed;
■■ shape, original and popular responses of the testee; and
■■ texture of the shapes that have been observed (factors such as hair, skin, etc).
The responses are then analysed quantitatively and/or qualitatively.

The structured form of this test, the Structured-Objective Rorschach Test,
(SORT) is used mostly for selection and placement in industry and it is based on
a quantitative analysis.
Qualitative analysis is not structurally based (the cards are in no specific
sequence) and is mostly applied in clinical-diagnostic situations (psychological
therapy).
Figure 3.2 Item from the Rorschach test, from Rorschach, H. Psychodiagnostics
Source: Bern, Switzerland: Hans Huber, 1921, 1948.
3.5.3.3 The Thematic Apperception Test

Nature of the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
The TAT measures dominant motivational factors, emotions, sentiments,
complexes and conflicts of the testee. The TAT is especially suitable for
revealing underlying inhibited conflicts and complexes. The testee is normally
unaware of such problems or may be aware of them but does not want to admit
it to him/herself (Murray, 1971).

personality 67
Composition of the TAT

The test material consists of 19 picture cards and one blank card, 20 cards in
total. The picture cards depict people in different dramatic situations. The first
card, for example, shows a young boy with a violin lying in front of him on a
table.
Application of the TAT
The tester shows a number of picture cards to the testee and asks the testee
to tell or write a story about the picture on the card. From the story, the tester
can deduce two important psychic tendencies. The testee normally interprets the
pictures in terms of:
■■ his/her past life experiences; and
■■ his/her needs at that moment (Murray, 1971).
Example
Maria has grown up in poverty. She is a sensitive person who needs a lot of love and
help from her fellow people. As such, she might respond to the card with the young
boy and the violin in the following way: ‘The boy sitting there is a very poor little boy
who has suffered in his life (past life experiences of Maria). He sits alone, next to his
violin. No-one helps him or pays attention to him’ (Maria’s needs at that moment).
With the completion of the TAT, the tester succeeds in penetrating the defences of
the testee.
Example
Maria forgets her sensitivity about herself and unconsciously ascribes her own problems
to the people and situations on the cards.
3.6 Summary
The most important characteristics of personality can be viewed as a person’s
behaviour and thinking, as well as the dynamics and integration of psychic and
physical attributes and the interaction between these properties, objects and
people.
Genetic properties on the one hand, and physical, social and cultural
environmental factors on the other, are co-determinants of personality
development. The influence of genetic qualities is evidently more indirect than
that of the social and cultural determinants. Consequently heredity plays a
greater part in body-anatomical development than in psychic development.
Personal determinants are based on the free choice of the individual. In contrast,
genetic and environmental determinants form the individual’s personality without

him/her having any influence on the personality development. The different

personality theories are largely based on the determinants of personality.
A comparison can be drawn between the various personality theories on the
basis of three dimensions:
■■ The conscious versus the unconscious. Freud’s psycho-analytic theory
emphasised the importance of the unconscious in determining behaviour. The

humanists, such as Maslow, also acknowledge the drives of the unconscious
but place more emphasis on the positive, conscious self-actualisation of
people. The constitutional typology of Sheldon and factor analytical theory
of Cattell do not pay much attention to the conscious or the unconscious.
■■ Genetic versus environmental. Psycho-analysts, such as Freud, as well as
Sheldon’s constitutional typology emphasise the genetic factors. Learning

theorists, such as Skinner, base their theory on the influence of the
environment, while the humanists support an interaction between genetic and
environmental factors.
■■ Freedom versus determinism. Humanists, such as Maslow and Rogers,
emphasise the idea of freedom of choice, while psycho-analysts (Freud),

behaviourists (Skinner), and dimensional theorists (Sheldon and Cattell) focus
on the view that all human behaviour is determined by factors beyond the
individual’s control.
It appears that personality measurement is generally based on three approaches:

■■ Objective testing. Conscious responses to questionnaires or self-rating. The
South African Personality Questionnaire and the 16-Personality Factor

Questionnaire are two well-known examples.
■■ Objective/subjective testing. Rating by others, of which scales such as the
semantic differential as well as structured and unstructured interviews are

well-known examples.
■■ Subjective testing or projection techniques. The subjective projection of the
own personality composition by the testee and interpretation thereof by the

tester. The Rorschach Inkblot Test and the Thematic Apperception Test are
well-known examples.
Self-evaluation
1. Describe Gordon Allport’s definition of personality by means of examples. (10)
2. Explain what you understand by the terms ‘character’ and ‘temperament’ and
indicate how these relate to personality. (8)
3. Discuss the genetic determinants of personality with the use of examples. (10)
4. In which way is a personality formed by the process of socialisation? Illustrate
your answer with examples. (12)
5. Explain, with the aid of a relevant example, how a specific event can influence
the development of personality. (4)

personality 69
6. Explain the following three attributes of personal determinants of personality

with the aid of relevant examples:
(a) totality of characteristics at a specific moment (3)
(b) decision-making of the individual (3)
(c) the unpredictability of personality development (3)
7. Discuss Freud’s theory in view of the following factors using relevant examples:
(a) dimensions of personality (9)
(b) personality structure (9)
(c) dynamics of personality (3)
(d) fixation (4)
8. List four criticisms that could be raised against Freud’s theory. (4)
9. Discuss Skinner’s theory in view of the following factors:
(a) Why does Skinner view the concept ‘personality’ as superfluous? (3)
(b) How does operant or instrumental conditioning take place, according to
Skinner’s theory? Give relevant examples. (5)
10. Discuss the structure of Sheldon’s Constitutional Personality Theory by means
of relevant examples. (15)
11. Discuss Cattell’s factor analytical model of personality in view of the following
factors:
(a) the use of factor analysis to identify personality traits (5)
(b) the personality structure (use relevant examples) (12)
(c) humanistic perspective (3)
12. Discuss the dynamics of Maslow’s self-actualisation theory. Illustrate your
answer with relevant examples. (15)
13. Why is Maslow’s theory of such importance to the industrial world? (3)
14. Discuss the differences between the humanistic theory of personality, the
psycho-dynamic approach and the learning theory or behaviourism. (5)
15. Person A applies for a position with an organisation. List three methods that
you can use to measure A’s personality. Use examples to show how you can
apply these methods. (8)
16. You use objective testing (self-rating method) to measure person A’s personality.
(a) Discuss one of the personality questionnaires you can use that is based on
this method. (15)
(b) What criticism can be levelled at self-rating methods? (5)
17. You use objective/subjective testing (rating by others as well as structured and
unstructured interviews) to measure aspects of person A’s personality.
(a) Discuss one of the questionnaires you can use that is based on rating as
well as the types of interviews that you can use for this purpose. (15)
(b) What criticism can be levelled at methods such as ‘rating by others’? (5)
18. Discuss the application of projective techniques with respect to the
following points:
(a) List the factors according to which the responses to the Rorschach
Inkblot Test are categorised and evaluated. (10)

(b) Discuss the qualitative and quantitative analysis of responses to the

Rorschach Inkblot Test. (6)
(c) Which two important psychic tendencies can a tester deduce from the
application of the TAT? (2)
19. Person A applies for a job with an organisation and it is important that a
quick decision is made about the appointment. Name the method that you
will use and describe the characteristics of this method. (7)
20. The application of rating consists of different levels of observer involvement.
List the different levels of observer involvement and indicate to which extent
the subject is aware of the level and the type of observation. (12)

chapter
Frustration and
4 conflict
4.1 Introduction .............................................................................. 72

4.2 Frustration .............................................................................. 72
4.2.1 Nature of frustration .......................................................... 72
4.2.2 Sources of frustration ........................................................ 73
4.2.3 Reaction to frustration ...................................................... 75
4.2.3.1 Aggression ....................................................... 76
4.2.3.2 Defence mechanisms .................................... 78
4.3 Conflict .............................................................................. 83
4.3.1 Nature of conflict .............................................................................. 83
4.3.2 Dynamics of conflict .......................................................... 84
4.3.2.1 Approach-approach conflict ....................... 84
4.3.2.2 Avoidance-avoidance conflict ..................... 85
4.3.2.3 Approach-avoidance conflict ...................... 86
4.3.2.4 Multiple approach-avoidance conflict ...... 87
4.3.3 Types of conflict .................................................................. 88
4.3.3.1 Substantive conflict ........................................ 88
4.3.3.2 Affective conflict ............................................. 88
4.3.3.3 Process conflict ............................................... 88
4.4 Summary .............................................................................. 89
Self-evaluation .............................................................................. 90

Study objective
■■ illustrate the terms ‘frustration’ and ‘conflict’;
■■ clarify the causes of frustration;
■■ explain the reactions to frustration; and
■■ name and describe the types of conflict.
4.1 Introduction
The goal of each organisation is to function as effectively as possible so that
organisational objectives in terms of productivity can be reached on time. Such
realisation of organisational objectives depends on the realisation of objectives
by the individuals within the organisation. If efforts to reach personal objectives
should fail, be hampered or blocked, the productivity of the organisation as a
whole could be disadvantaged. The individuals in the organisation would then
experience frustration and conflict.
The reaction to frustration often results in workers becoming aggressive and

anxious. Workers waste a surplus of energy when trying to reduce their feelings
of anxiety or sources of frustration and consequently, production will suffer.
It is important for management to understand the concept of frustration,
where it originates from and how people respond to it. Management must also
recognise conflict, and the various types of conflict that workers experience and
also how it can be resolved.
4.2 Frustration
4.2.1 Nature of frustration
Frustation is a condition that stems from the prevention of reaching a goal.
Such a condition is characterised by anxiety, increased sympathetic activity and
often aggression. Plug et al (1997) describe frustration as:

frustration and conflict 73
1. Foiling: The blocking of purposeful behaviour or preventing people from

reaching their goals that would fulfil their wishes and/or satisfy their needs.
2. A condition that develops in a person who is prevented from realising a goal.
Such a condition is characterised by anxiety, increased sympathetic activity
and often aggression.
Example
Joe wants to attend an important sporting event on Wednesday, but his supervisor flatly
refuses him leave to attend (1). Joe’s reaction to being told that he is not allowed to go
to the event, is to fill up with anger, slam his office door and storm out of his office (2).
1. 2.
Activity
1. Describe a few instances where you have experienced frustration because of your
goals being obstructed. How did you feel at the time? What was your reaction when
you discovered that your goal had been blocked?
4.2.2 Sources of frustration

Frustration generally stems from sources that are related to environmental
factors such as the physical environment, time and lack of resources, or personal
factors such as loss, failure and feelings of hopelessness which lead to frustration.
❏❏ Environmental frustration
This source of frustration is most often simple and direct in nature since it
consists of obstacles in the environment that block a goal.
Example
The barrier could be a locked door which prevents Ettienne from entering his office.
Barriers could also be regulations at work that do not allow the workers from working
overtime.

❏❏ Delay
Coleman and Hammen point out that the western culture gives credence to the
notion of time being money, as such, time delays are a significant source of
frustration (Morris, 1982).
Example
A manager gets annoyed each time one of the departmental managers arrives late for
a meeting.
❏❏ Lack of resources
In addition to delays, a lack of resources often culminate in extreme levels of
frustration in the work environment.
Example
Take into consideration the senior level of a company that cannot afford to give deserving
workers a salary increase because of the lack of profit that year.
❏❏ Losses
Coleman and Hammen (Morris, 1982) say that loss (death of a loved one or a
relationship ending) is frustrating because the person’s self-image suffers and he/
she feels helpless. Loss can also have a negative influence on the productivity of
such a worker because he/she may experience a lack of motivation.
❏❏ Failure
Failure is predominant in our competitive society. Feelings of guilt often accompany
failure because people are unable to fulfil their goals or dreams of achievement.
Example
James is a clerk whose greatest desire is to be to be promoted. However, he does not
have the necessary intellectual abilities to pass the required course and has to remain
in his current role.

❏❏ Helplessness
A feeling of helplessness is closely linked to the experience of failure. People
often feel that their lives are meaningless. They blame others, such as society, if
they do not find fulfilment in life. This is a source of frustration that results in
alienation and despair.
Example
Terry has been discharged from his position due to rationalisation and he is unable to
find another job.
Activity
1. Identify the different moments in your career where environmental factors blocked
you from reaching your objectives.
2. Which source of frustration was applicable to each case?
3. Describe a few instances that you know of, in which people have experienced
personal frustration due to loss, failure or despair.
4.2.3 Reaction to frustration

Reactions to frustration and the intensity of these reactions differ a great deal
in people. People become offensive and react aggressively and are inclined to act
defensively by making use of defence mechanisms.
People are different from each other in their aggressive reactions to frustration.
Some people respond quite aggressively to frustration and others react less aggressively.
Those who are capable of coping with a great deal of frustration consequently have
a higher frustration tolerance than those who react violently to minimal frustration.
Example
Adam will insult a colleague if looked at askance whereas Bevan will endure years of
overt discrimination without saying a word.
When people are frustrated because they are faced with conflict situations and
do not know which decisions to make, or are obstructed in the decisions that
they would like to make, they become anxious.
Example
Bongani is seriously frustrated by the rules and regulations at work but he cannot afford
to leave his job. If the type of frustration or conflict lasts a long time, Bongani will
experience continuous anxiety and will eventually, mostly unconsciously, use defence
mechanisms to deal with his anxiety.

4.2.3.1 Aggression
According to Plug et al (1997), aggression is described as a motive for attacking,
destructive behaviour or the behaviour itself. The motive for destructive behaviour
is the reason for such an act. People are usually aware of the reason for their
aggression. The term ‘motive’ is frequently used for urges, drives and needs.
Example
Destructive behaviour could potentially happen when a worker pushes aside someone
who is standing in his/her way.
Greenberg and Baron (2008) maintain that workplace aggression is instigated by

people who aim to maximise the harm they intend for their victims while at the
same time, curtailing the likelihood of retaliation. Therefore many instances of
workplace aggression are covert (hidden or disguised) in nature.
Example
Janice does not want to openly attack her colleague, Joan, at work because she fears
retaliation from Joan or even the supervisor. She decides to send Joan anonymous,
malicious emails.
The frustration-aggression hypothesis

One of the first studies on the complexity of human behaviour was done by
Dollard, Doob, Miller and others. They examined the hypothesis that aggression
as reaction follows frustration in terms of the stimulus-response model (Baron et
al, 2009). This model was applied so that frustration is viewed as the stimulus
or cause and aggression as the response or reaction. The point of departure
was that frustration and aggression have a fixed stimulus-response connection;
frustration will always precede aggression.
Example
Peter is driven to better himself by attending a course. The supervisor blocks his drive or
motive by refusing him permission to attend. In terms of the stimulus-response model,
this could result in the worker becoming aggressive towards the supervisor.
Criticism of the frustration-aggression hypothesis

Currently, the above points of view are contentious. In the first case, it was found
experimentally that the frustration-aggression hypothesis is not always valid.
Frustration does not necessarily result in aggression and aggression is not caused
by frustration only but also by other stimuli or causes.

Baron et al (2009) maintain that the modern General Aggression Model (GAM)
implies that aggression is triggered by a wide range of stimuli that influence
arousal, affective stages and cognitions. According to the GAM theory, a chain
of events may ultimately lead to overt aggression that is often initiated by two
major types of input:
■■ Situational factors: include frustration, exposure to aggressive models,
working in high temperatures, provocation by means of an insult, etc.
Example
Tyrone threatens or belittles Benjamin; Benjamin reacts aggressively.
■■ Personal factors: traits that predispose certain individuals toward aggression.
Example
Jonathan is a highly irritable person and he reacts far more aggressively towards other
people than Joe who is much calmer and more collected.
Meyer and Salmon (1984) indicate that sociologists and psychologists were
previously convinced that aggressive juvenile delinquency had a higher incidence
amongst lower economic classes because the youth were frustrated about growing
up in a poor environment. The blocking of aspirations results in aggression.
The supposition that environmental frustration results in juvenile delinquency
is also criticised. Meyer and Salmon (1984) explain that later research indicates
that there are indeed more arrests of juvenile delinquents in lower socio-economic
classes but that there is no difference in the actual number of cases among the
higher and lower socio-economic classes. It was also found that the relationship
between the juvenile delinquents’ parents play an equal role to the frustration
that a child experiences growing up in a poor environment.
According to Meyer et al (1990) and Meyer and Salmon (1984), it is currently
widely accepted that the link between frustration and aggression is an acquired
one. Frustration results in a variety of responses. Aggression is one response
in this hierarchy of responses (refer GAM theory). In the life of a young child,
aggression is one of the responses to frustration but it is not necessarily the most
important response. The social environment of the family often reinforces the
aggressive response of a child and in this way it becomes the most important
response for the child.
Example
Thuli wants an ice-cream but her parents refuse. If Thuli responds quietly to her frustration
by walking around restlessly and weeping, her parents will ignore her. If Thuli responds
to her frustration aggressively, by threatening violence, the parents comply with her

wishes and give her an ice-cream. In so doing, Thuli’s aggressive response is reinforced
and if it is repeated, it becomes the main response to frustration for the child.
Activity
1. Write down a few instances in which you or someone else acted aggressively, as well
as cases of disguised workplace aggression.
2. Which instances do you think were the result of frustration and which were not?
4.2.3.2 Defence mechanisms

Nature of defence mechanisms
Carson and Butcher (1992) inform us that the human ego normally deals with
anxiety or fear by means of rational methods.
Example
Whenever Kgosi must undertake a dangerous task, like extinguishing a fire, he will wear
the necessary protective clothing and need not fear that he will sustain serious burn
wounds.
If individuals do not, however, have the psychic ability to deal with anxiety,
they make use, on an unconscious level of irrational protection methods that are
known as defence mechanisms.
According to Meyer and Salmon (1984), defence mechanisms form a type of
psychic ‘cushion’ or ‘emotional crutch’ for the ego so that it is protected against
stimuli that result in anxiety. This cushion functions as a natural therapy within
the person to reduce anxiety. In this way, the individual bans painful thoughts
from his/her consciousness rather than dealing with the problem thoughts directly.
The individual thus acquires a distorted image of reality. The process is
mostly unconscious (Carson & Butcher, 1992) and is used by a person to protect
himself/herself from anxiety and guilt.
The most important defence mechanisms are:
❏❏ Repression
According to Meyer and Salmon (1984), many psycho-analysts view repression
as the most important and powerful defence mechanism. Repression is a process
that takes place in the unconscious. An unpleasant thought, painful memories,
‘dangerous’ and unacceptable desires lead to anxiety and, consequently, the
individual represses these feelings to the unconscious in order to protect his/her
ego.

Example
Charles went through a traumatic divorce a couple of years ago. In an interview situation
a social worker asks him about it. It is impossible for Charles to discuss the divorce,
because any discussion of his divorce causes him to experience painful memories and
anxiety. As a result, he displaces the events to his unconscious and cannot think or talk
about them at all.
Repression or suppression of instinctive urges that take place over a long

period of time, frequently has a harmful effect on bodily functions. If a person
continuously represses the sexual instinct in order to control anxiety it could
possibly result in sexual impotence. Repression or suppression, on the other
hand, protects a person against sudden traumatic experiences until the course of
time reduces the severity of the shock.
❏❏ Denial
Denial is usually applied directly to distort reality in order to reduce anxiety.
The existence of the events that cause anxiety is summarily denied or ignored.
It differs from conscious denial since it is an unconscious reaction and closely
related to repression or suppression.
Example
Albert must go and work in a perilous situation but denies, in an off-handed way, that
there is any danger linked to the situation.
❏❏ Rationalisation
During rationalisation, all kinds of logical and acceptable fabrications are
evoked to justify or hide unworthy motives or behaviour patterns. It serves a
dual purpose:
■■ Rationalisation is used to justify specific behaviour.
Example
Ramono physically attacks his supervisor and justifies his actions by saying that his
psychologist advised him to vent his aggression as it is good for his mental well-being.
■■ Rationalisation prevents disappointment if certain objectives are not achieved.
Example
Johanna was unsuccessful in her application for a position and now she implies that she
is discriminated against because of her gender.

❏❏ Projection
Another important defence mechanism is projection.The individual ascribes his/
her own personal unacceptable urges (impulses), feelings, faults, mistakes and
attitudes to an external object or person.
Example
The supervisor and the worker, Emmy, are involved in a vehement argument. The
argument causes such an emotional reaction in Emmy that she says to herself: ‘I hate
the supervisor’. Emmy knows that is an unacceptable feeling, so she rather shouts at the
supervisor: ‘Why do you hate me so?’
❏❏ Reaction formation
According to Meyer and Salmon (1984), Freud found in his early studies on
neuroses, that many of the neurotic people had developed behaviour patterns
that were opposite to their unconscious urges.
Reaction formation is the way in which individuals protect themselves against
unacceptable urges or feelings by consciously developing opposing attitudes and
behaviour patterns.
Example
In the work situation, a supervisor with homosexual tendencies has the right of refusal
to accept any homosexual workers in his department.
❏❏ Fantasy
Fantasy is an attempt to realise frustrated
objectives by means of flights of fancy.
Example
Andy, the incompetent worker, sits at his desk
day-dreaming about how he would act if he
were in the position of senior manager.
❏❏ Displacement or substitution
Displacement consists of the substitution of one objective with another when the
achievement of the original objective is hampered.
Example
The young worker, James, has always harboured a forbidden hatred of his father. His
father dies and after the death, James unconsciously displaces his hate to another
person of authority such as his departmental head.

❏❏ Sublimation
Sublimation implies that the energy linked to undesirable wishes is, at least partly,
used for acceptable or even admirable behaviour (Plug et al, 1997).
Example
Tony expresses the aggressive desires that he has towards his supervisor (unacceptable
wishes) by taking part in boxing (acceptable behaviour). He even succeeds in being
quite an achiever in the boxing ring.
❏❏ Compensation
In this case, the person experiences a feeling of failure or inferiority in one activity
and tries to compensate by achieving in a different area of pursuit. Compensation
takes place in two ways:
■■ Directly
Example
The slender manual labourer, Thabo, goes to the gymnasium to develop his body, so
that the other workers won’t make fun of his build.
■■ Indirectly
Example
Frank is not doing well in his career, but due to good administrative abilities he is chosen
as chairperson of the staff association.
❏❏ Fixation
Fixation often originates during the developmental years when a person binds
himself/herself too strongly to another person due to anxiety or when a person
fixates at an early stage of his/her psychic development, for example, during
adolescence.
Example
The middle-aged worker is still dependent on her mother for her basic needs. She lives
in her home and she supplies her mother with food and clothing.
❏❏ Regression
When a person is threatened and experiences fear, he/she returns to forms of
behaviour that are associated with earlier stages of development. The person

unconsciously returns to an earlier life phase when life was easier and he/she
experienced less tension and anxiety.
Example
In a work-related situation, the foreman, Adrian, throws his hammer against the wall
when he does not succeed in driving in a nail.
❏❏ Identification
Identification is the wish to be like someone else and results in imitating the
behaviour of the other person. In so doing, a heightened feeling of self-esteem is
accomplished.
Example
The supervisor, Brian, is unsure of himself when he is in the presence of the workers.
So, he copies the manager who is a strict and authoritarian figure. It makes Brian feel
more sure of himself. As a result, he comes across as overbearing towards the workers.
❏❏ Intellectualisation
This takes place when a problem is analysed purely on the grounds of intellectual
principles. Feelings and emotions are ignored because they cause anxiety.
Example
The worker, Victor, who is found guilty of negligence, refuses to plead in mitigation of his
sentence and insists that the sentence is carried out according to the letter of the law.
❏❏ Splitting
Splitting takes place when a person classifies himself/herself or other people as
either good or bad, without integrating any positive or negative qualities into
the evaluation (Carson & Butcher, 1992). The evaluation of people is thus based
on an ‘all or nothing’ attitude without taking the full spectrum of their qualities
into consideration.
Example
The frustrated manager, Sandile, does not take the individual characteristics of her
employees into consideration but classifies all the workers as bad.
Activity
1. Observe the actions and behaviour of the people around you and see whether
you can determine if they use defence mechanisms. List and classify these cases
according to the 14 defence mechanisms.

4.3 Conflict
4.3.1 Nature of conflict
Plug et al (1997) describe conflict as the simultaneous presence of opposite
behaviour tendencies or urges. Such conflict elicits emotional reactions that vary
from light tension to intense anxiety:
Example
Alice applies for a position as a secretary with two firms that both offer the same
favourable remuneration. She is later notified that both her applications have been
successful. Because the choice is a determinant for Alice’s career, she experiences intense
anxiety when she has to choose between the two positions. If Alice should, however,
have to choose between two different flavours of ice-cream that she likes equally, she
would merely experience slight tension. The only way in which Alice can reduce her
anxiety or relieve her tension is through:
■■ Relinquishing one of the choices
Example
Alice chooses firm A. Alice selects the vanilla ice-cream;
■■ Changing one or both choices/objectives
Example
Alice decides not to work for firm A or B, but rather for firm C. She decides not to eat
ice-cream, but instead chooses a chocolate, which causes no conflict;
■■ Postponing one of the choices/objectives
Example
In the case of her career option, it might not be possible to choose one position now
and the other at a later stage. Alice eats a vanilla ice-cream now and a strawberry one
later. Subsequently, this option can only be used in the case of choices that cause less
intense tension, and
■■ Accepting the idea that one of her choices/objectives was not gratified
Example
Alice accepts the position with firm A, and eventually becomes accustomed to the fact
that she did not accept the alternative position.

4.3.2 Dynamics of conflict

The dynamics of conflict can be described in terms of two opposite urges or
tendencies namely approach and avoidance.
Example
When Tito wants a new car, the idea attracts him and approach takes place. However as
soon as Tito discovers that the car costs more than he can afford, the idea repels him
and avoidance occurs.
We find different combinations of this conflict pattern that result in four basic
types:
■■ approach-approach conflict;
■■ avoidance-avoidance conflict;
■■ approach-avoidance conflict; and
■■ multiple approach-avoidance conflict.
4.3.2.1 Approach-approach conflict

This type of conflict develops under the following circumstances:
■■ both choices/objectives are equally attractive;
■■ both choices/objectives occur at the same time; and
■■ the choices/objectives are irreconcilable.
Example
Justin receives a bursary to study in the USA (positive objective) but at the same time
he is promoted at work (positive objective). He must now choose between the overseas
studies and the promotion. (Refer Fig 4.1.)
Figure 4.1 Approach-approach conflict
According to Carson and Butcher (1992), approach-approach conflict is solved

easily in non-serious conditions by solving the objectives one after the other.
Meyer et al (1990) deliberate that any external interference that causes one of
the objectives (or stimuli) to move closer to the conflicted person, solves the
problem because he/she will then choose that objective.

Example
Nicholas is undecided between two slices of cake; he will take the one that is pushed
towards him.
When the conflict is more complex, decision-making becomes difficult. The

individual experiences a high level of stress because he/she must relinquish the
objective that is of great importance to him/her (Carson & Butcher, 1992).
Activity
1. Identify three situations where you had to choose between two positive objectives.
2. Indicate whether these cases represent less complex conflict or more serious conflict.
3. Specify how you solved or dealt with this conflict.
4.3.2.2 Avoidance-avoidance conflict

This form of conflict takes place as follows:
■■ both choices/objectives are equally negative or unattractive;
■■ both choices/objectives occur at the same time; and
■■ the choices/objectives are irreconcilable.
Example
Gladys is very dissatisfied with the job she is doing (negative objective) but she cannot
afford to resign because she fears that she might not find another job (negative
objective) (refer Fig 4.2).
Figure 4.2 Avoidance-avoidance conflict
Avoidance-avoidance conflict creates a more serious conflict situation than does

approach-approach conflict. As Gladys is experiencing conflict and moves closer to
one objective, the repellent power of the objective becomes stronger. Subsequently,
Gladys tends to move towards the other objective that also eventually develops a strong
repellent power and so the process is repeated until she cannot make a decision (Meyer
et al, 1990).

According to Carson and Butcher (1992), the solution lies in the person having
to decide which of the objectives is worse and which would cause the most stress.
The person would then have to choose the alternative objective. The person
experiencing conflict may also select an objective that is outside of the conflict
field. This can only happen in cases where a third activity can replace the two
conflicting activities (Meyer et al, 1990).
Example
Fred is made fun of by his friends because he cannot swim. He resolves the conflict of
being made fun of and drowning by suggesting that the children play soccer instead.
Activity
1. Illustrate a case of avoidance-avoidance conflict with which you are familiar. How was
it resolved?
4.3.2.3 Approach-avoidance conflict

Approach-avoidance conflict occurs when:
■■ one choice (or objective) exists; and
■■ the choice (or objective) has a positive and attractive connection as well as a
negative and unattractive one.
Example
Sibusiso is delighted that the position offered to him by company A pays a good salary
(positive valence) but it will mean that he would have to work for a very unpleasant boss
(negative valence). He now has to decide whether he should accept the position with
the unpleasant boss or not. (Refer Fig 4.3.)
Figure 4.3 Approach-avoidance conflict
As soon as Sibusiso moves closer to the objective, attraction and repellence increase.
Repellence increases faster than attraction. As a result, Sibusiso begins to move
away from the objective (Meyer et al, 1990). Sibusiso again reaches a point where the
attraction of the objective is stronger and he is once again attracted to the objective. In
this way, the intensity of Sibusiso’s conflict can increase.

According to Carson and Butcher (1992), it is not advisable to always choose the
objective or always avoid the objective. The best solution is to sometimes choose
the objective and sometimes to avoid the objective. A person who experiences
conflict as described above can therefore sometimes decide to accept the job and
sometimes not, depending on the circumstances.
Activity
1. Write down a few incidents where you or your friends experienced approach-
avoidance conflict.
4.3.2.4 Multiple approach-avoidance conflict

In the case of multiple approach-avoidance conflict, there are two choices/
objectives that are:
■■ both positive/attractive; and
■■ both negative/unattractive.
Example
Annette is divorced and has three children. Her current job offers a poor salary. She
cannot provide for her children properly (negative valence), but she is able to spend a
great deal of time with her children (positive valence). Annette can be promoted to a
position with a good salary so that she is able to provide for her children better (positive
valence), but if she accepts the new position, she would be away from home more often
and spend less time with the children (negative valence). (Refer Fig 4.4.)
Figure 4.4 Multiple approach-avoidance conflict
Meyer et al (1990) inform us that multiple approach-avoidance conflict is

the most serious type of conflict because the person experiencing the conflict
continuously hesitates without making a decision. In desperate cases, this can
result in the person trying to escape the situation by using alcohol or drugs.
Activity
1. Write down a case of multiple approach-avoidance conflict that you know about.
How did the people react?

4.3.3 Types of conflict

Greenberg and Baron (2008) say that not all conflict is alike. Therefore, we can
differentiate between the following types of conflict:
4.3.3.1 Substantive conflict

People often have different viewpoints and opinions, with respect to the decisions
they have to make in cooperation with others. This type of conflict can actually
be beneficial. It can lead to effective decisions being made because it forces the
various sides to articulate their ideas.
Example
Under normal circumstances, Mona is very shy and does not easily voice her opinion.
However, when she is forced to take sides, within the viewpoints expressed by different
sides of a group decision, she finds it easy to take part in discussions.
4.3.3.2 Affective conflict

Affective conflict is a form of conflict that develops when people experience
interpersonal tensions that result in clashes, frustration and anger in work
situations. It usually happens when workers from different backgrounds are
joined together to perform tasks. Combined exploits can suffer as a result of
affective conflict.
Example
John came from a wealthy family, whereas Sarah grew up in a very poor environment.
As such, Sarah wants the working group to allocate more money to charity, and John
wants to spend it on a new building for the firm.
4.3.3.3 Process conflict

This form of conflict is based on differences of opinion regarding the working
methods of groups such as the allocation of duties, resources and responsibilities.
In working groups, differences may arise in how the work group should operate.
The issue in question is how duties, resources and responsibilities should be
allocated. The higher the level of process conflict, the more working group
performance will suffer.
Example
John is campaigning to be selected as manager of the resources (money available) of
Company X, because he wants to use it on a new building for the company (as with

the previous example). Sarah wants to be selected for the same position to be able to
allocate the company’s funds to charity.
4.4 Summary
Frustration refers to situations where the purposeful behaviour of a person
is hampered, which creates a condition of tension and increased sympathetic
activity in the person. This, in turn, can result in aggressive behaviour.
Frustration originates mainly from sources that are of a physical nature
like obstacles in the environment, time delays and a lack of resources. Personal
frustration is mainly based on the experience of loss, a feeling of failure due to
unattainable objectives or a feeling of helplessness because no meaning can be
found in life.
Two common reactions to frustration are offensive destructive behaviour
(aggression) or the reduction of anxiety by means of defence mechanisms.
Investigations have shown that aggression does not necessarily follow frustration
as postulated by the frustration-aggression model. It seems that aggression is
only one response to frustration and that the relationship between frustration
and aggression is acquired. Defence mechanisms are mainly used unconsciously
to protect the ego against stimuli that cause anxiety. Of the various defence
mechanisms that are used, repression or suppression, denial, rationalisation and
projection can be viewed as the most important.
Conflict usually originates from the simultaneous presence of opposite
behaviour tendencies or urges and it can result in anything from slight tension
to intense anxiety. There are four dynamics of conflict situations namely:
■■ approach-approach conflict (two positive objectives);
■■ avoidance-avoidance conflict (two negative objectives);
■■ approach-avoidance conflict (one objective with positive and negative
valences); and
■■ multiple approach-avoidance conflict (two objectives each with a positive and
negative valence).
Approach-approach conflict can usually be resolved more easily than other

conflicts. Multiple approach-avoidance is the most serious of the four conflict
dynamics and sometimes results in escape from the conflict situation by the use
of alcohol or drugs.
We can also differentiate between three important types of conflict in the field
of human resources namely substantive conflict (which is beneficial for decision-
making) and affective and process conflict which become more detrimental, the
higher the level of differences.

Self-evaluation
1. Describe the nature of frustration according to Plug et al (1997), by using two
industry-related examples. (6)
2. List and discuss six sources of frustration using industry-related examples. (12)
3. List and discuss three sources of personal frustration. Illustrate your discussion
with applicable examples. (6)
4. According to the stimulus-response model, aggression will always follow
frustration when objectives cannot be reached.
(a) Do you agree with this statement?
(b) Motivate your answer and use applicable examples. (15)
5. Discuss the nature of defence mechanisms. (5)
6. List and discuss any ten defence mechanisms and illustrate your discussion
with applicable examples. (30)
7. Define the concept ‘conflict’ and indicate what types of emotional reactions it
can elicit. Use applicable examples to illustrate this concept. (6)
8. List and briefly discuss four types of conflict that people experience. Use
applicable work-related examples in each case. (16)
9. Anne feels that she is being paid too little for the work she does in
Johannesburg but she enjoys city life and does not want to relinquish this.
She has received an excellent job offer with a good salary in a small country
town. Discuss the type of conflict Anne experiences and indicate what reaction
she may have to the conflict situation. (8)
10. Andy is chosen for a soccer team which is going to tour overseas and he is
delighted. It means that he would have to resign from his current job that he
enjoys very much. Describe the type of conflict Andy experiences as well as
the way in which Andy’s conflict can increase. (8)
11. Describe three work-related examples for the following types of conflict:
(a) substantive conflict (3)
(b) affective conflict (3)
(c) process conflict (3)

chapter
Stress, alcoholism
5 and drug addiction
5.1 Introduction .............................................................................. 92

5.2 Definition .............................................................................. 92
5.3 Dynamics of stress ............................................................................. 93
5.3.1 Causes of stress .................................................................. 93
5.3.1.1 The individual .................................................. 93
5.3.1.2 Life changes ..................................................... 95
5.3.1.3 Organisational conditions ............................ 96
5.3.2 Moderators .......................................................................... 98
5.3.2.1 Physical and mental condition .................... 98
5.3.2.2 Cognitive appraisal ........................................ 98
5.3.2.3 Degree of hardiness ...................................... 99
5.3.3 The effects of stress ........................................................... 100
5.3.3.1 Individual and stress ...................................... 100
5.3.3.2 Organisation and stress ................................ 101
5.3.4 Coping strategies ............................................................... 101
5.3.4.1 Individual emotion-focused strategies ...... 101
5.3.4.2 Organisational problem-focused
strategies .......................................................... 102
5.4 Alcoholism .............................................................................. 102
5.4.1 Description of alcoholism and alcohol
dependency ......................................................................... 102
5.4.2 Short-term physiological effect ...................................... 103
5.4.3 Long-term effects of alcohol abuse .............................. 103
5.4.4 Treatment of alcoholics ..................................................... 104
5.4.5 The role of the employer ................................................. 104
5.5 Drug addiction .............................................................................. 105
5.5.1 Definition .............................................................................. 106
5.5.2 Types of drugs ..................................................................... 106
5.5.2.1 Hallucinogenic agents.................................... 106
5.5.2.2 Opiates .............................................................. 106
5.5.2.3 Sedative substances ....................................... 107
5.5.2.4 Stimulants ......................................................... 107
5.5.2.5 Inhalants ........................................................... 108
5.5.3 Role of the employer ........................................................ 108
5.6 Summary .............................................................................. 109
Self-evaluation .............................................................................. 110

Study objective
■■ define the term ‘stress’ and explain its origin;
■■ identify and describe the different causes of stress;
■■ explain the factors that moderate stress;
■■ examine the effect of stress on the individual and the organisation;
■■ outline the various coping strategies for the individual and the organisation;
■■ explain the terms ‘alcoholism’ and ‘alcohol addiction’;
■■ describe the short-term physiological effects and the long-term effects of alcohol
abuse;
■■ discuss the treatment of alcoholism as well as the role of the employer regarding
alcohol abuse;
■■ clarify the term ‘drug’;
■■ list and detail the different types of drugs; and
■■ discuss the employer’s role regarding drug addiction.
5.1 Introduction
Stress has become part of our daily lives. People often complain about being
‘stressed out’. Stress influences all people at all levels and ages. We need to
understand what stress is, what causes it and how to deal with it effectively. Some
may consider resorting to alcohol or any other substance for stress alleviation,
a ‘solution’ or an ‘escape from reality’. However, these solutions have serious
long-term effects that may cause more stress than the initial problem (stressor).
It is imperative to understand the dynamics of alcoholism and drug addiction,
and the treatment thereof.
Activity
1. Think about the last time you experienced a lot of stress. Describe how you felt
physically and why those physical experiences could have caused the feeling of
being ‘stressed out’.
5.2 Definition
The term ‘stress’ as it is used today, originated from the engineering world where
it refers to the external forces that place tension on an object. Dr Hans Selye
(1984) was the first person to have coined the word ‘stress’: ‘Stress is the non-
specific response of the body to any demand, whether it is caused by, or results
in, pleasant or unpleasant conditions.’ From this definition, it is clear that stress
is not necessarily negative, as we all may think, but can be positive as well.

stress, alcoholism and drug addiction 93
In his work, Luthans (2011) makes the distinction between the following
concepts:
■■ Distress: stress caused by negative factors (poor academic performance, death
in the family, etc); and

■■ Eustress: the pleasant side of stress caused by positive factors (going on
holiday or a ‘hot’ date, etc).
‘Good’ stress is not only ‘eustress’; we often need a bit of stress to push us in a certain
direction (that extra motivation to do something, which is out of our comfort zone).
If we are not concerned whether we pass or fail the examination, we would not
study as hard as when we are feeling stressed. The discomfort or stress that an
unpleasant situation causes us, is often the ‘push’ that we need to change it.
Activity
1. Divide the class into groups of three or four. Each group has to discuss what they do
when they are under extremely stressful situations.
2. Table the differences and similarities between the members’ behaviour and report
this to the class. The various tables of the groups can then be combined on the
whiteboard.
From this activity, it is evident that people are sometimes very different and at
other times very similar in the way that they experience and deal with stress. The
reason(s) for this will become clearer in the paragraphs that follow.
5.3 Dynamics of stress

The dynamics of stress are based on the
work of Huczynski and Buchanan (2013).
5.3.1 Causes of stress

In discussing the causes of stress, Huczynski
and Buchanan (2013) refer to three broad
groups: the individual, changes within the
life of the individual, and conditions or
situations within the organisation.
5.3.1.1 The individual

An individual’s ability to deal with stress and the way he/she experiences different
levels of stress, will depend on his/her temperament. Two American cardiologists,
Friedman and Rosenman (1974), were the first to research the link between
personality factors, stress and Coronary Heart Disease (CHD).

The cardiologists split the participants into two groups, depending on whether
they were assessed as Type A or non-Type A (now known as Type B). Type A
individuals were considered to be ambitious, competitive, time-conscious and
demanding of perfection. Non-Type A individuals were more relaxed and easy-
going. They found that 70% of the men included in this study who had died were
from the Type A group. They therefore claimed to have identified the personality
(Type A) that was more likely to suffer from stress.
Huczynski and Buchanan (2013) describe Type A as more likely to suffer
stress-related illness and Type B as less likely to suffer stress-related illness, which
is in line with the findings of Friedman and Rosenman (1974). (Refer Fig 5.1/
Table 5.1.)
Causes of stress
The individual Life changes Organisational

Type A or B personality Threatening or minor conditions
episodes Work environment, job
design, role conflict,
management style
Moderators
Episodic versus The Cognitive Degree of

chronic stress individual’s appraisal of individual
physical and stressors ‘hardiness’
mental condition
Effects
Individual Organisational
●● Physical ●● Absenteeism
●● Psychological ●● Staff turnover
●● Behavioural ●● Poor performance
●● Accidents and sabotage
Coping strategies
Individual Organisational
Improve resilience and Remove stressors in the
coping skills work setting
Figure 5.1 Stress dynamics

Source: Adapted from Huczynski and Buchanan (2013)

Table 5.1 Type A and Type B personality traits
Type A Type B
Competitive Relaxed
Ambitious (driven to achieve) Non-competitive
Rigidly organised As successful (if not more) than Type As in
Impatient most cases
Aggressive Flexible
Fast-talking Emotional and expressive
Often interrupt others Laid-back attitude
Easily irritated Reflective
Quick to anger Often creative
Suspicious Enjoy exploring ideas and concepts
Hostile
Perfectionist
Highly successful but dissatisfied
Try to do more than one thing at a time
Take on more than they can handle
Pre-occupied with deadlines
Obsessed with time management
Activity
1. Study Table 5.1 and assess whether you are personality Type A or Type B.
Provision has been made in recent times for Type C and Type D.
5.3.1.2 Life changes

Stress can also be caused by life changes, which Huczynski and Buchanan (2013)
describe, range from minor to threatening episodes. Life changes include:
■■ relocation of home due to work changes;
■■ a shift in personal financial situation;
■■ lack of a social support system;
■■ falling pregnant or having a miscarriage;
■■ experiencing sexual difficulties;
■■ a change in one’s personal habits;
■■ serious illness of a family member or close friend;
■■ a death in the family or of a close friend;
■■ short- or long-term strained relationships; or
■■ divorce of parents (or of a sibling or child).

Life changes, gradually or sudden, positive or negative, have a stressful impact

on people. Luthans (2011) concurs that there is a definite relationship between
the degree of life changes and the subsequent health of the person, as well as the
person’s job performance.
Example
Debbie, the HR manager, has always been a reliable and conscientious worker. She has
worked for the company for over ten years. There has never been reason for the HR
director to follow up on an instruction given to Debbie or to monitor her work. However,
for the last couple of weeks Debbie has missed deadlines and has been absent from
work with minor complaints such as headaches, vomiting, etc. The HR director cannot
understand this recent change in ‘very reliable’ Debbie. He calls her to a meeting to
discuss the recent poor performance and absenteeism. It is only once Debbie is at his
desk, that he notices how much weight she has lost and how terribly unhappy she looks.
Debbie explains that she is in the middle of a divorce. Although this has nothing to do
with her work, she is unable to concentrate and needs counselling.
5.3.1.3 Organisational conditions

There are many factors within an organisation that contribute to job stress. For
example, Luthans (2011) states that every organisation is made up of its own
unique macro-level dimensions, each one of which could be a source of stress for
the individual (refer Fig 5.2). Each one of these dimensions is a study on its own.
However, at this stage it is important for us to focus on the following stressors
in the organisation, as illustrated in Fig 5.1 (Huczynski & Buchanan, 2013):
■■ Unpleasant work environment: loud noise pollution; extreme hot or cold
temperatures; poor ventilation; faulty equipment; inadequate internet access;

exposure to toxic gasses; hard physical labour; long working hours or
dangerous working conditions (caused by heights, electrical wires and fire
hazards) trigger continuous stress for workers.
■■ Inappropriate job design: lack of training; insufficient information
given on job expectations; or no involvement in the decision-making.
The quantity or quality of the workload can either be excessive or insufficient.
If the workload is too much it can exhaust the worker psychologically or
physically (this is often viewed as one of the main reasons for work stress).
Too little work or work that is too easy causes boredom and frustration as it
hampers the need for job satisfaction which results in stress.
■■ Poor management style: inconsistencies in decision-making; inappropriate
planning and no pro-active management; autocratic leadership styles; serious

lack of trust for subordinates, etc.
■■ Poor work relations: not having a sound relationship with an immediate
supervisor; feeling isolated and detached from the others at work; could be
harassed or bullied.

■■ Uncertain future: being unsure about one’s future in the organisation in terms
of, for example, development; or fearing the possibility of being retrenched
or made redundant.
■■ Type of career: the nature of certain professions could easily lead to stress.
Example
A teacher’s continuous control and supervision of children can be particularly exhausting.
The relationships of doctors, psychologists and social workers with their patients can
cause emotional problems if they become too involved. Soldiers and policemen often
find themselves in physical danger and sometimes witness horrific events which clearly
place them under stress.
Administrative policies and strategies

●● Downsizing ●● Rotating work shifts
●● Competitive pressures ●● Bureaucratic rules
●● Merit pay plans ●● Advanced technology
Organisational structrue and design

●● Centralisation and formalisation
●● Line-staff conflicts
●● Specialisation
●● Role ambiguity and conflict
●● No opportunity for advancement
●● Restrictive, untrusting culture
Organisational processes
●● Tight controls Job stress
●● Only downward communication
●● Little performance feedback
●● Centralised decision-making
●● Lack of participation in decisions
●● Punitive appraisal systems
Working conditions
●● Crowded work area
●● Noise, heat, or cold
●● Polluted air
●● Strong smells (odour)
●● Unsafe, dangerous conditions
●● Poor lighting
●● Physical or mental strain
●● Toxic chemicals or radiation
Figure 5.2 Macro-level organisational stressors

Source: Luthans (2011)

5.3.2 Moderators
Stress can be episodic or it can be chronic. We all have to face painful situations
at some point in our lives, which cause stress, but this does not mean that we
experience stress continuously. However, some people are constantly under
pressure and feel anxious.
Whether stress will be episodic or chronic will also depend on certain factors
(Huczynski & Buchanan, 2013; Willis, 2005).
5.3.2.1 Physical and mental condition

It is more difficult to cope with stressful situations when we are tired or sick. It is
for this reason that people believe they have to sleep a fixed number of hours per
night (normally eight hours). People also take multi-vitamins and supplements to
cope with the fast pace of life. To be mentally pre-occupied with other matters,
inhibits your ability to cope effectively with stressful situations.
5.3.2.2 Cognitive appraisal

Our thoughts are extremely powerful. Thoughts give rise to our emotions which
direct behaviour and often lead to a ‘self-fulfilling prophecy’. If you think that
you are not going to cope with a certain situation, for example, that you will not
be able to pass an exam, you probably will not pass.
The individual’s assessment of a stressor will also determine his/her ability
or inability to deal with a stressful situation. According to Weiten and Lloyd
(1994), the following four factors are important in a person’s evaluation of a
stressor:
■■ The familiarity of the stressor: the more experience a person has in dealing
with the stressor, the less harmful the influence of the stressor will be.
Example
Parachutists experience a great deal of stress with their first jump and after that less
stress with each jump. The same applies to a lorry driver who may experience a high
level of stress when first driving a new lorry but with time this task becomes daily routine.
■■ Measure of control over event: people experience less stress when they have
control over a situation and more stress when they feel completely helpless.
Example
Work procedures often have to change to adjust to new technology. Workers will find it
less stressful if they are able to suggest the way in which the new tasks should be done.
In this way, they are granted a measure of control over the change.

■■ The measure of predictability of events: bad news is a bigger shock when it is

unexpected and less of a shock when it is expected.
Example
The first time a patient dies when a nurse is trying to save his/her life, will be far more
traumatic than the twentieth time that it happens. By then, the nurse will have a better
understanding of what to expect.
Example
It will be a greater shock to workers if they are suddenly retrenched because the
organisation needs to save costs, than what it would have been if cost-saving had first
been discussed with them.
■■ Inevitability of the threat: stressful events that lie somewhere in the distant
future do not create too much stress because people hope to avoid the event.
As the stressful event becomes imminent, it becomes unavoidable and so their
stress increases.
Example
If people know that they have to write an examination, they usually only begin to feel
the stress when it is almost time to write the examination.
5.3.2.3 Degree of hardiness

‘Hardiness’ refers to the individual’s resistance to stress. Hardy people are less
affected by stressful situations and are therefore more able to cope with stress
effectively and objectively. With an internal locus of control, stress-hardy people
are aware that while they cannot control all the external events that go on in
their lives, they have a choice in how they feel and react to a stressor. They feel
that they have some control over their lives.
Example
Nkosi and Princess received a Section 189(3) notice. This notice informed them that they
were on the list of employees whose service would no longer be required, due to the
financial difficulties in which the company found itself.
Nkosi took the news personally; he felt useless and hit a deep depression. He even
considered suicide. Princess felt that this was a message from the universe. It was time
for her to look for new challenges. If this had not happened, she could have become
stagnated and might have grown old in the company. She enthusiastically started
sending her CV out to other companies and started attending job interviews.

5.3.3 The effects of stress

Two important aspects of stress to remember are:
■■ People and their reactions are unique. Individuals react to stress in their own
way.
■■ Stress is not always negative and harmful for the individual or for their
organisational performance. In fact, low levels of stress enhance the individual’s

performance (Luthans, 2011).
5.3.3.1 Individual and stress

Stress influences people differently. According to Luthans (2011), the problems
that people experience due to high levels of stress can be exhibited physically,
psychologically or behaviourally:
❏❏ Physiologically
Luthans (2011) asserts that there are specific physical health concerns that have
been linked with stress. These problems include:
■■ illness and infection (immune system);
■■ high blood pressure and heart disease (cardiovascular system);
■■ tension headaches, as well as back and neck pain (musculoskeletal system);
and
■■ diarrhoea, constipation, inflammation of the colon, and ulcers (gastro-
intestinal system).
❏❏ Psychologically
The physiological reactions are linked to strong emotional reactions. Different
types of emotional reactions exist depending on the type of stressor and the
individual’s vulnerability to the stressor. According to Luthans (2011), high levels
of stress may be accompanied by:
■■ anger;
■■ anxiety;
■■ depression;
■■ nervousness;
■■ irritability;
■■ tension;
■■ boredom; and
■■ low self-esteem.
❏❏ Behaviourally
Behavioural reactions refer to the individual’s actual attempt to deal with stress
or to adapt to the stressor. Direct behaviour that may accompany high levels of
stress include (Luthans, 2011):

■■ under-eating or overeating;
■■ sleeplessness;
■■ increased smoking or drinking; and
■■ drug abuse.
Activity
1. Describe your physical, psychological and behavioural reactions to a stressful
situation (such as an examination).
5.3.3.2 Organisation and stress

Huczynski and Buchanan (2013) state that the organisational consequences of
stress can be damaging. These could include:
■■ high rate of absenteeism;
■■ high staff turnover rate;
■■ accidents or wilful sabotage;
■■ disciplinary hearings and grievances; and
■■ labour disputes and strikes.
5.3.4 Coping strategies

Huczynski and Buchanan (2013) suggest applying individual emotion-focused
and organisational problem-focused strategies for reducing stress.
5.3.4.1 Individual emotion-focused strategies

An example of an individual emotion-focused strategy is ‘consciousness-raising’,
which aids in improving self-awareness. To raise consciousness, one must first
become in touch with one’s self and to practise being honest, truthful and
responsible as well as exercise self-control. Willis (2005) refers to ‘Responsibility
Therapy’ which helps a person to accept responsibility for his/her own behaviour
and action. Other strategies include:
■■ following a balanced diet;
■■ exercise and fitness programmes;
■■ self-help training in biofeedback;
■■ self-help coping strategies;
■■ practising meditation and relaxation techniques;
■■ time management training; and
■■ development of other social and job interests (networking).

5.3.4.2 Organisational problem-focused strategies

The organisational problem-focused strategies could include:
■■ selection and training mechanisms;
■■ staff counselling and wellness programmes;
■■ employee assistance programmes (EAPs);
■■ improved organisational communications and information sharing;
■■ resolving ambiguous or conflicting goals;
■■ job redesign and enrichment strategies;
■■ development of team-working systems;
■■ fair and equitable performance reviews and pay plans; and
■■ improving physical work conditions.
5.4 Alcoholism
Alcohol abuse can be just as destructive
as the abuse of other more dangerous
drugs. The use of alcohol is not only
legal in our society but often people are
encouraged to consume it. Alcohol costs
companies millions. Alcohol abuse has an
influence on factors such as absenteeism
and accidents at the workplace as well as
on medical expenses related to alcohol
abuse.
5.4.1 Description of alcoholism and alcohol dependency

Since not all abuse of alcohol results in addiction, it is difficult to determine
whether a person is an alcoholic. Generally, alcoholism can be viewed as: The
condition that develops when a person is dependent on alcohol to such a
degree that it impairs his/her physical and psychological health, has a negative
influence on his/her interpersonal relations and harms his/her social and
economic functioning (Plug et al, 1987).
Dependency or addiction can be both physical and psychological. Physically,
the long-term use of alcohol results in a person experiencing a need or craving
for alcohol. Abstinence may result in withdrawal symptoms, for example,
disorientation, hallucination, acute fear, trembling, fever and a fast but weak
heartbeat.
A psychological dependency on alcohol often develops before a physical
dependence. This occurs when people use alcohol to escape depressive moods or
to escape from life stress and can only relax with the help of alcohol. The early
diagnosis of alcohol addiction is also hampered by the alcoholic usually in denial
to other people and himself that he/she has a drinking problem.

5.4.2 Short-term physiological effect

Alcohol is a depressant that influences the higher centres of the brain,
reduces human judgement and other rational processes and diminishes self-
control (Carson & Butcher, 1992). Coupled with this, people usually experience
a feeling of warmth and well-being. After a few drinks and over the continued
use of alcohol, the loss of self-control results at a quicker pace.
When the alcohol percentage in a person’s blood is 0,1 per cent or more, the
person is considered to be drunk. Muscle control, speech and vision deteriorate
and thoughts are confused. Even before this state is reached, people’s judgement
is impaired so that they may, for example, believe that they can still drive safely,
long after this has ceased to be true. At an alcohol percentage of 0,5 people lose
consciousness while an alcohol percentage of 0,55 is considered fatal.
Alcohol abuse often causes amnesia. Although it is not yet known how
amnesia is caused, there is a possibility that it is linked to brain damage. Initially,
amnesia only occurs with a high alcohol percentage in the blood. If a person
should however abuse liquor often, amnesia will occur even with a low alcohol
percentage in the blood.
People often feel ill the day after abusing alcohol and may have headaches,
fatigue, nausea and after-thirst as the most common symptoms. It is speculated
that these are a form of withdrawal symptoms. In the work situation, this reduces
the worker’s motivation to work, results in absenteeism and causes accidents
because the worker’s concentration is diminished. Some workers, for example,
cannot perform up to standard on a Monday because they abuse alcohol over
weekends.
5.4.3 Long-term effects of alcohol abuse

The life-span of the average alcoholic is 12 years shorter than the life-span of
non-alcoholics (Carson & Butcher, 1992). It is therefore undoubtedly true that
long-term alcohol abuse is very detrimental to a person.
All alcohol that is consumed (except for the five to ten per cent that is excreted)
must eventually be absorbed by the body. This absorption takes place through
the liver. If a person continuously abuses alcohol, the liver is over-exerted and
this results in cirrhosis of the liver (there is one fatality in every ten cases).
Alcohol is a high-calorie drug so people who drink a lot often skip meals.
The nutritional value of alcohol is low and the consumption of large quantities
of alcohol inhibits the absorption of essential vitamins. The continued abuse
of alcohol could result in malnutrition. Continued abuse also causes chronic
fatigue, excessive sensitivity and depression. Ironically enough, people often start
drinking in order to overcome depression. Although alcohol brings temporary
relief, long-term abuse gives rise to feelings of inferiority that often not only
cause deep depression but can result in suicide.

Continued alcohol abuse can also result in the collapse of the

person’s career and social life. People often lose their jobs as a result of prolonged
alcohol abuse and often experience marital problems as well. For an alcoholic,
it becomes increasingly more difficult to sustain personal relationships or be
productive professionally. Alcoholics often develop shaky hands, a need to start
the day with a drink, periods of memory loss, periods of uncontrolled drinking
and loss of control in their liquor consumption. These factors cause people
to make mistakes in their jobs (which could result in accidents), often being
absent from work for long periods of time and eventually losing their job due
to unreliability.
5.4.4 Treatment of alcoholics

The single biggest problem in the treatment of an alcoholic is obtaining the
person’s co-operation. Alcoholics often deny that they have a problem and refuse
help. If the alcoholic really wants to be helped, a cure is possible. The treatment
is usually directed at breaking both the physiological and the psychological
dependency.
With the aid of medication, the alcoholic’s withdrawal symptoms are
controlled while the body is being taught to cope without alcohol. This is called
the detoxification phase and usually takes place under controlled circumstances
(in hospitals or institutions) where access to alcohol is withheld from the person.
Medication is especially helpful in the short-term withdrawal of alcohol. For the
long-term recovery, psychological treatment is more important. Certain medication
is used to teach the patient to develop an aversion to alcohol. The medication, for
example, makes the patient very nauseous if he/she uses alcohol at all.
The person must also learn to deal with the stress and life problems that
originally caused the alcoholism. It was found that group therapy, especially
with other alcoholics, is valuable in teaching a person to accept and address his/
her problems. The person must also acquire new life skills and problem-solving
techniques. Since a relapse into alcoholism is always a problem, it is important
that the alcoholic should learn to know the danger signals and how to handle
the potential relapse situation.
With sufficient support, the alcoholic can be completely rehabilitated. It is
important that the alcoholic is motivated to overcome his/her problem.
5.4.5 The role of the employer

Alcohol abuse clearly influences a person’s productivity and therefore has an
influence on organisations. Two problems face the employer: the danger that the
worker will arrive at work intoxicated and of absenteeism or ill-health.
Drunkenness and alcohol consumption in the work situation is especially
dangerous because it impairs a person’s judgement and other rational processes.

This results in non-productivity, irresponsible behaviour and work accidents. The

reduction of the workers’ productivity is financially detrimental to a company.
Work accidents cause serious financial losses, not only through the direct damage
to capital equipment and fellow workers but also by halting the production line
for a number of days. It is of extreme importance that the employer ensures that
workers are sober during working hours. Strict measures should be taken to
prevent drunkenness or the consumption of alcohol during working hours.
Alcohol abuse by workers outside of working hours can also have serious
consequences for the employer. As has already been mentioned, one of the short-
term consequences of alcohol abuse is that people often feel ill the following day,
which results in a reduction of productivity.
Continued abuse of alcohol causes a workers’ motivation to lessen as well as a
deterioration in their health. Uncontrolled drinking often ends in absenteeism of
alcoholics and eventual dismissal. Dismissal of a worker is often more costly to
the company because of a high labour turnover. A high labour turnover means
that new workers must continuously be appointed and trained and experienced
workers must be replaced by new inexperienced workers. It is very difficult for
an employer to influence a worker’s activities outside of working hours. The
employer can attempt to contain the social causes of alcoholism by providing the
necessary support when alcoholism does occur.
There are three factors in particular that increase or reduce the incidence of
alcoholism (Carson & Butcher, 1992):
■■ the stress that a person experiences;
■■ social attitudes towards the use of alcohol; and
■■ alternative recreational opportunities.
As discussed earlier in the chapter, an employer can do a great deal to eliminate

unnecessary stress in the work situation. Workers’ attitudes towards alcohol
abuse can be influenced by educational programmes that highlight the dangers
of alcohol abuse. Sporting and other recreational facilities that offer alternative
relaxation opportunities can be provided.
Activity
1. The employer must play a sympathetic role when a worker with a drinking problem
is identified.
2. What do you think employers can do to help workers with drinking problems?
5.5 Drug addiction

Nowadays, there are many drugs, besides alcohol, that cause addiction (Louw,
1988). Unlike alcohol, the sale of most of these drugs is illegal or strictly
controlled. Many of these substances are used for medical purposes. Abuse of

these drugs is dangerous. In order to gain a better understanding of drugs, it is

essential that we consider the effects of drugs.
5.5.1 Definition
A drug may be defined as any substance that can, should it be abused, result
in physical and/or psychological dependence and have a harmful effect on
the person and society (Plug et al, 1987).
5.5.2 Types of drugs

Drugs, excluding alcohol, can be divided
into five main groups.
5.5.2.1 Hallucinogenic agents

The most important of these substances are LSD, mescaline, psilosibine and
dimethyltriptamine. Marijuana (dagga) is also often classified in this group.
All of these substances cause radical changes in the user’s perception of reality.
People will, for example, hear and see things that do not exist (hallucinations).
Addiction to these drugs is usually psychological and not physical. Addicts
therefore do not experience withdrawal symptoms if they cannot obtain the
drug. People become psychologically dependent in the sense that life has no
meaning without the drug. These substances are dangerous because of the
influence that they have on an individual’s mental health. The dangers of these
substances vary from LSD (the manufacture of which is prohibited worldwide)
to marijuana (which is legal in certain countries). LSD is prohibited because the
hallucinations experienced are so intense that people may endanger their own
and other people’s lives while under the influence of the drug.
Symptoms that indicate the use of these substances include dilation of the
pupils, trembling, a change in appetite. Workers who are addicted to these drugs
are unpredictable. Their behaviour is erratic, they cannot concentrate well and
their lives often revolve around the consumption of the substance.
LSD causes serious psychoses that require hospitalisation. The psychological
addiction to these drugs is often only recovered from with psychiatric treatment.
5.5.2.2 Opiates
An opiate is any substance that contains opium or its derivatives, such as heroin
or morphine (Plug et al, 1987). Other well-known opiates include codeine and
pethidine. Opiates are powerful suppressants of the central nervous system and
are used as painkillers. Excessive use, however, elicits an intense feeling of well-
being in the individual.

Opiates lead to both physical and psychological dependence. The addict must
also continuously increase the dosage to achieve the same effect. A person may
become addicted to the substances within 30 days. Withdrawal symptoms may
appear within eight hours of the drug being withheld.
When high on opiates, the users’ pupils contract, their breathing slows,
their mouths become dry, their noses itch and they experience hot flushes.
Withdrawal symptoms initially consist of despondency, increased emotionality
and restlessness. After that, typical symptoms of the common cold occur such as
a runny nose, watery eyes, excessive perspiration, dilated pupils and the start of
a chill, revealed by goose bumps.
Treatment is basically the same as the treatment for alcoholism. The person
must first overcome the withdrawal symptoms with the help of medication and
must thereafter be assisted by psychological treatment in order to conquer the
psychological dependence.
5.5.2.3 Sedative substances

Some of the more well-known sedatives include valium, Ativan, Xanax, rohypnol
and Librium. The most important characteristic of sedative substances is that
they calm a person down or make him/her sleep (Louw, 1988). If they are used
according to prescription, they help to relieve anxiety, tension and insomnia and
do not create problems. An over-dosage creates a feeling of well-being for the
addict.
These substances cause a physical as well as psychological dependence in
the user. Dosages must continuously be increased to achieve the same effect.
Overdoses may be fatal. Continued abuse could result in brain damage and
psychological problems.
Symptoms of over-dosage are the same as those of a drunk person: psycho-
motor skills are seriously impaired and concentration is dulled. Psychological
symptoms vary from depression to aggression.
Treatment is very similar to that of alcoholism and the abuse of opiates.
Withdrawal symptoms in this case, however, are incredibly dangerous and the
detoxification phase must be handled with extreme care. Thereafter, the person
must acquire more effective methods of dealing with their problems.
5.5.2.4 Stimulants
Stimulants are drugs (both legal and illegal) that increase alertness and physical
activity, due to the stimulating effect they have on the central nervous system
(Louw, 1988). These substances combat fatigue, relieve despondency and suppress
the appetite. Overdosage creates a feeling of vitality, excitement and exuberance.
The pleasurable feelings instigate a high level of addiction in these stimulants.

Some of the more well-known stimulants comprise cocaine (including rock

and crack cocaine), caffeine, methamphetamines (speed, crystal meths and tik),
amphetamines, nicotine, MDMA (known as ecstacy), ritalin, ephedrine, and even
energy drinks (Gallus Detox Centers, 2012).
These substances create only a psychological dependence. Dosages must also
be continuously increased to achieve the same effect. Overdoses can be fatal.
Long-term abuse may result in brain damage and can cause psychoses.
Typical symptoms of overdosage are dilated pupils, increased pulse rate, a
dry mouth and excessive perspiration. The person appears to be lively, excited
and exuberant.
Withdrawal symptoms seldom occur in treatment. Serious depression usually
occurs and has to be treated over a long period of time. The person receives
psychological treatment to acquire new skills for dealing with problems.
5.5.2.5 Inhalants
Inhalants are any substances that are inhaled through the mouth or nose with
the aim of achieving a euphoric effect (Louw, 1988). Petrol, benzene, cigarette
lighters, laughing gas and certain synthetically manufactured glues are examples
of these.
The use of these substances leads to psychological dependence. It is not
currently clear whether physical dependence develops, but an increased tolerance
definitely does. These substances are very dangerous and cause abnormalities in
the blood composition, poisoning of the bone marrow and blood poisoning as
well as damage to the nervous system, liver, kidneys, heart tissue and brain cells.
It is especially important that physical poisoning is countered during treatment.
Additionally, the psychological dependence on the drugs must be solved.
5.5.3 Role of the employer

As is the case with alcohol consumption, the use of drugs have a great impact
on the productivity of a worker. The danger of intoxication during work hours
as well as the general health problems caused by addiction are of great concern.
In the work situation, it is important to prevent workers from using drugs
during working hours. Strict security and control over the work situation is
therefore vital. Employers must be continuously on the lookout for symptoms of
drug usage and drug addiction. Attempts to prevent drug addiction can be made,
as in the case of alcohol addiction, by:
■■ controlling job stressors;
■■ creating awareness of the dangers of addiction through educational
programmes; and
■■ providing alternative recreational facilities.

Should the employer identify a drug problem in one of the workers, this should
be handled with extreme sensitivity, care and confidentiality. The worker should
be granted the opportunity to seek psychological help and support and, where
needed, be sent to the applicable institutions.
Activity
1. Substance abuse has many origins, such as personal, familial, social and economic.
What do you think employers should do to address substance abuse in the
workplace?
5.6 Summary
Any demand or situation in the environment that requires a person to react is
a source of stress or a stressor. Stress is the body’s unspecified response to these
demands.
When discussing the causes of stress, three broad groups were identified:
■■ Individuals with Type A and Type B personalities experience situations
differently, certain situations are more stressful than others.

■■ Events and changes in an individual’s life can vary from slightly stressful to
threatening.
■■ Many organisational conditions contribute to an individual’s stress.
Life changes cause stress even though these are positive.
Factors that moderate stress include the individual’s:

■■ physical and mental condition;
■■ cognitive appraisal of the stressors; and/or
■■ ‘hardiness’ in terms of dealing with stress.
Stress has various effects on the individual and the organisation.There are many
strategies in which the individual and the organisation learn to deal with stress
more effectively and constructively.
Alcoholism is viewed as a dependence problem that markedly upsets a
person’s physical and mental health as well as causing harm to his/her work
and social life. Alcohol is a depressant that has short-term physiological effects.
The influence of alcohol depends on the alcohol percentage present in the blood.
Amnesia often occurs when a person is drunk. People usually feel ill the day after
drinking too much alcohol.
Alcohol abuse also has long-term effects. A person’s lifespan is reduced.
Cirrhrosis of the liver is often caused after long-term alcohol abuse. The abuse
of alcohol is serious and can lead to malnutrition, brain damage, chronic fatigue
and depression. It also leads to the collapse of the abuser’s personal and work
life.

Treatment of alcoholism includes: the detoxification phase during which

withdrawal symptoms are treated with medication; and psychological help to
deal with life problems in alternative ways.
The role of the employer in combatting alcohol abuse at the workplace is of
special importance. The employer must:
■■ prevent liquor consumption during working hours;
■■ reduce alcohol addiction amongst staff; and
■■ support workers with alcohol addiction problems.
Drugs can be defined as as any substance that causes physical and/or psychological
dependence. The five main types of drugs are:
■■ Hallucinogens: lead to a radical change in the individual’s perception of
reality and are psychologically addictive.

■■ Opiates: serve as suppressants of pain but abuse causes an intense feeling of
well-being. Opiates are physically and psychologically addictive.

■■ Sedatives: serve as relaxants and sleep remedies but when abused provide an
intense feeling of well-being. Abuse of sedatives results in physical as well as

a psychological addiction.
■■ Stimulants: stimulate the central nervous system and create a feeling of
excitement and exuberance. They are psychologically addictive.

■■ Inhalants: are inhaled with the aim of achieving an euphoric effect. It is
unknown whether these are physically addictive as well as psychologically

addictive.
The employer must try and reduce alcohol and drug problems by:
■■ reducing work stressors;
■■ educating workers;
■■ providing recreational facilities; and
■■ supporting those with alcohol or drug problems.
Self-evaluation
1. Define the term ‘stress’ and distinguish between ‘distress’ and ‘eustress’. (6)
2. Explain how individuals’ ability to deal with stress depends on their
temperament. (15)
3. List some of the events and changes in an individual’s life that could contribute
to stress. (10)
4. Discuss the various conditions in an organisation, which could contribute to an
employee’s stress. (20)
5. Whether stress will be episodic or chronic will depend on various factors that
moderate stress. Discuss these factors. (20)
6. Discuss the problems that people who experience high levels of stress exhibit. (15)

7. What symptoms will an organisation show if they experience high levels of

stress? (5)
8. Discuss possible coping strategies for the individual and the organisation
that experience high levels of stress. (20)
9. Give a short description of the nature of alcoholism and alcohol addiction. (9)
10. What is the short-term physiological effect of alcohol abuse on the
individual? (10)
11. Give a brief description of the long-term effects of alcohol abuse. (14)
12. How can alcoholism be treated? (6)
13. What problems can alcohol abuse cause in the work situation as well as
for the organisation in general? (10)
14. Give a short description of the employer’s role in reducing problems that
alcohol abuse may cause in the work situation. (9)
15. Why do drugs lead to addiction and how can this be combated? (8)
16. What are the main types of drugs and what are their physiological effects
on people? (15)
17. In what ways do people become dependent on the various types of drugs
and how should this be treated? (15)

chapter
Perception
6
6.1 Introduction .............................................................................. 113
6.2 Nature of perception ........................................................................ 113
6.3 Attention .............................................................................. 114
6.3.1 Ways of focusing attention .............................................. 115
6.3.1.1 Marginal attention .......................................... 115
6.3.1.2 Selective attention .......................................... 116
6.3.2 Factors that influence attention focus ........................... 116
6.3.2.1 External factors ............................................... 116
6.3.2.2 Internal factors ................................................ 118
6.4 The information processing model of perception .................... 120
6.4.1 Stimuli .............................................................................. 121
6.4.2 Short-term sensory storage ............................................ 121
6.4.3 Perception ............................................................................ 121
6.4.4 Decision-making and choice of response ................... 121
6.4.5 Execution of the response ............................................... 122
6.4.6 Feedback .............................................................................. 122
6.4.7 Attention .............................................................................. 122
6.4.8 Application of the model ................................................. 123
6.5 Sensory awareness ............................................................................ 123
6.5.1 Functioning of senses ........................................................ 123
6.6 Spontaneous perceptual observation .......................................... 125
6.6.1 Gestalt laws .......................................................................... 125
6.6.1.1 Figure and ground ......................................... 125
6.6.1.2 Perceptual grouping ...................................... 126
6.6.2 Perceptual uniformity ........................................................ 128
6.6.3 Spatial placement of auditory information .................. 129
6.6.3.1 The distance of auditory information ....... 129
6.6.3.2 Direction of auditory information .............. 130
6.6.4 Visual observation of depth and distance ................... 131
6.6.4.1 Monocular depth cues .................................. 131
6.6.4.2 Binocular depth cues ..................................... 134
6.7 Summary .............................................................................. 135
Self-evaluation .............................................................................. 137

perception 113
Study objective
■■ define perception and clarify the nature thereof;
■■ expound the various ways of focusing attention;
■■ outline factors that influence attention focus;
■■ summarise the information processing model of perception;
■■ describe the functioning of senses;
■■ simplify the gestalt laws of perceptual observation;
■■ comprehend perceptual uniformity;
■■ explain the spatial placement of auditory information; and
■■ understand the perception of visual depth and distance.
6.1 Introduction
People are continuously in contact with their environment by means of perception.
Individuals give meaning to their environment by organising and interpreting
what they experience with their senses in a progression called perception.
Perception is a process by which individuals organise and interpret what they
experience through their senses, in order to give meaning to their environment
(Rama Rao, 2008). Perception is therefore important to people for survival since
they must continuously react to dangers and threats from the environment. In
the work situation, most accidents occur because the worker failed to observe
certain dangers and consequently could not react to these. Furthermore, it is
essential for the worker to observe his/her environment in order to do his/her job.
In this chapter we will pay attention to the way in which perception takes
place. We will pay special attention to the importance of our interpretation of
perception and will place special emphasis on hearing and vision.
6.2 Nature of perception

Perception can be defined as the ways in which information is received, processed
and interpreted by the human brain (Jordaan & Jordaan, 1998). To gain a better
understanding of this definition, the three processes that comprise perception
will be examined more closely.
The senses are the specialised organs (for example, the ear) that react to a
specific type of impulse or stimulus. A stimulus is any form of energy that a
person reacts to (for example, sound waves). In order to observe something in
the environment, some or other stimulus of sufficient extent must affect one of
the senses.
Every moment of a person’s existence is bombarded with thousands of
simultaneous stimuli. It is impossible to be aware of all these stimuli so people

only pay attention to certain stimuli. This selective realisation of specific stimuli is
called sensation. A sensation is the feeling one has in reaction to the information
gained through the senses.
Only once this sensation has been interpreted by the brain, is it called
perception. The interpretation of other people’s behaviour is called social
perception and is discussed at length in Chapter 9.
People have five general senses, namely hearing (ears), sight (eyes), smell
(nose), taste (taste buds on the tongue) and the pain and touch senses (nerve ends
and tactile corpuscles in the skin). Of these five, hearing and sight are important
in the job situation and we will therefore pay special attention to these.
Activity
1. Sit back for a moment and describe all the possible sensory perceptions that you
have in your current position.
2. Would you have been aware of these perceptions if this question had not been
posed to you? Motivate your answer (refer point 6.2).
6.3 Attention
People cannot pay attention to all sensory information at the same time, but have
to direct their attention at specific events or objects. Attention focus is the way in

perception 115
which people’s attention is directed at specific events or objects. This focus can
be compared to the way in which one uses a flashlight in the dark. At a given
moment, only certain objects within the range of the light are seen even though
the light frequently moves to other objects.
6.3.1 Ways of focusing attention

The ways in which people can direct their attention to objects vary from the
unconscious and involuntary to the conscious and purposeful focusing of
attention (Jordaan & Jordaan, 1998).
6.3.1.1 Marginal attention

When people are unaware of the events around them, for example, because they
are focusing their attention elsewhere, their perceptive senses will warn them if
anything important happens in the environment that would affect them.
Example
A mother often awakes the moment a baby starts crying while the father sleeps through
the noise and is unaware of the crying afterwards.

Example
In a job situation, John will suddenly become aware that the machine he is working on
is making a strange noise, even though his attention has been focused on his work and
he had been, up until then, unaware of the machine’s drone.
6.3.1.2 Selective attention

In order to concentrate or focus attention, one object or event must be selected
from the various stimuli occurring around the person. This concentration of
attention can be voluntary or involuntary. External objects or events that cause
intense stimulation of the senses often force people to involuntarily focus their
attention on an event.
Example
Loud people are more likely to be noticed in a group than quiet ones. Extremely
attractive or unattractive individuals also stand out in a group. A loud crash on the work
floor will cause all the workers to look up to see what has happened even though they
had previously been busy with other work.
Internal motivation, in turn, causes people to deliberately focus their attention on

something, possibly in spite of external factors that may distract their attention
from the point of focus.
Example
The workers listen attentively to their course leader in spite of the lawnmower outside
the room that could easily distract their attention.
Activity
1. Explain in your own words the difference between marginal and selective attention.
6.3.2 Factors that influence attention focus

According to Luthans (2011), there are internal as well as external factors that
encourage the focus of attention.
6.3.2.1 External factors

External factors are external characteristics of perceived objects or situations.
According to Luthans (2011) the following are of special importance:

perception 117
❏❏ Intensity
The more intense the external factors, the higher the probability of these factors
being perceived.
Example
A loud alarm will attract people’s attention immediately while a soft alarm would
probably be ignored.
❏❏ Size
The bigger the object, the higher the probability that it will be perceived.
Example
A warning sign that is 1 m2 in the workspace, will be more noticeable than a sign
measuring 10 cm2.
❏❏ Contrast
External stimuli that stand out against the background will draw a person’s
attention more than stimuli that do not stand out.
Example
Red letters on a blue background will be far more noticeable than red letters on an
orange background.
❏❏ Repetition
Stimuli that are repeated will be more noticeable than a single stimulus.
Example
Advertisers make good use of this principle, but in the work situation we also find
that instructions that are repeated have greater impact than instructions that are not
repeated.
❏❏ Movement
Moving objects are noticed more easily than stationary objects.
Example
Neon advertising signs can be cited as an example. In the work situation too, a warning
light that flashes will attract more attention than a normal light.

❏❏ Familiarity and novelty

A familiar object in a new situation or a new object in a familiar situation draws
attention.
Example
Work rotation is based on this principle due to the fact that the change of tasks increases
the worker’s attention to the job he/she is doing.
Activity
1. Form groups of two and discuss ways in which advertisements creatively use stimulus
factors to attract our attention in newspapers, magazines, TV and on billboards.
2. What are you specifically very susceptible for?
6.3.2.2 Internal factors

Each individual has a unique way of reacting to his/her environment. Internal
factors are the factors that are inherent to the individual himself/herself. These are:
❏❏ Attitudes and expectations

People have pre-determined attitudes towards and expectations of other people
and objects. In a perceptual situation, people are inclined to notice the events
and objects that reinforce their prior expectations. They do not notice events that
contradict their prior expectations.
Example
Mark who believes that managers are always unfriendly, will be more inclined to view his
manager’s comments about his work as criticism. Other workers will experience these
as friendly encouragement.
People often distort their perceptions in order to confirm their attitudes, by only
noticing beliefs that underpin their own attitudes.
Example
A manager who dislikes a worker will evaluate the worker’s performance as poor whereas
a different manager who likes the worker, will give him a good performance evaluation.
❏❏ Motives
People’s motives do not only serve as a driving force for their behaviour, but also
for the way in which they perceive situations.

perception 119
Example
A person who is strongly motivated to earn money will see money-making opportunities
everywhere in the work situation. Someone who likes to protect others, will potentially
notice a risky situation before others.
❏❏ Personality
Everybody has their own style according to which they organise their environments.
Some people are more observant than others. People often deliberately do not
notice things that upset them (refer Chapter 4).
Example
Simphiwe is absent-minded and becomes so engrossed in his work, that he does not
notice a leaking water-pipe in his work environment.
❏❏ Interests
People’s interests make them more susceptible to certain perceptions and less so
to others.
Example
A person who is interested in cars will perceive details of cars that someone else may
not notice. People interested in their work will be better at their jobs, as their perception
is heightened and they notice work-related details that others would not.
❏❏ Behaviour acquired from previous experiences

People learn from previous experience to either heighten their perceptions or
ignore certain stimuli.
Example
Diamond sorters are trained to discern weak spots in diamonds that the general
populations do not notice.
People learn to sharpen their perceptions and once they understand sensory
stimuli, will be cognisant of hostile stimuli.
Example
A loud bang that normally attracts people’s attention will be ignored by workers in a
noisy work environment.

Activity
1. Divide into groups of two. Discuss the last time that you bought a new item.
2. At the time leading up to your purchase, how often did you notice that item in your
surrounding environment?
3. Did you notice how magazine advertisements promoting the item drew your
attention immediately?
6.4 The information processing

model of perception
Technology imitates human thought processes to
a large extent. Wickens (1984) intimated that the
information model (refer Fig 6.1) is an example
of how the functioning of a computer can be
compared to human activity. The model is based
on the principle that information is received in
the form of stimuli (input). It then goes through
a series of phases during which it is processed and
eventually gives cause to reaction (output).
Figure 6.1 The information model

Source: Wickens (1984)

perception 121
6.4.1 Stimuli
Stimuli is external physical energy that activates receptors (Plug et al, 1987).
Sound waves activate the capillaries in the ear, which then directly or indirectly
causes behaviour. Characteristics of the senses influence the quality and quantity
of information that is initially registered.
6.4.2 Short-term sensory storage

Each sensory system has a mechanism that extends the physical stimulus for a
short while after the stimulus has physically ended. If the attention is focused
on something else, the short-term store makes it possible for the information to
be temporarily retained until the brain can address it. No additional attention is
paid to the information. It can only be stored for a short while: less than a second
for visual stimuli and a little longer for auditory stimuli.
Example
A card with a couple of words is shown to a person for a few seconds. The person is then
immediately asked if a specific word appeared on the card. The person will be able to
give a positive answer, without remembering any of the other words on the card. Even
though the person may not have committed the words to memory, he/she recalls the
information for a second after seeing it.
6.4.3 Perception
The information is now processed by higher levels of the nervous system. The
stimulus is recognised, identified and categorised by comparing it to related
‘data’ already stored in the memory (learned before). By means of this process
of ‘perceptual coding’, the incoming pieces of information are organised into a
meaningful whole.
Example
A warning light at the conveyor belt switches to red, which represents stimulus to Fatima.
In the perceptual coding process, Fatima compares the new information with that in her
memory. The warning light is observed and Fatima realises, as a result of her experience,
that there is something wrong with the conveyor belt.
6.4.4 Decision-making and choice of response

A person must choose what to do with information after it has been perceived.
This phase of decision-making and choice of response is a critical step in the
information processing model because the correctness of the decision may carry
major cost implications.

Example
Fatima must decide whether to switch off the conveyor belt or call the foreman. She may
choose to store the information in her short-term memory by ignoring the light until
further problems arise (refer Fig. 6.1). Information from the long-term memory can also
be recalled, for example that the conveyor belt needs a service.
6.4.5 Execution of the response

After deciding on a course of action, the message (decision) has to be transmitted
to the relevant points of the body (muscle). The choice and the execution of the
response are unconnected.
Example
Fatima can decide to stop the conveyor belt (choice of response) but the method that
Fatima uses to stop it (execution of response) is an action in itself.
6.4.6 Feedback
People continuously monitor the consequences of their behaviour. The method
of feedback depends on the situation. Visual feedback (when a person sees the
results of his/her response) is probably the most common method but, in some
situations, feedback through the other senses can be equally important.
Example
Fatima stops the conveyor belt. The products immediately begin to pile up at the end
of the conveyor belt and they start to fall off. Fatima sees the pile-up happen and the
visual feedback causes a reaction.
6.4.7 Attention
Most of the information stored in our short-term sensory memory needs no
further consideration, but we are instinctively forced to focus our attention on
the remaining information that needs action. Should some of the sources require
more attention, less attention is available for the other processes. Performance in
the other processes will thus be reduced.
Example
Fatima will stop her work while she deals with the problem of the conveyor belt.
She could, however, choose to perform other routine tasks that would not cause an
interruption to her work.

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6.4.8 Application of the model

The information processing model is a simplification of the perceptual process
and not all of the aspects should be taken literally. The sequence is, for example,
not always as described in the preceding paragraphs. Differentiation between
the phases is also not always as clear. The flow of the phases is more continuous
with a large degree of overlapping in view of the various processing phases
(observation, choice of response and execution of response). Choice of response
can, for example, begin before a stimulus has been fully categorised.
Activity
1. Think of a crisis that you have had which needed your immediate reaction (for
example, using the wrong password to log in to your bank account). Analyse your
reaction to the crisis by means of the information processing model.
6.5 Sensory awareness

In order to observe anything in the environment, a sufficient amount of energy
from outside has to reach our senses and be converted into nerve impulses by the
senses. Since people’s hearing and vision are their most important senses in the
work situation, we will pay special attention to these two senses.
6.5.1 Functioning of senses

Each sense contains receptor cells that are specialised to receive specific energy
from inside or outside the body and convert this into nerve impulses or stimuli
(Morris, 1982). These nerve impulses consist of electro-chemical impulses that
are carried to the brain through the nerve channels. Each sense’s nerve impulses
are conducted to a specific part of the brain where they are processed. In the
brain, this information is interpreted together with information from the other
senses, and with previous experience that has been stored in the memory.
6.5.1.1 Visual senses

Light enters the eye through the invisible protective layer (the cornea) and the
small opening of the eye (the pupil) that is surrounded by the coloured part
(the iris). Right behind the pupil, the light enters the eye lens that focuses the
light on the retina, the inner lining of the back of the eye (refer Fig 6.2). The
pupil becomes enlarged or made smaller to allow more or less light into the eye
depending on the lighting conditions outside the eye. The lens is flattened by
relaxing the eye muscles or rounded on the retina to focus on the image properly.
If the object is nearby, the image must be bent considerably and a rounder lens
is needed, and an image that is far away requires a flatter lens.

Figure 6.2 Structure of the eye
The image is directed upside down onto the retina in the back of the eye. There
are receptor cells on the retina, known as cones and rods which, as a result of
the light falling on them, show reactions that conduct the electro-chemical nerve
impulses to the brain. The stimuli of the left eye are carried to the right half of
the brain and the stimuli of the right eye are carried to the left half of the brain.
In the brain, the image is spontaneously reversed. (Other spontaneous perceptual
interpretations, for example depth perception, are discussed in point 6.6.)
Figure 6.3 Structure of the inner ear

perception 125
6.5.1.2 Auditory senses

Sound is a stimulus that is produced by fluctuations in air pressure that are
triggered by vibrations (refer Fig 6.6). The air molecules, as a result of vibration
(of for example, the vocal chords), move closer together and further apart to
become more or less denser and then, like a pebble falling into water, make
waves that ripple outwards. The number of waves per second is called the
frequency and determines the pitch of the sound. The height of the wave (density
of molecules) is called the amplitude and together with the pitch this determines
the sound volume.
Sound waves are received by the auricle of the outer ear and are conducted
via the auditory canal to the eardrum or tympanic membrane. From here the
waves are carried by vibrations to the inner ear, where they are converted to
electro-chemical nerve impulses and are channelled to the auditory centre in the
brain.
The stimuli of the left ear is conducted to the right half of the brain and those
of the right ear are carried to the left half of the brain. The auditory centre of the
brain is situated close to the speech centre and the combination of the two brain
functions make verbal communication (speech) possible.
6.6 Spontaneous perceptual observation

Whereas point 6.5 discussed the way in which the environment influences the
senses, this section focuses on the way in which the stimulus as a whole reaches
the brain. The stimulus is never perceived by the individual as a multitude of
individual bits and pieces of information. People do not see their environments as
consisting of thousands of light dots that vary in intensity and colour, but rather
as a complete picture that forms a whole. A few general principles according to
which this organisation takes place will now be discussed.
6.6.1 Gestalt laws

There are a few principles according to which perceptual observations are
organised and these are known as the gestalt laws (Jordaan & Jordaan, 1998).
6.6.1.1 Figure and ground

The differentiation between figure and ground is the most basic principle of
perceptual organisation. The figure is the element of perception that the individual
focuses attention on and which is meaningful to him/her. The ground is the
relatively meaningless background that the individual also perceives but pays less
attention to. As an auditory example, we consider the person who listens to the
one conversation at a party while also hearing the conversation of other people.

Visual perception can be illustrated by means of one picture that can be viewed
in two different ways depending on what the observer considers the figure to be
and what the background is (refer Fig 6.4 and Fig 6.5).
Figure 6.4 Figure 6.5

Note Fig 6.5: This image was originally created by an anonymous German person and depicted
on a postcard in 1888.
6.6.1.2 Perceptual grouping

In any perceptual situation, various pieces of information are collated to form
a meaningful whole (pattern or shape). Four types of grouping principles are
important:
❏❏ Proximity
People are inclined to group elements of stimuli
that lie close to each other into one form (refer
Fig 6.6).
Example
In the work situation, people who work in close
physical proximity to each other are viewed as a
work group (and therefore a unit). The assumption
that these groups of workers are friends is often
made. Figure 6.6
❏❏ Similarity
People tend to group elements of stimuli that correspond in colour, shape or
texture together into one unit (refer Fig 6.7).

perception 127
Example
In the work situation, minority groups, such as female workers, are seen as a unit.
Figure 6.7
❏❏ Symmetry
People have a tendency of grouping together the elements of stimuli in such a
way that symmetrical (rather than asymmetrical) forms are observed (refer Fig
6.8).
Figure 6.8
❏❏ Continuity
People are inclined to observe elements of stimuli in such a way that certain
characteristics or patterns persist to the exclusion of other characteristics
(refer Fig 6.9).

Figure 6.9
Activity
1. Test yourself and another person by means of the illustrations. Determine to what
extent they confirm the principles of the gestalt laws.
6.6.2 Perceptual uniformity

The impression that an object makes on the retinal field of the eye depends on
the angle and distance that the object is seen from. A car will, for example, seem
totally different when it is seen from the front, behind or side.
Perceptual uniformity provides a measure of stability because of objects being
seen in the same, or in a similar way each time. This perceptual uniformity
occurs spontaneously but is mainly the result of previous experience (acquired
behaviour). Perceptual uniformity occurs predominantly in view of the following
characteristics (Jordaan & Jordaan, 1998):
❏❏ Uniform size
An object is not perceived to be larger merely because the object is closer to the
person, even though it projects a bigger image on the retina of the eye. A person
does not assume that a car is shrinking when it drives away. It does however
depend upon the person’s previous experience. Houses may seem like doll-houses
when viewed from a helicopter, if the observer has never seen houses from this
perception (and distance).
❏❏ Uniform shape
A door that is half-open, completely open or completely closed looks totally
different on the retina of the eye and yet it is perceived as the same door (refer Fig
6.10).

perception 129
Figure 6.10
❏❏ Uniformity of colour and clarity

The colour and clarity of a person’s shirt will, for example, depend on the light
that he is standing in or on the shadows cast on the shirt. It will be perceived as
the same shirt and not a different shirt when the person wearing the shirt walks
into a room with a yellow light.
Activity
1. See whether you can show a pencil to a friend in such a way that he/she cannot
guess what you are showing her/him. Try this with a few other objects as well, and
notice how difficult it is to trick your friend.
6.6.3 Spatial placement of auditory information

It is important for the individual not only to be able to perceive and understand
sounds but also to know from which direction they are coming and how far
away the source of the sound is (Jordaan & Jordaan, 1998).
Example
In a work environment, sound is often used by vehicles on the factory floor to give
warning signals. It is essential for the worker to know where the sound is coming from
so that he/she can react appropriately.
Have you noticed that a motorcycle indicator also makes a warning sound?
6.6.3.1 The distance of auditory information

Although it is difficult to establish the exact distance of sound, a person can
usually clearly distinguish between sounds that are far away and those that are

relatively close by. This estimation of the distance from the source of sound
occurs spontaneously, but previous experience plays an important role and is
acquired by means of the following three methods:
❏❏ Loudness of sound
The distance of sound is linked particularly to the loudness of the sound (the
amplitude of the sound wave). Sound that is loud is usually perceived to be close
by and a softer sound is perceived to be far away.
Example
If Paul suddenly hears a loud hooter behind him, he will get a fright while a soft sound
will not have the same effect on him.
❏❏ Previous experience
The relative loudness of a sound is also judged by previous experience.
Example
If Daniel is used to the fact that the machine he works with makes a loud banging noise,
he will normally not be alarmed, but if the sound volume is suddenly doubled, he will
get a fright and will investigate the cause.
❏❏ The tone colour of sound

The tone colour of a sound diminishes in complexity when a sound is far off.
Example
The loud bang that dynamite exploding far away makes, sounds different to a gunshot
that is equally loud but at a closer distance.
6.6.3.2 Direction of auditory information

It is not always easy to establish the source of sound waves, but an estimation
of the direction occurs spontaneously. The following four methods are of
significance:
❏❏ Differences in time
The difference in the time in which the two ears hear a sound can determine the
direction of the auditory information. At the most, the difference in time is a
millisecond. Even a time difference of a thirtieth of a millisecond is adequate to
indicate a difference in direction.

perception 131
❏❏ Differences in intensity
The sound waves are slightly softer (or of a lower intensity) at the ear that is
furthest from the sound source. This is the result of the shadow effect that the
head has on the furthest ear and is more noticeable when determining higher-
pitch sounds than lower-pitch sounds.
❏❏ Effect of head movements

The effect of time and intensity differences is increased when a person moves his/
her head slightly when he/she is listening. The movement of the head causes a
change in the relative intensity and duration of both ears hearing the sound and
further enables a person to determine the direction of the sound.
❏❏ Addition of visual stimuli

The auditory senses are not always adequate enough to determine the direction
of sound so we usually look to see where the sound source is coming from.
Example
When watching TV, people usually (incorrectly) transfer the source of sound to the
screen so that it corresponds with the visual placement of the actors on the screen.
Activity
1. With the help of a friend, test yourself on the extent that you judge the distance
and direction of sound correctly. Let your friend blindfold you and then make a loud
clapping sound in a large room. Guess where and how far away your friend is.
6.6.4 Visual observation of depth and distance

An interesting phenomenon about visual observation is that people visually
observe in three dimensions (depth perception) despite the fact that the retinas
of both eyes are organised two-dimensionally. As with the placement of auditory
information, visual perception occurs spontaneously but previous experience
plays a key role in the process. Depth observation happens as a result of two
types of depth cues that are noticed, namely monocular depth cues that can be
perceived by one eye and binocular depth cues that consist of cues that have to
be perceived with both eyes (Jordaan & Jordaan, 1998).
6.6.4.1 Monocular depth cues

Monocular depth cues refer to cues that are received by each eye separately. With
the aid of these cues, distance and depth can be accurately determined by using
a single eye. The following seven cues are significant:

❏❏ Accommodation of the eye

The eye changes its curve to project images that are either far away or nearby
onto the retina. The change of the eye’s curve serves as a cue to the distance
of an object. These cues are only valid for objects that are not further than
approximately six metres away from the individual, as the accommodation of
the eye at greater distances is very small.
❏❏ Movement parallax
When the head is moved, objects in the foreground will move relative to objects
in the background. This movement parallax or relative movement is achieved
even if, unconsciously, the head moves very slightly. The object that shows more
movement is deemed to be closer.
❏❏ Relative size of familiar objects

The relative movement of familiar objects on the retina also aids the estimation
of the distance of an object. In the case of unfamiliar objects or objects that do
not have a fixed shape, the image on the retina will not help.
Example
The size of a car’s image on the retina will help to judge the car’s distance from the
observer, but the size of a cloud’s image on the retina will not.
❏❏ Interval position of objects

The interval position of objects also helps to judge the relative distance of
different objects. The object that partly obscures another object is deemed to be
closer while the object that is partially obscured is deemed to be further away
(refer Fig 6.11).
Example
If a worker’s image partially blocks an image of the machine, we know that the worker
is positioned in front of the machine.
Figure 6.11

perception 133
❏❏ The gradient of texture

Objects that are closer to the observer seem rougher and objects that are further
away seem smoother. Objects seen from a distance merge into a smooth whole
(refer Fig 6.12).
Example
White poles found alongside a road or the white broken lines (traffic markings) painted
on the road surface seem closer together as we look further afield.
Figure 6.12
❏❏ Light and shadow

The sun or a bright light usually causes part of an object to be in the shade.
Example
The shaded parts of an object usually seem further away than the brightly-lit parts. If we
look at a mountain, the dark valleys seem further away.
❏❏ Linear perspective
If we look at the parallel lines of a railway line or a road, it looks as though the
lines move closer together (converge). The greater the convergence, the greater
the impression of distance (refer Fig 6.13).

Figure 6.13
❏❏ Relative movement
If we sit in a moving object, the relative movement of other objects is an important
depth cue. Objects close to us appear to be moving in the opposite direction at
a faster speed while objects that are far away seem to be moving in the same
direction as we are. These relative movements are very similar to movement
parallax except that the movements are quicker.
6.6.4.2 Binocular depth cues

Binocular depth cues are cues for which the combined use of the two eyes is
necessary. They usually go with monocular cues to create the impression of
depth. The following two cues are important:
❏❏ Retinal disparity
Because the eyes are
situated slightly apart,
each retina receives an
image that is different
to that of the other eye.
In the brain, these two
images are merged into
one. The closer the object
that is being observed,
the greater the retinal
disparity. The brain can
thus use this disparity as
an important depth cue Figure 6.14 Retinal disparity
(refer Fig 6.14).

perception 135
❏❏ Convergence
When objects further than 21 metres away from us are observed, the images
that the eyes see are almost parallel. When closer objects are observed, the eyes
gradually turn inwards (towards each other). The muscles that control this
convergence of the eyes provide the depth cues (refer Fig 6.15).
Figure 6.15 Convergence of the eyes
6.7 Summary
People are in contact with their environment by means of perception and
consequently perception in the work situation is deemed as important.
Perception is defined as the way in which information is received by the
human sensory system and then processed and interpreted by the human brain.
People receive too much sensory information at any given time to pay full
attention to all the stimuli at a precise point in time. Attention focus is the way
in which people pay attention to specific events or objects. The following means
of attention focus occur:
■■ Co-listening: an unconscious way of ‘observing’ outside of a one’s conscious
attention span as a warning that requires the person’s attention.

■■ Focused attention: elicited by external factors (involuntarily at times).
■■ Purposefully-focused attention: deliberate focus of attention on a specific
object.
The following external factors of observed objects will focus attention:

■■ intensity of the stimuli;
■■ size of the object;
■■ contrast of the stimulus with the background;
■■ repetition of the stimuli;
■■ movement of the object; and
■■ familiarity and novelty of the stimuli and the background.

Internal factors are inherent to the individual that encourages attention focus
through:
■■ acquired attitudes and expectations of the observer;
■■ motives of the observer;
■■ personality of the observer;
■■ interests of the observer; and
■■ behaviour acquired from previous experience.
The information processing model is a simplification of the perceptual process

and must be applied prudently. The successive phases are:
1. The stimulus or external energy activates the receptor.
2. Short-term sensory storage takes place.
3. Perception occurs when information is processed by higher levels of the
nervous system.
4. Decision-making and choice of response occurs.
5. Execution of the response happens.
6. Feedback on the consequences of the response occurs.
7. Attention focusing on specific information takes place.
Sensory awareness requires that a minimum amount of energy from outside must
reach the senses and then be converted into nerve impulses by the senses.
Visual perception occurs when the eyes convert light waves into electro-
chemical nerve impulses.
Auditory perception occurs when the ears convert sound waves into electro-
chemical nerve impulses. Information from the senses is never perceived as
individual bits of information by the brain but always as a complete picture.
This interpretation process is known as spontaneous perceptual observation.
The gestalt laws are of particular importance for this perceptual organisation:
the observation field is always divided into figure and background. Stimuli are
grouped together in terms of the principles of proximity, similarity, symmetry
and continuity.
Perceptual uniformity ensures that we perceive objects as the same in spite of
the differences in angle and distance in which we view objects from. Perceptual
uniformity is when either size, shape as well as colour and clarity are constant.
Distance and direction are important in spatial placement of auditory information:

■■ Distance estimation is derived from loudness of the sound, previous experience
and the tone colour of sound.
■■ Direction estimation is derived from visual aid, the differences in time and
intensity of sound as perceived by each ear and from any head movement that
reinforces these differences.
Depth estimation is imperative in the spatial placement of visual information.

perception 137
Monocular cues involve using one eye to fully percieve visual information:
■■ accommodation of the eye;
■■ movement parallax;
■■ the relative size of familiar objects;
■■ the interval position of objects;
■■ the gradient of texture;
■■ light and shadow;
■■ linear perspective; and
■■ relative movement.
Binocular cues originate from both eyes. Important cues are retinal disparity and
convergence.
Self-evaluation
1. Define observation and briefly discuss the nature of perception. (9)
2. List and briefly elaborate on the three ways of attention focus. (6)
3. Discuss external factors that encourage attention focus and illustrate the
discussion with work-related examples. (12)
4. Identify the various ways to make a warning sign in a job situation more
visible. (6)
5. Discuss the ways in which internal factors influence people’s attention focus. (12)
6. Using the information processing model, provide details of how a worker
would respond to a fire alarm. (25)
7. Explain how the eye perceives light waves. (6)
8. Explain how the ear perceives sound waves. (6)
9. Provide an explanation and outline of the gestalt laws. (11)
10. Discuss perceptual uniformity as well as the different types of perceptual
uniformity. (6)
11. How are the auditory senses used to estimate distance? Explain in full. (12)
12. Briefly describe how the direction of auditory perceptions is determined. (12)
13. Stipulate the ways in which people perceive depth visually. (25)

chapter
The learning process
7 and memory
7.1 Introduction .............................................................................. 139

7.2 The nature of learning ...................................................................... 139
7.3 Various forms of learning ................................................................. 141
7.3.1 Associative learning ........................................................... 141
7.3.1.1 Classical conditioning .................................... 142
7.3.1.2 Operant conditioning .................................... 145
7.3.1.3 Trial-and-error learning ................................. 148
7.3.2 Cognitive learning .............................................................. 149
7.3.2.1 The nature of cognitive learning ................ 149
7.3.2.2 Forms of cognitive learning ......................... 149
7.3.3 Social and moral learning ................................................ 150
7.3.3.1 Modelling behaviour ..................................... 150
7.4 Learning process principles ............................................................. 152
7.4.1 Goal-setting ......................................................................... 152
7.4.2 Distribution of learning time ........................................... 152
7.4.3 Feedback of results ............................................................ 152
7.4.4 Relevance of learning material ....................................... 153
7.4.5 Motivation and learning.................................................... 153
7.5 Memory .............................................................................. 154
7.5.1 The nature of memory ..................................................... 154
7.5.2 The process of memory ................................................... 155
7.5.2.1 The storage and recall of information ...... 155
7.6 Summary .............................................................................. 159
Self-evaluation .............................................................................. 160

the learning process and memory 139
Study objective
■■ describe the nature and characteristics of learning;
■■ distinguish between the various forms of learning;
■■ explain the processes whereby learning takes place;
■■ understand the principle on which learning is based; and
■■ outline the nature and process of memory.
7.1 Introduction
The learning process is so important in society, and in the business world in
particular, that phenomena such as labour and organisations are unthinkable
without it. Think of the training courses offered so that workers can learn new
skills to perform their tasks better and raise production to higher levels. The
concept of ‘learning’ is therefore associated with all levels of human behaviour,
such as the forming of the personality and the learning of attitudes and skills.
In this chapter, we will investigate the nature of learning the complex
processes that precede learning, the various forms of learning and the principles
on which learning is based. Learning cannot take place if the learner cannot
recall or remember what he/she has read, and so we will also discuss memory
and how it works.
7.2 The nature of learning

According to Plug et al (1997), the term ‘learning’ has a wide meaning and
refers to relatively permanent changes that are the result of experience, or
to processes underlying or causing these changes.
Example
Solomon learns to drive a car (experience). While learning, Solomon often has to repeat
actions and is encouraged when progress is made (processes). After learning to drive,
Solomon no longer takes the bus, but drives everywhere by car (relatively permanent
change in behaviour).
Jordaan and Jordaan (1998) are of the opinion that learning has taken place
when a person knows something that he/she did not know before or can do
something that he/she could not do before.
Example
A secretary, Dorothy, does not know how to operate a computer. However, after
attending a course, she is able to use the computer for basic tasks.

❏❏ Important characteristics of the learning process

Learning is the process or processes that presumably underlie or give rise
to perceivable (observable or noticeable) changes in behaviour in situations
involving practice, teaching and life experience (Jordaan & Jordaan, 1998).
Example
A course leader discovers, after setting a test, that workers do not understand the
content of a certain subject. The course leader explains the work again. He then sets
another test, for which the workers obtain better results. The perceivable change in the
workers’ behaviour or performance (achievement) can be attributed to learning.
These changes in behaviour arise from both formal learning situations and life
experience (Jordaan & Jordaan, 1998).
Example
Johanna applies for a job on the basis of a qualification obtained from a tertiary
institution (formal learning), whereas Stuart applies for a job on the basis of having
learnt to repair gearboxes in the backyard of the family home (life experience).
The amount of learning that takes place influences the learner’s achievement of
the learner under appropriate circumstances (Plug et al, 1997).
Example
If an employee, Kerry, has attended a month-long course, she can be expected to fulfil
all the requirements for a new post. If she only attended a week-long computer course,
she can only be expected to perform a new task, such as word-processing.
Verbal and non-verbal learning is distinguished according to what helps learners

achieve (Plug et al, 1997).
Example
Verbal learning might involve learning a language, whereas non-verbal learning might
involve something like learning how an aircraft engine works.
Learning involves capturing information of an academic or scholastic nature, as

well as moral codes, attitudes, customs, habits and skills (Jordaan & Jordaan,
1998).

Example
Mabel studies personnel management at University X (academic or scholastic
learning). She has learnt how to behave towards other people (moral codes and
attitudes), about good table manners (customs or habits) and how to drive a car
(skills) from her parents.
Plug et al (1997) maintain that all learning displayed by animals is usually

considered to be the result of conditioning (refer point 7.3.1.1).
Activity
Think of the work that you are studying in order to pass a course in Personnel
Management.
1. Write down new aspects of knowledge that you have acquired during your course.
2. Write down a skill that you have acquired during your life (such as driving a car) and
explain the degree to which this skill changed your behaviour.
3. Write down an example of the knowledge you have gained during your life through
each of the following:
(a) formal learning situations;
(b) life experience;
(c) academic-scholastic experience; and
(d) learning of moral codes, attitudes, customs and habits, and skills.
7.3 Various forms of learning

The various forms of learning can be classified according to a range of criteria
(Jordaan & Jordaan, 1998). For example, how well a learner must understand what
he/she must learn and the level of consciousness at which learning takes place.
We can distinguish between the following forms of learning:
■■ associative
■■ cognitive; and
■■ social and moral learning.
7.3.1 Associative learning

According to the associative approach to learning, behavioural changes are
analysed in terms of stimuli and responses. We try to find a link between a
stimulus (S) and the response (R) of the organism (person or animal). Since
conscious processes are considered unimportant in animal behaviour, this learning
approach is based on the study of animal behaviour (Jordaan & Jordaan, 1998).

There are three main forms of associative learning:

■■ classical conditioning;
■■ operant conditioning; and
■■ trial-and-error learning.
7.3.1.1 Classical conditioning

Classical conditioning was discovered by the Russian physiologist Ivan
Pavlov (1848-1936) while he was doing research on the digestive system of dogs.
Pavlov was investigating the fact that the dogs salivated (their mouths filled with
saliva) each time they were fed. He conducted an experiment using meat powder
to make the dogs salivate and used tubes placed in their mouths to measure how
much saliva they produced. While experimenting, Pavlov noted that the dogs
started to salivate even before the meat powder was placed in their mouths.
He realised that environmental stimuli (the sight of food and the sound of the
researchers’ footsteps) just before the dogs were fed caused the dogs to salivate
before even receiving the food. On the basis of these observations, Pavlov carried
out further conditioning experiments that are known as classical conditioning.
The nature of classical conditioning
Pavlov’s first observation was that the dogs salivated when food was placed
in their mouths. This was a natural process that Pavlov described as an
unconditioned (unlearnt) reflex as it was not dependent on any conditions or
learning process.
Pavlov later developed the experiment so that each time the dogs were about
to be fed, he rang a bell. After this process was repeated between 20 to 40
times, Pavlov found that on hearing the bell, the dogs would salivate, even in the
absence of any food. This process of classical conditioning can be described in
terms of the following elements:

■■ During classical conditioning, the organism (person or animal) plays a

mainly passive role (Plug et al, 1997). The dogs did not actively participate in
the process of salivation initiated by the ringing of the bell.
■■ An unconditioned stimulus (the dogs’ food) is presented, and this results in
an unconditioned response (salivation).
■■ A new stimulus or neutral stimulus (the ringing of a bell) is presented
immediately before the natural stimulus or unconditioned stimulus (offering
food to the dogs).
■■ After the above procedure was repeated 20 to 40 times, the dogs began to
salivate without the presence of food. In this way the neutral or new stimulus
(the ringing of the bell) is converted into a conditioned stimulus resulting
in a conditioned response (salivation). What had been an unconditioned
response (salivation) is transformed (turned) into a conditioned response.
This process is known as classical conditioning. (Refer Fig 7.1.)
Figure 7.1 Classical conditioning process
Classical conditioning also occurs in industry, as we can see from the following
example:
Example
Under normal circumstances, the ringing of a bell would not give rise to any specific
reaction among workers. If a bell, however, reguarly rang just before lunchtime (13:00),
the ringing of the bell would cause the workers to experience a sense of relaxation. This
would happen, even if the bell, for some reason, rang at 10:00 one morning instead of
at 13:00.
The process of classical conditioning

Conditioning does not happen automatically. The process must meet certain
requirements before learning takes place (Morris et al, 2002). The conditioned
stimulus must be strong and specific enough for the learner to perceive it easily.

Example
The bell that was used in Pavlov’s experiment had a higher pitch than most other sounds.
The bell’s ring could not easily be confused with other sounds, such as a creaking floor,
the researchers’ voices, etc.
The sequence or order in which the conditioned and unconditioned stimuli are
presented is important. Better results are obtained if the conditioned stimulus
(the ringing of a bell) is presented immediately before the unconditioned stimulus
(the food) is presented. If the stimulus were presented together with the food,
conditioning would be less effective.
An important aspect of conditioning is that the delay or period between
presenting the conditioned and unconditioned stimuli should neither be too long
nor too short. The correct timing varies from a fraction of a second to two
seconds.
Conditioning does not happen after only a single presentation or association.
The stimuli must be repeated several times before a conditioned response is
obtained or learning can take place.
The characteristics of conditioning processes

❏❏ Generalisation
Certain situations, objects and stimuli can be so similar that an organism responds
to one in the same way as it has learnt to respond to another (Gouws, 1988).
Example
A siren indicates to workers that it is lunchtime. The workers respond each time by
stopping work immediately. They may display the same reaction when an ambulance
with a blaring siren drives past the factory.
❏❏ Discrimination
In contrast to generalisation, the conditioned response can be limited by
differentiating between the types of stimuli.
Example
If workers are constantly reprimanded for leaving the factory floor each time they hear
an ambulance siren, they will learn to listen more closely and to respond only when the
lunchtime siren sounds.

❏❏ Extinction
The question has been asked whether an organism will continue to display a
conditioned response indefinitely. Pavlov found that the conditioned response
will continue, provided the conditioned stimulus is presented from time to time.
When the unconditioned stimulus (food) is no longer presented, however, the
effect of the conditioned stimulus (sound of a bell) on the conditioned reflex
or response (salivation) is reduced and the conditioned response disappears
completely after time (Gouws, 1988).
❏❏ Spontaneous recovery
Pavlov found that where the conditioned response (salivation) appeared to have
ceased, and if after a few days the conditioned stimulus (bell) was used again,
the dogs began to salivate on hearing the bell. The response was much weaker
than it had been originally, though. This phenomenon is known as spontaneous
recovery (Gouws, 1988).
Activity
1. Write down three habits that you think you may have learnt through classical
conditioning.
2. If possible, discuss your answer with a fellow student and see if they agree with your
reasoning.
3. Each time you feed a pet, carry out a particular action immediately before offering
the food (try tapping the bowl with a spoon just before feeding). Note how the
animal responds each time you perform the action.
7.3.1.2 Operant conditioning

The nature of operant conditioning
Operant conditioning is a form of conditioning in which the organism voluntarily
displays a response (behaviour) that is either rewarded or punished by an
environmental event.
In operant conditioning, the emphasis is on the response and the
appropriate reinforcement of that response, while relatively little attention is paid
to cues (signals) and stimuli from the environment (Plug et al, 1987). Operant
conditioning differs from classical conditioning, wherein the emphasis is on the
conditioned stimulus (a bell), which elicits a conditioned response (salivation).
In the process of operant conditioning, the organism’s response should
be repeated, if learning is to take place. Learning is achieved through
reinforcement. The response is more likely to occur again when reinforced.
There are two types of reinforcement, namely positive and negative:
Positive reinforcement is when the reward (reinforcer) is given after a response
and results in the strength of the response increasing or being maintained.

Example
If an employee, Frank, receives a bonus (is rewarded) each time he performs well, he will
continue to produce good work.
Negative reinforcement takes place when the removal of a reinforcer after the
response results in an increase or maintenance of the strength of the response.
Example
Each time Frank is absent, he is penalised by having his bonus taken away. Frank will
make an extra effort to be at work each day, so as to avoid losing his bonus.
Obtaining the desired response

As already discussed, classical conditioning takes place based on an original
unconditioned response. Operant conditioning does not automatically result
from a response, and for that reason a specific response must first be obtained
before it can be reinforced. Morris et al (2002) highlight the following factors as
important, in this regard:
■■ Wait for the desired response. The most common method is to wait until
the organism displays the desired response, and then to reinforce it. The
disadvantage is that one sometimes has to wait a long time before the response
is displayed.
Example
Josephine is struggling to master a particular aspect of her work, but is not offered any
help. Instead, the employer waits until Josephine has solved the problem before offering
a reward for her behaviour.
■■ Increased motivation. The use of increased motivation can increase the

probability of obtaining the desired response.
Example
The manager of an enterprise announces that the employee who shows the best quartely
performance, will win an overseas trip at the end of the year. The manager is able to
elicit the desired behaviour (increased production) from the staff, and then reinforce it.
■■ Reduction of the number of potential responses. If one restricts the environment

in which the response is made, only certain responses, including the desired
response, can be given. In this way, there is a greater chance of the desired
response being given. The organism is then allowed to respond voluntarily
within the restricted environment.

Example
A workshop is equipped with ten different types of screwdrivers. The supervisor wants
employees to learn to work with only four types of screwdrivers. The supervisor can
remove the other six screwdrivers from the workshop and in that way reinforce the
desired behaviour.
■■ Verbal instructions. The person carrying out the experiment can explain what
response is required by means of verbal instructions.
Example
The manager can instruct an employee to be on time for work and then begin to reward
or reinforce that behaviour.
■■ Reinforcement of all responses. A very effective way of obtaining the desired

response is to reinforce smaller parts of the desired behaviour or response.
The complete response is formed in phases until the entire desired response
is obtained.
Example
The supervisor, Anne, wants Llewellyn, an employee, to use one specific pair of pliers.
Llewellyn firmly refuses to do so. Anne can try to persuade Llewellyn in stages to use
these pliers. She may begin by leaving the pliers on his workbench. If Llewellyn uses the
pliers once, Anne can reinforce this behaviour through verbal encouragement. When
Llewellyn uses the pliers to complete a task, Anne can congratulate him until Llewellyn
has reached the stage of using the pliers consistently and as per Anne’s wish.
■■ Physical role play (modelling). Demonstrating the desired response is also

very effective.
Example
A supervisor, Thabo, demonstrates good behaviour and is a good example to others
in the workplace. Soon employees begin to follow his example and he can start to
reinforce this behaviour.
Activity
1. Describe an occasion in which you experienced positive reinforcement as a child
(you may perhaps have been rewarded with an ice-cream after completing your
homework).

2. Describe an occasion in which you experienced negative reinforcement as a child

(you may have been refused your pocket money because you had not finished your
homework).
3. List various examples of behaviour that you have learnt in your life and the way in
which you learnt them.
4. Link each example to the different ways in which a desired response can be provoked.
7.3.1.3 Trial-and-error learning

Thorndike researched the work that led to the development of the concept of
operant conditioning. He found that learnt behaviour, based on a trial-and-error
approach, is different from classical conditioning in that the subject displays the
rewarded response (Jordaan & Jordaan, 1998). In this case, the subject plays an
active role, in contrast to the passive role played during the classical conditioning
process.
The process of trial-and-error learning
According to Gouws (1988), Thorndike and his colleagues concluded that
learning is a gradual process achieved by trial-and-error methods. The process
takes place as follows:
A state of tension caused from biological urges and physiological needs must
exist before learning can take place. The learner initially experiences a problem,
as he/she does not know the best way to satisfy his/her needs (urges).
The motivation that the person feels, as a result of the tension, releases
energy that can be used in a variety of spontaneous reactions. Some reactions are
successful in relieving the tension formed from the needs, while other reactions
show no result.
The successful reactions are now reinforced through the feeling of satisfaction
that is gained from the reduced stress. The unsuccessful actions become extinct as
there is no reward for (or reinforcement of) the reactions.
The repetition of the actual behaviour means that the effective response is being
increasingly reinforced and ineffective activities are progressively eliminated.
Based on the process we have just discussed, Thorndike formulated his law of
use, which states that a skill will improve or an association will become stronger
the more often it is repeated, and it will lapse if it is not used (Gouws, 1988).
Example
Adam is trained as a crane operator. If he does not consistently apply that skill in his
work, he will eventually forget how to operate a crane.

Activity
1. List a few examples in which you or someone that you know ‘lost’ or ‘unlearnt’ a skill
in terms of the law of use.
7.3.2 Cognitive learning

7.3.2.1 The nature of cognitive learning
Cognitive learning is described as learning that takes place by means of conscious
cognitive processes (the observation of a model) rather than mechanical
conditioning processes (Plug et al, 1997).
Example
Paulina is required to work overtime in the evening. A colleague tells Paulina that he has
found that the power is sometimes switched off in the building in the evenings and that
one needs a light. Paulina is prepared and takes a torch with her that evening. She has
learnt from another person’s experience without experiencing the power being switched
off herself. Paulina has learnt through the observation of a model.
7.3.2.2 Forms of cognitive learning

❏❏ Latent learning
Latent learning takes place without the need for reinforcement, otherwise the
skill (or knowledge) was fully mastered the first time it was reinforced (Plug et
al, 1997).
Example
Rats are able to find their way through a maze simply by wandering through it randomly.
When this behaviour is reinforced later, the rats are able to find their way through the
maze almost immediately.
❏❏ Learning by insight
Gouws (1988) describes insight as the final, sudden and spontaneous recognition
of the relationships between given facts.
Example
A student struggles for an hour to understand classical conditioning and then suddenly,
out of the blue, all the facts fall into place. The student, almost instantly, gains insight
into the facts and understands the concept of classical conditioning.

Insight is generally associated with the following aspects:

The intelligence of the learner. Insight requires intelligence and decisive
action. People who are unable to display insight often resort to a trial-and-error
approach. Insight remains in force without repetition. If facts are forgotten, very
little recall is needed before insight into the problem is regained.
Example
If Johan were to forget how to solve a mathematical problem, he would not have to go
through the whole process of studying mathematics again to find the answer. Only a few
facts would be necessary to obtain insight.
Not all individuals are capable of displaying the same degree of insight as insight
involves varying degrees of abstraction and difficulty.
Example
The student who has not gained the necessary experience cannot be expected to
have the same insight into how to solve a mathematical problem as a professor of
mathematics.
Activity
1. Describe a situation in which someone asked you to complete a task in a specific way.
You accepted the task without any experience or having seen the action performed
beforehand.
7.3.3 Social and moral learning

Learning also refers to the imprinting of information that a person receives and
processes during the course of social interaction with other people. This is the
way people learn a variety of social and moral concepts and actions (Jordaan &
Jordaan, 1998).
7.3.3.1 Modelling behaviour

Modelling behaviour is also referred to as observational learning or learning
through imitation (Gouws, 1988). An individual (learner or imitator) observes
another person’s behaviour (the model) and starts to imitate the behaviour.
Example
Mpumi observes his supervisor neglecting to wear a hard hat each time he enters a
controlled area. Mpumi begins to imitate this behaviour and no longer wears his hard
hat as required.

According to Bandura and Walters (Gouws, 1990), modelling consists of three

processes of imitation:
■■ People learn skills and social behaviours through their interaction with and
imitation of other people.

■■ The second process involves the inhibition or disinhibition of learnt
responses (Gouws, 1988). A person who has learnt to show a specific response
but observes others not applying the response in particular circumstances,
may decide how to respond accordingly.
Example
When Sandra observes that Khuli is punished for arriving late for work, she decides
to be on time in future (inhibition). Sandra’s colleagues are consistently late for work,
however, they want to make a good impression on a new supervisor and suddenly start
arriving on time. After a week, Daniel starts arriving late for work once again. Daniel’s
behaviour has a disinhibiting effect on fellow employees, who begin to imitate Daniel
and start arriving late each day for work.
■■ The third process on which modelling is based is the eliciting of an already

learnt response (Gouws, 1988). Once a person begins to perform a particular
activity, others want to do so too, without any consideration of the activity
before.
Example
All employees have learnt how to make use of the library facilities in their organisation,
but no-one has ever actually taken out a book. One day, Nolitha walks into the office
carrying library books. Other workers start to imitate this behaviour, and over time, the
majority of employees visit the library to borrow books on a regular basis.

Activity
1. Give an example in which you learnt behaviour from someone else
through imitating their behaviour.
2. Observe the people around you and identify cases in which behaviour is imitated
through inhibition, disinhibition or from eliciting a known response.
7.4 Learning process principles

7.4.1 Goal-setting
Greenberg and Baron (2008) state that goal-setting is based on the fact that the
learning behaviour of an individual is influenced by the motivation to attain a
goal because doing so will make the individual feel successful. According to goal-
setting theory, there are important requirements for learner motivation:
■■ Specific goals should be assigned. A person that is simply told to ‘do their
best’ will not be motivated to attain a goal.

■■ Goals must be clear and understandable.
■■ Goals should have a degree of difficulty so that they can be regarded as
a challenge. At the same time, a goal should not be too difficult to attain, so
that they discourage the individual.
■■ The ultimate goal should be broken down into sub-goals (objectives).
■■ Feedback must be given to the individual on their progress in attaining their
goal (refer point 7.4.3).
7.4.2 Distribution of learning time

Individuals grasp content that is learnt over a number of short sessions more
effectively. Content is easier to remember when it is broken down as opposed to
being learnt in a single long session (Gouws, 1988). According to McCormick and
Ilgen (1992), the following factors are noteworthy with regard to the allocation
of time for learning:
■■ Distribution of learning time is more appropriate when motor skills are being
learnt than in the case of verbal subject matter or other complex forms of learning.
■■ The less significant, the more difficult and the greater the scope of the subject
matter, the more beneficial the distribution of learning time will be.
■■ Content learnt over distributed learning periods is remembered longer than
subject matter presented in concentrated units.
7.4.3 Feedback of results

Feedback or knowledge of results plays a vital part in the learning process and
fulfils two functions (Greenberg & Baron, 2008; McCormick & Ilgen, 1992):

■■ The first is a directional function because

knowledge of behaviour is important if someone
is to complete a task successfully.
Example
A crane operator cannot learn how to control the crane
without knowing how the crane ‘responds’ each time a
different lever is manipulated.
■■ The second is a motivating function because

the feedback of positive results reinforces the
learner’s motivation to learn.
Example
If an employee, Patricia, attends a training course offered by the organisation for which
she works, knowledge of her results has the following benefits: (a) She has an indication
of her progress and a standard for comparison. Patricia might realise she is not devoting
sufficient time to her studies and that she is focused on the wrong aspects of the work;
and (b) The feedback reinforces her motivation to persist with the hard work if she does
well on an assignment.
■■ Finally, it is important for the learner to receive his/her results as soon as

possible after the test or examination, so that the process of reinforcement
can take place. If there is a long delay, the results will be of no value, since it
will be difficult for reinforcement to take place.
7.4.4 Relevance of learning material

People find it easier to learn content that carries weight and is relevant rather
than irrelevant and inapplicable material.
Example
Instructions on how to operate a piece of machinery is easier to learn when the
instructions are concise and expressed in, for example, 200 words that form a meaningful
whole. If the 200 words do not form a meaningful whole, the instructions will be difficult
to comprehend and learn.
7.4.5 Motivation and learning

The learner’s motivation is very important. When people’s learning tasks are
meaningful to them and their learning is goal-directed or purposeful, the learning
is easier than when they are not motivated.

Example
An employee, Elizabeth, knows that if she successfully completes the course offered by
her employer, she will be promoted and so she studies diligently. Elizabeth receives her
test results periodically. She realises that she is doing well which reinforces her motivation
to carry on giving her best and to complete the course successfully.
Activity
1. Provide a short paragraph on how you prepare for an examination. Identify which
principles of learning you apply when studying. Below the paragraph provide a list
of the principles that you do not use.
7.5 Memory
The ability to remember or recall subject matter is an important part of the
learning process. A person must be able to repeat what he/she has learnt otherwise
the learning process has been worthless.
7.5.1 The nature of memory

Plug et al (1997) describe memory as ‘The reliving of an event from the past,
accompanied by the awareness that the event is being relived.’
An individual’s ability to remember can also be described as the characteristic
of an individual that influences future behaviour on the basis of what has already
been experienced.
Example
If Nomsa has discovered that a piece of equipment should not be used in a certain way,
she will remember this in the future and her behaviour will be influenced. She will not
use the equipment incorrectly again.
The ability to remember all experiences or only specific experiences is part of

the learning process.
Example
An employee, Solly, remembers how to take an entire engine apart and re-assemble
it again. Ben remembers how to take the engine apart but only recalls how to put a
specific part of the engine (and not all of it) together again.

7.5.2 The process of memory

7.5.2.1 The storage and recall of information
The process of memory
enables the individual to use
what he/she has learnt again.
This process of remembering
takes place on the following
levels:
■■ sensory storage;
■■ short-term memory;
■■ long-term memory; and
■■ retrieval of information.
Sensory storage
Sensory storage is deemed as the immediate memory for observed information.
Example
Someone may unexpectedly hear a strange noise and be able to recall it a few seconds
later.
Morris et al (2002) see sensory storage as the ‘receiving room’ of memory because
it can accept virtually anything that has an effect on the senses (refer Fig 7.2).
Figure 7.2 Sensory storage
Although sensory storage can accommodate loose information (sounds, images,

flavours, etc), retention of this information is very low.

Example
In a factory, a worker is constantly exposed to the sounds of various machines, human
voices and the buzz of activity. The worker is also exposed to images of people, machines
and colours. These observations are stored through sensory storage, but are almost
immediately replaced by new sounds, voices and images.
Activity
1. Find a busy public space. Stand still for a few moments and take in the sounds,
smells, sights, etc. Try to determine how many of your senses are functioning at the
same time. Notice how the stimuli that you experience is in a constant flux.
Short-term memory
Jordaan and Jordaan (1998) differentiate short-term memory from other types
of memory because of the following two characteristics:
■■ Limited duration (how long the information is stored for). The retention
of information lasts from two to 60 seconds. Short-term memory is

more selective in nature (one can remember more specific information, such as
the sequence of the results in a car race). Short-term memory is slightly more
permanent than sensory storage.
■■ Limited capacity (the amount of information stored). Short-term memory is
more restricted than that of sensory storage. Short-term memory capacity is

measured by the number of items on a list that a person recalls faultlessly in
the correct sequence after having read through them once. Most people have
a memory span of only five to nine items (Gouws, 1988).
Example
Think of a telephone number which consists of ten digits. You can remember the number
while dialling. When you want to use the number again later, you will probably have
forgotten the number as you probably did not concentrate on the actual numbers the
first time.
In order for you to remember a telephone number, it would be best for you to
repeat the number a few times, so that it is transferred from short-term memory
to long-term memory before you forget it.
Example
A waitress needs to have a good short-term memory so she can remember an order
consisting of several items from the menu.

Activity
1. Using a telephone directory, jot down a few of the telephone numbers at random.
Once you have written a number down, see if immediately afterwards you can still
remember the digits in the correct order.
Long-term memory
According to Jordaan and Jordaan (1998), long-term memory is characterised
by the ability to receive and store information during observation and
to trace and recall information already stored.
Gouws (1988) points out that, like sensory storage, long-term memory has
a large capacity and is usually well-organised. The information stored can be
remembered more easily because it is stored in a logical sequence.
Example
If Philip were to recall the events of a specific day a year ago, the following might come
to mind: he got up, dressed, had breakfast, caught the bus to work, attended a meeting
in the morning followed by a lunch, etc.
■■ It is a relatively permanent form of memory.
Example
At the age of 60, Philip will probably still be able to remember a number of events stored
at the age of six.
■■ The information is sifted (unimportant elements are removed), coded (classified

in broad categories) and stored (in the memory) and forms a component of
all experience that can be remembered.

■■ Information is rearranged when new material is added.
Example
Immediately after an incident on the factory floor, Sammy asks Beatrix what happened,
Sammy will form a certain view of how the incident happened. However, two weeks later
when Simphiwe tells Sammy his view of the incident, he elaborates in more detail than
Beatrix did. Sammy’s original view of what happened may change.
■■ The process is not static, but dynamic.
Example
The process of storing information in the long-term memory is an ongoing one and
the information is constantly adjusted and rearranged because of the addition of new
information.
■■ Information obtained through any of the senses can be stored.
Example
A person is able to store the smell of garlic as perceived through the sense of smell,
the colour of the sea as perceived through the sense of sight, the sound of music as
perceived through the sense of hearing, etc.
■■ New material can be arranged meaningfully together with old material.
Example
If Andile knows that the divisional supervisor has suffered an incurable illness for many
years and one day hears that the supervisor has been admitted to hospital, he will not
be surprised by the news.
■■ Familiar material or information is easier to process or arrange than unfamiliar

material.
Example
It will be easier to remember an event which your family was involved in, than it would
be to remember a similar event you read about in the newspaper.
Activity
1. Describe an event that you read or heard in the news about a year ago. Now
analyse your piece of writing in terms of the eleven characteristics of long-term
memory and try to determine the degree to which your writing satisfies these criteria.
(200 words)

Retrieval of information
We are generally less able to retrieve information than to store it. Moreover, it
is not always possible to retrieve information immediately (Gouws, 1988). This
indicates that facts are not completely lost just because we cannot remember
them at a given time.
Example
When the supervisor asks Erik where he left a certain tool, Erik would, quite possibly, not
be able to remember where he left it immediately. However, Erik is likely to remember
ten minutes later, after the supervisor has left.
Activity
1. Ask a colleague a simple question that he should be able to answer. Notice how long
he takes to answer the question (how long he takes to retrieve the information).
7.6 Summary
The term ‘learning’ is explained as the relatively permanent changes that result
from experience or through processes. Learning happens when someone knows
something they did not know before, or can do something they could not do
before. Learning is characterised by:
■■ observable changes in behaviour;
■■ the quantity of learning and how it relates to achievement;
■■ verbal and non-verbal forms;
■■ formal learning situations and life experience; and
■■ academic learning (as opposed to learning moral codes, habits and skills).
There are various forms of learning such as associative learning, cognitive

learning and social and moral learning. Associative learning consists of:
■■ Classical conditioning. Learning is based on an unconditioned stimulus
replacing a conditioned stimulus, and an unconditioned response is replaced

with a conditioned response. Classical conditioning needs the conditioned
stimulus to be strong enough and to be presented just before the unconditioned
stimulus, (the duration should not be too long), and to be repeated several
times. Conditioning processes are characterised by generalisation (reaction
to stimuli that corresponds to the conditioned stimulus), discrimination (the
conditioned response is limited), extinction (reduction in the effect of the
conditioned stimulus) and spontaneous recovery (the conditioned response
returns).
■■ Operant conditioning. The response is positively or negatively reinforced or
rewarded. The desired response is obtained in the following way: Wait for
desired response, increase motivation, reduce the number of potential

responses, verbal instruction, reinforcement of parts of the response,

and physical role play.
■■ Trial-and-error learning. Trial-and-error indicates that learning happens
according to the law of use). Cognitive learning takes place by means of
conscious cognitive processes and is characterised by latent learning (learning
that takes place without reinforcement) and learning by insight (spontaneous
understanding).
■■ Social and moral learning is based on modelling or imitation of behaviour
and is based on interaction with other people, the inhibition or disinhibition
of responses and the eliciting of responses.
■■ Learning is based on the following principles: goal-setting, distribution of
learning time, knowledge of results, significance or meaningfulness of learning
material and motivation.
■■ Memory plays a vital role in the learning process because it provides the
subject with the ability to remember or recall subject matter. The nature of
memory can be described as the awareness of reliving, influence on future
behaviour and the ability to remember experiences. The memory process
takes place on the following levels: sensory storage, short-term and long-term
memory and the retrieval of information.
Self-evaluation
1. Describe the nature of learning as defined by Plug et al (1987) and Jordaan
and Jordaan (1988). Use a suitable example to illustrate your answer. (10)
2. List six important characteristics of learning and illustrate them with work-
related examples. (12)
3. Describe the nature of classical conditioning in terms of the experiments carried
out by Ivan Pavlov. Also give one work-related example of classical conditioning. (10)
4. List and discuss the requirements for the process of classical conditioning. (8)
5. Discuss the following characteristics of the classical conditioning process and
illustrate your discussion with examples:
(a) generalisation (2)
(b) discrimination (2)
(c) extinction (2)
(d) spontaneous recovery (2)
6. Describe the nature of operant conditioning with reference to the following aspects:
(a) reward and punishment (2)
(b) difference between classical conditioning and operant conditioning (2)
(c) positive reinforcement (2)
(d) negative reinforcement (2)
7. Describe the ways in which the desired response can be obtained in the process
of operant conditioning. Use work-related examples to illustrate your answer. (12)
8. Discuss the process of trial-and-error learning. Use an example to illustrate
your answer. (10)

9. Describe the nature of cognitive learning and illustrate your answer with an
example. (5)
10. List and discuss the characteristics of learning by insight. (6)
11. Discuss social and moral learning on the basis of the following guidelines:
(a) Define and give an example of modelling behaviour. (5)
(b) Describe the process of imitation by means of examples. (10)
12. List and discuss in full the principles on which learning is based. Illustrate
your answer with suitable work-related examples. (20)
13. Describe the nature of memory according to the view of Plug et al (1987).
Use work-related examples. (8)
14. Describe the process of memory on the basis of the following aspects:
(a) List the various levels on which memory processes take place. (4)
(b) Discuss the low retention level of sensory storage by using a work-related
example. (3)
(c) List the two most important characteristics that distinguish short-term
memory from other types of memory. (2)
(d) Describe the suitability of the two characteristics of short-term memory by
using a single example. (3)
(e) Describe the two aspects that distinguish long-term memory from other
types of memory. (4)
(f ) List the various characteristics of long-term memory. (9)

chapter
Attitudes
8
8.1 Introduction .............................................................................. 163
8.2 The nature of attitudes ..................................................................... 163
8.2.1 Multiple definition .............................................................. 163
8.2.2 Simple definition ................................................................. 164
8.3 Attitudes and behaviour .................................................................. 164
8.4 The origin and development of attitudes ................................... 165
8.4.1 Psycho-dynamic approach .............................................. 165
8.4.2 Learning theory .................................................................. 166
8.4.2.1 Classical conditioning .................................... 166
8.4.2.2 Instrumental (operant) conditioning ......... 166
8.4.2.3 Modelling (observational learning) ............ 167
8.4.3 Familiarity and exposure ................................................... 167
8.4.4 Personal experience ........................................................... 168
8.5 Changing attitudes ............................................................................ 169
8.5.1 Persuasion ............................................................................ 169
8.5.1.1 Components of the process of
persuasion ........................................................ 169
8.5.1.2 Traditional approach ...................................... 169
8.5.1.3 Modern approach .......................................... 171
8.5.2 Cognitive dissonance ........................................................ 172
8.5.2.1 Nature of cognitive dissonance .................. 172
8.5.2.2 Reducing dissonance ..................................... 172
8.5.3 Other attitude-changing techniques ............................. 173
8.5.3.1 Role play ........................................................... 173
8.5.3.2 Modelling ......................................................... 173
8.6 Measuring attitude ............................................................................ 174
8.6.1 Dimensions of attitude measurement ........................... 174
8.6.1.1 Direction ........................................................... 174
8.6.1.2 Intensity ............................................................. 174
8.6.2 Methods of measuring attitudes .................................... 174
8.6.2.1 Accidental observations ............................... 174
8.6.2.2 Experimental research ................................... 175
8.6.2.3 Non-experimental research ......................... 175
8.6.3 Measuring instruments ..................................................... 176
8.6.3.1 Attitude scales ................................................. 176
8.7 Application of attitude scales .......................................................... 178
8.8 Summary .............................................................................. 179
Self-evaluation .............................................................................. 180

attitudes 163
Study objective
■■ define an attitude;
■■ explain how attitudes arise;
■■ describe how attitudes can be changed; and
■■ outline how an attitude is measured.
8.1 Introduction
Attitudes have important implications for the industry or organisation in which
we work. Attitudes influence the behaviour of individuals and groups, and how
individuals and groups behave towards others. It is therefore important to know
what attitudes are and how they originate, as well as how they are changed and
measured.
People have an infinite number of attitudes towards virtually all objects in
their life and world.
Example
In the work situation, Khoza has a wide range of attitudes towards the various supervisors:
he may like Mpho a great deal, but likes Sheryl less. Khoza also has different attitudes
towards aspects of the work itself, finding it interesting to work with computers, but
disliking his office layout.
8.2 The nature of attitudes

Attitudes can be defined as clusters of feelings, beliefs and behavioural intentions
towards objects. Attitudes are also relatively stable. Work-related attitudes have to
do with any aspect of one’s work or work settings (Greenberg & Baron, 2008).
Dawes and Smith (1985) explain that psychologists have found it difficult
to formulate an acceptable definition of an attitude because there is no
general consensus or agreement as to precisely what an attitude is. The most
important question is whether an attitude should be considered a multiple
or simple phenomenon.
8.2.1 Multiple definition

According to Greenberg and Baron (2008), an attitude consists of the following
essential components:
■■ Evaluative, emotional or feeling component. This consists of a reaction from
the central nervous system whereby your liking or disliking of a particular

person, item or event is expressed. This kind of response may be expressed

as a verbal response of feeling such as ‘I hate my office’ or ‘I love my office’.
■■ Cognitive component. Attitudes involve more than feelings, they also consist
of convictions, opinions and thoughts about a person or object. The cognitive
component varies from good (supportive arguments or opinions: ‘The
supervisor is clever’) to bad (destructive or derogatory arguments or opinions:
‘The supervisor is stupid’).
■■ Behavioural component. This element refers to overt (observable) actions or
behavioural intentions towards specific objects. The behavioural component
varies from supportive and protective behaviour (helping a colleague from
another group) to hostile and destructive behaviour (assaulting a colleague
from another group).
Activity
1. In your own words, describe your attitude towards one of your colleagues. Discuss
each component of this attitude in terms of the multiple definition of attitudes.
8.2.2 Simple definition

Rosenberg and Hovland (1960) deem that most authors and researchers single
out the emotional or feeling component as being fundamental to an attitude.
Fishbein and Ajzen (1975) agree that emotion is the most essential component
of an attitude. They describe an attitude as a general feeling of ‘favourableness’
or ‘unfavourableness’ towards an object.
Example
Steven likes the divisional supervisor a great deal, whereas Braam does not like her at all.
Activity
1. In your own words, write down your attitude towards your supervisor or a colleague
(write down your feelings about that person).
8.3 Attitudes and behaviour

Attitudes and behaviour do not necessarily correspond with each other. General
and weak attitudes do not predict behaviour clearly, while specific, strong
attitudes or attitudes that are very important to someone predict behaviour
much better (Baron & Byrne, 2000).

attitudes 165
Example
Tambo claims not to be in favour of strike action (general attitude), but participates in
a strike when one is called. Manuel claims to be in favour of a strike should it be based
on salary disputes (attitude is specific) and involves something that is important to
Manuel. In such a situation, Manuel will therefore participate in a strike.
Activity
1. Identify the supervisor that you like the least in your organisation. Compare the way
you behave towards this supervisor in comparison with your behaviour towards the
other supervisors.
8.4 The origin and development of

attitudes
There are four explanations for the origin and development of attitudes, namely
the psycho-dynamic approach, learning theory, familiarity and exposure as well
as personal experience.
8.4.1 Psycho-dynamic approach

In terms of this approach, people use attitudes functionally as defence mechanisms
to fulfil emotional needs (ego defence). Katz (1960) states that we use attitudes to
protect ourselves against our own internal unacceptable impulses and thoughts,
as well as against external threats. These processes are initiated from the level of
the unconscious.
Example
When Kedibone experiences anxiety because of her poor self-image or feelings of guilt,
she will unconsciously use projection to protect her ego. Plug et al (1987) explain that
projection is a defence mechanism whereby someone unconsciously attributes his/her
own unacceptable wishes, traits and attitudes to others. Kedibone may therefore project
her negative feelings onto Puleng by holding Puleng responsible for her own negative
feelings. In that way, Kedibone considers Puleng to be a threat, and has a negative
attitude towards Puleng.
Example
Alison obtains poor results for a course offered by her organisation because she does not
have the necessary qualifications. She feels guilty about this, and is afraid that rumours
will spread that she was not able to complete the course successfully. By unconsciously
using projection, she accuses the course presenter of incompetence and considers that
person to be the cause of her poor results.

Activity
1. Describe a case or situation in which someone made you feel inferior. What was your
attitude towards that person?
8.4.2 Learning theory

8.4.2.1 Classical conditioning
Doob (1947) is of the opinion that attitudes can be learnt through simple
classical conditioning. The experiments that Pavlov carried out using dogs
give an indication of how classical conditioning takes place. Pavlov found that
classical conditioning took place when he repeatedly rang a bell (a conditioned
stimulus) before offering food to the dogs. Each time the dogs heard the bell
(before being offered food) they would begin to salivate. Later the ringing of the
bell alone caused the dogs to salivate automatically (Plug et al, 1997).
Example
Nico’s father owns a business. Nico observes that his father smiles constantly when in the
presence of his employees. Nico feels positive and happy when his father smiles. Nico
will, over time, feel positive and happy in the presence of his father’s employees, even
if his father is not present. In this way, Nico learns to associate employees with positive
feelings. One day, if he should start his own business, he will have a positive attitude
towards his employees.
In this way, people learn political, social, religious and cultural attitudes that
have important implications for the industry or organisation in which they work.
Activity
1. Give examples of cultural, religious or political attitudes that might be learnt through
simple classical conditioning.
8.4.2.2 Instrumental (operant) conditioning

Instrumental or operant conditioning (refer Chapter 7) takes place when a
response (attitude or behaviour) is positively or negatively reinforced in a
particular situation.
Example
Salome receives extra pay for overtime work, so she will be keen to do more overtime
in the future.

attitudes 167
We call this positive reinforcement because the attitude or behaviour is rewarded.
Example
Each time Titus sees Susanne and greets her, she ignores or snubs him. Titus soon
begins to avoid Susanne and will no longer greet her.
We call this negative reinforcement because the attitude or behaviour is punished.
Activity
1. List a few other examples of instrumental conditioning.
8.4.2.3 Modelling (observational learning)

In this form of learning, people acquire new attitudes and behaviour by
systematically observing the rewards and punishments given to others (Greenberg
& Baron, 2008).
Example
A young employee, Brian, observed that his colleague, Doreen, picked up a valuable
deal by joining union X. Brian noticed that the same thing happens to a lot of his other
colleagues. Brian then joins the union because he has developed a positive attitude
towards union X. He would also like to enjoy the lucrative benfits that the union offers.
This is the way in which attitudes are transferred or passed on from person to
person and from one generation to the next.
Activity
1. Identify an issue that you feel negatively about. Briefly explain how your negative
attitude towards this issue was developed during your childhood. Describe the
degree to which your parents or others encouraged this attitude.
8.4.3 Familiarity and exposure

The more familiar an object, person or situation grows to a person, the more
positive that person’s attitude towards the object, person or situation becomes.
Example
When Kate started work at a new company, she found it very strange and unfamiliar.
Kate developed a negative attitude towards the job and the company as a whole.

After working there for a while, however, Kate’s exposure to the work grew and she
began to understand the organisation better. As a result, she developed a more positive
attitude towards the job and the company.
Researchers such as Tajfel (1981) point out that positive attitudes are formed
between people that have more contact with one another or are more frequently
exposed to one another. However, this contact or exposure must satisfy certain
conditions before positive attitudes ensue.
Example
William and Stefan develop positive attitudes towards each other because they both:
●● passed standard eight (equal status);
●● have the same religious beliefs (values correspond);
●● work for the same organisation (common goals);
●● have known each other for a long time (long periods of contact); and
●● have respect for their friendship (contact on intimate levels).
8.4.4 Personal experience

Baron and Byrne (2000) state that attitudes are formed as a result of direct
personal experience and it is their opinion that attitudes gained from personal
experience are often stronger than learnt attitudes.
Example
Xander has a positive attitude towards authority because his parents had a positive
attitude towards authority. Tumi also has a positive attitude towards authority, but this
is the result of a personal experience with an authoritative figure (the director) in the
work situation. Tumi will in fact behave more positively towards figures of authority than
Xander.
Activity
1. How do you feel about reading? Is this attitude due to your parents’ attitude or
because of your own experience of reading?

attitudes 169
8.5 Changing attitudes

Attitudes can have important implications for industry, employers and production.
Example
Two groups of mineworkers have negative attitudes towards each other. Their negative
attitudes have the potential of ending in political clashes, which will have an adverse
effect on production at the mine. It is imperative for these attitudes to be made positive
as they have a direct impact on the levels of production.
Although attitudes are closely associated to emotions and are assumed difficult
to change, a number of theories indicate that they can in fact be changed.
8.5.1 Persuasion
This is a process whereby a person’s attitude, opinion or behaviour is changed
through the use of various kinds of messages (Baron et al, 2009).
8.5.1.1 Components of the process of persuasion

The changing of attitudes by persuasion depends on the following three components:
■■ the source of the message (the person speaking or who the persuader is);
■■ the message being communicated (what is being said or which attitude must
be changed); and
■■ the audience (who is being spoken to or must be persuaded).
Figure 8.1 Components of persuasion
Example
Workers are dissatisfied with their salary increase because they feel that it is too low. Their
supervisor, however, would like to persuade them to accept the increase. In this case:
●● the supervisor would be the source;
●● the communication from the supervisor to the workers about the salary increase
would be the message; and
●● the employees would be the audience.
8.5.1.2 Traditional approach

According to Baron and Byrne (1991), earlier research concentrated on
identifying how attitudes changed in practice and when these changes most
easily took place. The findings were:

■■ If you want to persuade effectively, it is advisable to use experts as sources

or persuaders. The opinions of people considered as experts in their field are
more readily accepted than those of non-experts.
Example
The workers would be more easily persuaded to accept their salary increases if they are
addressed by a well-known economist, rather than their supervisor.
■■ Using sources that are popular or attractive, is more effective for changing
attitudes than using unpopular or unattractive people.
Example
A popular supervisor will have more success in persuading the workers than an
unpopular supervisor who is disliked by the workers.
■■ Subtle messages are messages that do not appear to have been specially
designed to manipulate people. They have greater persuasive power than
messages openly aimed at manipulating people.
Example
The supervisor expresses surprise about the generous increase offered to the workers.
As such, the workers tend to be more easily persuaded to accept the increase rather
than if the supervisor had explicitly told them to accept it.
■■ People are more open to persuasion if their attention is focused on something

other than the message.
Example
Baron and Byrne (1991) explain that this is why political candidates sometimes arrange
‘spontaneous’ demonstrations during their speeches.
■■ People with low self-esteem tend to be more easily persuaded than those with
high self-esteem.
Example
A group of workers that is self-assured will be more difficult to persuade to accept the
salary increase than a group that is unsure of themselves.
■■ When the attitudes of the audience are exactly the opposite of those of
the source, the source would be more effective if they adopted a two-sided

attitudes 171
approach rather than a one-sided approach. The source should present both
sides of the scenario.
Example
The supervisor might acknowledge that the salary increase is not as high as the workers
had expected, but owing to financial constraints the increase is the best that the
company could offer.
■■ Sources who speak fast are more effective in persuading people than sources
who speak slowly.
■■ Persuasion can be made more effective by messages that make a strong
emotional appeal.
Example
The supervisor, Lungile, could play on the workers’ emotions by saying that he had
always been proud of them and that they should not disappoint him by refusing the
salary increase.
8.5.1.3 Modern approach

Where traditional research emphasised the how, who and when of changing
attitudes, modern researchers have concentrated on determining why people’s
attitudes change. Petty and Cacioppo (1986) consider that people change their
attitudes because they cognitively process messages that are important to them.
People consider and weigh up the arguments of a message and evaluate them in
terms of aspects such as logic and reliability, as well as what has been omitted
or left out. It is these thoughts, and not the message itself, that result in a change
in attitude.
We assume that salaries are an important issue for workers. The supervisor
would like to persuade workers to accept their new salary increase. As a result,
the supervisor will have to prove statistically that the salary increase compares
favourably with those offered to other workers at the same level.
The traditional approach seems to be concerned chiefly with the emotional
responses of the audience, while the modern approach emphasises the cognitive
evaluation of the message.
Activity
1. Would you find it easier or more difficult to change your attitude towards theft as
opposed to your favourite car colour?
2. Base your arguments on the modern approach.

3. Compare the traditional and modern approaches.

4. Where do the major differences in emphasis lie?
8.5.2 Cognitive dissonance

The theory of cognitive dissonance was developed by Festinger (1957). He
describes humans as beings who wish to act and think consistently at all times
and to minimise any disequilibrium in their attitudes and behaviour.
8.5.2.1 Nature of cognitive dissonance

Cognitive dissonance is an unpleasant feeling we experience when there
is inconsistency between two of our attitudes, or between our attitude and
behaviour.
Example
Charmaine enjoys her work (positive behaviour and attitude towards her job), but at
the same time, she feels that the salary is too low (negative attitude towards the job).
8.5.2.2 Reducing dissonance

Cognitive dissonance is a motivational state (people who experience it are
motivated to reduce it as far as possible) and results in changed attitudes or
behaviour (Baron & Byrne, 2000). There are various ways of reducing dissonance
by changing attitudes or behaviour:
■■ Individuals change their attitudes so that their attitudes match or correspond
with their behaviour.
Example
Tito persuades himself that his salary is not so bad because he enjoys his job so much.
■■ Individuals change their cognitions about their behaviour.
Example
Bernard persuades himself that the country is facing economic disaster and that he is
only too lucky to be earning a salary.
■■ Dissonance can also be reduced by obtaining new information.

attitudes 173
Example
Rebecca reads in an economic journal that her salary compares well with those of other
workers at the same level. This makes her feel more positive about her salary.
■■ The importance of dissonance is minimised.
Example
Marlene persuades herself that the salary question is not so important, since she may
be promoted shortly and this will mean more money in any case.
Activity
1. Think of a personal friend of yours whose opinions differ strongly from yours.
2. Assume that your friend is unwilling to change his/her opinions. How will you react?
3. Would you like your friend any less?
4. Would you change your own opinions so that the two of you can agree?
8.5.3 Other attitude-changing techniques

8.5.3.1 Role play
Role play is when a person imitates another’s behaviour or role. Organisations
can encourage a more positive atmosphere, using role play.
Example
The supervisor can play the role of an employee and so obtain valuable insight into, and
become more involved in, the tasks performed by employees.
8.5.3.2 Modelling
Modelling implies that by copying their colleagues, it is possible that employees’
attitudes can be formed or even changed.
Example
Maggie, the worker, lacks interest in her job. She can be encouraged to imitate a
hardworking supervisor and in this way build a more positive attitude to the job.

8.6 Measuring attitude

In the work situation, management may have to deal with problems affecting the
functioning of the organisation.
Example
Management of Company X measure their workers’ attitudes to strike action so that
they can determine what it would take to make their workers strike. If, for instance, there
have been incidences of racial conflict in the organisation, management could measure
attitudes towards ethnicity to evaluate the intensity of racial tension within the group.
8.6.1 Dimensions of attitude measurement

8.6.1.1 Direction
Direction indicates whether an attitude is positive or negative. Workers either
like or dislike their supervisor.
8.6.1.2 Intensity
This indicates the degree of preference or dislike that workers have for an object
or person. Workers, for example, either like their supervisor very much, or dislike
their supervisor intensely.
8.6.2 Methods of measuring attitudes

8.6.2.1 Accidental observations
According to Welman et al (2005), accidental observation is an empirical
investigation that relies on observation and experience, which is carried out
in natural circumstances. In this way, attitudes can be deduced from natural
behaviour.
Example
When Sizwe sees the supervisor humiliating Jody, Sizwe presumes that the supervisor
has a negative attitude towards Jody.
When we do not investigate a phenomenon systematically and in a planned manner, we
could arrive at an incorrect conclusion. In this example, the disadvantage of accidental
observation is that there is no control over the supervisor’s behaviour (independent
variable). Sizwe cannot deduce conclusively that the supervisor feels negatively towards
Jody. There may be a number of unknown factors of which Sizwe is unaware. The
supervisor may have been instructed to reprimand Jody, and so his actions would not
truly reflect his attitude.

attitudes 175
Activity
1. Consider a situation where you noticed someone’s behaviour towards another
person. Describe the events and make a deduction about the person’s attitude.
8.6.2.2 Experimental research

All types of experimental research make use of interventions (for example, the
participants are exposed to a scenario that they ordinarily would not have been
subjected to) and the independent variable is controlled (Welman et al, 2005).
The experimental group is the group of respondents who are exposed to
whatever intervention it is that may influence the attitude of the group. The
control group consists of the respondents who are not exposed to it.
Example
The supervisor wants to determine whether a television programme (intervention,
independent variable) has an influence on the workers’ attitudes towards strikes
(dependent variable). The supervisor divides the workers into two groups (A and B).
Group A (the experimental group) is exposed to the television programme (intervention),
while group B (the control group) is not exposed to the programme. Afterwards, both of
the groups’ attitudes towards strike action are measured to determine if their attitudes
differ.
8.6.2.3 Non-experimental research

In non-experimental research, there is no use of any planned intervention.
Different variables (called third variables), apart from the independent variable,
can be the actual source of the changes in the dependent variable (Welman et
al, 2005). Hence, non-experimental research findings are not as accurate as the
results from experimental research (Welman et al, 2005).
Example
The supervisor wants to determine whether there is a relation (correlation) between the
job satisfaction (dependent variable) and role conflict (independent variable) of a group
of workers. He could measure the workers’ job satisfaction and rates of role conflict to
ascertain if the two variables correlate. It would not be possible, however, to verify the
levels at which role conflicts affect job satisfaction because the supervisor did not have
any control over third variables such as age, gender, etc.

8.6.3 Measuring instruments

8.6.3.1 Attitude scales
According to Welman et al (2005), an attitude scale is an instrument that measures
the disposition (attitude) of a respondent towards a particular attitudinal object
(for example, a group of people, customs, and any political, economic or social
issues) such as job satisfaction. For our purposes, we will examine the social
distance scale, the Likert scale and the semantic differential.
The social distance scale
Bogardus’ social distance scale (1925) is an evaluation framework in which the
respondent indicates the degree of intimacy with which he/she is prepared to
accept a particular individual or representative of a group (Plug et al, 1997).
The respondents must select one of a number of statements. The degree to
which they are prepared to accept the individual or group is then determined
from the responses.
Example
How willing are you to work with Americans?
On the scale given below, mark the statement with which you most agree. Place a cross
in the appropriate block.
1. I am not prepared to work with

Americans.
2. I am prepared to work in the same

organisation as an American.

division as an American.

office as an American.

attitudes 177
5. I am prepared to be the personal

friend of an American at work.
Note: The diagrams on the right are not part of the scale – they have been included
simply to make the example clearer.
The Likert scale

The Likert scale consists of a number of positive and negative statements. The
respondents use a five-point scale to indicate the degree to which they agree with
a particular statement. Findings of the respondents’ attitudes are based on the
positioning of their answers (marks) on the scale.
Example
How satisfied are you with your salary increase?
Mark the appropriate block with a cross.
1 2 3 4 5
Very Reasonably Neutral Reasonably Very
dissatisfied dissatisfied satisfied satisfied
Note: The diagrams above the scale are not part of the scale – they have been included
simply to make the example clearer.
The semantic differential

Of all the scales that have been devised, the semantic differential is the one most
often used in attitude measurement (Dawes & Smith, 1985).
The semantic differential consists of a number of bipolar semantic items
which contain opposing adjectives on each scale extreme. Respondents are asked
to evaluate a concept by making a mark at the appropriate point between the
opposing adjectives on the semantic scale. This indicates how the respondent
feels about an object or person.

Example
What do you think of your supervisor?
Mark the line above the appropriate number to indicate the degree to which you find
your supervisor friendly or unfriendly.
Friendly — — — — — — — Unfriendly
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1 = My supervisor is very friendly.
2 = My supervisor is reasonably friendly.
3 = My supervisor is slightly friendly.
4 = My supervisor is just as friendly as unfriendly.
5 = My supervisor is slightly unfriendly.
6 = My supervisor is reasonably unfriendly.
7 = My supervisor is very unfriendly.
Activity
1. Draw up a scale that asks the question whether a ban on smoking in the workplace
is a good or bad measure to implement.
2. Ask three colleagues to respond.
3. Note if the responses differ or are the same.
8.7 Application of attitude scales

When using the attitude scales, it is important to note the following:
■■ The social distance scale consists of only a single scale item according to
which the attitude of each respondent is determined.

■■ The semantic differential and the Likert scale use more than one scale item
to measure the attitudes of respondents. An average attitude score for the

various scale items is calculated for each respondent.
■■ The validity of the measuring instrument is very important if we wish to
ensure that the instrument measures what it is supposed to measure.
Example
If the supervisor uses a Likert scale to measure attitudes towards strike action, the scale
must be compiled in such a way that it measures attitudes about strike action, and not
political unrest.

attitudes 179
■■ The reliability of a measuring instrument is very important. Reliability can

be seen as the consistency with which a measuring instrument will measure,
irrespective of the situation in which it is applied.
Example
If a scale is currently used to measure attitudes towards strike action, that same scale
must still measure attitudes towards strike action in a year’s time.
■■ Finally, it is important that the workers being tested (if not everyone is
participating) should be representative of the staff of the organisation. In
such a case, a random sample can be taken (the workers are selected in such
a way that each one has an equal chance of being included in the sample).
Example
An alphabetical list of workers can be compiled and every fifth name chosen.
8.8 Summary
Attitudes can have significant implications for a work situation, since people’s
attitudes to their work, colleagues and supervisors, for example, influence
productivity.
Although a precise definition of an attitude has not been formulated, we
describe attitudes as being multiple (consisting of cognition, emotion and
behaviour) or simple (based purely on feeling). Feeling or emotion is considered to
be the essence of an attitude. Attitudes and behaviour do not always correspond.
An attitude must be specific or strong to predict behaviour consistently.
There are four theories explaining the origin of attitudes. Katz (1960) states
that people unconsciously use attitudes functionally to protect their egos (psycho-
dynamic approach). It appears that attitudes are formed through the conditioned
transfer of experiences and behaviour, the reward or punishment of experiences
and behaviour, and the imitation of behaviour (learning theory). The more
familiar we become with people and objects, the more this influences our attitude,
although in the case of contact with other people, there are important conditions
for the development of positive attitudes. Attitudes that arise through personal
experience are stronger than learnt attitudes.
Attitudes can also be changed through persuasion. Here we distinguish
between two approaches, namely the traditional approach, which lays a great
deal of emphasis on how attitudes are changed and when the changes take place
most easily, and the modern approach, which attempts to ascertain why people
change their attitudes. Another form of attitude change takes place by means
of cognitive dissonance, in which there is inconsistency between attitudes and

behaviour. Dissonance is reduced by changing attitudes and behaviour. Role play

and modelling are also used to change attitudes.
Attitudes are measured in terms of direction and intensity. Three different
methods of attitude measurement can be applied, namely accidental observation,
experimental and non-experimental research. A number of attitude scales are
used and here we distinguish between three scales: the social distance, Likert and
semantic differential scales. The semantic differential is the most commonly-used
scale.
Finally, it is important that the information gained through the use of these
measuring instruments should be valid and reliable. Random samples should be
used if not all workers are questioned.
Self-evaluation
1. List and discuss the three components of a multiple definition of an attitude.
Give practical examples related to your work situation. (6)
2. Describe an attitude as a simple concept. Give an example drawn from your
work situation. (3)
3. Describe the difference between general or weak attitudes and behaviour, and
specific attitudes and behaviour. Illustrate your answer with examples related to
your work situation. (4)
4. List and briefly discuss four theories that explain the origin of attitudes.
Illustrate your answer with practical examples. (20)
5. List and discuss the ways in which attitudes can be changed through
persuasion according to the traditional approach. Do you agree with this
approach? Motivate your answer. (16)
6. Discuss the principle on which the modern approach to attitude change rests.
Illustrate your answer with a practical example related to the work situation. (5)
7. Discuss the nature of cognitive dissonance by means of a practical example
from your work situation. (5)
8. A personnel clerk at your organisation is not in favour of strike action, but
feels dissatisfied about his salary, and the only way of obtaining a salary
increase is by going on strike. As a result, the clerk experiences cognitive
dissonance. Using practical examples, describe the different ways in which this
person can change his/her attitude to reduce dissonance. (8)
9. Describe the dimensions of attitude measurement using work-related
examples. (6)
10. Discuss and compare the methods of measuring attitude on the basis of
work-related examples. (10)
11. Discuss two attitude scales with the help of examples. (10)
12. Briefly explain what is meant by the validity and reliability of measuring
instruments. Illustrate your answer with two relevant examples. (6)

chapter
Social perception
9
9.1 Introduction .............................................................................. 182
9.2 Impression formation ........................................................................ 183
9.2.1 Definition .............................................................................. 183
9.2.2 Development and use of impression formation ........ 183
9.2.2.1 First impressions ............................................. 183
9.2.2.2 Central and peripheral characteristics ...... 183
9.2.2.3 Criteria for evaluation ................................... 184
9.2.2.4 Additional positive characteristics .............. 185
9.2.2.5 Expectations of further interaction ............ 185
9.3 Attribution .............................................................................. 185
9.3.1 Definition .............................................................................. 185
9.3.2 The attribution process ..................................................... 185
9.4 Non-verbal communication ............................................................ 187
9.4.1 Facial expressions ............................................................... 188
9.4.2 Eye contact .......................................................................... 189
9.4.3 Body language .................................................................... 189
9.4.4 Paralanguage ...................................................................... 190
9.4.5 Proximity behaviour ........................................................... 190
9.4.6 Multiple communication channels ................................. 191
9.4.7 Deception ............................................................................. 191
9.5 Perceptual errors .............................................................................. 192
9.5.1 Insufficient information ..................................................... 192
9.5.2 Manipulation ........................................................................ 193
9.5.3 Stereotyping ........................................................................ 193
9.5.3.1 The nature of stereotypes ............................ 193
9.5.3.2 The development of stereotypes ............... 194
9.5.4 Prejudices ............................................................................. 195
9.5.4.1 The nature of prejudices .............................. 195
9.5.4.2 Origin of prejudices ....................................... 195
9.5.5 Projection ............................................................................. 196
9.5.5.1 Definition .......................................................... 196
9.5.5.2 Development and use of projection ......... 197
9.5.6 Halo effect ............................................................................ 197
9.5.6.1 Definition .......................................................... 197
9.5.6.2 Development and use of the halo
effect .................................................................. 198
9.6 Summary .............................................................................. 198
Self-evaluation .............................................................................. 199

Study objective
■■ describe the nature of impression formation;
■■ give an explanation for the development and use of impression formation;
■■ explain the attribution process;
■■ understand how non-verbal communication takes place; and
■■ know how perceptual errors can result in incorrect decision-making in the industry.
9.1 Introduction
Social perception (first impressions, attributes, non-verbal communication, etc)
plays an important role when people with different personalities meet for the
first time in the business world.
Example
When the newly-appointed employee, Bongani, meets his supervisor, the first
impression they form of each other can have a lasting effect on their working relationship.
Later in the relationship, if the supervisor sees Bongani acting in a certain manner, he
will make various attributions (conclusions) about the reasons for Bongani’s behaviour.
However, Bongani’s behaviour could also be interpreted in a non-verbal manner. In
this way, one forms an image of Bongani’s personality traits (characteristics).
Attributions and non-verbal behaviour, therefore, play an important role in the

appointment, placement and promotion of employees.
Example
The supervisor knows very little about Bongani’s personality and, as such, could make
important errors regarding Bongani’s true character. Bongani could also pretend to be
what he is not (mislead), which could result in incorrect decision-making. If the supervisor
does not like the group of which Bongani is a member or regards Bongani as a threat,
then Bongani could be treated unfairly.
It is therefore very important that you, as a student in personnel management,

understand the nature of impression formation (refer point 9.2) and the
attribution process (refer point 9.3), as well as how impression formation
develops. In addition, it is also important to note how people communicate at a
non-verbal level and the perceptual errors (refer points 9.4 and 9.5) that can be
made, which result in incorrect decision-making in organisations.

social perception 183
9.2 Impression formation

9.2.1 Definition
Impression formation is a process whereby we form impressions of other people
(Baron et al, 2009). It consists of a variety of (diverse) information that is
combined or integrated (Baron & Byrne, 1991).
9.2.2 Development and use of impression formation

9.2.2.1 First impressions
According to Baron et al (2009), we are literally flooded with information when
we meet another person for the first time (how they look and dress, how they
speak and behave). First impressions are formed relatively effortlessly, but they
are very important and tend to be lasting. Even if people have information that
disproves their first impression, they may continue to believe this.
Research conducted by Asch (Baron et al, 2009), has shown that the first
impressions that people form of others are so significant that they have a strong
influence on the interpretation of the characteristics of a person, which are
experienced (heard or observed) at a later stage.
Example
If the supervisor, Thembo’s, first impression of Puleng is that she is intelligent and hard-
working, it will influence the evaluation of Puleng’s other characteristics. Should Thembo
later discover that Puleng is a very critical person, he will not regard this as a negative
characteristic but will argue that Puleng is critical as a result of her superior intelligence.
This process of evaluation is also known as equalisation.
Activity
1. Think of the first impressions you have formed of a certain person. How did your first
impression influence your opinion of the person’s characteristics that you observed
at a later stage?
9.2.2.2 Central and peripheral characteristics

According to Sabini (1992), Asch’s research also indicates that impression
formation arises from the observation of central and peripheral characteristics.
■■ Central characteristics refer to characteristics that play an important role
when we observe people and that affect the influence of other characteristics.

Example
When the supervisor, Thembo, also realises that Puleng is a warm person, he will also
assume that Puleng is generous, intelligent, competent and determined. However, if the
supervisor finds out that Puleng is a cold person, he will find it difficult to regard Puleng
as a generous person.
Research has shown that the term ‘cold’ is grouped together with the opposite
characteristics of warm or warm-hearted. Therefore, Asch regards warm and
cold as central personality traits. Peripheral characteristics are characteristics
that do not have as strong an influence as ‘warm’ and ‘cold’.
Example
If Thembo believes that Cecil is polite, he will attribute the characteristic of being good-
natured to Cecil. However, if Thembo believes that Cecil is blunt, he will only attribute
the charateristic of being good-natured to Cecil occasionally.
Asch lists characteristics such as courtesy and bluntness as peripheral

characteristics because they do not have as strong an influence on evaluation
as ‘warm’ and ‘cold’. The conclusion that can be made from Asch’s research is
that the knowledge we acquire from other people is based on our expectations
that certain personality traits are associated with one another. This can also be
described as an implicit personality theory.
9.2.2.3 Criteria for evaluation

People differ in terms of the criteria they use in the evaluation of other people.
Example
Jack, a supervisor, may evaluate the employees according to their physical attraction,
and Peter, another supervisor, may regard characteristics such as intelligence, religion
and performance as important.
Activity
1. Describe the characteristics you take into consideration when evaluating people.
Ask your colleagues and family members to do the same. Now compare the
characteristics you wrote down.

9.2.2.4 Additional positive characteristics

When you hear about additional positive characteristics of a person, that is, in
addition to the original positive characteristic you knew about, it reinforces your
original evaluation of that person.
Example
The supervisor, Thembo, originally formed the impression that Puleng is intelligent and
later found out that Puleng is also a good sportsperson. Consequently, the supervisor’s
attitude towards Puleng as an employee became more positive.
9.2.2.5 Expectations of further interaction

If you expect to meet someone again (further interaction), you will tend to focus
on the positive characteristics of the other person during the first meeting.
Example
Gertrude applies for a position at Company X. The personnel manager of Company X
conducts an interview with Gertrude. Gertrude expects that if she is appointed to the
position she will meet the personnel manager again, so she tends to emphasise the
perceived positive characteristics of the personnel manager.
9.3 Attribution
9.3.1 Definition
Attribution refers to a process in which we try to understand the causes
behind others’ behaviour and on some occasions the causes behind our own
behaviour (Baron et al, 2009). Causes of behaviour can perhaps be attributed to
the characteristics of the people themselves or even to the characteristics of the
situation in which the behaviour occurs.
Example
We observe that a clerk refuses to accept a client’s cheque. We can now conclude
(attribution) that the clerk does not trust other people or has a very suspicious nature.
9.3.2 The attribution process

According to Baron et al (2009), attribution is a complex process that takes
place when we seek to identify the causes of other’s behaviour to gain knowledge
of their stable traits and dispositions. It is the observation or evaluation of a
person’s behaviour according to the following principles: When a specific cause

leads to a specific effect on an alternate basis (it happens now and then) and the
specific effect does not take place without the specific cause, we tend to link such
an effect with the specific cause.
Example
On Monday, Albert arrives late for work (specific effect) after using a municipal bus
(specific cause). Albert never arrives late for work when not using the municipal bus
(the effect takes place on an alternate basis and this does not happen if the specific
cause is not present). Albert’s supervisor makes the attribution or conclusion that Albert
arrived late because he used the municipal bus and that it was not Albert’s fault.
The following criteria are used when attributions are made regarding someone’s
behaviour:
■■ Distinctiveness. The distinctive (specific) nature of the behaviour. Is Albert
always late or does this happen seldom? If this happens seldom, we tend
to think that the bus was the cause of Albert arriving late and not Albert’s
negligence.
■■ Consensus. We ask whether all the employees who used the bus on Monday
mornings arrived late, or was it just Albert. If everyone was late, the supervisor
would blame the bus service and not Albert for his late arrival.
■■ Consistency. If Albert is always late when he uses the bus, the supervisor will
conclude that it is not Albert’s fault that he is late, but the fault of the bus
service.
Example
Albert arrives late for work regularly, that is, not only when he uses the bus (no
distinctiveness). Everyone who uses the bus on Mondays is on time except for
Albert (no consensus). Albert does not always arrive late when using the bus (no
consistency). The supervisor will conclude that Albert’s late arrival for work on Monday
is not attributable to the bus service but to Albert himself.
Activity
1. Describe a case similar to the previous example of which you are aware. Evaluate the
case as follows: What attribution was made after the event? How does the attribution
meet the three criteria (distinctiveness, consensus and consistency)?
When we evaluate the behaviour of other people, we tend to focus more on

the internal factors that cause a person’s behaviour, and we under-emphasise the
external factors.

Example
The supervisor will tend to attribute an employee’s late arrival to the employee’s
negligence and not to environmental factors such as the unreliable municipal bus service.
When we make attributions about our own behaviour, we over-emphasise external

factors and underemphasise internal factors.
Example
The supervisor, Thembo, will rather blame the bus service for his late arrival than
blaming himself.
Research has shown that people tend to make defensive attributions regarding
their own behaviour. People normally observe occurrences in situations in such
a way that their self-concept is not affected.
Example
The employee, Martha, will attribute the bonus she received to her hard work (internal
factors), but when she does not complete the work on time, she will attribute this to
factors such as inadequate or obsolete equipment (external factors).
Activity
1. Describe a case in which you used defensive attributions by blaming other people
or circumstances for your own negligence (external factors).
9.4 Non-verbal communication

Communication between individuals does not necessarily take place by means of
the content of spoken language. It also relies on an unspoken language of facial
expressions, eye contact and body language (Baron et al, 2009).
Example
A traffic inspector, Thabo, raises his hand to
communicate to a driver that he must stop. The
student, John, puts up his hand to indicate to the
lecturer that he would like to ask a question.

9.4.1 Facial expressions

We convey different emotions to others by means of facial expressions, such as
happiness, anger, sadness, surprise, fear and disapproval.
A B
Example
When Deidre hears that she is going to receive a bonus, she shows her joy by smiling.
When Jacob finds out that he is not receiving a bonus, he shows his dissatisfaction by
frowning.
Baron and Byrne (2000) say that the ability of people to identify facial expressions
is universal (people throughout the world interpret facial expressions in a similar
way). Research has shown that people’s ability to convey messages by means of
facial expressions has a survival value.
Example
If one person in a group, Jacob, has an expression of fear on his face, other people may
be warned to be prepared for aggression.
Research has also shown that an angry facial expression is the easiest
expression to identify in people. Different racial and cultural groups obviously
react differently to facial expressions. Some groups of people reflect emotion more
easily in facial expressions than others do. It is important for the management of
an enterprise to be aware of this, if there are different racial and cultural groups
employed in the enterprise, so as to avoid misunderstandings.
Activity
1. See whether you can determine the following facial expressions: anger, friendliness
and surprise.

9.4.2 Eye contact

Eye contact is one of the most important forms of non-verbal communication
from which the feelings and emotions of another person can be determined.
Research in this regard indicates that a high level of eye contact is an indication
that people like each other and an indication of friendliness.
■■ When a candidate avoids eye contact in an interview situation, this indicates
the opposite to the above. In this case, the interviewer can conclude that the
person is unfriendly, shy or reserved.
■■ When a person stares continually at another person and does not stop staring
despite the reactions of the person being stared at, the person being stared at
begins to feel uncomfortable and tense.
Activity
1. Watch some people when they are communicating. What type of eye contact is
used? What can you deduce from this?
9.4.3 Body language

Body language reveals a great deal about other people’s emotional states (Baron
et al, 2009). A high frequency of movements may be an indication of the
personality trait of a person.
Example
If Angie scratches her head during an interview, or rubs her hands together continuously,
the personnel manager may deduce that Angie is a nervous person.
Pease (1985) states that clasped hands may indicate frustration or even
defensiveness. If a person’s hand covers his/her mouth while speaking, one could
conclude that the person is trying to subconsciously suppress lies that are being
told.
According to Baron et al (2009), more specific information is provided with
the use of gestures. The most important gestures are known as emblems. These
are physical movements with a very specific meaning (refer Fig 9.1):
■■ In many cultures an open palm of the hand (A) is associated with truth, peace,
honesty and trust.

■■ A hand with the thumb pointing upwards (B) means that ‘everything is okay’
in most cultures.
■■ A clenched fist (C) is generally regarded as a sign of power mobilisation and
is often used by dissatisfied workers during protests.

■■ Other forms of body language from which non-verbal communication can

be determined are arm and leg obstruction (D). By holding one or both arms
across your chest, you are indicating that you are trying to avoid a serious
danger or unhappy circumstances. Crossed legs also indicate a defensive
attitude. In an interview situation, this can provide management with valuable
information when, for example, a person is to be promoted or transferred.
A B C D
Figure 9.1
9.4.4 Paralanguage
Paralanguage refers to the tone and pitch of the voice during communication.
Example
When Sifiso experiences great emotion and anger, he speaks loudly with a high pitch,
at a quick pace. When Sifiso is feeling sad about something, he speaks softly and slowly
with a shaky voice.
In this way, for example, the supervisor can deduce the emotional state of an
employee at any given time and will then know how to approach the employee.
Activity
1. Listen carefully to the tone and pitch of the voices of a number of people and see
whether you can determine their emotional states.
9.4.5 Proximity behaviour

Proximity behaviour is the distance between people when they are communicating
comfortably. Hall (Pease, 1985) distinguishes four types of personal distances
during communication:
■■ Intimate distance is a distance of approximately 45 cm and is usually found
between people who have an intimate relationship, such as that between a

man and his wife.
■■ Personal distance is a distance of approximately 90 cm and is maintained
between people conducting a personal conversation, such as between an

employee and his/her supervisor on the factory floor.

■■ Social distance is a distance of approximately 1,8 metres that is found during

formal business discussions, such as when the supervisor and personnel
manager meet.
■■ Public distance is a distance of three to six metres which is usually maintained
during conversations between strangers.
These distances differ from culture to culture. What is regarded by some groups
as a personal or social distance may be experienced as an intimate distance
by another group. It is important that the management of any organisation be
aware of this, if their workforce comprises different racial or cultural groups.
Activity
1. Observe different people while they communicate and try to determine the type of
social distance that is applicable in each case.
9.4.6 Multiple communication channels

In addition to using one of the above communication channels (for example,
frowning), you can use several of these communication channels simultaneously,
for example, proxemics, physical movement and facial expression.
Example
When an employee, Simon, invades the personal space of the supervisor, Helen, with
an angry expression on his face and with his finger pointed at Helen, one can deduce
that Simon is angry.
9.4.7 Deception
According to De Paulo (Baron et al, 2009) the following non-verbal cues are
helpful to deduce from non-verbal communication whether people are making
honest gestures or whether they are deliberately deceiving us:
■■ Micro-expressions are facial expressions that last only a split second before a
person’s facial expression changes to reflect another image of his/her emotions

(putting on a mask).
■■ Interchannel discrepancies are inconsistencies between the non-verbal cues
people use from different basic channels. The outcome is that people cannot
lie and control all the other channels simultaneously. For example, James may
manage his facial expressions but will not be able to look you in the eye when
he tells a lie.
■■ Exaggerated facial expressions are used when people are telling lies. They
may smile more, or more broadly, when they are telling lies. For example, in

a given situation, the employee shows far more sorrow than what is normal
for a situation.
■■ Changes in non-verbal speech styles, for instance speaking with a high-pitched
or shrill voice, indicate that a person is being dishonest.
■■ Eye contact is another cue of deception. When a person avoids eye contact
or blinks his/her eyes often, it may be an indication that the person is lying.
■■ Signals indicated by adaptive behaviour, for example, when a person is busy
speaking and repeatedly fiddles with his/her body or clothing. The more often
this type of movement occurs, the greater the chances are that the person is
lying (Baron & Byrne, 2000).
Activity
1. Think of a case in which you suspected a person of lying. Describe that person’s facial
expression, the style of speech, whether eye contact was maintained, and the body
movements that were carried out.
9.5 Perceptual errors

Social perceptions play an important role in the business world when employers
and employees come into contact with each other or when employees form
impressions of one another. For example, in a meeting when a number of
individuals are together, it is impossible to be sure about the type of behaviour that
they can expect from one another or what type of people they are dealing with.
Questions such as, ‘Does she always act like that?’ are asked. Our impressions of
others are subject to our own pre-conceived ideas about such people, and they
often lead us to form the wrong impression of their behaviour. Most perceptual
errors are made on the basis of insufficient information, manipulation, stereo-
typing, prejudice, projection and the halo effect.
9.5.1 Insufficient information

One of the most common perceptual errors we make when forming impressions
of others is based on insufficient information. In such cases, we often have too
little time to form a realistic impression of someone.
Example
The manager, Ramono, meets Ted, a clerk from a different branch, during a function
where a lot of people are present. Ramono may form an incorrect impression of Ted
because he will have little opportunity to speak to Ted. His impressions of Ted will also
be distorted by the noise, laughter and movement of all the people at the function.

Activity
1. Think of a person that you met at a function. What details do you recall of this
person?
9.5.2 Manipulation
People often consciously create the wrong impression of themselves to achieve
certain purposes, for example, an air of authority to influence other people
(Morris et al, 2002). We refer to these people as Machiavellian types because
they tend to manipulate other people.
Example
The new employee, Matt, pretends that he is a confidante of the supervisor. He wants
to influence the supervisor to recommend him for promotion.
Activity
1. Describe a situation in which a person you know used manipulation.
9.5.3 Stereotyping
9.5.3.1 The nature of stereotypes
Fishbein and Ajzen (1975) argue that we must distinguish between an attitude
(the emotional evaluations that people make about objects) and a stereotype
(cognitive meanings and opinions).
A stereotype can be regarded as a belief about other social groups in terms
of the traits or characteristics the members of these groups are believed to share.
Stereotypes influence the processing of social information (Baron et al, 2009).
Stereotypes are thought constructions that make it possible to understand and
order reality without necessarily experiencing reality itself (it is not necessarily
‘true’). These perceptions that people have of reality, influence people’s entire
observation processes. This results in the same characteristics, features and so
forth being attributed to a certain group to distinguish the group from other
groups. These features and characteristics apply to the entire group without
making provision for individual differences within the group.
Example
Monde is a competent member of group X. He applies for a position at an enterprise
where Zacharia is responsible for selection. Zacharia upholds the stereotype that
members of group X are lazy, incompetent and unintelligent. On the basis of this stereo-
type, Monde’s application is rejected.

9.5.3.2 The development of stereotypes

Stereotypes generally develop as a result of influencing by a group rather than
the result of personal experiences. This corresponds to the way in which attitudes
are learnt, namely by means of classical conditioning and modelling (refer points
8.4.2.1 to 8.4.2.3). Stereotypes are acquired mainly from parents, friends and
political as well as religious and cultural groups.
Example
If Martin continually hears that his parents regard a certain group of people as lazy,
stupid and dirty, he will uphold the same stereotype of that specific group.
Stereotypes help people to simplify the variety of impulses in their environment

by using cognitive categorisation. Instead of paying attention to each separate
stimulus in their environment, people use classes or categories (stereotypes) and
divide the stimuli from their environment accordingly. Because the number of
stimuli is reduced and simplified, new information is processed and memorised
more easily.
Example
If Anna regards plump people as friendly, she will categorise all strangers who are plump
as being friendly without determining individually whether every plump person is
friendly. She will also find it easier to remember that all plump people are friendly than
to memorise the individual character traits of each plump person.
In this way, a wide variety of stereotypes regarding groupings in society have

developed, for example:
■■ Men are classified as being performance-oriented and domineering.
■■ The opposite stereotype is upheld for women.
■■ Britons are often regarded as sporty, intelligent and conventional, while
Italians are regarded by many people as impulsive, emotional and sensitive.
Activity
1. Describe several stereotypes that you are aware of regarding groups and/or genders.
Research has shown that, as facts become less available, stereotypes are used
more often.

Example
Kgosi learnt from his parents that group X is silly, lazy and dirty. He has never personally
met a member of group X and therefore finds it easier to believe that members of group
X are silly, lazy and dirty. When Kgosi meets the members of group X, he may find that
they are all different and they do not all meet the stereotype.
Activity
1. Compare the behaviour and characteristics of individual members of groups with
corresponding stereotypes. Do they correspond in all cases?
9.5.4 Prejudices
9.5.4.1 The nature of prejudices
Attitudes and prejudices are closely related. Prejudice is a specific type of attitude
and is aimed more specifically at a person or group. It differs from an attitude in
that an attitude is more general. In other words, not all attitudes can be regarded
as prejudices, but all prejudices can be regarded as attitudes (Lever, 1978).
Baron et al (2009) describe prejudice as a negative emotional response towards
people based on their group membership. Although there are both positive and
negative prejudices, the term refers mainly to a negative attitude towards an
object (for example, an ethnic group) and often leads to discrimination.
Example
Agnes is responsible for the appointments at her enterprise. She has a negative prejudice
towards group X and a positive prejudice towards group Y. If a member of group X with
good qualifications and a member of group Y with poorer qualifications both apply for
the same position, Agnes would probably appoint the member of group Y instead of
X on the basis of her prejudice, thereby discriminating against the member of group X.
Activity
1. Describe a few cases in which you know that people discriminated against groups.
2. Describe a number of situations in which there was discrimination against people
based on prejudice.
9.5.4.2 Origin of prejudices

As prejudices can also be regarded as attitudes, they generally develop in the same
way as attitudes, namely on the basis of psychodynamic defence mechanisms

such as projection, the learning theory, introduction and exposure, and personal
experience (refer point 8.4). Because prejudices often exist between members of
different groups, prejudices are formed particularly on the basis of membership
of groups. The following factors are important in this regard:
■■ Complacence. An individual is often complacent with regard to the norms of
his/her group in order to be accepted by the group. Such a member will then
uphold the prejudices of his/her group towards other groups.
Example
If Justine’s social group regards members of another social group (group X) as inferior,
she will conform to her social group and will also regard members of group X as being
inferior.
■■ Incongruence of values and convictions. If a person supports certain religious

values because the group to which he/she belongs upholds these values, he/
she will reject the religious values of other groups.
■■ Group conflict. Negative intergroup relations develop between groups that
are in competition or conflict. When the ideas or performance and goals of
other groups are experienced as a threat, prejudices towards these groups
will arise.
Example
Vanessa is a member of group X that has large interests in the business world. If another
group Y aims to obtain interests in the business world, she will have a negative attitude
towards members of group Y.
Activity
1. Describe examples of where people have prejudices based on:
(a) complacence
(b) incongruence of values and convictions
(c) group conflict
9.5.5 Projection
9.5.5.1 Definition
As already mentioned in Chapters 4 and 8, projection can be described as a
defence mechanism whereby someone can, without realising it (subconsciously),
attribute his/own unacceptable wishes, desires and attitudes to someone else.

Example
Linah projects her own negative feelings on Betty by accusing Betty of being the cause
of her own negative feelings. In this way, Linah will regard Betty as a threat and her
attitude towards Betty will be negative.
Example
The supervisor, Seabelo, continually accuses his employees of having poor organisational
abilities, of being disorganised and of not completing their work on time. However,
the employees realise that Seabelo’s appearance is always sloppy, his desk is always
untidy and he tends to arrive late. They conclude that Seabelo is projecting his own
shortcomings on them. This projection protects Seabelo from the anguish and guilt
caused by his unkemptness (untidy appearance) and thus he does not have to criticise
himself.
Activity
1. Describe a few incidents that you are aware of, where someone accused another
person of his/her own shortcomings.
9.5.5.2 Development and use of projection

As we saw in Chapter 4, defence mechanisms are used subconsciously by people
to satisfy their emotional needs (for example, ego defence and the reduction of
anguish). The individual transfers his/her painful thoughts to his/her subconscious
rather than dealing with these thoughts directly. Instead, the individual accuses
other people of these painful thoughts.
9.5.6 Halo effect

9.5.6.1 Definition
The halo effect is the tendency to be influenced positively or negatively by
one particular characteristic in the evaluation of a person, and the person is
consequently regarded in a positive or negative light.
Example
Andries applies for a position at a certain enterprise and must go for an interview. The
interviewer observes that Andries is dressed very smartly and thus considers him to be
a good candidate for the position. In other words, the interviewer accepts that Andries
is also intelligent, emotionally stable, friendly and hardworking.

9.5.6.2 Development and use of the halo effect

The halo effect develops as a result of the tendency of people to make logical
errors in their arguments. Other people are evaluated according to the
prejudices or criteria of the evaluator. The evaluator uses his or her own implicit
personality theory to form an impression of an individual. As we saw in point
9.2.2 (development and use of impression formation), we tend to associate
central traits that we observe in people with other characteristics (for example,
we accept that a person who is warm is also intelligent and hardworking). By
means of equalisation, other traits are also interpreted according to the original
impression formed (refer point 9.2.2.2).
Activity
1. Identify a case in which someone was evaluated on the basis of a single characteristic
and write this down.
9.6 Summary
It is clear that social perception takes place by means of the processes of
impression formation and attribution. In the case of impression formation,
diverse information is integrated to form an overall impression of a person, while
we try to identify the causes of human behaviour through the attribution process.
Impression formation develops from the observation and lasting effect of first
impressions, the observation of central traits (for example, warm and cold) and
the expectation that central traits are associated with corresponding personality
traits. The observation of peripheral traits also plays a role in the development of
impression formation, but does not have as strong an influence as the observation
of central traits. In addition, impression formation takes place on the basis
of the criteria of evaluation that people use during impression formation, the
reinforcement of original evaluations by the addition of new characteristics and
the expectations of further interaction between individuals.
The attribution process takes place by deducing the causality of an effect and
this takes place by means of the application of three important criteria
(distinctiveness of behaviour, consensus and consistency). People make defensive
attributions regarding their own behaviour and they try, by means of attributions,
to prevent their self-image being damaged.
In non-verbal communication unspoken ‘language’ is used to convey a message.
The state of mind and personality traits can be deduced from facial expressions (for
example anger), eye contact (for example attraction or detraction), physical
movements (nervousness, honesty and frustration), paralanguage, proximity
behaviour and multiple use of communication channels. There are a number
of forms of behaviour that indicate whether people are deliberately misleading.

Perceptual errors are very important in industry and are caused by factors such
as the acquisition of insufficient information on the person being evaluated
and deliberate misleading or manipulation by the person being evaluated. Other
perceptual errors that often occur include stereotyping, prejudice, projection and
the halo effect.
Stereotyping is based on the simplification and one-sided evaluation of a
group or a member of a certain group, and is used to classify and simplify stimuli
from the environment. Prejudices are attitudes that are based on insufficient
information and that are held regarding members of specific groups. Prejudice is
based particularly on conformance to group norms, incongruency of values and
convictions and group conflict. Projection takes place when the person doing the
evaluation accuses other people of his/her own shortcomings and regards them
as a threat. The halo effect is an evaluation that is based on logical errors because
the person being evaluated is regarded in a positive or negative light based on
only a single characteristic.
Self-evaluation
1. Define impression formation. (5)
2. Discuss the result of the research conducted by Asch (Baron & Byrne, 1991)
regarding impression formation. Use relevant examples. (10)
3. Discuss the development of impression formation according to the following
factors:
(a) criteria for evaluation (2)
(b) addition (2)
(c) expectations of further interaction (2)
4. Discuss the nature of attribution using an example. (7)
5. (a) Explain the process of attribution using an example. (8)
(b) List and describe three criteria according to which attributions of your
example in (a) above can be made. (6)
6. Describe the concept of defensive attribution using an example. (4)
7. Discuss how non-verbal communication takes place by means of eye contact.
Support your answer by using an example. (6)
8. Discuss how non-verbal communication takes place by means of physical
movements. Use appropriate examples. (10)
9. List and discuss four types of personal distance that is maintained when people
communicate easily. Give examples of each. (8)
10. In what ways can you deduce from non-verbal communication that people are
misleading you deliberately? Give examples. (12)
11. List and discuss the types of perceptual errors that can be made in the business
world. Use relevant practical examples to explain your answer. (25)
12. Discuss the development of stereotypes according to the following factors:
(a) group influences (5)

(b) cognitive categorisation (5)

(c) availability of facts (2)
Use relevant examples in your answer.
13. Discuss the nature of prejudices according to the following:
(a) relationship between attitudes and prejudices (4)
(b) definition of prejudices
Give an example. (6)
14. List and discuss the factors that lead to the development of prejudices
between the members of different groups. Use examples in your answer. (6)

chapter
Role theory
10
10.1 Introduction .............................................................................. 202

10.2 Nature of roles .............................................................................. 202
10.3 Role conflict .............................................................................. 205
10.3.1 Definition .............................................................................. 205
10.3.2 Causes of role conflict ....................................................... 206
10.3.3 Consequences of role conflict ......................................... 207
10.4 Role ambiguity .............................................................................. 208
10.4.1 Definition .............................................................................. 208
10.4.2 Causes of role ambiguity ................................................. 208
10.4.3 Consequences of role ambiguity ................................... 210
10.5 Role overload and underload ........................................................ 210
10.5.1 The nature of role overload ............................................ 210
10.5.2 The nature of role underload .......................................... 211
10.5.3 Causes of role overload or role underload ................. 212
10.5.4 Consequences of role overload and underload ........ 212
10.6 Overcoming role problems ............................................................. 213
10.7 Summary .............................................................................. 214
Self-evaluation .............................................................................. 215

Study objective
■■ describe the nature of roles;
■■ define role conflict, role ambiguity, role overload and role underload;
■■ explain the origin of role conflict, role ambiguity, role overload and role underload;
■■ understand the consequences of role conflict, role ambiguity, role overload and
role underload; and

■■ indicate how role problems can be overcome.
10.1 Introduction
In every organisation in which people have to work with others, each individual
must assume certain behavioural roles so that the organisation (as a whole) can
function. The manager, for example, must fulfil certain roles, as must the typists
in their section, the technicians in the computer division, the cleaning staff, and
so on. Each participant must satisfy certain expectations, and these forms of
behaviour must also satisfy certain norms.
Example
Bobby is expected to deliver work on time and the norm set for that work might stipulate
that the work must also be neat and correct.
In this chapter, we will study the nature of roles in business and industry, how
problems involving roles arise and are experienced, as well as a number of
methods for preventing or solving these problems.
10.2 Nature of roles

Greenberg and Baron (2008) describe a role as behaviour or the activities of a
person in a particular social context. The individual’s role can involve both his/
her occupation and his/her life outside the work context.
Example
Selina fulfils the role of an employee at the firm for which she works and also fulfils a
social role as president of a club to which she belongs. Within the role of employee,
Selina may act as buyer or seller, supervisor or team member, leader or student, and
so on.
Role expectations are the different behaviours that are expected from someone in a
particular role. Roles are mostly functional and this results in role differentiation.

role theory 203
The development of groups at work and social groups leads to the development
of various roles within the group context. These roles may include the ‘office
comedian’, who entertains everyone in the organisation, the ‘scandalmonger’,
who makes a point of discovering everyone’s secrets, individuals who fulfil
a task-oriented role and so accept responsibility for achieving a goal, and those
who fulfil a socio-emotional role, cheering and encouraging everyone around
them (Greenberg & Baron, 2008).
Figure 10.1 Scandalmonger
Roles can also be formal or informal.

Formal roles consist of the formal post that an employee holds and the
requirements for the post are usually clearly defined.
Example
The role of the head of department involves supervising the department and ensuring
that the department achieves its goals according to schedule, discussing employees’
problems with the director, and so on.
Informal roles vary a great deal and are often volatile. Research has shown that
managers, for example, fulfil three types of informal roles:
■■ Interpersonal role: A manager takes on the role of figurehead, which is a
ceremonial role, and would entail aspects such as entertaining an important

client of the organisation. The manager also plays a leadership role because
he/she motivates and encourages the members of the organisation to achieve
set goals according to schedule. The manager plays a liaison role, since he/she
is often involved in negotiations outside the organisation.
■■ Information role. A great deal of any manager’s time is devoted to receiving
or giving information.

■■ Decision-making role. This role involves aspects such as deciding which

projects to accept and what resources to use to help employees to complete
their projects.
As we saw earlier, a role consists of three main components. These are expectation,
perception and behaviour components.
The expectation component, or norms, refers to the role that is expected of
an individual.
McCormick and Ilgen (1992) describe role expectations in a work environment
as the approaches adopted by role transmitters (the head of a division) to the
role expectations of a role receiver (a staff member belonging to the division).
The role transmitter must have certain approaches to or expectations of the role
receiver’s tasks to ensure that the role receiver carries out his/her role effectively.
Role expectations may, however, differ. A role transmitter (a supervisor) may,
for example, expect a role receiver (a worker) to work faster and produce more
units, while the role receiver’s colleagues (other role transmitters) may expect
him/her to work more slowly and produce less.
Role expectations also refer to the norm that an individual should satisfy.
We can explain a norm as the way in which the group expects an individual to
behave. If a member does not act according to the norm, the group can introduce
punitive measures (Baron et al, 2009). By way of example, McCormick and Ilgen
(1992) refer to norms associated with meetings in industry.
Example
In some organisations, meetings begin on time (for example, 10:30) and it would be
frowned upon for any employee to arrive at 10:35. In other organisations the norms
may differ – if a meeting is scheduled for 10:30, for example, employees may only begin
arriving at that time.
Norms also prescribe behaviour corresponding with behaviour in other roles.

This phenomenon is often related to rank or seniority.
Example
If the director of an organisation expects staff not to address the heads of divisions by
their first names, the heads of divisions have no alternative but to follow the norm.
The perceptual component refers to the way in which an individual sees or

experiences him/herself in a specific role and the privilege and duties that a
person associates with his/her role.

role theory 205
Example
Pravin, the manager of a company may consider it his duty to reprimand a worker about
leaving work too early. On the other hand, Pravin considers it his privilege to come and
go as he pleases.
Staff may feel that they are privileged to have management supply them with the
necessary equipment to finish a job, but at the same time they feel that it is their
duty to work after hours if their work is not up to date.
Davis and Newstrom (1986) say that managers must have the ability to
adapt quickly to the various roles required of them. When a manager and a
worker come into contact with one another, each is expected to understand at
least three roles. The manager must understand the following (and the worker
must understand the corresponding roles):
■■ his/her role as manager;
■■ the role of the worker; and
■■ his/her role as seen or perceived by the worker.
The behavioural component refers to the type of behaviour that a person displays
in a certain role. Different behaviour patterns are displayed in different roles.
Example
The manager of an enterprise, Sheryl, will have to carry out more roles than a staff
member. Sheryl chairs meetings, acts as head of the group, is expected to entertain
clients from outside the organisation, represents the firm in foreign countries, supervises
her secretary, and so on. A worker, Ramon’s, behavioural role consists of performing
day-to-day tasks, locking his office, and possibly supporting colleagues when necessary.
Activity
1. Think of the various roles that you carry out in both your work and social situations.
Answer the following questions:
(a) What do other people expect of you in the role (or roles)?
(b) What norms must you adhere to in the role (or roles)?
(c) What privileges and duties do you see for yourself in the role (or roles)?
(d) What behaviour do you display in the role (or roles)?
10.3 Role conflict

10.3.1 Definition
Role conflict is described as the simultaneous existence of two or more role
expectations where agreement with one expectation makes it difficult to fulfil
the other expectation(s).

Example
A capable young pharmacist, Justin, is promoted to the position of assistant director of
research because of the excellent work he has done in this field. As assistant director,
the pharmacist manages all projects run in the company’s laboratories. All projects must
be completed as quickly and economically as possible. One of the researchers, Ben,
reveals to Justin that he has discovered an interesting new phenomenon that ought
to be researched, even though it is not directly relevant to the projects being carried
out. Justin now experiences role conflict: should Justin support Ben’s proposal in the
interests of science, or should he, in the interests of the company, discourage Ben
from spending money and time on work that is unrelated to the required research
projects (Greenberg & Baron, 2008)?
Activity
1. Describe a situation in which you experienced role conflict, either at work or outside
the work context.
10.3.2 Causes of role conflict

The following factors cause role conflict:
Unreasonable expectations and time limits. The employee experiences serious
conflict when he/she must satisfy the expectations of a number of people within
a certain time limit (McCormick & Ilgen, 1992).
Example
The head of the division asks an employee to attend a staff association meeting, but
the employee is also expected to complete a vital project during the course of the same
afternoon.
Different people also have different expectations associated with a specific role.
Example
The cleaner, Clive, is instructed to make tea for the staff at the same time that he is
required to clean the managing director’s office.
The type of post. The description of certain posts already creates a form of
potential role conflict.

role theory 207
Example
The head of the division, Rebecca, must accept responsibility for the completion of
research projects in her division, but is criticised if she does not have her own research
papers published.
Multiple role fulfilments. Most people must satisfy a number of role expectations
in society and this also gives rise to role conflict (Greenberg & Baron, 2008).
Example
An employee, Sizwe, must decide whether to work overtime to complete urgent work
or attend his child’s school concert.
Conflict between the interests of the group and the organisation. What is beneficial
to the group spirit of employees is not necessarily beneficial to the organisation,
and conflict may therefore arise among employees (Davis & Newstrom, 1986).
Example
Staff members enjoy shared tea-times, but at the same time the company loses
production time.
Conflict associated with personal values and convictions. People can also
experience role conflict associated with the task that they are required to carry
out and with their personal values and convictions (Muchinsky, 1990).
Example
The used-car dealer, Harry, wants to make a good profit when selling a car, but feels
that he must act honestly in terms of his personal value system and point out the faults
of the car to a prospective buyer.
10.3.3 Consequences of role conflict

Role conflict has the following unfavourable consequences:
■■Role conflict, like role ambiguity, results in intense feelings of anxiety, tension
and stress.
Example
Muchinsky (1990) uses the examle of foremen. Foremen are required to fulfil both the
management and the workers’ demands. They experience such high levels of stress
that they forgo their position as foremen and return to their former position as workers.

■■ Research shows that there is a close link between role conflict and a lack
of job satisfaction. Dissatisfaction is encountered mostly in lower levels of
occupation than higher-level occupations. Where it has been found that role
ambiguity (refer point 10.4) leads to dissatisfaction with the work itself, role
conflict gives rise to greater dissatisfaction with the boss or supervisor.
■■ Szilagyi, Sims and Keller (1976) found a significant link between role conflict
and poor work performance among professional, technical and clerical staff.
■■ Role conflict reduces employees’ trust in and respect for themselves and other
people, which results in poor communication with colleagues.
10.4 Role ambiguity

10.4.1 Definition
Role ambiguity occurs when individuals feel uncertain about certain aspects of
their work, such as the extent of their responsibilities, what is expected of them
and how to divide their work time between various duties (Greenberg & Baron,
2008).
Example
The new employee is not sure which report to work on, whether to attend any courses
offered and how much time to spend consulting colleagues.
Activity
1. Describe a case in which you experienced role ambiguity in or outside of your work
situation.
10.4.2 Causes of role ambiguity

McGrath (1983) identifies the following factors that commonly cause role
ambiguity in the business world:
❏❏ The size and complexity of modern organisations

Since organisations are becoming larger and more complex, the chances of
overlap and duplication of duties are greater.
Example
The personnel department of an organisation may become so large that there are
posts for both human resource planners and recruitment officers. When tasks such as
recruitment, selection and placement must be carried out, the tasks associated with the
above two posts may overlap.

role theory 209
❏❏ Rapid rate of change

Rapid changes in technology and in the external environment of an organisation
may give rise to role ambiguity.
Example
A factory worker may be unsure of how to use a new component that is to be built into
the design of a product.
Change in social structures within the organisation.
Example
When divisions are frequently regrouped.
Changes in the staff of an organisation.
Example
Employee Sarah is transferred to four different divisions during the course of a year and
on each occasion must adapt to new working conditions.
❏❏ Restrictions placed on the flow of information
Example
There is a well-defined channel of communication from the general manager via various
heads of department to the various divisional heads (good downward communication).
One of the divisional heads, however, does not know how to go about discussing a
specific problem with the general manager (upward communication is poor).
❏❏ Ambiguity regarding employees’ responsibilities

Employees may be uncertain about the limits to their authority, the application
of rules and regulations and the punishment that can be expected when these
are disobeyed.
Example
Authority: The head of a division is instructed to develop a new product. This person
is not sure whether the heads of other divisions may be asked to assist in carrying out
this task.
Rules and regulations: The head of a division is uncertain whether staff can be forced
to work after hours during a crisis.

❏❏ Vague goals
Goals set in industry are often not clearly defined and this can result in uncertainty
and role ambiguity.
Example
A supervisor is instructed to investigate the productivity of his/her team, but is not told
how to go about it or how much time has been allocated.
10.4.3 Consequences of role ambiguity

❏❏ Anxiety, tension and stress
Employees who do not know what is expected of them often experience anxiety,
tension and stress because of misunderstandings. The anxiety and tension are
increased if the employees realise that promotions or salary increases are at stake.
Tension, anxiety and stress are particularly common among new employees, who
experience role ambiguity (McCormick & Ilgen, 1992).
❏❏ Poor work performance

McCormick and Ilgen (1992) link role ambiguity to a lack of interest among
employees, resulting in reduced performance.
❏❏ Low level of job satisfaction

If an employee does not know what is expected of him/her, he/she will experience
no job satisfaction (McGrath, 1983; Davis & Newstrom, 1986).
❏❏ Poor self-image
An employee who does not know exactly what is expected of him/her and is not
completely sure what goals to pursue may experience feelings of guilt, and so
develop a poor self-image (McGrath, 1983).
❏❏ Research results
Research indicates that role ambiguity has worse effects on higher level employees
(Schuler, 1977). Jackson and Schuler (1985) found that the consequences of role
ambiguity depend on the age and level of education of an individual, and that
not everyone finds it equally difficult to deal with role ambiguity.
10.5 Role overload and underload

10.5.1 The nature of role overload
Role overload occurs when so many duties and responsibilities are given to
an incumbent in a particular role that he/she cannot satisfy all the demands.

role theory 211
Greenberg and Baron (2008) explain that we should distinguish between

quantitative and qualitative overload.
Quantitative overload occurs when individuals are expected to complete more
work than they can deal with in a given period.
Example
Munesh, a worker, is expected to manufacture 100 units of a product within a given
period, although it is only possible for a worker to manufacture 50 units.
Qualitative overload occurs when employees feel that they do not have the
necessary ability and skills to carry out a particular instruction.
Example
A new employee, Thabile, is asked to act as supervisor for a while. She complies even
though she feels that she is not really capable of doing so.
10.5.2 The nature of role underload

Like role overload, role underload can also lead to stress. To expect too little of
a worker is just as bad as expecting too much of that person. Greenberg and
Baron (2008) clarify that underload leads to boredom and monotony, which may
cause stress.
Example
A qualified secretary who is instructed to do nothing but filing for weeks on end, will
experience boredom and stress.

We can also distinguish between quantitative and qualitative role underload:

■■ Quantitative role underload involves workers having too little to do, which
results in boredom as workers spend hours with no challenge to stimulate

them.
■■ Qualitative role underload occurs when employees are expected to carry out
only routine and repetitive tasks, without any form of cognitive stimulation.
Example
A highly qualified researcher who is expected to do nothing more than proofread will
experience stress as the result of role underload.
Activity
1. Describe a number of cases in which you experienced role overload and role
underload. Determine which cases involved quantitative and qualitative overload or
underload.
10.5.3 Causes of role overload or role underload

Role overload can arise through an increase in status.
Example
An employee, Andrew, may in addition to doing his own work as chairperson of the staff
association, help other colleagues. He does so to raise his own status, but in so doing
will not be able to fulfil all his responsibilities.
To avoid difficult tasks, an employee may concentrate on too many easy tasks to
camouflage the fact that he/she cannot cope with the difficult tasks. An employee
could also constantly try to escape responsibility and finally be left without
sufficient work to keep busy, which would constitute role underload.
10.5.4 Consequences of role overload and underload

If an employee cannot cope with all his/her responsibilities, or if he/she
is expected to perform tasks that are beneath his/her ability, he/she may begin
to doubt his/her own proficiency. A stressful situation such as this could lead to
the development of a poor self-image and reduced work performance.
Example
An employee, Elsa, becomes panic-stricken if too many demands are made on her and
either withdraws or loses all motivation to work if her talents are not used.

role theory 213
10.6 Overcoming role problems

There are various ways of overcoming role problems in industry. Let us look at
some of these in more detail:
■■ Role conflict can be reduced by recommending that employees, who have
set excessively high expectations and standards for themselves, should

reduce these to a more achievable level (Muchinsky, 1990).
Example
It would not be beneficial for Elsa to try to deliver the best performance in the division,
while simultaneously acting as chairperson of the staff association full-time. Elsa would
do better to complete only the work expected of her to avoid role conflict.
■■ Role problems can be avoided by making the interests of employees in an

organisation more compatible with one another.
Example
Committees can be appointed to discuss problems: negotiating committees, liaison
committees, grievance committees and employee representatives can be used to deal
with issues concerning roles.
■■ In this way, efforts can also be made to establish the right organisation
structure to prevent role problems. Role conflict and role ambiguity can be
prevented by management clearly defining the roles in an organisation.
Example
One strategy might entail giving each employee a list of expectations. The employee
compares his/her own list of expectations with those of the organisation. If there are
differences, these can be discussed openly and negotiations can then take place (Luthans,
1992).
■■ Conflicting expectations can be eliminated to prevent role conflict.
Example
An employee, Jonathan, often has to work overtime, which means that his role as
employee is in conflict with that of parent. Jonathan should be encouraged to separate
the role of employee from that of parent.
■■ The employee who fulfils a new role often experiences role problems. An
employee in that position should be given enough time to get used to the
demands of the new role.

Example
The employee who has just been promoted to a new level could, for example, be given
a month to get used to the new post by having expectations concerning the new role
reduced temporarily.
■■ The situation in which an employee experiences role problems can be

restructured. In such a case, the choices between alternative decisions can be
simplified for the employee.
Example
A director, Trevor, realises that the expectations of top management regarding arrival
time at work differ from those of his staff. It should be left up to Trevor to decide how
to solve the problem.
10.7 Summary
The nature of roles can be described as a pattern of activities associated
with certain rights and obligations. Roles also consist of norms and
expectations with regard to the way in which a person ought to behave. We
can differentiate between formal and informal roles. A role consists of three
components, namely the expectation component or norm (this refers to the role
expected of role receivers, and the norms or standards that must be satisfied), the
perception component (the way in which individuals experience their roles) and
the behaviour component (the behaviour displayed within a role).
Role conflict can be described as the simultaneous existence of two or more role
expectations and is caused mainly by unreasonable expectations and time limits,
the type of position the person holds, multiple role fulfilment, conflict between
the interests of the group and those of the organisation and conflict associated
with personal values and convictions. Role conflict results in intense feelings
of anxiety, tension and stress, job dissatisfaction, poor work performance and
diminished self-confidence and communication.
Role ambiguity occurs when individuals feel uncertain about their work, and
arises from factors such as the size and complexity of modern organisations,
the rapid rate of change, restrictions on the flow of information, uncertainty
on the part of the worker about his/her authority, the application of rules and
regulations, and vague goals. Role ambiguity leads to anxiety, tension and stress,
poor work performance, a low level of job satisfaction and a poor self-image.
Role overload occurs when an incumbent has too many duties and
responsibilities, and role underload occurs when the opposite happens. We can
distinguish between quantitative and qualitative overload and underload. These
factors generally arise when employees want to raise their status or avoid difficult

role theory 215
tasks by concentrating on too many easy tasks, and by avoiding responsibility

so that they have too little work. This often results in a diminished self-image
and decreased work performance.
Role problems can be overcome by methods such as lowering excessively
high expectations, unifying the interests of groups in the organisation,
clearly defining the roles in an organisation, eliminating opposing expectations,
giving new incumbents time to adjust, and restructuring situations.
Self-evaluation
1. Describe the nature of roles using relevant examples. (25)
2. Distinguish between role expectations and norms with the help of examples
drawn from your work experience. (10)
3. When a manager and an employee come into contact with one another, each
is expected to have an understanding of three roles. List the three roles that the
manager observes or perceives in such a situation. (3)
4. Describe the behaviour component of a role. Support your answer with an
example drawn from your work experience. (5)
5. Define role conflict with the help of an example drawn from your work
experience. (4)
6. List and discuss the causes of role conflict. Use examples drawn from your
work experience to support your answer. (15)
7. Discuss the difference between role conflict and role ambiguity with regard
to job dissatisfaction. (4)
8. Define role ambiguity using an example from your work experience. (5)
9. List and discuss the causes of role ambiguity with the help of examples drawn
from your work experience. (10)
10. Discuss the consequences of role ambiguity with the help of examples drawn
from your work experience. (10)
11. Distinguish between the nature of role overload and role underload. Base
your arguments on examples drawn from your work experience. (12)
12. Discuss the ways in which role problems can be overcome. Support your
answer with examples drawn from your work experience. (12)

chapter
Group dynamics
11
11.1 Introduction .............................................................................. 217

11.2 Origin of groups .............................................................................. 218
11.3 Classification of groups .................................................................... 221
11.3.1 Formal groups ..................................................................... 221
11.3.1.1 Command groups .......................................... 221
11.3.1.2 Task groups ...................................................... 221
11.3.2 Informal groups .................................................................. 221
11.3.2.1 Interest groups ................................................ 222
11.3.2.2 Social/friendship groups ............................... 222
11.4 Nature and characteristics of small groups ................................. 223
11.5 Creating effective groups ................................................................ 224
11.6 Summary .............................................................................. 225
Self-evaluation .............................................................................. 226

group dynamics 217
Study objective
■■ explain the origin of groups;
■■ outline the classification of groups;
■■ define small groups and portray their characteristics; and
■■ briefly describe how effective groups are created.
11.1 Introduction
Not everyone believes that groups actually exist (Johnson & Johnson, 2009).
Why is the study of groups therefore important? The answer to this question is
obvious. We come into contact with other people on a daily basis, particularly in
a group situation. Most of us grew up in a family group and will probably have
families of our own one day. We attend school in classes or groups, are trained
for our occupation in groups, and will probably also work in groups one day.
Our social, religious and political behaviour and participation in sport usually
takes place in a group situation.
There are, however, two different views regarding groups: the group orientation
view and the individual orientation view. The group orientation focuses on the
group as a whole and explains the actions of the group members by focusing
on the influences of the group and the bigger social system which it forms part
of. The individual orientation however focuses on the individual in the group
and explains the functioning of the group, by focusing on the attitudes and
personalities of the various members (Johnson & Johnson, 2009).
Within the work situation, it is particularly important that each group has its
own group dynamic (driving force) that involves more than just the members
of the group. For example, a group of very competent people can be appointed
to perform a task, but this group may fail in its efforts as a result of mutual
conflict and a lack of cooperation. Another group that consists of less competent

individuals may be very successful because they have a strong group spirit or
attitude, a good leader and work well together.
In industry, it is particularly important to appoint not only competent and
well-motivated employees, but also to ensure that the different work groups
function well and that employees function well within a group situation. For
this reason it is important that we understand the functioning or dynamics of
groups better.
Figure 11.1a Group dynamics between members of a group
Figure 11.1b Group dynamics between different groups
Activity
1. Identify all the work and/or social groups to which you currently belong.
11.2 Origin of groups

There are different reasons for people’s need to belong to a group. According
to Robbins (2001), Ivancevich and Matteson (2002) and Harris and Sherblom
(2011), the following explanations are the most important:
❏❏ Security needs
Membership of a group can sometimes act as a barrier between employees and
organisational systems. This provides the individual with greater security and a
feeling that they are not facing the organisational demands on their own.

group dynamics 219
Example
When employees feel uncertain in their work because there are many retrenchments
taking place in the organisation, they will join trade unions in an effort to increase
security.
❏❏ Status needs
People often become members of a group to obtain the status and recognition
that is associated with membership of a group that is viewed as important by
others.
Example
Alex would rather become a member of a work group that has a high status in his
community than working in a better paid job that does not have as high a status in the
community.
❏❏ Self-esteem needs
Belonging to a group can help people to experience feelings of self-worth and
being important. This in turn can help them to improve their self-image.
Example
Betty feels proud because she knows that the work group needs her because her
contribution forms part of the activities of the work group.
❏❏ Affiliation needs
Affiliation needs (need for social contact with other people) are often the main
motivation for people joining groups.
Example
Peter will become a member of the safety committee because it will offer him the
opportunity to meet more people.
❏❏ Power needs
People often gain control and power over other people by becoming members
of groups. Groups usually have more power than individuals, for example,
management would rather listen to the complaints of a group of employees than
to an individual employee.

Example
Suresh would like to ensure that the female employees in the organisation where she
works receive the same salaries and promotion possibilities as the male employees. With
this aim in mind, Suresh first makes herself available for nomination into the organisation’s
workers’ committee, but soon realises that she will achieve more by forming a women
workers’ committee for this purpose. The women can then contribute as a group to the
workers’ committee.
❏❏ Goal achievement needs

Certain objectives are achieved better by combining the talents, knowledge
and even power of group members simply because people cannot perform the
necessary tasks on their own.
Example
Adam is interested in restoring old furniture and would like to open his own business.
Upholstery forms an important part of restoration, but Adam is not trained to do
upholstery. Therefore, he must appoint people to perform this task.
❏❏ Proximity and attraction needs

The physical distance between employees that are performing a job as well as
their attraction to each other due to aspects such as perceptions, personality and
interests can all have an influence on group formation.
❏❏ Economic benefits
Groups are formed because it is believed by individuals that they can achieve
greater economic benefits by completing tasks as groups.
Example
Nolitha works on an assembly line and is paid by means of a group incentive basis. By
working and cooperating as a group, she obtains a higher economic benefit.
Activity
1. Think of a work group (or social group) to which you belong. Briefly list the reasons
why you belong to this group.
2. Indicate the extent to which the group improves your self-image, and also satisfies
your needs for affiliation, status, power and security.

group dynamics 221
11.3 Classification of groups

All organisations are probably setting goals which in turn require that tasks be
performed to achieve these goals. Individuals are likely to be appointed in different
types of groups, based on their position, knowledge, skills and expertise, to
complete these tasks. It is therefore important to distinguish between the various
forms of groups in society (Ivancevich & Matteson, 2002; Robbins, 2001).
11.3.1 Formal groups

Formal groups are created as part of a formal organisation with the aim of doing
the work of the association. The different departments within the organisation
each form such a formal group.
Example
The personnel department that has the task of recruiting and training new employees
is an example of a formal group within an organisation.
11.3.1.1 Command groups

A command group is usually determined by the organisational structure and is
made up of individuals who report directly to a more senior person.
Example
The school principal and his/her teachers form a command group.
11.3.1.2 Task groups

A task group is usually a temporary group that aims to achieve a specific
objective. This group usually forms part of a larger organisation and members
of the group usually also have other tasks within the larger group.
Example
Bothma is elected to a group in the employee association that must investigate the
pension benefits of employees, consider improvements and report back to the employee
association, after which the group will disband.
11.3.2 Informal groups

An informal group develops as a result of employees’ needs for social contact and
is not structured formally. Such groups often develop within the work group as
smaller groups or cliques or may even develop independently of the work, such as
when people develop a specific friendship group at home. A horizontal informal

group or clique consists of employees who are all from the same division and the
same level of management. A vertical clique consists of employees from the same
division but different levels of management. A mixed clique comprises employees
from different divisions and different management levels.
Example
Desmond is a cabinet-maker and every day he drinks tea with a colleague who is also a
cabinet-maker. They discuss their work and problems with each other and form a typical
horizontal informal group.
11.3.2.1 Interest groups

An interest group is a group that is formed by individuals who would like to
attain a specific goal with which all of them are concerned with. The objectives
or goals are not necessarily related to that of the organisation, but rather are
specific to each group.
Example
Dawie joins a group that aims to improve the working conditions of the employees in
the company.
11.3.2.2 Social/friendship groups

Social groups provide mainly recreational opportunities for their members, as
well as the opportunity to make new friends, for example, a sports club or bridge
club.
Example
Thomas joins the football club not only to play football but also because he is new in
the area and would like to meet friends.
Activity
1. Identify the different groups to which you belong in your work situation. (If you are
not employed, identify social groups.)
2. Indicate what type of group each is, according to the above classification.

group dynamics 223
11.4 Nature and characteristics of small

groups
According to Ivancevich and Matteson (2002), a group can be defined as: ‘Two
or more individuals interacting with each other in order to accomplish a common
goal’. This definition can be viewed in terms of three specific requirements that a
group needs to meet in order to exist:
❏❏ Size
The first requirement focuses on the size of the group and clearly indicates a
minimum requirement of two people to form a group. Note that even though
the definition stipulates a minimum size requirement, it does not indicate a
maximum. One person cannot be considered to be a group.
❏❏ Interaction between members of the group

The second requirement pays attention to the fact that there must be some form
of interaction that takes place between individuals. Even though interaction
between group members usually occur as a face-to-face verbal conversation, it is
not limited to just that.
Example
People can all sit and watch a film together, but if there is no interaction between them,
they cannot really be regarded as a group.
❏❏ Common objective
The third and last requirement is the accomplishment of a common goal or
purpose within the group. By sharing such a goal, group members are willing to
work towards achieving something of mutual value.
Example
The football club of a work organisation has as its objective to give its members the
opportunity to play football and mix socially. The club will be successful as long as it
achieves the objective.
Activity
1. Identify a group at work (or a social group) of which you are a member.
2. Explain how the group satisfies the characteristics of small groups.

11.5 Creating effective groups

Not all groups are considered effective, but can strive towards becoming effective
by setting and achieving a common goal, investing in good working relationships
amongst group members and adapt to the changing conditions in their immediate
environment. The following seven guidelines can assist a group in providing
them with necessary direction, framework and motivation to become effective
(Johnson & Johnson, 2009):
■■ Establish clear, operational, relevant group goals that create positive
interdependence and evoke a high level of commitment from every member.

Individuals often form groups in order to achieve goals that cannot always
be obtained individually. It is therefore important that members understand
the nature of the goal (clear), how it should be achieved (operational), how
it meets their individual needs (relevant) and how it creates positive synergy
amongst the goup members (commitment).
■■ Establish effective two-way communication within which group members
communicate their ideas and feelings accurately and clearly. Effective

communication is one of the key requirements for groups to function
effectively and reach a common goal. The successful sending and receiving
of information will minimise misunderstandings and friction amongst group
members.
■■ Ensure that leadership and participation are distributed among all group
members. Shared leadership and participation allows a group to utilise all

the available skills and capabilities of the group members. This is likely to
ensure better commitment to group goals, increased cohesiveness and satisfied
members.
■■ Ensure that the use of power is distributed among group members and that
patterns of influence vary according to the needs of the group. The members
of an effective group’s power is usually based on their skills, capabilities and
expertise rather than authority or position. Power struggles can cause groups
to lose sight of their goal. For this reason, the distribution of power should be
discussed on a regular basis and should evolve to address the personal goals
in terms of mutual influence and interdependence.
■■ Match decision-making procedures with the needs of the situation. Group
decisions can be made in numerous ways, but should focus on obtaining

a balance between the time and resources available to the group, as well
as the method of decision-making. Consensus is considered to be the most
effective method of decision-making as it fosters involvement, commitment
and cohesion.
■■ Engage in constructive controversy by disagreeing and challenging one
another’s conclusions and reasoning. Effective decision-making requires

the critical evaluation of all information provided. Differences on opposing

group dynamics 225
ideas and conclusions can promote the quality of decision-making and better
involvement and commitment to the implementation of the decisions.
■■ Face your conflicts and resolve them in constructive ways. Conflicts are
bound to be present in groups due to power struggles or scarce resources. By
facing the conflict situation and addressing it from an integrative negotiations
perspective, groups are likely to solve the conflict situation constructively and
increase group effectiveness.
In Chapters 12 and 13 we will discuss the functioning and dynamics of the

different group structures in greater detail.
Activity
1. Identify a work group (or social group) of which you are a member.
2. Briefly describe the group structure and dynamics with respect to communication
patterns, role differentiation, leadership and dealing with conflict.
11.6 Summary
In the work situation groups are important to us all because they have a
group dynamic that involves more than just the members of the group.
There are different motivations for the development of groups. Security,
status, self-image, affiliation needs and needs for power are the most important
motivations that are given.
Groups can also be further classified according to specific characteristics as
formal groups (command groups and task groups) and informal groups (interest
groups and social groups). In the work situation, it is the small group in particular
that is important to us.
A small group can be defined as: ‘Two or more individuals interacting with
each other in order to accomplish a common goal’. This definition can be viewed
in terms of three specific requirements that a group needs to meet in order to exist
namely size, interaction between members of the group and common objective.
Effective groups are formed based on the following guidelines:

■■ Clear, operational, relevant group goal(s) that create positive interdependence
and evoke a high level of commitment from every member.
■■ Effective two-way communication within which group members communicate
their ideas and feelings accurately and clearly.

■■ Leadership and participation are distributed among all group members.
■■ The use of power is distributed among group members and patterns of
influence vary according to the needs of the group.

■■ Decision-making procedures are matched with the needs of the situation.

■■ Constructive controversy is engaged by disagreeing and challenging one

another’s conclusions and reasoning.
■■ Address your conflicts and resolve them in constructive ways.
Self-evaluation
1. Discuss the different explanations for the development of groups. Use practical
examples to motivate your answer. (14)
2. The recreation club of an organisation decides to organise a year-end function
for all its members. A committee is elected to make the arrangements. How
would you classify this group? Motivate your answer. (4)
3. The management of an organisation negotiates with a trade union. Discuss the
extent to which this negotiation forum satisfies the requirements of a small
group. (8)
4. Define a small group. (5)
5. Discuss how effective groups are formed. Use practical examples to motivate
your answer. (21)

chapter
Group
12 characteristics
12.1 Introduction .............................................................................. 228

12.2 Group composition ........................................................................... 228
12.3 Group size .............................................................................. 229
12.3.1 Benefits of larger groups .................................................. 230
12.4 Group cohesion .............................................................................. 231
12.4.1 Extent of cohesion ............................................................. 231
12.4.2 Increasing group cohesion .............................................. 232
12.4.2.1 Basis of work group assignments ............... 233
12.4.3 Benefits of group cohesion .............................................. 233
12.4.4 Decreasing group cohesion ............................................ 234
12.5 Groupthink .............................................................................. 234
12.5.1 Symptoms of groupthink ................................................. 234
12.5.2 Prevention of groupthink ................................................. 235
12.6 Group norms .............................................................................. 236
12.6.1 Characteristics of norms ................................................... 236
12.6.2 Types of norms ................................................................... 237
12.6.3 Purposes of group norms ................................................ 238
12.6.4 Violating norms .................................................................. 239
12.7 Roles .............................................................................. 239
12.7.1 Interpretation of roles ....................................................... 239
12.7.2 Classification of roles ......................................................... 241
12.7.3 Contents of roles ................................................................ 243
12.7.3.1 Role ambiguity ................................................ 243
12.7.3.2 Role conflict ..................................................... 243
12.8 Conformity .............................................................................. 245
12.8.1 Extent of conformity .......................................................... 246
12.9 Summary .............................................................................. 247
Self-evaluation .............................................................................. 249

Study objective
■■describe the following group characteristics and their effect on group
productiveness:
❏❏ composition;
❏❏ size;
❏❏ cohesiveness;
❏❏ groupthink;
❏❏ norms;
❏❏ roles; and
❏❏ conformity.
12.1 Introduction
Any two or more people who work together towards a common goal form a
group. It is possible to identify many different groups with different purposes,
but they all have the same characteristics. The characteristics of groups have an
impact on the effectiveness of group functioning. These characteristics will be
discussed in this chapter.
12.2 Group composition

Group composition is a very important characteristic that influences the outcome
and effectiveness of a group as it refers to the degree to which group members
are the same. Groups are either homogeneous or heterogeneous. Homogeneous
groups share a number of similar characteristics (for example, race, gender,

group characteristics 229
personality, qualifications, age) which allows them to experience greater

cohesiveness than heterogeneous groups. The latter group, which has very little
or no similar characteristics, may outperform homogeneous groups because
of the diverse knowledge and experience that they can tap into (Ivancevich &
Matteson, 2002; Robbins, 2001).
12.3 Group size

The size of the group refers to the number of group members, which has an
impact on the effectiveness and behaviour of the group. Whereas smaller groups
appear to be more effective at completing tasks, larger groups seem to have
better results in problem-solving situations. Nevertheless, larger groups are often
less effective for the following reasons:
■■ Interaction between the members of a large group is more difficult. It is not
possible to interact with all group members, simply because there are too
many members.
■■ There is a higher turnover and absenteeism rate in larger groups, probably
because larger groups are not as cohesive.
Group members find it easier to withdraw from larger groups. According to

Robbins, Odendaal and Roodt (2008), this is described as social loafing and is
a ‘tendency for individuals to expend less effort when working collectively than
when working individually’. Social loafing is reduced or prevented by:
■■ setting group goals that establish a common purpose to which all group
members strive;
■■ creating positive intergroup competition;
■■ developing a peer-evaluation method that allows each group member to
evaluate the input, performance and contributions of other group members;

and
■■ establishing a group-orientated reward system.
Larger groups appear to tolerate authoritarianism and direct leadership. The

result is that the group follows the leader. The group is then less creative than
when the opinions of all group members are voiced. It is often not practical to
ask the opinions of all group members in a large group.
Members of larger work groups experience less job satisfaction. This could
be because members of larger groups do not have as much interaction with
each other. Individuals must either form smaller groups and lose the benefit
of belonging to a large group, or remain in the larger group and have less
interpersonal contact.
Larger groups have a lower level of productivity, because it is more difficult
to keep group members involved and to coordinate their activities.

12.3.1 Benefits of larger groups

Larger groups, however, also have certain benefits for their members. These are:
■■ Larger groups provide an opportunity for group members to release tension.
There is less pressure on members of larger groups to perform as individuals.

■■ People find it easier to get along with each other because they are not in the
same proximity as small group members are. There is more opportunity for
agreeing with other group members, as there is a bigger possibility of finding
others in the group who agree with them.
■■ Larger groups are more likely to have formal rules and procedures, which
provides security to group members.
It would appear that members of smaller groups have more demands made
upon them, but they also have more opportunity for creativity and interaction.
Larger groups provide stability, but do not necessarily guarantee innovation and
survival in the long run.
Activity
1. Identify a large social or work group of which you have been a member. What are
the advantages and disadvantages of the size of this specific group?

12.4 Group cohesion

Cohesion refers to the degree to which an individual member of a group feels an
attraction to the group, is loyal and committed to the group and experiences a
force that binds them together (Harris & Sherblom, 2011).
12.4.1 Extent of cohesion

The forces that determine the extent of cohesion are:
❏❏ Attraction to the group
Example
Gideon, an athlete, aspires to enjoy the many benefits of being a member of the local
training group. Gideon will do almost anything that the trainer expects him to, in
exchange for becoming a member of the group.
❏❏ Resistance to leaving group
Example
Gideon gains membership of the training group and after a few months, his performance
starts improving. Gideon does not have a car and experiences transport difficulties
in getting to the training venue. However, he will be motivated to solve any possible
problem that may prevent training and to ensure that his group membership is not at
risk.
❏❏ Motivation to stay in a group
Example
After Gideon has vastly improved his performance, he receives an offer from a similar
club. He weighs up the benefits of each club and will probably decide not to leave his
current club, unless the offer is considerably more attractive.
Activity
1. Think of a group that you belong to. Which reasons make you choose to stay with
the group?

12.4.2 Increasing group cohesion

Group cohesion can be increased in various ways. Robbins (2001) identify some
of the factors that could strengthen a group:
❏❏ Intergroup competition
When the group is in competition with another group, members join forces and
try to beat the competition. As a result, the group members support each other
more and they may even feel hostile towards people who are not members of the
group. This is typical of supporters of different provincial rugby teams.
❏❏ External threat
Group members experience external threats when they actively compete with
another group. In doing so, they become aware of their similarities and how
these similarities can be used to overcome the threat. This will increase group
cohesiveness
Example
The premises that a group uses as their meeting place is being sold which means that
the group can no longer rent the premises. The group members will most pull together
and try to find alternative premises.
❏❏ Maturity level
A group that has been in existence for a while will be more cohesive because
the members know each other well and are supportive of each other. The group
members cooperate, rather than compete, with each other. Group members
experience improved social relationships and are less anxious about their
individual performance.
❏❏ Group size
If the group is too small, members will probably have too much contact and try
to avoid each other in order to obtain personal space. If the group is too large,
individual members may also begin to feel isolated and leave the group for a
smaller group that may satisfy their social needs. Small groups have a better
chance of becoming more cohesive.
❏❏ Homogeneity of group
If the group members have many things in common (values, interests and/or
attitudes), they would be reluctant to leave the group.

❏❏ Number of interactions
When group members meet often, they become attached to one another. They
start looking forward to their meetings and the more they meet, the closer they
become. Group members are able to fulfil their personal needs by means of
group membership. The group also becomes more cohesive if they experience
minimal changes in membership.
❏❏ Reward system
The group is more cohesive if the reward system is aimed at group performance
rather than individual performance. For instance, if a bonus is paid out to a
department and the members of the department must decide on the division of
the total amount, the entire department will work harder to earn a bigger bonus.
12.4.2.1 Basis of work group assignments

The group is more cohesive if work unit assignments are based on interpersonal
attraction and similarity of values. If people who like each other are put in a
team together, they would probably work better than a group consisting of
people who do not know or like each other.
The success of the group

People enjoy being successful and will remain with a successful group as long as
they can enjoy the status and benefits of group membership.
Stimulate group competition with other groups

When people in a group are in competition with other groups, they tend to give
more support to one another (in their group) in order to achieve the group’s
objectives.
Activity
1. What factors ensure that employees in your work group work together as a successful
team (group cohesion)?
12.4.3 Benefits of group cohesion

Harris and Sherblom (2011) maintain that group cohesion has benefits for a
group’s functioning, such as:
■■ fulfilment of certain personal needs;
■■ creating feelings of ‘belonging’ amongst group members;
■■ experiencing feelings of personal success and productivity;
■■ enhancing group decision-making processes and the quality of decisions; and
■■ enhanced overall productivity of the group.

12.4.4 Decreasing group cohesion

There are a number of factors that can decrease group cohesion. These factors
include:
■■ A heterogeneous composition meaning that if group members do not have
much in common, they will not stay together for long.

■■ When a group is fairly new, group members leave the group easily, because
they will feel that they do not have that much to lose.
■■ A large group will be less cohesive, because group members may feel that they
do not contribute to the group and will not be missed if they are not present.
■■ If group goals are not clear, members will not have a reason for belonging to
the group.
■■ People would not want to associate with an unsuccessful group.
■■ Competition between group members could result in people wanting to leave
the group.
■■ If group members are not in the same location, they will feel less attached to
the group.
Example
Many people do not attend school reunions because they have lost contact with
classmates and no longer want to meet with them.
12.5 Groupthink
When a group becomes too cohesive, the performance of the group can be
hampered by groupthink.
Ivancevich and Matteson (2002) define groupthink as ‘the deterioration of
mental efficiency, reality testing and moral judgement in the interest of group
solidarity’. Groupthink occurs when the members are so concerned about
unanimity that they are disinclined to realistically appraise an alternative course
of action. As a result, the goal of the group becomes about their concord rather
than making the best decision for the situation.
Example
This often occurs in a political party with extreme left-wing or right-wing sympathies. The
party isolate themselves from more liberal parties.
12.5.1 Symptoms of groupthink

The following are symptoms of groupthink:
■■Group members have an illusion of invulnerability and believe their way to
be the only way. These groups are extremely optimistic about their probable
success – to the extent that they will take extreme risks to prove their point.

Example
Groupthink occurred with the Nazi Party in Germany. They earnestly believed that they
were capable of eliminating all Jewish people without any resistance from the rest of
the world.
■■ A group suffering from groupthink focuses on rationalising their actions and

purposely disregard any information that would make them reconsider their
exploits. These groups believe that they are correct and that everybody else
is wrong.
■■ There is a strong belief in the group’s inherent morality. This means that the
group believe that their actions are ethically and morally appropriate. If they
receive information that questions their ethics, the group will disregard the
information and may set out to prove that it is false.
■■ The group members develop stereotypical, negative views of opposition leaders.
Group members are inclined to continuously test their own convictions. One
way of doing this, is to convince themselves (without fact or proper reasoning)
that the opposition leader is immoral.
■■ Direct pressure is placed on members who argue against views, illusions
or commitments of the group. This means that any group members
who question the group’s motivations are dealt with and punished for not
believing in the group’s inherent superiority. These group members tend to
silence their concerns. Soon they start to believe that the group is correct and
that they must be wrong. Subsequently, the group members induce the belief
that they share the same ideals without any discussion.
■■ Sometimes individuals within the group make every effort to withhold
information that may interfere with the group. They feel that they
are protecting the group from outside influences and have no concept of the
detrimental consequences that their actions may result in.
Activity
1. Describe an example of groupthink as you have experienced it.
12.5.2 Prevention of groupthink

Precautions can be taken to prevent groupthink. These measures include:
■■ Assigning the role of critical evaluator to all group members. Members must
know that not only are they allowed to question group decisions, but that
they have an obligation to.
■■ Encouraging impartiality in groups and deterring statements of individual
preference. If a couple of controlling personalities in a group voice their

opinions, other group members may simply follow them due to feelings of
intimidation or because they are too lazy to form their own opinions.
■■ Using outside experts to challenge the group: Outside experts have no
obligations to sway their opinions in any way. If the group punishes them
for disagreeing, the punishment will not have much effect. Group members
would have had the opportunity to hear other opinions.
■■ Setting up independent groups to study certain issues may at times be necessary.
If two independent groups reach different conclusions, it will be necessary to
investigate the matter even further and ensure that all the facts are considered.
■■ Groups must periodically be divided into sub-groups to discuss issues. If
individual group members are inclined to overpower the group, it will be
beneficial to the group to separate members on occasion and ensure that all
members have the opportunity to voice their opinions.
■■ It may be necessary to hold meetings to reconsider issues before the group
commits itself to action. The purpose of the meeting is to provide a final
opportunity to discuss the issue openly, so that a final decision is made.
Group cohesion can definitely result in higher productivity of the group. However,
a manager should always be aware of the effects of groupthink, especially if a
group has existed for a long time and shows signs of settling into a pattern of
action.
12.6 Group norms

Every group has a belief of how people are expected to behave in group situations.
These ideals are called group norms (Harris & Sherblom, 2011). Group norms
form over a period of time (normally in the second phase of group development)
and are the attributes of specific individual groups. The group norms are based
on the personalities of the members, situation and tasks involved, as well as
the traditions of the group (Griffin & Moorhead, 1986; Callahan, Fleenor &
Knudsen, 1986).
12.6.1 Characteristics of norms

According to Ivancevich and Matteson (2002), norms are the agreed standards
of group functioning and share the following characteristics:
Norms are generally moulded according to matters of significance and
importance to the group.
Example
In an assembly line, punctual arrival at work is expected and is a norm as workers are
dependant on each other’s output and the work rhythm is disturbed if one person arrives
late. In an office environment where information is collated by technology, workers have

more flexibility in their arrival times. Although a timeous result is essential, the way that
staff plan their working time is not an issue.
Norms are usually accepted by group members in various degrees, and may be
applicable to all or certain members of the group.
Example
In most workplaces it is completely unacceptable to use alcohol. However, employees
mostly find it acceptable when the executive officer takes clients to lunch and returns to
work after having consumed alcohol.
Norms are developed by groups to regulate the behaviour of group members.
12.6.2 Types of norms

Robbins (2001) describes the following generally-accepted norms:
■■ Performance norms explicity indicate how tasks should be done, who should
complete the task, what level of output is required, etc.
Example
If Susan, new to the group, performs better than the rest of the group, she will probably
be discriminated against by other members. Susan’s performance, as a newcomer, will
place the entire group in a negative light.
■■ Appearance norms include aspects such as general conduct, dress code,

expected levels of loyalty towards the company, etc.
■■ Social arrangement norms are usually created by informal groups and
generally stipulate the accepted social behaviour within groups.
Example
The group norm could be to greet every group member each day or to knock on the
door before entering a colleague’s office.
■■ Allocation of resources norms indicate how resources should be distributed

to the group members.
Activity
1. Choose a group that you belong to. Are there norms that are not applicable to
senior group members? How did these norms develop?

Example
Cecil started work at a new company. On his first work day, he entered the tearoom
and sat down. As he started lighting a cigarette, a number of the people in the tearoom
frowned at him. He put his cigarettes away and waited until other employees joined the
group. Cecil then got up and poured a cup of tea for himself.
As he was pouring the tea, he overheard the group discussing rugby. Soon after this,
Cecil told the group that he preferred to watch soccer. After a moment of silence, one
of the employees looked at his watch and then left the room. Everybody then rose from
the seats and returned to work.
Activity
1. Identify the norms of this group.
12.6.3 Purposes of group norms

Group norms serve the following purposes:
■■ Group norms facilitate group survival. The group does not tolerate behaviour
which may threaten the survival of the group or the accomplishment of group
goals.
Example
If the group norm is punctuality and certain members always arrive late, the productivity
of the group is severely affected. This may result in the group being disbanded because
other groups are more effective.
■■ Group norms help group members to simplify and predict the behaviours
they expect from other members. People feel more comfortable when they can
anticipate the actions of other people on the basis of group norms. The group
norms define limits of behaviour for group members and identify appropriate
behaviour.
Example
The members of a department get together once a month and have a few drinks, but
everybody adheres to the unwritten rule of only two drinks per person. If a person asks
for a third drink, the barman will discuss an unrelated subject and the rest of the group
will politely ignore the culprit.
■■ Norms help the group to avoid embarrassing situations. If all group members
know what behaviour is expected from them by the group, it will not be
necessary to punish group members who deviate from these expectations.

■■ Group norms express the accepted values of the group. They are used to
differentiate the group from other groups and indicate their uniqueness
(Griffin & Moorhead, 1986; Callahan et al, 1986).
■■ Clear group norms result in a more productive group, because group members
know what behaviour to expect from each other and they can concentrate on
the task at hand.
Activity
1. Think about a group that you belong to. What purposes do norms serve in this
group?
12.6.4 Violating norms

When group members do not conform to the group norms, the rest of the
group may respond by means of ostracism, verbal abuse, physical threats
or ejection from the group.
Example
In certain business environments, the group norm is to wear a three-piece suit to work.
This is impractical in a South African summer, bearing in mind that employees mostly
have contact with each other during work hours and not with members of the public.
If an employee dares to deviate by wearing a casual outfit, the other group members
may indicate by means of their behaviour that they do not approve of this deviation. The
‘guilty’ employee will have to choose to wear a suit or he will eventually have to find a
more relaxed work environment.
12.7 Roles
Although norms and roles are related to one another, they are fairly different
as well. Whilst norms indicate the expected group behaviour, roles identify the
specific way in which group members should act (Harris & Sherblom, 2011).
Norms are to be indicated as applicable to all group members and identify
acceptable behaviour. Roles relate to the behaviour expected from specific
individuals in the group especially because they relate to expected results.
12.7.1 Interpretation of roles

Invancevich and Matteson (2002) assert that role players in an organisation
interpret their characters in three different ways, namely:
■■ The expected role, usually documented in a job description, is defined as the
behaviours that are expected of the employee in that specific job position.

Example
Jaco’s job description indicates that he must input orders received on to a computer.
■■ The perceived role includes the activities that the individual believes he/she is
expected to perform.
Example
Andrea’s job description does not formally indicate that she is expected to keep the
minutes of departmental meetings. She however feels obliged to record these minutes,
as she is more than capable to do this.
■■ The enacted role indicates the actual behaviours that a person portrays in the
position.
Example
During departmental meetings, Andrea records the minutes without any formal request
to do so, because she regards it as part of her job, even though it is not included in her
job description.
Activity
Describe your job, in terms of:
1. the expected role
2. the perceived role
3. the enacted role

12.7.2 Classification of roles

Group members have different roles in a group. These roles are broadly classified
as:
❏❏ Task roles
Members perform task-oriented activities aimed at accomplishing a specific
task and achieving the group objective. The work role includes the clarification
of the purpose of the group, the development of a strategy for accomplishing the
specific tasks, the delegation of job assignments to individual group members
and the evaluation of progress towards the accomplishment of the task. Harris
and Sherblom (2011) say that group members who have work roles are often
described by the following titles:
■■ The idea initiator proposes tasks, defines problems and
suggests solutions.
■■ The information seeker is the group member who
requests facts and seeks information that the group

requires for the fulfilment of its task.
■■ The information giver is the person who offers information in the form of
beliefs and facts to other group members.
■■ The coordinator identifies and coordinates related ideas, summarises

suggestions and offers conclusions in the process of problem-solving.
■■ The evaluator gathers information about the group’s functioning and provides
feedback to the group.

■■ The elaborator clarifies ideas and suggestions, develops previously expressed

ideas and uses illustrations or explanations to clarify certain aspects.
■■ The summariser is the person who usually orientates the group during
discussions and has the ability to summarise points being discussed into a
coherent picture.
■■ The recorder is the individual who acts as the group’s secretary and keeps
record of all tasks being completed and of the facets being discussed by the
group.
❏❏ Maintenance (social-emotional) roles

This refers to the social-emotional activities of group members. The purpose of
the role is to maintain the involvement and personal commitment of members to
the group. Harris and Sherblom (2011) explain that group members who fulfil
this role are often assigned the following ‘labels’:
■■ The encourager is responsive to others and encourages them to contribute
towards the group goals.

■■ The harmoniser reconciles disagreements, reduces tension and convinces
members to explore their differences.

■■ The gatekeeper facilitates participation of all group members and ensures that
communication channels remain open.

■■ The group observer provides feedback on the group’s activities.
■■ The follower provides a passive, friendly audience.
■■ The tension reliever is the individual who is likely to use humour and jokes
to relieve tension amongst group members. They can also assist in reducing
status differences, helping new members feel at ease and indicate common
interests and experiences within the group.
❏❏ Self-centered behaviours
■■ The blocking role refers to activities that disrupt or destroy the functioning
of the group.
■■ The aggressive role refers to individuals who criticise and threaten group
members – ultimately preventing collaboration.
■■ Withdrawing is a role that refers to individuals who remain indifferent, refuse
to deal with conflict and give no response to comments.
■■ Dominating is a role that depicts an individual who refuses to accept others’
opinions, constantly interrupts and thrives on a forced leadership approach.
Activity
1. Hennie and Gavin are members of a group that is assigned to install a new computer
system. There are many complaints from users about the installation. Gavin analyses
the complaints and instructs the installation team to resolve the problems. Hennie
takes the phone calls from complainants, writes down their problems and explains

to them how the complaints will be resolved. Indicate what roles Hennie and Gavin
play in this group.
12.7.3 Contents of roles

Group members normally agree on the behaviour they would expect from the
incumbent of each position. When there is agreement on the contents of roles,
the group work together as a team and cooperate with each other. When group
members do not agree on the content of roles, there could be two possible results,
namely:
12.7.3.1 Role ambiguity

Role ambiguity occurs when the role incumbent or other group members are
not sure what behaviour is expected of the role incumbent. The result is that
the role incumbent experiences stress which is expressed in physiological (body)
and psychological (mental) strain. Both the group and the incumbent experience
reduced work performance.
Example
A group expects that their departmental head must make all the decisions, while the
departmental head expects to consult with the group on most decisions. The result is
that the departmental head experiences stress because this responsibility is larger than
expected, and the group members also experience stress because they are required to
do more.
12.7.3.2 Role conflict

Role conflict occurs when an incumbent is expected to accomplish two different
tasks. When the person aims at accomplishing one of the tasks, it becomes more
difficult or even impossible to accomplish the other task.
Griffin and Moorhead (1986) defined four types of role conflict:
❏❏ Person-role conflict
Person-role conflict occurs when the role conflicts with the moral and ethical
values of the person.
Example
Andrew receives an instruction from his superior to pay a personal account using
company funds. This is unethical, but if Andrew does not do it, he may be ostracised
by the supervisor.

❏❏ Intra-sender role conflict

Intra-sender role conflict occurs when a person receives, from the same source,
two or more incompatible sets of expectations regarding the performance
required in the job.
Example
A hospital superintendent may receive instructions to discharge patients as soon as
possible to save on hospital running costs, while the same hospital receives a subsidy
based on the number of patients in the hospital at a particular time in the month. Should
the supervisor release patients or keep them in hospital?
❏❏ Inter-sender role conflict

Inter-sender role conflict occurs when the role occupant receives incompatible
demands or expectations regarding behaviour from two or more sources.
Example
A supervisor tells an employee, Eileen, to be more productive. At the same time, her
colleagues tell her to slow down because the rest of the group do not want to increase
their productivity as well.
❏❏ Inter-role conflict
Inter-role conflict occurs when a person tries to fulfil two or more roles that
involve incompatible demands.

Example
An employee, Pieter, must attend an urgent meeting with a client. He then receives
the message that his child has been injured at school. Should the employee attend the
meeting because the job is more important, or rush to the hospital because the child
requires attention?
Activity
1. List the different roles you are expected to play in one day. Indicate which of these
roles have, in the past, resulted in conflicting demands on you.
12.8 Conformity
Conformity is the characteristic defined as the degree to which group members
yield to group requirements to gain social favour with the group (Callahan et al,
1986; Cherrington, 1994).
People conform to group norms and roles for two reasons, namely:
■■ Members would like to comply with group requirements because they will
be rewarded by the group. If group members do not comply, the group will
punish them.
■■ Group members are not confident of their own abilities, and as a result
remain with the group to receive feedback about the appropriateness of their
thoughts, feelings and behaviour. If the group then makes certain demands on
the individual, the person will give in to those demands to ensure continued
membership of the group (Cherrington, 1994).
People are able to conform to group norms and roles to different degrees:
■■ The person can comply with the norms in a specific situation and on a
temporary basis, simply to obtain rewards or avoid punishment.
Example
A person will work hard if the supervisor is present.
■■ One can comply with group norms because other people who are regarded
as role models comply with the group norms.
Example
Linda will work hard because she wants to follow the example of a superior.
■■ Group members can accept group norms as part of their character and can
internalise the group norms.

Example
Oliver will work hard regardless of the circumstances, because he believes that it is the
correct behaviour to have when earning a salary (Cherrington, 1994).
Activity
1. What level of conformity determines your level of output in your work situation?
12.8.1 Extent of conformity

Different factors influence the extent of conformity in a work situation. These
factors are:
❏❏ Group size
When you belong to a large group, there are more people who can pressurise
group members to conform.
❏❏ Composition of the group

If some group members are perceived as experts, they will be able to pressurise
group members who do not conform.
❏❏ The extent of agreement

If a group member is the only person not agreeing with the group, that member
will probably comply with group norms simply because he/she will not have any
support when attempting to go his/her own way.
❏❏ The ambiguity of the situation

If there is a difficult decision to make, the decision of the group will probably
influence the individual’s decision.
Example
If a recruitment company must decide whether to take on an arms dealer as a client,
some employees may have moral objections while other employees will prefer to
concentrate on the process of selection. The majority opinion will probably prevail.
❏❏ The identification of a goal

The group will pressurise individuals to comply with group requirements when
there is a specific task to be accomplished.

❏❏ The degree of self-confidence

When an individual believes in his/her own judgement, he/she will rely less on
the opinions and actions of the group (Cherrington, 1994).
Activity
1. If the group you work with insists on allowing smoking in the tearoom during tea
breaks and you are not a smoker, how would you react? Explain your answer.
12.9 Summary
Any two or more people who work together towards a common goal form a
group. The size of the group has an impact on the effectiveness of the group.
Group size affects interaction between group members, group cohesion, the
nature of leadership, job satisfaction and productivity. The benefits of larger
groups are that there is less pressure on group members, and also more formal
rules and procedures.
Group composition is a very important characteristic that can influence the
outcome and effectiveness of a group as it refers to the degree to which group
members are the same.
Cohesion refers to the attraction that group members have towards each
other. The extent of cohesion is influenced by attraction to the group, resistance
to leaving the group and motivation of group members to remain members of
the group.
Group cohesion can be increased by means of the following:
■■ intergroup competition;
■■ presence of an external threat;
■■ maturity level of the group;
■■ size of the group;
■■ homogeneity of the group;
■■ number of interactions between group members;
■■ reward system;
■■ basis for the assignment of work units; and
■■ success of the group.
Group cohesion can be decreased as a result of:

■■ heterogeneous composition;
■■ newness of the group;
■■ the size of the group;
■■ proximity of group members;
■■ lack of clarity of group goals;
■■ lack of success of the group; and
■■ competition between group members.

Groupthink occurs when group members are so concerned about unanimity that
they are disinclined to realistically appraise alternative courses of action. The
symptoms of groupthink include:
■■ an illusion of invulnerability;
■■ rationalising;
■■ a belief in the group’s morality;
■■ stereotype views of the opposition;
■■ punishment for group members who question the group;
■■ beliefs of group members (they are wrong and the group is right); and
■■ the withholding of information.
Groupthink can be prevented by means of:

■■ appointing a critical evaluator;
■■ encouraging group members to be impartial;
■■ using outside experts;
■■ setting up independent control groups;
■■ occasionally dividing into sub-groups; and
■■ holding meetings to rethink issues.
Group norms indicate the standard of behaviour that can be expected from
group members. General norms include social conduct, dress codes, reward and
reciprocity.
Norms have different characteristics. Group norms serve different purposes,
including facilitating group survival and simplifying behaviour. They also serve
to avoid embarrassing situations and to express the accepted values of the group.
Roles refer to a set of expected behaviours that relate to a specific position
in a group. Roles are interpreted in terms of the expected, perceived and enacted
role.
Roles can be broadly classified into work roles, maintenance roles and the
blocking role. These classifications can be further refined.
Where group members cannot agree on the content of roles, the result could
be role ambiguity or role conflict. There are four types of role conflict, namely:
■■ person-role conflict;
■■ intra-sender role conflict;
■■ inter-sender role conflict; and
■■ inter-role conflict.
People conform to group norms and roles because they want to be rewarded and
want feedback. The extent of conformity is influenced by:
■■ group size;
■■ composition of the group;
■■ ambiguity of the situation;
■■ identification of a goal; and
■■ degree of self-confidence of group members.

Self-evaluation
1. Can large groups be effective? Motivate your answer. (3)
2. Would you describe a professional association such as the Institute of
Personnel Management as a cohesive group? Motivate your answer. (5)
3. How can groupthink be eliminated in a work situation? (10)
4. Describe how group norms are applicable to a congregation of a church. (5)
5. Does a supervisor in a workplace play more than one role? Motivate your
answer. (5)
6. Does your employer allow you to take time off during work hours to attend
to family matters? Should this happen? Motivate your answer. (5)
7. Can group conformity be applied positively in a work situation? Motivate
your answer. (5)

chapter
Group process
13
13.1 Introduction .............................................................................. 251

13.2 Stages of group development ........................................................ 251
13.2.1 Stage 1: Forming ................................................................ 252
13.2.2 Stage 2: Storming .............................................................. 252
13.2.3 Stage 3: Norming ............................................................... 253
13.2.4 Stage 4: Performing ........................................................... 253
13.2.5 Stage 5: Adjourning ........................................................... 254
13.3 Types of group interaction .............................................................. 255
13.4 Group conflict management ........................................................... 256
13.4.1 Causes of intergroup conflict .......................................... 257
13.4.2 Consequences of intergroup conflict ............................ 258
13.4.3 Resolving conflict ................................................................ 259
13.5 Summary .............................................................................. 260
Self-evaluation .............................................................................. 261

group process 251
Study objective
■■ describe the stages in group formation;
■■ define the types of interaction between groups; and
■■ indicate how groups deal with conflict.
13.1 Introduction
Chapter 11 described reasons why people form groups. Chapter 12 dealt with
characteristics of groups. In this chapter, we will discuss the stages of group
development and the types of interaction between groups. We will also stipulate
how groups deal with conflict.
13.2 Stages of group development

We often have the impression that groups form by themselves and start functioning
immediately. This is not true. Tuckman and Jensen (Buchanan & Huchynski, 2013)
suggested that groups go through five different stages of group development. It
should be noted that not every group progresses through all the stages, and that
some groups get trapped in the middle becoming permanently ineffective (Buchanan
& Huchynski, 2013). The five stages are portrayed below (refer Fig 13.1).
Adjourning
Norming Performing
Storming The team
The team
People feel conducts an
Members start works in an
part of the assessment of
to communicate open and
team and the year and
Forming their feelings trusting
realise that implements
Team but still view atmosphere
they can a plan for
acquaints and themselves where
achieve transitioning
establishes as individuals flexibiltiy is
work if they roles and
ground rules. rather than part the key and
accept other recognising
Formalities of the team. hierarchy
viewpoints. members’
are preserved They resist is of little
and members control by group contributions.
importance.
are treated as leaders and
strangers. s h o w hostility.
Figure 13.1 Stages of group development

13.2.1 Stage 1: Forming

Forming focuses on the orientation of group members. When a new group is
formed, people are interested in seeing how other group members behave. The
conversation is light and about neutral issues such as sports, the weather or general
aspects of the organisation. The members exchange opinions about ‘safe’ subjects.
Group members discuss subjects broadly, but are actually searching for specific
information at the same time. Members actually would like to determine the other
members’ motivation for joining the group and what their expectations of the
membership are. Buchanan and Huchynski (2013:345) point out that the individual
asks, ‘How do I fit in?’ whereas the group enquires ‘Why are we here?’. Forming is
the stage of much uncertainty (Robbins, Judge, Odendaal & Roodt, 2009).
Activity
1. Remember your first day as a student in the different classes that you are attending?
Did you immediately feel as if you belong, being part of the academic environment,
or were you even afraid to answer a question in class? Were you afraid that some of
the students may have had a better answer than yours? You may have first wanted
to evaluate how you related with the group.
Group members will, in their own minds, compare the information they receive
with their personal needs and expectations. Each person will compare this new
information with their own previous experience in the organisation and their
membership of other similar groups. During this phase, the group tentatively
identifies a leader(s) and initial ground rules are established for behaviour in
the group. One of the ground rules for this stage of group formation is mutual
acceptance of the other members (Callahan et al, 1986).
13.2.2 Stage 2: Storming

While the forming stage is a phase of doubt and insecurity, the storming stage
is known for intra-group conflict (Robbins et al, 2009). This is the stage where
group members acknowledge the existence of the group, however, conflict arises
when members start to realise that their individual goals differ.
The differences in views and opinion are boldy approached and amenably
discussed between the members, until a point in which there is clarification
on the tasks of the group. After defining the tasks, the group objectives are
formulated and agreed upon. Members are assigned roles, responsibilities and
duties that are all aimed at the fulfilment of the group’s main goals
During stage 2, there is potential for interpersonal conflict and competition.
Individual group members will attempt to have their opinions acknowledged at
the expense of the opinions of other members. People who were not identified
as leaders during the initial phase will compete for leadership, while other group
members will take sides (Griffin & Moorhead, 1986; Callahan et al, 1986).

group process 253
Example
The term has started and within the first few days a group of students try to be different
from the rest of the class. The group starts arriving late for classes and tries to disrupt
lessons. Other students feel that the group’s behaviour is counter-productive: it breaks
their concentration and negatively impacts on the atmosphere in class. By voicing the
views of each side in a fair and open manner, the general rules for engagement are
laid down by the majority of the class. The group now reaches the next phase of group
formation: norming.
13.2.3 Stage 3: Norming

Norming is also described as the integration phase. In this stage, the objectives
of the group as a whole are clarified. All tasks undertaken by the group are
to the benefit of the group in its entirety. The members are motivated and
creative, and group interests are more important than personal viewpoints.
Members experience frustration, but this relates to the task at hand rather than
to interpersonal relations. The group is well-established and the actions of group
members are aimed at problem-solving. Rules of working together as a group
are established and norms of behaviour have developed (for example, no late-
coming) and role allocation (for example, Ruth is the class representative and
will be the spokesperson).
Group members share ideas, exchange feedback and concentrate on
accomplishing goals. This is the stage where group members are productive and
enjoy working together (Buchanan & Huchynski, 2013; Callahan et al, 1986;
Griffin & Moorhead,
13.2.4 Stage 4: Performing

This is the stage where the group is well-organised and internally controlled.
The group has reached maturity and members work together as a unit towards
accomplishing tasks. Group members know each other well and tasks are
assigned according to the known abilities of group members. When incorrect
actions are taken, group members know what the rest of the group expect. They
take corrective action without necessarily consulting the rest of the group.
During this stage the group is both mature in the sense that all group members
understand their roles and group norms, and flexible too. Members adapt to
changing instructions and contingencies as required, because they are able to
reasonably predict how other group members will respond to their actions
(Buchanan & Huchynski, 2013; Callahan et al, 1986).

13.2.5 Stage 5: Adjourning

The group has either completed its tasks, or members decide to pursue other
interests because they no longer need to associate with the group and so it
disbands (adjourns). Members realise that there is no need for the group to exist
and they are satisfied about the termination of group ties. At the same time,
they feel sad and sentimental about the departure of the group (Cherrington,
1994). The group may reflect on their time together, before they each go their
seperate ways.
Example
The last day of the final examinations, the third-year students speak about the
experiences they have shared during the three years that they have studied together.
They discuss their future plans and wonder if they will see each other the following year
at graduation. They are relieved that their study years are over but they feel sentimental
about leaving the campus and each other.
Groups do not necessarily follow the above stages in sequence. A group may
miss a stage, but this often hampers the functioning of the group.
Example
The group bypasses stage 2 (storming) and go directly from stage 1 (forming) to stage 3
(norming). Group members make the assumption that all members know what to expect
from each other. If there is then an incident where this assumption is questioned, the
group may move back to a previous stage and first re-acquaint themselves. It can even
happen that the group is stuck at a certain stage and cannot move on.
Example
If during the forming stage conflict is not resolved, an individual’s opinions may be
repeatedly acknowledged at the expense of the others’ opinion. A certain behaviour
(for example, late-coming) will continue and no group norms will be formed. Group
formation will not go to the next level, and at no stage will the group be functioning
effectively.
Activity
1. Think about three or four different groups you belong to. List them and indicate
which stage of development you believe each to be in.

group process 255
13.3 Types of group interaction

Various groups interact in different ways. Fig 13.2 indicates how group interaction
can be described in terms of the importance of group goals and the degree of
compatibility between group goals.
Very
Competition Collaboration
important
Importance
Compromise
of goals
Not
Avoidance Accommodation
important
Incompatible Compatible
Degree of group goal compatibility
Figure 13.2 Types of group interaction
■■ When both groups strive for the same goal and the goal can only be achieved
by one group, the two groups are in competition. This situation can only be
resolved when one of the groups wins and the other group loses.
Example
A soccer match is an example of competition between groups. The goal is to win, and
there can only be one winner.
■■ When two groups strive for the same goal and it is possible that both groups
are able to achieve the goal, it would make sense for the two groups to join
forces and collaborate.
Example
Two charities join forces in a campaign to make the community aware of their services.
The result is that the two groups united are more creative than either group on its own
and there is less conflict.
■■ Two groups have compatible goals, but both groups do not regard their goals
as extremely important. In this instance, the groups will reach a compromise.
Example
Two couples want to go to the movies. The one couple prefers a drama and the
other couple prefers an action movie. The two couples decide on a romance comedy
because having an enjoyable evening is more important to them. The result is that their
interaction will be cheerful and harmonious.

■■ Two groups may have incompatible goals which are also not very important
to either group. The probable strategy would be to avoid the goal.
Example
Some employees enjoy smoking and others do not. The two groups try to avoid
interaction with each other. This reduces tension, but the goals remain incompatible. It
is not important for either group to force the other group into submission if it is possible
to avoid one another.
■■ The goals of two groups are compatible, but not very important. The probable
strategy would be for one group to accommodate the other group. In the
process, each group relinquishes something.
Example
Two groups want to attend the same training course, but there is only room for one
group. The problem could be resolved by accommodating half of each group on the
course and sending the rest of the group at a later stage.
Activity
1. Select three different relationship contexts such as a school, work and friendship
relationship.
2. List the topics that usually cause dispute in each relationship.
3. Compare the list of topics across the three relationships.
4. How does group interaction typically occur in the groups that you belong to?
13.4 Group conflict management

Intergroup conflict occurs for different reasons. People tend to shy away from
conflict instead of managing it constructively. In this section, we discuss:
■■ why conflict takes place;
■■ what the consequences of conflict are; and
■■ means of resolving intergroup conflict.

group process 257
13.4.1 Causes of intergroup conflict

The most important causes of conflict are described by Cherrington (1994) as
follows:
❏❏ Task interdependence
Where two groups depend on each other for the accomplishment of their tasks, it is
possible for one group not to behave as the other group expects them to behave.
Example
The production department assumes that the marketing department will sell only
as many products as the production department can manufacture. The marketing
department is completely unaware of the manufacturing capacity of the company. There
is bound to be conflict.
❏❏ Goal incompatibility
Each group has its own goal, and its members are evaluated according to a
set standard for achieving these goals. If the one group’s goal achievement is
obstructing the other group from achieving their goal, conflict is unavoidable.
Example
Conflict results when the marketing department promises customers a credit facility and
the finance department insists on cash-only payments.
❏❏ Use of threats
If one group is in a position to threaten the other group, the potential for conflict
exists.
Example
If management threatens to lock out employees who threaten to strike, a conflict and
possibly a rift could develop between the two groups.
❏❏ Group identification
When a group is cohesive, it is easy for group members to feel animosity towards
individuals that do not belong to the group. Animosity is even stronger towards
any other association perceived as being in competition with the group.
Example
Workers belonging to a specific trade union feel hostile to workers that do not belong
to the same union.

Activity
1. Describe an incident of conflict that you have experienced as a member of a group.
2. Indicate what the most important cause of the conflict was.
13.4.2 Consequences of intergroup conflict

Cherrington (1994) explains that intergroup conflict results in change on two
different levels, namely:
❏❏ Changes within the group

When groups are in conflict, one would expect the groups to become increasingly
cohesive. Group members adhere to group norms to a larger extent. They become
increasingly loyal towards their group and to each other, and accept autocratic
behaviour and strong leadership. The group focuses intensely on the task at hand
to ensure that they do better than the competing group. Group members tend to
believe their own performance as better than what it actually is.
❏❏ Changes between groups

Conflict causes groups to view their opposition differently. These different
perceptions are reflected by communication between the groups diminishing and
becoming more cautious. Group members start to have distorted perceptions of
their opposition’s behaviour.
Example
Two political parties use identical tactics to outwit each other. Party A describe their
handing out of blankets to an impoverished settlement as an action of social responsibility.
At the same time, they accuse Party B, who have chosen to give the settlement members
complimentary t-shirts, of dishonest and unfair play.
Group members will develop negative stereotypes of the opposite group.
Example
A group believes that all members of the opposition group are greedy, yet only one
member of that group indicated that money was important to him/her.
Activity
1. Find occurrences of intergroup conflict in current newspaper articles. Identify the
causes of each conflict as well as the consequences of the intergroup conflict. How
would you choose to resolve this conflict?

group process 259
13.4.3 Resolving conflict

Conflict is a reality in the workplace and if it is not managed properly, it manifests
itself. There are certain strategies that can be used to ensure that conflict does not
become destructive. Cherrington (1994) names these strategies:
❏❏ Avoidance
The conflict is not addressed, but is allowed to continue under controlled
circumstances. Avoidance is achieved by means of ignoring the conflict (if the
consequences can be afforded) or by physically separating the two groups. The
conflict will most probably continue because the cause has not been addressed.
❏❏ Power intervention
A third party intervenes from a position of power. This could take the form of a
manager simply telling the groups to resolve the conflict or by using a democratic
process to facilitate agreement between the two groups.
❏❏ Diffusion
Addressing the emotions related to a conflict may reduce the issues. The conflict
could be dealt with by emphasising the similarities between groups or by finding
a third party who becomes the common enemy of the two groups. The result
is that the two groups will place less emphasis on their differences and more
emphasis on their common goal.
❏❏ Resolution
The source of the conflict is identified and addressed by means of intergroup
interaction. Forcing the two groups to communicate may resolve the conflict, but
could also be achieved by means of imposing a super-ordinate goal.
Example
A trade union insists on having a cafeteria on the premises, but management opposes
the idea, because it is an unnecessary expense. Both management and the trade union
are committed to the long-term survival of the company.
Conflict is also resolved by concentrating on the facts and the problem, rather
than on the emotions evoked by the problem. People tend to become emotional
about an issue when they do not understand all the facts involved, or because
they prefer to see only one version of the problem. Concentrating on the facts,
rather than on the emotions, forces people to consider the whole situation and
to resolve the conflict.

Example
A group of employees (Group A) who travel to work by train have decided to go on
strike. Their reason is that another group of employees (Group B) have official transport
from the taxi rank to their workplace, while group A must walk from the station to the
workplace. Group B believe that they are entitled to the transport because they also
work in the manufacturing department. Group A believe that all employees should have
this benefit. Management has not been aware of the benefit, because it was approved
by a manager who left the company years before and the expense does not appear
anywhere. What strategy would you use to resolve the problem?
13.5 Summary
Groups develop through different stages, namely:
■■ Forming focuses on the orientation of the group members and is known for
uncertainty and testing the ground rules.
■■ Storming is where group members acknowledge and discuss their differences.
This stage is known for tension and struggle for leadership.

■■ Norming is the integration phase and is known for consensus and accepted
leadership.
■■ Performing is where the group is well-organised and controlled internally.
Successful performance now takes place.

■■ Adjourning is the final stage where the group disbands. Feelings of anxiety
and sadness are often experienced.
Depending on the importance of group goals and the degree of group compatibility,
interaction between the groups takes the form of competition, collaboration,
compromise, avoidance and accommodation. Causes of intergroup conflict are
task interdependence, goal incompatibility and group identification. Intergroup
conflict results in changes within the group, namely:
■■ increased cohesion;
■■ increased loyalty;
■■ strong leadership;
■■ focus on the task at hand; and
■■ very positive view of group performance.
Negative stereotypes, distorted perceptions and less communication are results

of changes made between the groups.
The strategies used to resolve intergroup conflict are: avoidance, power
intervention, diffusion and resolution.

group process 261
Self-evaluation
1. You have been appointed as the supervisor of a group that is known for very low
productivity. Group members are always fighting with each other. You have asked
individual group members what the productivity goals of the department have
been, and you have received four different answers. Indicate:
(a) in which phase of group formation the group is (1)
(b) how you would approach the group from a supervisory point of view (3)
2. Describe a work-related situation where groups can collaborate to achieve
a goal. (5)
3. Identify a group featured in a television series or a group that you are familiar
with (for example a sports team or social group). Answer the following
questions with regard to this group:
(a) What type of group is this (refer Chapter 12). Motivate your answer. (3)
(b) What stage of group development is this group in? Explain your choice. (3)
(c) What is the group’s size, composition, function and status? (4)
(d) How do the above aspects affect the group’s functioning? (4)
(e) Identify causes of intergroup conflict within this group. (3)
(f ) What are the consequences of this intergroup conflict? (3)

chapter
The historical
14 development of human
resource management
14.1 Introduction .............................................................................. 263

14.2 Early human resource management ............................................ 263
14.3 Industrialisation .............................................................................. 264
14.4 Scientific management ..................................................................... 266
14.5 Early industrial psychology .............................................................. 268
14.6 Personnel departments .................................................................... 268
14.7 The human relations movement .................................................... 269
14.8 The human resource approach ...................................................... 271
14.9 The behavioural sciences ................................................................. 272
14.10 The strategic role of human resource management ................ 273
14.11 Summary .............................................................................. 273
Self-evaluation .............................................................................. 274

The historical development of human resource management 263
Study objective
■■ describe the different stages of development of human resource management;
■■ explain the human resource approach;
■■ provide an explanation of behavioural sciences; and
■■ define the strategic role of human resource management.
14.1 Introduction
Human resource management has evolved over the past 100 years. The various
name changes of Human Resource Management – from personnel administration
or personnel management to human resource management – say something of
this evolvement. Are these all the same function but with different names? Is
it just wordplay or is there a difference between personnel administration or
personnel management and human resource management? This chapter will
explain how changes in social and economic activities throughout history have
reflected in the name changes of this subject.
14.2 Early human resource management

The origins of human resource management can be traced to the first attempts of
people to work together. The oldest reference to management of human resources
is found in the Old Testament from the bible. Moses received the following
instructions:
Be these people’s lawyer — their representative before God — bringing him
their questions to decide; you will tell them his decisions, teaching them
God’s laws, and showing them the principles of godly living.
Find some capable, godly, honest men who hate bribes, and appoint them
as judges, one judge for every thousand people; he in turn will have ten
judges under him, each in charge of a hundred; and under each of them
will be two judges, each responsible for the affairs of fifty people; and each
of these will have five judges beneath him, each counselling ten persons.
(Exodus 18: 20-21)
Activity
1. Which human resource functions are implied in the bible quotation?
There are indications of selection, delegation, determining an organisational

structure and counselling of employees.

In 18th century England, masons, carpenters, leather workers and other

craftspeople organised themselves into guilds. They used their unity to improve
the work conditions of the group. These guilds could be regarded as the
forerunners of today’s trade unions (Ivancevich & Glueck, 1989).
Figure 14.1 Labour-intensive machinery
14.3 Industrialisation
Before the Industrial Revolution work revolved around the home craft and
agricultural industries. The Industrial Revolution, with the rapid development
of new industrial approaches to work, changed the world of work dramatically.
Technological developments led to the establishment of factories and the boom
of the manufacturing industry. Working life changed from working as families or
in the household context to work in factories (Swanepoel, Erasmus & Schenk,
2009).
Quick and cheap production became a priority for many industries. The
factories hired thousands of workers, who worked up to 16 hours a day in
appalling working conditions. The jobs they occupied required low skill levels
because it was simple manual work. These factory workers had little or no job
security. They could be discharged and replaced at the whim of the factory owner
(Snell, Sherman & Bohlander, 2000).
When machinery was introduced in the factories, production techniques
were improved by means of using standardised and interchangeable parts and
an assembly line. Assembly line work refers to a sequence of workers and machines
in a factory working towards or assembling a chain of identical items. Labour-

saving machinery and equipment were used. The introduction of a workforce

implied personal problems which is normally the case where a number of people
are employed.
Table 14.1 Milestones in the development of human resource management
1890-1910 Frederick Taylor develops ideas on scientific management. Taylor

promotes scientific selection of workers based on qualifications.
He promotes incentive-based compensation systems to motivate
employees.
1910-1930 Departments devoted to maintaining the welfare of workers are
established. The discipline of industrial psychology begins to
develop. Industrial psychology, along with the advent of World War I,
leads to advancements in employment testing and selection.
1930-1945 The effect of the Hawthorne Studies starts to impact on
management thought and practice. Greater emphasis is placed on
the social and informal aspects of the workplace affecting worker
productivity.
1945-1965 An increase in union membership leads to a greater emphasis
on collective bargaining and labour relations. With the increased
unions’ negotiations with regard to paid vacations, paid holidays and
insurance coverage, more attention is paid to compensation and
benefits administration.
1965-1985 In the US, the Civil Rights movement reaches its peak with the Civil
Rights Act of 1964. The personnel function is dramatically affected
by laws prohibiting discrimination on the basis of race, colour, sex,
religion and national origin. In South Africa, these aspects were
addressed in The Bill of Rights which follows ten years later than the
US.
1985-present Three trends dramatically impact HRM. The first is the increasing
diversity of the labour force in terms of age, gender, race and
ethnicity. HRM concerns evolve from EEA and affirmative action to
manage diversity. A second trend is the globalisation of business and
the accompanying technological revolution. These factors have led
to dramatic changes in transportation, communication and labour
markets. The third trend, closely related to the first two, is the focus
on HRM as a ‘strategic’ function. HRM functions must be integrated
into the overall strategic planning of the organisation in order to
cope with rapid change, increased competition and pressure for
sustainability.
Source: Adapted from Chukwunonso (2008)

The industrialists appointed welfare secretaries whose job it was to deal with
human problems related to industrialisation. The welfare secretaries were
expected to meet the needs of workers so that the workers would not find union
membership attractive. The argument of the industrialists was that if they as
employers could meet the needs of employees, the employees would be satisfied
and decide not to join unions (Werther & Davis, 1989).
However, employees still felt it necessary to stand together against the
employers who wanted to exploit the workers. The workers continued to organise
themselves into unions and bargain collectively with employers. Their purpose
was to protect themselves against exploitation and improve their quality of life.
Example
The first attempts at unionism
According to Cascio (2006) the first visible union activity in the US took place in 1794
when shoemakers attempted to raise their wages after their wages were decreased by
employers. The employers sued the union, saying that the combination of workers to
raise their wages founded an illegal conspiracy in restraint of trade. The court ruled in
favour of the employers (Cascio, 2006:513).
Activity
1. What was the purpose of the first trade unions?
2. How do they differ from the current trade unions?
14.4 Scientific management

The rapid industrialisation process between 1880 and 1920 includes the creation
of the first large corporations. These firms used new production technologies
and employed large workforces. As mentioned earlier, the majority of workers
employed in the factories had few job skills. They came from an agricultural
background or were immigrants from Europe. They had little knowledge of
English and no experience of the disciplined work of a factory (Huczynski &
Buchanan, 2013).

William F Taylor introduced scientific management in the workplace. Scientific

management is a form of job design which stresses short repetitive work cycles;
detailed, prescribed task sequences; a separation of task conception from task
execution; and motivation based on economic rewards (Huczynski & Buchanan,
2013:465).
Scientific management is often referred to as Taylorism. With the scientific
approach, jobs were studied to see how much work could be done within a
specific time. Taylor believed that it would be possible to achieve a complete
match between the worker and his/her job. Taylor systematically analysed the
work to be done and set performance standards in terms of the methods to be
used and the time it should have taken to complete each task.
Example
Using a specific machine and according to the set standard, it takes six minutes to make
five button holes. If the worker takes fifteen minutes to do this task, he or she does not
achieve the performance standard.
These performance standards were then used as the basis for rewarding superior
workers and removing unproductive workers from performing a task. In this
way, Taylor tried to identify the best worker for each task. He believed that this
approach would be the most effective way to match the abilities of individual
workers to the requirements of each task (Huczynski & Buchanan, 2013).
Taylor was convinced that matching employees to tasks was a far more
powerful means of improving production than threatening employees with
discharge. Taylor believed that the group would be as efficient as the least
productive member of the group. Therefore, the better the match between the
employee and the task, the more productive both the individuals and the group
would be.
Taylor based his scientific management on the following five principles
(Huczynski & Buchanan, 2013):
■■ a clear division of tasks and responsibilities between management and
workers;
■■ the use of scientific methods to determine the best way of doing a job;
■■ scientific selection of the person to do the newly designed job;
■■ the training of the selected worker to perform the job in the way specified; and
■■ surveillance of workers through the use of hierarchies of authority and close
supervision.
According to Werther and Davis (1989) the scientific management movement

saw the welfare secretary being replaced by a personnel department that took
on the responsibilities of:
■■ maintaining wages at a proper level;
■■ selecting job applicants;

■■ improving working conditions;

■■ addressing employee grievances; and
■■ dealing with unions.
Criticism against the scientific movement is that it is based on the assumption

that most workers are only interested in money. It neglected the personal and
interactional aspects of performance, the satisfaction that employees find through
their jobs and their social interaction with others on the job.
14.5 Early industrial psychology

Job analysis was required to identify exactly what would be expected from
incumbents in each job. At the same time, new methods were required to assess
the skills and abilities of applicants and this resulted in the development of
testing devices. Statistical methods and rating sheets were devised to analyse
psychometric test results and draw conclusions, and to ultimately confirm the
validity of test results.
Because early psychometric tests were not very reliable, other sources of
information were required to confirm test data. Reference checks were introduced
and prospective employers were able to contact past employers to obtain more
information about potential employees.
At this time, World War I began and there was a large demand from the
US Army to match recruits to the available tasks. Personnel selection and
training became very important. The responsible army officers looked upon
psychologists to assist with the selection and training of new recruits. The input
of psychologists also resulted in improved efficiency and higher productivity.
The world started realising that psychological knowledge should be applied in
managing the workplace and people at work (Snell et al, 2000; Swanepoel et al,
2009).
Activity
1. How is selection done today?
14.6 Personnel departments

The involvement of psychologists in the workplace grew as the role that they
were able to play in dealing with employees and management was realised. People
became involved in various aspects of personnel management and each became
a specialist in his/her area. These specialist functions were grouped together in a
personnel department.

The basic functions of the personnel department were regarded as:

■■ selection;
■■ training; and
■■ compensation or remuneration.
However, the personnel department took responsibility for many aspects of

personnel management within the framework of these basic functions, for
example:
■■ employment;
■■ employee welfare;
■■ wage setting;
■■ safety;
■■ training; and
■■ health.
These activities still form the basis of human resource management (Sherman &
Bohlander, 1992).
14.7 The human relations movement

The initial approach towards the personnel functions described in point 14.6
was systematic. There were specific rules to be followed in the application of
each function, but these rules did not always provide the required results. It
took some time for personnel practitioners to realise that the management of
people requires more than paperwork and rules.
Up to the 1930s, employees were seen as a means to make the organisations
successful by increasing profits. Over time, it began to be recognised that
employees had feelings and certain needs that affect behaviour. According to
Robbins et al (2009), the most important contribution to the human relations
movement within organisational behaviour was what became known as the
Hawthorne experiment.
The Western Electric Company in Chicago had a plant at Hawthorne. An
experiment was done to assess the effect of various changes to the working
conditions on productivity. Industrial engineers of the Western Electrical
Company were tasked to examine the effect of various illumination levels on
worker productivity. At that time, factories used natural daylight or candles to
illuminate workspaces.
Elton Mayo and his associates were asked by the engineers to join the study.
Control and experimental groups were established. The experimental group was
presented with varying illumination intensities, while the control group worked
under a constant intensity. The researchers increased or reduced the quality of
the light and the work hours.

Robinson (1981); Robbins et al (2009) and Huczynski and Buchanan (2013)

tell us that to the astonishment of the researchers, all the changes made by them
resulted in increased production. Their conclusion was that the increases in
production were not as a result of changes to conditions in the workplace, but
as a result of the attention and special treatment given to the research group.
As a consequence of the Hawthorne studies, the organisation was regarded as

a social system and not as a technical-economic system as explained by Taylor’s
theories. Another result of the Hawthorne studies was the development of the
non-directive approach to counselling, where the emotions of the employee are
taken into consideration.
The researchers, Elton Mayo and Roethlisberger, came to the conclusion that
employees’ feelings and emotions were affected by interpersonal relations in
the workplace, leadership styles and support from management and that these
aspects have a significant influence on productivity (Grobler, Warnich, Carrell,
Elbert & Hatfield, 2011). The workplace was made much more humane and
employees were motivated by positive action rather than by fear and discipline
(Snell et al, 2000).
Activity
1. What means of motivation is used in the organisation where you work?
The human relations movement emphasised the following social and psychological
factors:
■■ individual differences among employees;
■■ relationships with other workers and managers;

■■ leadership style of and support from managers; and

■■ involvement of employees in decision-making.
Under the human relations movement, behavioural science techniques were

widely implemented in the industry, with the inclusion of supervisory training
programmes that emphasised support and concern for employees. The personnel
department had the main responsibility for designing and implementing such
training programmes (Grobler et al, 2011).
The human relations approach was undoubtly responsible for the improvement
of work conditions.
Activity
1. What is the major difference in emphasis between the ‘scientific movement’ and the
‘human relations movement’?
14.8 The human resource approach

With the human resource (HR) approach there is an acknowledgement that
organisational goals and employees’ needs cannot be separated. Organisational
effectiveness and the satisfaction of each employee’s needs should not be seen as
incompatible. The HR approach recognises the fact that the organisation’s goals
cannot be achieved without its people. Skilled and motivated people will help the
organisation to be successful – and employees benefit through financial rewards
and recognition if the organisation is successful. This cycle of mutual benefits is
called the systems approach of HR (refer Fig 14.2).
Increased
employee
motivation and
ability
Increased Increased
employee quality and
rewards and quantity of
recognition work
Increased
organisational
productivity and
profits
Figure 14.2 The systems approach of HR

Source: Adapted from Grobler et al (2011)

The HR approach differs from the scientific management approach in treating

people as assets of the organisation, and not as lifeless production factors.
Employees are individuals with needs and the ability to contribute hugely to the
organisation’s success if managed and developed properly. If the human resources
of the organisation are treated as investments, their contributions will provide
long-term profits. Through the creation of policies and programmes that satisfy
both the financial and emotional needs of employees, the organisation, and in
the end society as a whole, will prosper.
Human resource functions will be discussed in Chapter 16.
14.9 The behavioural sciences

As managers and psychologists became aware of the need to regard people as
different from the other, inorganic (non-living) resources in the organisation, they
started examining social and biological sciences focused on human behaviour to
improve productivity.
Organisational Behaviour is described as ‘the study of the structure and
management of organisations, their environments, and the actions and
interactions of their individual members and groups’ (Huczynski & Buchanan,
2013:6). Organisations do not ‘behave’; only the people in the organisations
can be said to behave. This discipline focuses on the relationships between
individuals, groups and the environment within the organisation, and on the
impact of such relationships on the behaviour of employees.
Organisations have a wide impact on all our daily activities, including our
physical, social, cultural, political and economic environment. Organisations
provide our goods and services: everything from food, clothes, entertainment
and finances to building roads and buildings.
Activity
1. How many organisations have you interacted with today?
The influence of interpersonal competence on productivity became important at

all levels in the organisation (Snell et al, 2000). Organisational Behaviour uses
the knowledge obtained about individuals, groups and the effect of structure
on behaviour to improve effectiveness in organisations. In short, Organisational
Behaviour concerns what people do in an organisation and how that behaviour
affects the performance of the organisation (Robbins et al, 2010). Taking into
consideration that Organisational Behaviour is concerned with employment-
related situations, it emphasises behaviour related to jobs, work, absenteeism,
employment turnover, productivity, human performance and management
(Robbins et al, 2010).

14.10 The strategic role of human

resource management
Over the years, it became clear that the management of the functions
of recruitment, selection, induction, training, development and remuneration
was insufficient. These functions require management and planning in terms
of the overall strategy of the organisation. The organisational strategy must
be formulated, bearing in mind that all aspects of the business, including both
external and internal factors, relate to employees and their behaviour.
Strategic human resource management (SHRM) must be implemented by
means of human resource strategies for each of the human resource functions.
Regular feedback must be provided to strategic planners regarding the impact
of their strategies on employees, and the impact of the human resources on
their strategies. This approach has elevated the human resource function to the
boardroom, where the human resource manager can make a major contribution to
the future plans of the organisation.
14.11 Summary
Table 14.1 portrays the milestones in the development of human resource
management over the years.
Human resource management is a chapter in the history of people working
together. Artisans in the 18th century England formed guilds to look after their
interests.
Industrialisation took place during the latter half of the 18th century. The
industrialists introduced welfare secretaries to deal with human problems in the
workplace and to ensure that workers did not join unions.
Scientific management was based on setting performance standards
and rewarding superior performance. As a result of scientific management,
the welfare secretary was replaced by the personnel department. Scientific
management resulted in new products such as job analysis, job descriptions and
job specifications.
The basic functions of the personnel department were selection, training and
compensation or remuneration.
The human relations movement started with the results of the Hawthorne
experiment, which showed people performed better when they received attention.
The human relations movement acknowledged individual differences among
employees.
The behavioural sciences involved the study of various social sciences for the
sake of improving productivity. Organisational behaviour became the subject of
organisational development.

Strategic human resource management emphasises the role of human resources

in the formulation and implementation of strategy.
The real HR revolution began in the 1960s. Technology and globalisation
have changed the rules of the game. Most HR functions are running complex
HR Information Systems (HRIS) solutions, which make information about
employees available anywhere and anytime to managers and HR professionals.
The economy of the wealthy western countries shifted towards the services
economy. The quality of services became the crucial competitive advantage. HR
became necessary because the structure of the workforce changed. Leadership
development was the right answer.
Managers and leaders have to think globally today. They have to understand
different cultural backgrounds. The corporate culture cannot be country-specific
but has to reflect many nations working for the organisation, which is a fantastic
opportunity for human resources. HR management is global today. The global
HR policies drive processes in different countries, but the processes produce
comparable results. The employees relocate from country to country.
The future of human resources is bright. Globalisation cannot be stopped
because nations collaborate. The organisations become less country-specific and
they identify themselves with any one country.
New technologies will bring other revolutions to offices. The commute
working is standard today, but it will become a norm. Technology will connect
physically distant employees as if they are in the next cubicle.
iPads allow quick and instant access to information about employees as
managers are able to make all decisions and approvals online.
However, the future of human resources will be about new networking
methods and how to integrate employees so that they become accustomed to
each other.
Self-evaluation
1. You have been appointed as a personnel officer. You would like to change your
job title to that of human resources officer. How will you motivate such a change
to your HR manager? (5)
2. Explain the difference between human resource management as practised
in the era of industrialisation and as practised today. (5)
3. Explain the field of organisational behaviour in today’s organisations. Give
examples to motivate your answer. (5)

chapter
Human resource
15 management in
South Africa today
15.1 Introduction .............................................................................. 276

15.2 Change management .................................................................. 276
15.2.1 Political and legal environment [P] ............................ 277
15.2.2 Economic environment (E) .......................................... 278
15.2.3 Socio-cultural environment [S] ................................... 279
15.2.4 Technological environment [T] ................................... 280
15.3 Management of diversity ............................................................. 282
15.4 Productivity .............................................................................. 283
15.5 Unemployment .............................................................................. 286
15.6 Organisational culture and strategy ......................................... 287
15.6.1 Strategic human resource management ................. 287
15.6.2 Organisational culture ................................................... 288
15.7 The changing role of HR managers ......................................... 288
15.8 Performance development ......................................................... 289
15.9 Safety in the workplace ................................................................ 290
15.10 Summary .............................................................................. 291
Self-evaluation ..............................................................................291

Study objective
■■ identify trends in the human resource management field;
■■ understand change management and the impact that it has on HR;
■■ describe the external environmental factors that affect a company;
■■ comprehend the importance of the nuances found in diversity management; and
■■ explain the various elements of skills and performance development.
15.1 Introduction
Human resource management (HRM) relates to the people found in any and all
organisations and work situations. Those studying personnel management should
treat social media, newspapers, television and magazines as a comprehensive
learning manual for this subject. The purpose of this chapter is to create an
awareness of the HR-related trends and incidents in your environment.
After completing this chapter, you will have gained a very general
comprehension of the topics mentioned. These topics form a part of the wide-
spread subject that is human resource management.
15.2 Change management

Change is nothing new. Since creation, the world has been in constant change.
Change is unavoidable and found in every aspect of our lives. Managing change
is an attempt to be proactive by providing a framework for managing the human
factor of change. Organisations that are reactive and wait for change to happen
will experience change negatively. Change management is a topic on its own
and is dealt with in other modules of HRM. For the purpose of this book, it is
sufficient to look at changes in the environment that have an unavoidable impact
on the management of human resources.
The organisation functions as a system: it co-exists with, and is inseparable
from, the environment enclosing it. Factors from within the organisation’s own
environment (internal environment) can be controlled, but factors from outside
the organisation (external environment), which affect the organisation and its
people, are mostly out of our control. There are a multitude of forces in the
external environment of an organisation that necessitate change. Management
has to be aware of, and constantly analyse, the changes in the environment, as
these changes have a vital impact on an organisation’s sustainability.
Activity
1. Name the factors found in the internal environment of an institution that you are
part of. How do these factors impact on the human resources of this institution?

Human resource management in South Africa today 277
The external environmental aspects that affect an organisation are also known
as the PEST factors. These influences derive from:
■■ political and legal environments [P];
■■ economic environments [E];
■■ socio-cultural environments [S]; and
■■ technological environments [T].
15.2.1 Political and legal environment [P]

In the pre-democratic South Africa, our sports teams and individual athletes were
banned from competing outside of South Africa. This isolation was caused by an
international boycott against South Africa because of the racial discrimination
against minority groups.
In 1994, democracy was our declaration, the Springboks, our national rugby
team, won the Rugby World Cup. In 2010 South Africa opened its doors to the
world and proudly hosted the Soccer World Cup. It was a resounding success.
No one would have predicted a South Africa like this during the the dark years
of Apartheid.
Basic
Conditions of
Employment Act
75 of 1997
Skills
Development Act Labour
97 of 1998 and Skills Relations Act 66
Development Levies of 1995
Act of 1999
EMPLOYERS AND
EMPLOYEES
Compensation
for Occupational Unemployment
Injuries and Insurance Act 63
Diseases Act of 2001
130 of 1993
Occupational
Health and
Safety Act 85 of
1993
Figure 15.1 Statutes impacting on the employment relationship in South Africa

The political and legal environment in South Africa has seen many changes since
1994, the year that we became a democracy. Socio-economic changes have a
huge impact on the management of human resources. Government legislation
and national needs drive the trends found in the field of human resources.
Government legislation includes various Acts and statutory employment laws
that impact on the employment relationship in South Africa (refer Fig 15.1). In
South Africa, affirmative action and employment equity are two of the major
knock-on effects from the past that HRM has had to deal with because of the
changes in the political landscape.
❏❏ Labour laws in other countries

Businesses that import products from developing countries to reap the benefits
of lower labour costs may soon discover that these gains will diminish, if they have
not already. Changes in migration patterns and pressure from the West to improve
labour conditions in the factories and plants will affect the low cost of labour.
In China, workers once worked extremely long hours in exchange for
low wages. These days, the large number of impoverished workers from the
countryside has reduced, as potential workers now find no merit in migrating
from their villages.
Western multi-nationals have changed ‘corporate codes of conduct’ in an
attempt to improve labour standards. Pressure from the international anti-
sweatshop movement tries to enforce these codes in the Chinese factories that
produce their brands. The Chinese Federation of Trade Unions has mounted new
efforts to establish union branches in foreign-run enterprises, and has begun to
organise trade-union elections in state-owned enterprises (Chan, 2014).
15.2.2 Economic environment (E)

Have you ever considered the impact of the weight of passengers on the fuel
consumption of an aircraft? The weight of the average American rose by 4.5 kg
during the 1990s, resulting in an extra 350 million gallons of fuel being used
by airlines in 2000. Airlines cannot control the passengers’ weight but they can
control the weight of the luggage that is carried on the planes. To curb costs,
some American airlines began charging passengers for each kilogram that was
carried by them (Huczynski & Buchanan, 2013).
Economic factors show how well a country fares economically. These factors
include the following:
■■ rate of unemployment;
■■ average income per economically-active person;
■■ number of people that have jobs;
■■ productivity levels of people with jobs;
■■ competitiveness of companies (nationally and internationally); and
■■ living costs of the average person.

Activity
1. How would you determine the living costs of the average person in a country?
Economic factors have a direct impact on the human resources of the organisation.
Labour productivity (the capital produced from the money and effort put in) is
one of the biggest concerns facing South Africa’s economy.
South Africa is part of the global economy. South Africa forms part of the
five major emerging economies together with Brazil, Russia, India and China.
These countries (also known as BRICS) have become major drivers of the global
economy and are forces for change in the developing world. But productivity in
South Africa is much lower than that of the rest of the developing world. Labour
productivity has fallen by 41 per cent in the last 20 years and is currently at its
lowest level in 46 years (Ferreira, 2014). Expenses (including salaries and the
cost of raw materials) are so high that South Africa’s competitors in the emerging
markets are able to provide products at much lower prices.
Changes in the economic environment cause organisations to downsize, and
this necessitates re-engineering. The impact of these trends on the employees of
the organisation puts major demands on HRM. In the process of downsizing,
many employees are retrenched in order to reduce organisational costs (wages
form the largest part of an organisation’s expenses).
Downsizing (also referred to as right-sizing or restructuring) is the reduction
in the number of employees working for an organisation (Grobler et al, 2011).
Re-engineering consists of the reviewing and redesign of business processes to
achieve radical improvements in costs, quality, service and speed (Grobler et al, 2011).
Retrenchments have a negative effect on the unemployment rate of the
country, which impact negatively on the society. Every person that is laid off or
unemployed has a ripple effect not only on the person’s immediate family but on
the community as a whole.
The challenge for human resource professionals is to understand the nature
of economic change and its impact on people. HR has a major responsibility in
helping the organisation to be more effective with the employed workforce and
to train and develop employees to the best of their abilities.
Activity
1. Is there a change management programme in your organisation? Do you believe
that such a programme is necessary?
15.2.3 Socio-cultural environment [S]

The socio-cultural environment is made up by the people who live in a particular
area or community. The socio-cultural environment includes all stakeholders of

an organisation as well as their attitudes, expectations and values concerning

work, including their skills and education levels. All aspects of religion, attitude,
language, population size and demography, gender roles and environmental
awareness form part of this environment.
Stakeholders include any person who is affected by the organisation’s actions,
operation and decisions (Huczynski & Buchanan, 2013).
Demography refers to the characteristics of the people in a country, such as
size, growth, density and distribution.
The demographics of South Africa’s population portray a varied and diverse
workforce that changes constantly. The personal circumstances of the workforce
(single parents, working couples, workers with siblings as dependants) is totally
different from what it was twenty years ago. Employers, and especially HR, need
to be sensitive of the individual needs of employees.
Table 15.1 Demographics of South Africa in 2013
Population In 2013, Statistics South Africa (Stats SA) estimates the population
as 52,98 million.
Gender Approximately 51 per cent (approximately 27,16 million) of the
population is female.
Age About 29,2 per cent of the population is younger than 15 years.
Distribution of Migration is an important demographic process in shaping
population the age structure and distribution of the provincial population.
Gauteng and the Western Cape experience the biggest inflow
of people from the other provinces, with the Eastern Cape and
Limpopo as the provinces with the highest migration rate.
Occurrence of HIV The estimated overall HIV occurrence rate is approximately
10 per cent. The total number of people living with HIV is
estimated at approximately 5,26 million in 2013. For adults aged
15–49 years, an estimated 15,9 per cent of the population is HIV
positive.
Source: Statistics South Africa (2013)
Demographics show the statistics of a country’s population.

The fact that the mobility of workers to move between countries has
increased, also contributes to a diverse workforce. Management has to deal
with multi-cultural groups and has to adapt to different work expectations and
communication styles (Brewster, Carey, Grobler, Holland & Warnich, 2010).
15.2.4 Technological environment [T]

Technology is the use of scientific knowledge for practical purposes, and the
machinery and equipment based on this knowledge. As technology develops

and time passes, the nature of change is different. Most changes are associated
with technological changes (specifically in information and communication
technology) (Swanepoel, Erasmus & Schenk, 2009).
Example
Changes in technology over three decades
What is new today, is old news tomorrow.
Over the last 30 years, the pace of technological change has increased so quickly that
one decade’s must-have gadgets become the next decade’s laughing stock. Only 30
years ago, teenagers may have felt cool with a Sony Walkman but contemporary teens
can fit more music onto a device smaller than a box of matches.
There can be little doubt that yesterday’s state-of-the-art technology looks senseless to
today’s youth and much of today’s technology will look trivial to tomorrow’s youth. Here
are a few technological advances, past and present.
Laptops and e-paper

One way or another, whether it is through smartphones or tablets, the idea of carrying
around a bulky laptop is going to seem odd in the not-too-distant future. It will be
unthinkable that one needed to carry a separate bag for a laptop as this could be
replaced with an electronic-paper. The industrial applications of the e-paper vary from
electronic pricing labels in retail stores, digital signage, timetables at bus and train
stations, electronic billboards, to e-readers that are able to display digital versions of
books and e-paper magazines (Pitcher, 2012).
Cordless phones
Telephones (landlines) attached to the wall by a cable were replaced by cordless phones.
Later cell phones enabling people to make and receive calls from anywhere became
the norm.
Watches
In the past, a wrist watch used to be a necessity for telling the time. Nowadays, fewer
people are wearing watches as time is displayed in other places such as in the corner of
the computer screen, on the cell phone and at home on the DVD player and the oven.
Keyboards
Touchscreen devices are replacing keyboards. People who learned to type on keyboards
may take some time getting used to touchscreens. It is unlikely that those who grew up
with touchscreen technology will face the same issue.
Letters
When last did you receive a letter in the post? The art of letter-writing is fast becoming a
thing of the past. The idea of writing a letter, posting it, waiting for its arrival and then for
a response seems illogical in today’s world of instant communications.Transactions such

as buying plane tickets, receiving bank statements and accounts are already paperless
for most people.
Fax machines
Every now and then, a fax is used when a piece of paper cannot be emailed and post
is too slow.
This technology dates back to the 1970s. Many people still phone after sending a fax to
check that the fax was received. The process involved in sending a fax has been replaced
by scanning and emailing.
Email
Email has replaced letters and was once regarded as a pleasant alternative to faxes.
Today emails are often replaced in favour of instant messages via cell phones for direct
communication and social networks for longer messages.
The Telegraph (2009)

Technological developments have a huge impact on markets and consumers. Information
technology – the internet, cellphones, emails – changes the way people work, socialise
and organise their worlds. New markets and marketing opportunities are opening,
marketing channels are increasing and products made all over the world become
available to the rest of the world very quickly. Technology and global connectedness
dissolve national boundaries, increasing international economic integration. These
changes directly influence organisational success.
Organisations need to find innovative and improved ways to address the changing
needs of customers and employees. Technology opens up new work arrangements:
people can work from almost anywhere. Employees (telecommuters) are able to work
from home, using computers and other electronic devices to connect them with the
workplace. The employer benefits from this work arrangement in the saving of office
space. Benefits to the employee range from decreased transport costs, flexibility in and
control over work schedules, and increased autonomy to the individual.
15.3 Management of diversity

South Africa has a diverse workforce. Diversity refers to the variety of individuals
that, although they share some characteristics with other people, are unique
human beings. The workforce is diverse in terms of culture, gender, race, physical
attributes, languages and values. Diversity is accompanied by bias and prejudice
(refer Chapter 9), although people are not always aware of it. Diversity needs to
be acknowledged and managed at the following levels:
■■ Individual level: an individual must be willing to accept differences between
people.
■■ Interpersonal level: people must be taught to accept each other, not only on a
philosophical basis, but also in real-life situations.

■■ Organisational level: organisations must realise that they benefit and prosper
if they find ways to connect the energies, talents and skills of each unique
individual in the workplace.
■■ Environmental level: the individual and organisation function within a
broader society, which must also be sensitive to diversity (Daniel, 1994).
According to Grobler et al (2011), the benefits of managing diversity effectively,

include:
■■ a wider range of skills that the organisation did not have before;
■■ developing greater creativity and problem-solving that contribute to the
organisation’s success; and

■■ improved service and relations with the organisation’s diverse customers and
markets.
Managing diversity means that a heterogeneous workforce is managed to perform

to its potential in a work environment, in which no individual or group has an
advantage or disadvantage over the other (Dessler, Barkhuizen, Bezuidenhout,
De Braine & Du Plessis, 2011). HR needs to guide the organisation to comply
with all legislation that prevents unfair practices or discrimination because of the
differences between people.
Activity
1. Which South African legislation deals specifically with fair labour practices that
prevent discrimination?
Management of diversity is a multi-faceted, long-term process in which the

organisation creates an environment where all employees, with their unique
characteristics, can contribute to the organisation’s success.
Activity
1. Think about two different groups of which you are a member. Indicate the aspects of
diversity (gender, physical ability or culture) represented in these groups. Do these
differences impact on your ability to function as a group?
15.4 Productivity
Productivity refers to the output of goods and services relative to the input of
labour, material and equipment (Grobler et al, 2011). Productivity means the
balance between all factors of production that will give the greatest output for
the smallest effort.
One of the biggest challenges facing the South African economy is its low
labour productivity. Employers are faced with demands for increased salaries

and wages, while productivity levels are one of the lowest in the world. Senior
managers realise that people will be more productive if they are motivated and if
there is a means of sharing in the gains of productivity. The question, ‘What is in
it for me?’ is currently asked in the workplace and human resource practitioners
must attend to remuneration practices, motivation and performance assessment
if they want to provide a satisfactory answer to this question.
What is productivity?
Output ÷ Input = Productivity
Figure 15.2 Productivity
The idea that people will work harder if they are paid more, has been proven wrong
by more than one motivational theory. Other approaches have been developed
to increase employee commitment and productivity, for example, empowering
employees by training and development, implementing self-managed work teams
where workers take responsibility for scheduling their own work and managing
themselves, allowing workers flexible work times and by paying attention to
work satisfaction. In simple terms: well-equipped employees result in productive
employees which may in turn improve the morale of the employees (refer Fig
15.4).
Well-equipped
employees
Successful
business!
Happy Productive
employees employees
Figure 15.3 Well-equipped employees result in productive employees which

may in turn improve the morale of the employees

Example
A classic illustration of working smarter, and not harder, is found in the Hope Church
near Florida, USA. In a time of declining congregations, the Pastor, Richard, states that
in most churches most things are done well, but people tend to focus on the negative
– what is wrong, weak or missing. The pastor pointed out that by celebrating the things
that were done well in their congregation they created a positive balance and a sense of
winning, a sense of victory. Celebrating victories created a culture of winning. Victories
breed victories. In this culture people are more willing to try new innovative things, take
risks and excel in the things they are good in.
The positive approach motivates much better than the approach that focuses first (and
often, only) on the five percent that people are not good at. Being grateful for the 95
per cent that is done well, provides an environment to tackle the realities of the five per
cent. The five per cent then makes 100 per cent of the difference (Hunter, 2009).
It is important to note that productivity may be measured differently in various

businesses as portrayed in Table 15.2.
Table 15.2 Productivity according to different industries.
Industry Inputs Outputs

Motor vehicles Labour hours, machine Number of cars produced
Steel hours Tons of steel
Oil Furnace/boiler size Kiloliters of fuel
Farming Refinery size Tons of grain
Restaurant Numbers of hectares Number of meals served
Retail Tables and seats available Revenue generated
Hospitals Square metres of floor Beds occupied
Telemarketing space Number of successful sales
Beds available
Number of calls
Source: Adapted from Huchynski and Buchanan (2013)
More than twenty years ago, Schuitema (1993) had already pointed out that the
two most important features of successful economies are:
❏❏ An external focus
The organisation should not only concentrate on internal improvements, but
must also determine the needs of the client and must also assess the competition’s
approach to addressing these needs. In other words, organisations must take into
consideration the political, economic, socio-cultural and technological (PEST)
factors mentioned earlier in this chapter.

❏❏ Developing people
The development of the workforce does not only benefit the employer, but
contributes to the improvement of the quality of life of the workers. The
improvement of the knowledge and skills through continuous learning increases a
person’s prospects of work, promotes self-employment and improves productivity
in the workplace. The value for the individual (according to Maslow’s theory of
needs) is satisfaction of the security need (improved chances of employment) and
satisfaction of esteem needs (improved self-confidence and self-image), which
could eventually lead to the satisfaction of the need for self-actualisation.
One of the main focuses of the Skills Development Act (1997) is to
develop the skills of all South African citizens. Employers are encouraged to
make the workplace a learning environment. The workers benefit from the
acknowledgement of previous learning and gain new skills. A person who has
never had the opportunity to study for matric will now have the opportunity
to learn new skills as matric is no longer the only prerequisite for further
advancement.
A previous president of Kellogg’s (a multinational food producing company,
well known for their breakfast cereals) in the USA claimed that the purpose of
a business is not to make a profit, but to add value to people’s lives (Schuitema,
1993). If the needs of employees are satisfied, they will be more productive. If the
needs of your clients are satisfied, they will remain loyal clients and will continue
to buy your products. If clients and employees are satisfied, the result will be a
larger profit. Therefore, the focus should be on needs satisfaction and adding
value, and profits will follow as a matter of course.
Activity
1. In your opinion, what can we do in South Africa to increase productivity?
15.5 Unemployment
What is seen as unemployment? Does it include people that take a ‘gap year’
after matric or who are waiting for the ‘ideal job opportunity’? Unemployment
refers to people who want to work and are looking for work but cannot find a
job (Swanepoel et al, 2009).
According to Irvin Jim, general secretary of the National Union of
Metalworkers of South Africa (NUMSA), youth unemployment in South Africa
is the third highest in the world. ‘About 71% of all unemployed people in South
Africa are between the ages of 15 to 29. Most of them are women, the majority
of which have never had a job in their lives’ (Jim, 2014).

Activity
1. Are striking mineworkers that do not receive salaries during a strike, deemed as
unemployed workers?
The implementation of concepts such as re-engineering, downsizing and

outsourcing is aimed at cutting costs and improvement of the financial
position of the organisation. However, this often results in lay-offs,
retrenchments and reducing the size of the workforce, which happens not only
to low-skilled or unskilled people but also to people with marketable skills.
In an effort to try and postpone the process of lay-offs, organisations generally
follow a procedure of first cutting the overtime paid to employees, then stopping
work that is done by outside contractors. The next step would be to dismiss
part-time employees (Grobler et al, 2011). Before dismissing full-time employees,
alternative solutions should be pursued. The effect of losing a job, has a severe
psychological impact on the worker and his/her families, not to mention the
financial hardships that faces families due to unemployment. The long-term
costs of lay-offs should be compared to the long-term costs of retraining and
re-employing people. Alternatives that could be considered include not hiring
new employees, voluntary lay-offs and dismissing poor performers (Grobler et
al, 2011).
Activity
1. In your opinion, should the chief executive officer create employment or prevent
unemployment?
15.6 Organisational culture and strategy

15.6.1 Strategic human resource management
The human resource function can no longer be seen as separate to other
business functions in the organisation. Chapter 14 indicates the shift in focus
from personnel management to human resource management. Over the last few
decades, major changes in the internal and external environments of organisations
have resulted in many new challenges for HR professionals. As discussed earlier,
the HR function has evolved from a limited administrative function into a full-
scale business function.
Nowadays, the HR manager is considered an important member of the upper
management team. HRM now has strategic focus linking HRM practices, systems
and policies with the planned initiatives of the company (Brewster et al, 2010).
The planned overall strategy, which includes the mission statement and choices,

provides direction to an organisation. In strategic human resource management

(SHRM), all HR policies and practices need to be aligned with these initiatives
of the company.
SHRM is designed to help organisations meet the needs of their employees
while simultaneously considering and fulfilling the objectives of the organisation.
Human resource management deals with any aspect of a business that affects
employees, such as recruitment, selection, rewards, benefits, training and
administration. SHRM is the proactive management of people. It requires
thinking ahead and planning better ways to meet the needs of employees, and
for the employees to better meet the needs of the organisation. This affects the
way things are done in an organisation, improving everything from employment
practices and employee development programmes to performance management
and evaluation.
Organisations that put in effort to meet the needs of their employees, cultivate
a work culture conducive to productivity. SHRM is perceived as the best way to
achieve this.
15.6.2 Organisational culture

A strategic plan can only be implemented successfully when the organisational
culture is amenable to the plan. Organisational culture refers to a system of
shared meaning held by members, which distinguishes the organisation from
other organisations (Robbins et al, 2009).
An organisation has a set of values and so has its employees. Value represents
an individual’s idea of what is right, good or desirable. If these values coincide
or if the organisational values are internalised and override the values of the
individual, the strategic plan has a better chance of being implemented.
The organisational culture is expressed in the behaviour of employees. This
behaviour is based on the value system of each employee. A value system is the
range of values that is important to the individual, from most to least important
(Robbins et al, 2009). A manager who wants to change the behaviour of
employees must therefore not only know what the nature of the organisational
culture is, but also how to influence and change it.
Activity
1. What feedback would your organisation give if you displayed unacceptable
behaviour?
15.7 The changing role of hr managers

There is a demand for human resource managers to contribute to the bottom-
line of an organisation, in other words, to show a financial profit in their own

departments and to contribute to the overall profit of the organisation. This

requires a new way of thinking and a new approach to the human resources in
the organisation as explained in point 15.6.1.
It is no longer acceptable to be an autocratic manager that smothers
originality but it is necessary to empower employees to make decisions and
take responsibility in the workplace. Supervisors must be given the authority to
motivate their employees and encourage an inspired solution of problems.
The human resource approach discussed in Chapter 14 suggests that employees
are viewed as resources, instead of merely factors of production or as human
beings who are controlled by their emotions (Grobler et al, 2011). Through this
approach, human resource management can add value to the organisation by
helping employees to become more innovative and productive.
The perception of the human resource department as a service department
is changing. HR specialists are becoming more concerned with mainstream
business instead of only playing an advisory role. HR managers are regarded as
line managers who add value to the organisation’s competitiveness. The role of
the human resource practitioner is not one of only record-keeping, but also one
of facilitating the change process and redefining management to include aspects
such as empowerment and employee development.
Activity
1. What is meant by employee empowerment?
2. What can be done to empower employees?
15.8 Performance development

Any organisation that strives for world-class performance must ensure that
employees are enabled to do their tasks. Organisations need to focus on
training and development. In South Africa, this point of view is supported by
the objectives of the Skills Development Act (No. 97 of 1998). This Act seeks
to develop the skills of the South African workforce and thereby increases the
quality of working life for workers, improves the productivity of the workplace
and promotes self-employment (Nel et al, 2013).
In order to validate the amount of money and time spent on training, skills
development must take place within the context of a well-designed programme. A
programme should include the training needs of staff and evaluate the effectiveness
of the training. Training is effective if the trained employees can apply the newly
learned skills and there is a direct visible change in their behaviour. Training
should motivate employees to continuously try and improve their performance.
Training is directed at improving an employee’s short-term job performance
according to a specific job standard. Development is aimed at improving

employees’ abilities for future managerial positions. It includes formal education

and job experiences (Nel et al, 2013).
A system for the measurement of performance is imperative and must be in
place when people are trained to perform job-related tasks better. Employees
should receive feedback on their performance after the results of the training had
been taken into account (Nel et al, 2013).
Training and development as a human resource function are discussed further
in Chapter 16.
Activity
1. How can an employer ensure that the time and money spent on training programmes
is adding value to the organisation?
15.9 Safety in the workplace

The Occupational Health and Safety Act (OHSA) No. 85 of 1993 forms the
legislative basis for the health and safety of people at work, as well as for the
use of machinery and equipment. This Act indicates that employers have a duty
towards their employees in terms of:
■■ providing a safe workplace;
■■ eliminating any possible safety hazards;
■■ ensuring the safe handling of all articles and substances;
■■ identifying and removing safety hazards in the workplace;
■■ prioritising precautionary measures in the workplace; and
■■ informing all employees of their duties under the Act (Boase, 1995).

A human resource practitioner could not train, develop and motivate employees
or even provide a service to the workforce if the fundamental safety aspects of
the workplace are neglected.
Activity
1. Which aspects of your workplace should receive attention in terms of safety?
15.10 Summary
We have highlighted some of the issues, challenges and problems that human
resource practitioners deal with on a daily basis. The momentum of the ever-
changing environment makes human resource management a dynamic and
exciting career. If you care about people, want to accept the challenge of making
a significant profit contribution and would like to provide a professional service
to your clients, you have chosen the ideal career path.
Self-evaluation
1. Read the business section of any newspaper and identify issues of which the
human resource practitioner should be aware. List these issues. (5)
2. Are employees, in your opinion, entitled to insist on a salary increase without
guaranteeing a corresponding rise in productivity? (5)
3. What suggestions do you have to improve the productivity of employees in
your organisation? (5)

chapter
The human
16 resource role
16.1 Introduction .............................................................................. 293

16.2 Human resource functions .......................................................... 293
16.2.1 Strategic human resource planning and
research ............................................................................ 294
16.3 Activity outcomes .......................................................................... 301
16.3.1 Quality of worklife .......................................................... 301
16.3.2 Productivity ...................................................................... 301
16.3.3 Readiness to change ..................................................... 301
16.4 Summary .............................................................................. 302
Self-evaluation ..............................................................................302

the human resource role 293
Study objective
■■ describe the nine major human resource functions;
■■ understand strategic human resource planning and research;
■■ explain human resource information systems; and
■■ discuss the outputs of the various human resource functions.
16.1 Introduction
Major human resource (HR) responsibilities differ across industry. The HR
role is unique to each organisation and is specific to each organisation’s needs.
Some organisations may require the HR department to carry out tasks such as
interviewing, disciplinary procedures, training and development and performance
appraisals. In a small organisation, the HR functions may be performed
in collaboration with other departments (for instance the administration
department).
The purpose of this chapter is merely an introduction to the different human
resource functions; these functions will not be described in full detail.
16.2 Human resource functions
Staffing:
recruitment
selection
Job analysis, job

Health and
evaluation and
safety
design
Human
Resource
functions
Reward and Training and
compensation development
Performance
management
Figure 16.1 Human resource planning

Source: Adapted from Nel et al (2013)

16.2.1 Strategic human resource planning and research

Human resource needs and strategies are determined on the basis of the overall
company plans. This function is often described as ensuring that the right employee
with the right skills is available at the right time to occupy the right position in
the organisation. It is important to ensure that there is a match between the
objectives and strategies of the organisation and the human resources of the
company.
Human resource planning can also be described as the forecasting of the
number and type of employees required in the organisation and the development
of plans for obtaining these employees at the right time. This has to be aligned
with the organisation’s goals and objectives. As the organisation functions within
a broader environment, the external influences should be taken into consideration
in any planning process (refer Fig 16.2).
Example
The social environment includes the demographics of the potential workforce. In the
workforce planning the skills available in the environment should be taken into account.
If the organisation has plans to expand to add a new line to the existing service or
products, they need to plan how to obtain people with the right skills, especially if the
organisation is situated in an area where a limited pool of diverse candidates is available.
Nel et al (2013) highlighted the following advantages of effective workforce

planning:
■■ It eliminates surprises of a situation where sudden skills replacement is
necessary, which may affect the smooth running of a department.

■■ Unnecessary delays in meeting production goals are kept to a minimum as the
employees with the required skills are available.

■■ Due to workforce planning, skilled workers are identified early in their
employ and retained in the company.
HR research and HR information systems

Any HR manager requires an information base for management. HR research
aims to eliminate ‘guesswork’ and ‘gut reactions’ and substitute it with ‘facts
about human behaviour’ (Grobler et al, 2011). HR research can include amongst
others, investigations about high employee grievances in a specific department,
employee absenteeism and turnover rates, development of performance appraisal
systems for a particular industry, etc (Grobler et al, 2011).
An HR information system (HRIS) is a computerised system that gathers,
analyses and distributes information with regard to the people in an organisation
(Grobler et al, 2011). This information forms the base of most HR functions (refer
Fig 16.3). Various benefits exist from the use of an HRIS in an organisation, such

as improved quality of information, speed and easiness of updating information,

and improved services to employees (Grobler et al, 2011).
Job analysis, design and evaluation

Comprehensive HR management depends on a thorough job analysis process.
A job analysis provides in-depth information with regard to jobs, which leads
to the description of the skills and abilities necessary to perform a specific job
(Grobler et al, 2011). The outcomes of analysing a job are job descriptions and
job specifications.
■■ A job description provides an overall summary of task requirements.
■■ A job specification provides an overall summary of worker requirements

(Cascio, 2006).
Example
A job description for a computer programmer would indicate that the incumbent will
develop, test and implement computer programs on multiple computer and operating
system platforms, and regularly review programs and make adjustments when and
where necessary to ensure proper working of the program.
The job specification would indicate that the incumbent requires a formal qualification in
programming, such as a three-year post-matric qualification in computer programming
or computer science; knowledge of and training in various computer languages, as well
as one year on-the-job work experience.
Job design identifies the tasks, duties and responsibilities to be carried out in
a specific job, as well as the methods needed in carrying out the job. The job
design also points out how the job relates to other jobs in the organisation. Part
of the function of job design is also work scheduling, which involves determining
the hours of work required to meet both the requirements of the organisation
in terms of production and the employee’s needs in terms of remuneration and
social contact. A mismatch between the employee and the job may result in
poor performance, absenteeism, turnover and other symptoms of employee
dissatisfaction. The person/job fit (matching the characteristics of a person with
the characteristics of a certain job) is extremely important as it contributes to job
satisfaction which can enhance organisational effectiveness.
Job evaluation implies the systematic evaluation of each job to:

■■ identify the relationship of the job to other jobs in the organisation; and
■■ assess the remuneration attached to the job to ensure that it is fair and adequate.
The analysis of individuals (their abilities and motivations) and jobs (requirements
and rewards) can be described as a support function. The reason for this is that
it does not relate directly to the match between the individual and the job, but
only describes components of such a match.

Recruitment
The aim of the recruitment function is to match people who have specific career
needs and capabilities with certain jobs and career paths. Recruiting refers to
the identification and attraction of a qualified pool of applicants. Particular
people are selected from this pool to be hired and placed in an effort to match
employees and jobs. The recruitment process should take place according to
specific guidelines that are in line with the organisation’s policies and procedures.
The recruitment policy must specify, amongst others, whether the recruitment
will take place internally or externally, if relatives of existing employees may be
hired, if part-time workers are considered, and if people over the retirement age
may be employed (Nel et al, 2013).
■■ Internal recruitment is the recruitment among people who are currently
employed by the organisation. Current employees can also refer people who
are qualified for and interested in the job.
■■ External recruitment refers to recruiting from sources outside the organisation.
A variety of external recruitment methods can be used: advertisements,

employment agencies, tertiary campus recruiting, government agencies and
direct mail (Nel et al, 2013).
Recruitment also takes place electronically. E-recruitment refers to the process of

recruiting via electronic resources. Internet recruitment either takes place on the
employer’s own website, the intranet (internal recruitment) or via the internet.
When applying online, applicants enter their details into a database and can then
apply for many jobs. Social media (Facebook, Twitter and LinkedIn) reaches and
targets a large pool of candidates and gets immediate feedback (Nel et al, 2013).
The major attraction for employers to use internet recruitment is the fact that
millions of potential candidates can be reached inexpensively.
Selection and staffing

The selection process follows recruitment. It is the process of finding the best
applicant for the position. This is a process of making a judgement, not only
about the applicant, but about the fit between the person and the job. There is
no fail-safe method of knowing that the selected candidate is the best person
to fill the position. The use of more than one selection tool, however, increases
the validity of the process. Selection methods (tools) include initial screening,
application forms, interviews, employment tests and reference checks.
Within the selection tools are various eliminators that ensure that the applicant
pool becomes smaller after each step. For example, during the initial screening
process, the applicants’ CVs are examined and those who do not have the suitable
qualifications or experience are immediately removed from the applicant pool
(Nel et al, 2013). The application forms provide routine information (education
completed and work experience) and are used to eliminate applicants who do not

meet the minimum job requirements. After these steps, a short-list is compiled of
applicants who will be invited for a job interview.
Although there are various selection methods available to make certain the
most suitable candidate is chosen, many employers only make use of CVs and
interviews during the staffing process. Reasons for this may vary, but most of the
time it is due to the cost of other selection methods.
Training and development

Continuous skill development is aimed at ensuring that employees have key
competencies, not only for the jobs that they currently occupy, but also for future
jobs that employees aspire to. This function includes career management, which
is used to ensure that the long-term objectives of the employee match the long-
term objectives of the organisation. In South Africa, training is often described
as equipping employees to perform their current jobs, while development is
described as equipping employees to aspire for future more demanding positions.
Employee training and development refers to planned learning experiences aimed
at ensuring that employees are able to fulfil specific tasks immediately or in the
future.
Political
Social Economic
Human
Resource
planning
Legal Technological
Figure 16.2 External environments that influence hr planning
Performance management
Nel et al (2013) describe performance management as a process of creating a
work environment in which employees can perform to the best of their abilities,
and to the benefit of the organisation. This process starts with the job creation

and ends when the employee stops working for the organisation (Nel et al,
2013). Performance evaluation (performance appraisal) and the allocation of
rewards for the consideration of individual performance used to be the main
consideration, but it is being increasingly recognised that evaluating and
rewarding the performance is only one aspect of the process. The employee needs
to be coached and mentored to better performance. There needs to be a proper
feedback and documentation process after the performance appraisals take place.
A performance appraisal is the process of considering how well employees
carry out their jobs compared to set standards and then giving feedback to
the employees afterwards (Grobler et al, 2011). The appraisals are, at most, a
stressful and time-consuming process for both the employee and employer. No
one likes the idea of being evaluated, and often the employer finds it difficult to
execute the evaluations for various reasons: employers are insufficiently trained
to conduct appraisals; the process is time-consuming; it often leads to conflict
between the employer and employee if there is disagreement on the outcomes;
and also because it is a subjective process.
So why still do the appraisals? Because information obtained through
performance appraisals is used for a wide range of HR decisions, namely
promotion, pay and motivation. Contrary to the assumption of some employees,
performance appraisal is not judgemental. The purpose of performance appraisals
is primarily to look at the employee’s past performance in order to evaluate and
develop the employee’s performance.
Effective performance feedback should guide and direct the future performance
of the employee. Most employees want to know how their supervisors or
line managers rate their performance. Feedback that recognises strengths and
weaknesses and specifies goals can enhance employee performance. This feedback
should be a two-way process, where the employee feels free to provide input with
regard to future goals and aspirations.
For the purpose of this chapter (which provides a brief overview of the main
HR functions) methods of performance appraisals, legal considerations to be
considered when conducting appraisals and common rater errors (the halo error,
error of leniency or recency errors) will not be discussed here. Suffice to say that
line managers or supervisors, who will be responsible for performance appraisals
must be trained in this process or else it could result in serious emotional and
legal problems for all concerned.
Compensation and benefits

The term compensation is often used as a synonym for wage and salary
administration but is indeed a much wider concept. Grobler et al (2011) say that
the term refers to both extrinsic rewards (monetary rewards and benefits), as well
as intrinsic rewards (challenging job opportunities, autonomy and recognition).
This function is aimed at ensuring fairness and consistency in the compensation
of employees. Employees expect their rewards to be fair in relation to their

performance. Government legislation also affects compensation by legislating

pay levels, hours of work and special pay for overtime and holidays. The Basic
Conditions of Employment Act, No.75 of 1997, as well as the Basic Conditions
of Employment Amendment Act of 2002 guide the compensation strategy of an
organisation (Grobler et al, 2011).
A crucial aspect in the determination of a pay structure is the process of job
evaluation. Job evaluation is the process of systematically analysing a job to
determine the relative worth of it in relation to other jobs in the organisation.
Grobler et al (2011) state that ‘job evaluation is a process of analysing jobs to
determine the relative worth of jobs within the organisation’. Job evaluation looks
at the worth of the position to the organisation and not at the person who carries
out the job. Job evaluation should not be confused with performance evaluation.
As discussed under performance management in this chapter, performance
evaluations or appraisals review the performance of the person doing the job,
while job evaluation is only concerned with the position, regardless of the person
doing the job. The result of job evaluation is a pay system that specifies the pay
rate for each job, as well as its status within the hierarchy of jobs (Grobler et al,
2011).
Example
The accountant clerk would not receive a higher salary than the chartered accountant.
Health and safety

The match between the organisation and individual includes the management of
health and safety in the workplace. Safety concerns are important to both the
employer and the employee. The employer has the right to expect the employee
to adhere to rules and regulations to ensure a safe working area and the employee
in return has a right to expect a working environment conducive to health and
safety.
The government and the Department of Labour also play a part in making
sure the employer adheres to rules and regulations ensuring a safe and healthy
working environment. Two South African Acts that concern health and safety in
the workplace are the Occupational Health and Safety Act (OHSA) (Act 85 of
1993) and the Mine Health and Safety Act (Act 29 of 1996). (OHSA is discussed
in Chapter 15).
This function is becoming more important with the realisation that a holistic
approach to employee health and safety should be adopted. Health management
practices in organisations strive to take care of the overall physical (mental,
physical and emotional) well-being of an employee, while safety management
looks at the physical protection of employees. Safety management aims to
prevent work-related injuries and accidents (Grobler et al, 2011).

In this holistic approach, employers realise that improved employee wellness

impacts positively on productivity and morale. It contributes to lower
absenteeism, decreased costs due to fewer careless mistakes and less negligence.
Employee wellness programmes focus on, amongst others, health-awareness
activities, and includes employee-assistance programmes (EAPs) (Grobler et al,
2011). Facilities are provided for the counselling of employees and assistance in
personal problem-solving.
Union and employment relations

Union and employment relations are aimed at promoting healthy relationships and
effective interaction between management and employees. Kleynhans, Markham,
Meyer and Van Aswegen (2009) explain that employment relations refer to various
relationships in the workplace:
■■ employer and an individual employee;
■■ employer and a trade union;
■■ a group of union representatives and the employer; and
■■ employers’ organisations and a group of trade unions.
Workers may join a trade union, which is an association of workers who want to
collectively improve the conditions of their worklife. The trade union then forms
a relationship with the employer. In the same manner, a group of employers can
form an employer organisation which looks after the interests of the employer.
Performance
evaluation
Training &
development Recruitment
Compensation Personal
HRIS
& benefits self-service
People Leave &

administration absence
Payroll
Figure 16.3 Model of HRIS

16.3 Activity outcomes

When all human resource functions are managed effectively, the outcomes of
these functions are:
16.3.1 Quality of worklife

Quality of worklife refers to aspects such as:
■■Autonomy of the employee and the ability to make decisions;
Example
When a client is not satisfied with a purchase and the salesperson gives permission for
the client to be refunded.
■■ Recognition for work done (either in terms of money or public

acknowledgement);
■■ A feeling of belonging to the work group;
Example
Where any employee can approach a colleague for information without feeling awkward.
■■ Individual progress and development; and
Example
When someone is invited to join a project team so that he/she can gain more experience.
■■ External rewards such as a salary increase or company car.
16.3.2 Productivity
It is important to know how much work employees produce and what standard
of quality they maintain. This information is used to plan future input and output
requirements, and also to motivate employees.
16.3.3 Readiness to change

Employees often fear change and its consequences. Proper management of the
human resource functions reduces the fear normally associated with change and
organisational renewal, and ensures that the employees and the organisation
remain competitive (Nel et al, 2013).

Activity
1. How is the quality of worklife addressed in your work environment?
2. In your opinion, is productivity a priority for South Africans? Motivate your answer.
16.4 Summary
This chapter has provided an overview of the human resource functions. These
functions are interrelated and any separation is only for the purpose of studying
specific aspects of either the functions or their interaction. You will learn more
about these human resource functions in your future studies.
Self-evaluation
1. What is the difference between training and development? (5)
2. You have been requested to recruit a new employee to fill the position of
security guard. You have asked the manager for a job description and job
specifications, but the response to you is to ‘get on with the job’ and not
waste time on paperwork. What would be your reaction? (5)
3. Indicate whether you would recruit the following people internally or externally:
(a) senior secretary (1)
(b) computer programmer (1)
(c) chief executive officer (1)
(d) marketing manager (1)
(e) office cleaner (1)
4. List the different types of employee assistance that you have encountered in
your career. (5)
5. How do training and employee assistance relate to one another? (5)
6. How do human resource planning, job design, selection and staffing relate
to one another? (5)

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Thorndike, R.L. & Hagan, E. 1969. Measurement and evaluation in psychology and
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Weiten, W. & Lloyd, M.A. 1994. Psychology Applied to Modern Life Adjustments in the
90s. Brooks/Cole Publishing Company, California.
Welford, A.T. 1979. Skill in ageing. In Singleton, W.T. (ed.) The study of real skills, vol. 2:
Compliance and excellence. MT Press, Lancaster.
Welman, J. C., Kruger, S.J. & Mitchell, B. 2005. Research methodology. Oxford University
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Werther, W.B. & Davis, K. 1989. Human resources and personnel management. McGraw-
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Wickens, C.D. 1984. Engineering psychology and human performance. Charles E. Merrill,
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Willis, R.J.B. 2005. Cracking the stress problem. Stanborough Press, Grantham.

Index
Note: Page numbers in factors influencing 105 personal experience 168,
italics refer to Figures/ physiological 179
Tables effects 103, 109 and prejudices 195
role of employers scales 176–179, 180
16-Personality Factor 104–105, 110 simple 164, 179
Questionnaire 61–62, treatment of 104, 110 attributions 182
61–62, 68 anal phase 51 consensus 186, 198
A approach-approach consistency 186, 198
abilities conflict 84–85, 84, 89 criteria for 186
acquired 39 approach-avoidance defensive 187, 198
definition 23 conflict 86, 89 definition 185
hearing 38 aptitudes 23, 24 distinctive
hereditary 39 associative learning behaviour 186, 198
mechanical 32–33, 39 141–148, 159–160 internal and external
mental 26–31, 39 attention 114–119 factors 186, 187
physical 31–32, 39 attitudes and process 185–187, 198
psycho-motor 33–35, 39 expectations 118 audiometer 38
sensory 36–38, 39 focus 115–119, auditory senses 125, 136
visual 36–38, 39, 135–136 addition of visual
123–124 information processing stimuli 131
ability traits 56 model 122 spatial placement
absenteeism marginal 115 of auditory
and alcohol abuse 103, selective 116 information 136
104–105 attitudes 180 spatial placement of
and stress 101 accidental information 129–131
abstract reasoning 27, 39 observation 174, 180 avoidance-avoidance
acuity of vision 36, 39 and behaviour 164 conflict 85–86, 85, 89
adaptability 27–28 behavioural
B
adopted children component 164
Bandura’s Social Learning
studies 11 changing 168–173
Theory 52
affective conflict 88, 89 cognitive
Basic Conditions of
affirmative action 278 component 164
Employment Act, 75 of
age, work behaviour 14 definitions 163–164
1997 277, 299
aggression 75 experimental
Basic Conditions
definition 76 research 175, 180
of Employment
frustration-aggression learning theory
Amendment Act of
hypothesis 76–77 166–167, 194
2002 299
General Aggression measurement of
behavioural sciences 272,
Model (GAM) 77 174–177, 180
273
workplace 76 multiple 163–164, 179
behaviour differences
alcohol abuse, long-term nature of 163–164
environmental
effects 103–104, 109 non-experimental
influences 7–8
alcohol dependency, research 175, 180
origin of 3–12
description of 102 origin and development
research studies 9–11
alcoholism 102–105, 109 of 165–168
behaviourism 52
description of 102 perceptions 118

Index 309
body language 189–190, intergroup 256–259, 260 ectomorphy 53–54, 54

190, 198 management 256–259, ego 50
Bogardus 176 260 employees
BRICS countries 279 nature of 83, 89 assistance
types of 88 programmes 102, 300
C
conformity 245–247, 248 relationships 300
capability 24
counselling 270 wellness
Cattell’s factor analytical
programmes 102, 300
model of personality 55, D
employment equity 278
68 deception 198
endomorphy 53–54, 54
central characteristics, changes in non-verbal
environment 3, 11–12, 19
impression speech styles 192
economic 278–279
formation 183–184, 198 exaggerated facial
PEST factors 277–281
cerebrotonia 54 expressions 191–192
political and legal
change management 276, eye contact 192
277–287
301 interchannel
Skinner’s theory
character 44 discrepancies 191
of extreme
Chinese labour 278 micro-expressions 191
behaviourism 52
choice reaction time 33 signals indicated by
socio-cultural 279–280
classical conditioning adaptive behaviour 192
stimulation from 46
142–145, 143, 159, 166, decision-making 121
technological 280–281
194 defence mechanisms 50,
environmental
cognitive 75, 78–82, 89, 195–196
determinants 67
categorisation 194 demographics 280, 280
physical 46
cognitive dissonance denial 79
social and
attitude change 172, depth perception 37, 39,
cultural 46–47
179 131–135, 136
environmental
nature of 172 discrimination 144, 159,
frustration 73
reduction of 172–173, 195, 283
equalisation 183
180 displacement 80
eupsychian work
cognitive intelligence, distress 93
circumstances 59
nature of 26–27 diversity 282–283
eustress 93
cognitive learning DNA blueprint 4
expectations,
149–151, 160 Dollard 52, 76
perceptions 118
forms of 149–150 Doob 76, 166
exposure 167–168, 196
nature of 149 downsizing 279, 287
extinction 145, 159
colour differentiation 37, Drive Reduction Theory 52
eye
39 drug addiction 105–109
accommodation of 132
communication drugs
contact 189, 192, 198
multiple channels 191, definition 106
convergence 135
198 hallucinogenic
depth cues 134, 137
paralanguage 190, 198 agents 106
retinal disparity 134
proximity inhalants 108
structure of 124
behaviour 190–191, 198 opiates 106–107
compensation 81 sedatives 107 F
Compensation for stimulants 107–108 facial expressions 188,
Occupational Injuries types of 106 191–192, 198
and Diseases Act, 130 of dynamic traits 56 failure 74
1993 277 familiarity 167–168, 196
E
conflict fantasy 51, 80
ear, structure of 124
dynamics of 84 feedback

learning process forming 252, 260 human relations

152–153 goal compatibility movement 269–271,
perception 122 255–256, 257 273
finger dexterity 35 groupthink 234–236, human resource
fixation 51, 81 248 approach 271–272, 289
Freud, Sigmund 49–52, 68 integration phase 253 human resource
frustration interaction with other functions 299
definition 73 groups 255–256 compensation and
delay 74 mature stage 253 benefits 298–299
environmental 73 norming 253, 260 information
failure 74, 89 norms 236–239, 248 systems 294–295, 300
helplessness 75, 89 orientation of group job analysis, design and
lack of resources 74 members 252 evaluation 295
loss 74 performing 253, 260 performance
nature of 72–73 prejudices on basis of management 297–298
reaction to 75–82 membership 196 recruitment 295
sources of 73–75 reasons for research 294
membership 218–220, selection and
G
225 staffing 296–297
gender
roles 239–244, 248 strategic planning 294,
determination 5, 19
size of 229–230, 247 297
work behaviour 14
small 223, 225 successful outcomes 301
General Aggression Model
storming 252, 260 training and
(GAM) 77
types of 221–222, 225 development 297
generalisation 144, 159
Guilford’s three- human resource
genetic determinants 45,
dimensional theory 29 management
67
behavioural
genital phase 51 H
sciences 272, 273
genotype 3, 19 hallucinogenic agents 106,
change
gestalt laws 125–128, 136 110
management 276, 289
giftedness 25 halo effect 199
counselling 270
globalisation 274 definition 197
diversity 282–283
goal-setting 152, 160 use of 98
early development
groups Hawthorne
263–264, 273
adjourning 254, 260 experiment 269–270,
globalisation 274
cohesion 231–234, 247 273
Hawthorne
composition of 228– hearing
experiment 269–270,
229, 247 abilities 38, 39
273
conflict intensity or loudness of
human relations
management 256–259, sound 38, 39
movement 269–271,
260 measurement of 38
273
conflict within 196, 252 pitch or frequency of
industrialisation
conformity 245–247, sound 38, 39
264–266, 273
248 helplessness 75
industrial
development heredity 3, 4–6, 11–12, 19
psychology 268
stages 251–254, 251 determination
information systems 274
disbandment 254 of personality
milestones in
dynamics 217–218, 218, differences 45, 67
development 265, 273
225 determination of sex 6
performance
effective 224–225, hierarchy of needs 58–59,
development 289–290
225–226 58

Index 311
personnel execution of learning

departments 268–269, response 122 ability 27
273 feedback 122 characteristics 159
role of managers perception 121 learning process
288–289 short-term sensory allocation of time 152,
scientific management storage 121, 155, 155, 160
266–268, 273 160 feedback of results
strategic role 273, 274, stimuli 121 152–153
287–288 inhalants 108, 110 forms of learning
systems approach 271, insight 149–150, 160 141–151
271 instrumental goal-setting 152, 160
conditioning 52, insight 149–150, 160
I
166–167 knowledge of
id 50
intellectualisation 82 results 152–153, 160
identification 82
intelligence latent 149, 160
imitation 150–151, 160
cognitive 26–31 memory 154–159
implicit personality
composition of 28–29, and motivation 153,
theory 184, 198
39 160
impression formation 182
functional 39 nature of learning
additional positive
hierarchical models 139–141
characteristics 185
of 29 relevance of learning
central
measurement of 29–31 material 153, 160
characteristics 183–184,
quotient 29–30, 39 learning theory 52,
198
structural 39 166–167, 179, 196
definition 183
tests 31, 39 life changes 95–96, 109
equalisation 183
interests, perception 119 Likert scale 177, 178, 180
evaluation 183, 184,
interviews long-term memory
198
structured 64, 68 157–158, 160
expectations of further
unstructured 64, 68 loss 74
interaction 185, 198
intimate distance 190
first impressions 183 M
peripheral J manual dexterity 34
characteristics 184, 198 job analysis, design and Maslow’s self-actualisation
individuals, and evaluation 295 theory 68, 286
stress 93–94, 100–102, job satisfaction dynamics of 58
109 and group hierarchy of
industrialisation 264–266, membership 229 needs 58–59, 58
273 and role conflict 208, nature of 57
industrial psychology 268 210 measurement
information job stress 96–97, 97, 101, of attitudes 174–177
retrieval 159, 160 102 of intelligence 29–31
storage and recall memory 51
L
155–159 long-term 157–158, 160
Labour Relations Act, 66
systems 274 nature of 154
of 1995 277
information processing short-term 156, 160
labour turnover, and
model 120, 136 mesomorphy 53–54, 54
alcohol abuse 105
application of 123 Miller’s Drive Reduction
latent
attention 122 Theory 52
learning 149, 160
choice of response 121 Mine Health and Safety
phase 51
decision-making 121 Act, 29 of 1996 299
lay-offs 287
Minnesota Rate of

Manipulation Test 35 145–147, 159–160, spontaneous perceptual

modelling 160, 167, 173 166–167 observation 125–135,
behaviour 147, opiates 106–107, 110 136
150–151, 194 oral phase 51 stimuli 121
moderators organisational uniformity 128–129,
cognitive behaviour 272, 273 136
appraisal 98–99, 109 organisational conditions, visual senses 123–124,
degree of hardiness 99, and stress 96–97, 97, 136
109 101, 102 perceptual errors 199
physical and mental organisational halo effect 197–198,
condition 98, 109 culture 15–16, 287–288 199
moral learning 50–151, orthorater 37 insufficient
160 Otis Mental Test 31, 39 information 192, 199
motivation 160 outsourcing 287 manipulation 193
increased 146 prejudices 195–196, 199
P
internal 116 projection 196–197,
paralanguage 190, 198
and learning 153 199
Pavlov, Ivan 142, 166
motives, perceptions 118 stereotyping 193–194,
perception
multiple approach- 199
attitudes and
avoidance conflict 87, performance
expectations 118
87, 89 appraisals 298
auditory senses 125,
performance
N 136
development 289–290,
negative reinforcement 52, colour 37
297–298
146, 167 depth 37, 131–135, 136,
peripheral characteristics,
non-verbal 137
impression
communication 182, of auditory
formation 184, 198
187–192 information 129–131,
personal determinants 48,
body language 189–190, 136
67
190, 198 distance 131–135
personal distance 190
deception 191–192 errors in 192–198
personal experience 168,
eye contact 189, 192, gestalt laws 125–128,
179, 196
198 136
personality 87
facial expressions 188, grouping 126–127
and character 44
191–192, 198 information processing
constitutional
norms model 120–123, 136
theory 53–55
groups 236–239, 248 interests 119
deviant development 51
role expectations 204 motives 118
dimensional
nature of 113–114
O approaches 53–56
organisation 125
objective/subjective dimensions of 49
perceptual coding 121
testing 62–64, 68 dynamics of 50
perceptual
objective testing 60–62, 68 effect of specific events
uniformity 128–129
observational learning 150, on development of 47
personality 119
167 environmental
previous experience 119
occupational health and determinants 46–48
sensory 36–38, 114
safety 290–291 genetic factors 45
sensory awareness
Occupational Health humanistic approach
123–125
and Safety Act, 85 of theories 57–59
sensory storage 121
1993 277, 290, 299 implicit personality
social 114
operant conditioning 52, theory 184, 198
spatial placement

Index 313
measurement of 59–67 projection 80, 196, 199 learnt 151

nature of 43–44 definition 196 modelling 147
origin and use of 197 reduction of number of
development 44–48 projective techniques 65 potential responses 146
perceptions 119 proximity behaviour reinforcement of desired
personal 190–191, 198 response 147, 148
determinants 48 psycho-dynamic approach verbal instructions 147
structure of 50 to attitudes 165, 179 responsibility therapy 101
temperament 44 to personality 49–52 retrenchments 279, 287
theories of 49–59 psychological dependence right-sizing 279
traits 55–56, 95, 189 alcohol 104 Rogers, Carl 57
types 94, 95 hallucinogenic role ambiguity 214, 243,
work-related traits 43 agents 106 248
personnel inhalants 108 causes of 208–210
departments 268–269, opiates 107 consequences of 210
273 sedatives 107 definition 208
persuasion 169–171, 169, stimulants 108 prevention of 213
179 psycho-sexual role conflict 214, 243–244,
PEST factors 277–281 development 51 248
phallic phase 51 public distance 191 causes of 206–207
phenotype 3, 19 Purdue Mechanical consequences of
physiological dependence Adaptability Test 33 207–208
alcohol 104 Purdue Pegboard Test 35 definition 205
opiates 107 reduction of 213
Q
sedatives 107 role overload 214–215
quality of worklife 301
positive reinforcement 52, causes of 212
145, 167 R consequences of 212
potential 24 rate control 34 nature of 210–211
precision control 35 rating role play 173
prejudices 199 application of 63 roles
and attitudes 195 interviews 64 aggressive 242
and discrimination 195 nature of 62–63 behavioural
membership of by others 62–64, 68 component 205, 214
groups 196 scales 63 blocking 242
process conflict 88, 89 by self 60–62, 68 classification of
productivity 283–286, 284, rationalisation 79 241–242, 248
301 reaction formation 80 contents of 243–244
different industries 285 reaction time 34 decision-making 204
influence of alcohol or recruitment 295 differentiation 202
drug consumption re-engineering 279, 287 dominating 242
104–105, 108 regression 81–82 expectations 202, 204,
influence of attitude 179 repression 78–79 214
influence of response formal 203
interpersonal behavioural functional 202
competence 272 changes 141 in groups 239–244
influence of loss 74 choice of 121 information 203
large groups 229 conditioned 143, 159 interpersonal 203
low level of 279, 283 execution of 122 interpretation of
Skinner’s learning increased 239–240
methods 52 motivation 146 maintenance 242

nature of 202–205, 214 Act of 1999 277 conditions 96–97, 102

norms 204, 214 Skinner’s theory of extreme responsibility
perceptual behaviourism 52 therapy 101
component 204–205, Snellen chart 36 Structured-Objective
214 social and moral Rorschach Test
problems 213–214, 215 learning 150–151 (SORT) 66
receivers 204 social distance 191 subjective testing 65–67,
tasks 241–242 scale 176, 178, 180 68
transmitters 204 socialisation 46–47 sublimation 81
withdrawing 242 social learning 150–151, substantive conflict 88, 89
role underload 214–215 160 substitution 80
causes of 212 Social Learning Theory 52 super-ego 50
consequences of 212 social loafing 229 surface traits 56
nature of 211–212 somatotonia 54
T
Rorschach Inkblot somato-types 53–54
talent 25
Test 65–66, 68 source traits 56
temperament 44, 53
South African Personality
S temperamental traits 56
Questionnaire 60–61,
safety 290–291 Thematic Apperception
68
scientific Test (TAT) 66–67, 68
Spearman’s two-factor
management 266–268, Thurstone’s multi-factor
theory 28
273 theory 29, 39
speed of limb
sedatives 110 trade unions 16, 19, 264,
movement 34
self-image 300
splitting 82
and role conflict 210 training 289–290, 297
spontaneous perceptual
and role overload/ trial-and-error
observation 125–135
underload 212, 215 learning 148, 160
spontaneous recovery 145,
self-rating method 60–62 twin studies 10
159
Selye, Hans 92
staff selection and U
semantic differential 63,
placement 17–19, 20, unemployment 286–287
68, 177, 178, 180
296–297 Unemployment Insurance
sensory
stakeholders 280 Act, 63 of 2001 277
abilities 36–38
stereotypes 193–194, 199
awareness 123–125, V
stimulants 107–108, 110
136 values, and prejudices 196
stimuli
perception 36–38, 114 viscerotonia 54
behavioural
storage 121, 155, 155, visual senses 36–38, 39,
changes 141
160 123–124, 136
perceptions 121
Sheldon’s constitutional observation of depth
stress
personality and distance 131–135,
causes of 93–97
theory 53–55, 68 136
coping strategies
short-term memory 156,
101–102 W
160
definition 92 Wechsler-Bellevue
skill
dynamics of 93–102, 94 Intelligence Test 31, 39
definition 24
effects of 100–101 work behaviour 13–16
development 286,
and individuals 93–94, work conditions 15
289–290
94, 100–102, 109 wrist-finger speed 35
improvement of 148
life changes 95–96, 109
Skills Development Act, 97 Z
moderators 98–99, 109
of 1998 277, 286, 289 zygote, development of 5
organisational
Skills Development Levies

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2nd Edition

BASIC PSYCHOLOGY FANIE KRUGER

MARIANA BOTHA, WALTA HERRON

FANIE KRUGER, JANIE STEYN

Help and Support

Basic Psychology for Human Resources Practitioner.indb 1 11/12/2014 10:53:20 AM

Juta and Company Ltd

© 2015 Juta & Company Ltd

ISBN 978 1 48510 275 5 (Print)

Project Manager: Willemien Jansen

Picture credits: Bigstock (p.93, p. 228, p.230 and p. 264)

Chapter 1: Individual differences ................................................ 1

Chapter 2: Human abilities ......................................................... 22

Chapter 3: Personality .................................................................. 41

Chapter 4: Frustration and conflict ........................................... 71

Chapter 5: Stress, alcoholism and drug addiction ............... 91

Chapter 6: Perception ................................................................ 112

Chapter 7: The learning process and memory ................... 138

Chapter 8: Attitudes ................................................................... 162

Chapter 9: Social perception .................................................... 181

Chapter 10: Role theory .............................................................. 201

Chapter 11: Group dynamics ..................................................... 216

Chapter 12: Group characteristics.............................................. 227

Chapter 13: Group process ......................................................... 250

Chapter 14: The historical development of human

Chapter 15: Human resource management in

Chapter 16: The human resource role ..................................... 292

Bibliography ...................................................................................... 303

Index ...................................................................................... 308

Basic Psychology for Human Resources Practitioner.indb 3 11/12/2014 10:53:21 AM

Janie Steyn is the Head of Programme in the Commerce Faculty

Mariana Botha is currently working as a Human Resources Officer

Basic Psychology for Human Resources Practitioner.indb 4 11/12/2014 10:53:21 AM

Basic Psychology for Human Resources Practitioner.indb 5 11/12/2014 10:53:21 AM

1.1 Introduction .............................................................................. 2

Basic Psychology for Human Resources Practitioner.indb 1 11/12/2014 10:53:21 AM

■■ describe the nature of environmental influences;

■■ portray the characteristics of environmental influences;

■■ distinguish between the contributions of heredity and environment to individual

placement in the industry.

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1.2 The origin of behaviour differences

1.2.1 Heredity and environment

Basic Psychology for Human Resources Practitioner.indb 3 11/12/2014 10:53:22 AM

Basic Psychology for Human Resources Practitioner.indb 4 11/12/2014 10:53:22 AM

Figure 1.1 Development of the zygote

Basic Psychology for Human Resources Practitioner.indb 5 11/12/2014 10:53:22 AM

male sperm cell with an X chromosome (X + X = girl) (refer Fig 1.3).

male sperm cell with a Y chromosome (X + Y = boy) (refer Fig 1.3).

Figure 1.3 Sex determination

Direct and indirect influences

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1.2.1.2 Environmental influences

Characteristics of environmental influences

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is especially influenced by the social environment (the individual’s home

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It is then established to what extent the characteristics occur in the families of

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