UNIT 4: Network (8)

4.1 Introduction of computer network

4.2 Types of Network - LAN, WAN, MAN, PAN
4.3 Topologies of LAN - Ring, Bus, Star, Mesh and Tree topologies
4.4 Communication Media - Twisted, Coaxial, and Fiber Optic
4.5 Cellular Network : 2G, 2.5G, 3G, 4G, 5G

4.1 Introduction to Computer Network

Computer Network is an interconnection of numerous computers to share an operating system,

hardware, and information through a transmission mode between them. There is no restriction to
the area between two computers in a network.

Advantages of Computer Networking

Some of the main advantages of Computer Networking are discussed below:
• Central Storage of Data: Files can be stored on a central node (the file server)
that can be shared and made available to every user in an organization.
• Connectivity: There is a negligible range of abilities required to connect to a
modern computer network. The effortlessness of joining makes it workable for even
youthful kids to start exploring the data.
• Faster Problem-solving: Since an extensive procedure is disintegrated into a few
littler procedures and each is taken care of by all the associated gadgets, an explicit
issue can be settled in lesser time.
• Reliability: Reliability implies backing up information. Due to some reason
equipment crashes, and so on, the information gets undermined or inaccessible on
one PC, and another duplicate of similar information is accessible on another
workstation for future use, which prompts smooth working and further handling
without interruption.
• Flexible: This innovation is known to be truly adaptable, as it offers clients the
chance to investigate everything about fundamental things, for example,
programming without influencing their usefulness.
• Security through Authorization: Security and protection of information are
additionally settled through the system. As just the system clients are approved to
get to specific records or applications, no other individual can crack the protection
or security of information.
• Storage capacity: Since you will share data, records, and assets with other
individuals, you need to guarantee all information and substance are legitimately put
away in the framework. With this systems administration innovation, you can do
most of this with no issue, while having all the space you require for capacity.

Disadvantages of Computer Networking

Some of the main disadvantages of Computer Networking are discussed below:
• Expensive: Execution of the network can be expensive in the case of an initial
setup, as the wires and the cost of the cable are high and sometimes equipment is
also costly.
• Virus and Malware: Computer Networking can lead to the spreading of viruses to
another computer through the network.
• Management of the network: Management of the Network is quite difficult as it
requires skilled persons to handle that large network. It requires training of people
who are employed in this work.
• Loss of Information: In case of a crash of the Computer Network, it can lead to
the loss of information or not being able to access information for some time.
• The system can be Hacked: In the case of Wide Area Networks(WAN), there is a
threat of Hacking of the System. Some security features should be added to prevent
such things.
4.2 Computer Network Types

A computer network is a group of computers linked to each other that enables the computer
to communicate with another computer and share their resources, data, and applications.

A computer network can be categorized by their size. A computer network is mainly of four
types:

LAN(Local Area Network)

o PAN(Personal Area Network)
o MAN(Metropolitan Area Network)
o WAN(Wide Area Network)

LAN(Local Area Network)

o Local Area Network is a group of computers connected to each other in a small area
such as building, office.
o LAN is used for connecting two or more personal computers through a
communication medium such as twisted pair, coaxial cable, etc.
o It is less costly as it is built with inexpensive hardware such as hubs, network
adapters, and ethernet cables.
o The data is transferred at an extremely faster rate in Local Area Network.
o Local Area Network provides higher security.

PAN(Personal Area Network)

o Personal Area Network is a network arranged within an individual person, typically
within a range of 10 meters.
o Personal Area Network is used for connecting the computer devices of personal use is
known as Personal Area Network.
o Thomas Zimmerman was the first research scientist to bring the idea of the Personal
Area Network.
 o Personal Area Network covers an area of 30 feet.
o Personal computer devices that are used to develop the personal area network are the
laptop, mobile phones, media player and play stations.

There are two types of Personal Area Network:

o Wired Personal Area Network
o Wireless Personal Area Network

Wireless Personal Area Network: Wireless Personal Area Network is developed by simply
using wireless technologies such as WiFi, Bluetooth. It is a low range network.

Wired Personal Area Network: Wired Personal Area Network is created by using the USB.

Examples Of Personal Area Network:

o Body Area Network: Body Area Network is a network that moves with a
person. For example, a mobile network moves with a person. Suppose a person
establishes a network connection and then creates a connection with another device to
share the information.
o Offline Network: An offline network can be created inside the home, so it is also
known as a home network. A home network is designed to integrate the devices such
as printers, computer, television but they are not connected to the internet.
o Small Home Office: It is used to connect a variety of devices to the internet and to a
corporate network using a VPN

MAN(Metropolitan Area Network)

o A metropolitan area network is a network that covers a larger geographic area by

interconnecting a different LAN to form a larger network.
o Government agencies use MAN to connect to the citizens and private industries.
o In MAN, various LANs are connected to each other through a telephone exchange
line.
o The most widely used protocols in MAN are RS-232, Frame Relay, ATM, ISDN, OC-
3, ADSL, etc.
o It has a higher range than Local Area Network(LAN).

Uses Of Metropolitan Area Network:

o MAN is used in communication between the banks in a city.

 o It can be used in an Airline Reservation.
o It can be used in a college within a city.
o It can also be used for communication in the military.

WAN(Wide Area Network)

o A Wide Area Network is a network that extends over a large geographical area such
as states or countries.
o A Wide Area Network is quite bigger network than the LAN.
o A Wide Area Network is not limited to a single location, but it spans over a large
geographical area through a telephone line, fibre optic cable or satellite links.
o The internet is one of the biggest WAN in the world.
o A Wide Area Network is widely used in the field of Business, government, and
education.

Examples Of Wide Area Network:

o Mobile Broadband: A 4G network is widely used across a region or country.

o Last mile: A telecom company is used to provide the internet services to the
customers in hundreds of cities by connecting their home with fiber.
o Private network: A bank provides a private network that connects the 44 offices.
This network is made by using the telephone leased line provided by the telecom
company.

Advantages Of Wide Area Network:

Following are the advantages of the Wide Area Network:

o Geographical area: A Wide Area Network provides a large geographical area.

Suppose if the branch of our office is in a different city then we can connect with
them through WAN. The internet provides a leased line through which we can
connect with another branch.
o Centralized data: In case of WAN network, data is centralized. Therefore, we do not
need to buy the emails, files or back up servers.
o Get updated files: Software companies work on the live server. Therefore, the
programmers get the updated files within seconds.
o Exchange messages: In a WAN network, messages are transmitted fast. The web
application like Facebook, Whatsapp, Skype allows you to communicate with friends.
 o Sharing of software and resources: In WAN network, we can share the software
and other resources like a hard drive, RAM.
o Global business: We can do the business over the internet globally.
o High bandwidth: If we use the leased lines for our company then this gives the high
bandwidth. The high bandwidth increases the data transfer rate which in turn
increases the productivity of our company.

Disadvantages of Wide Area Network:

The following are the disadvantages of the Wide Area Network:

o Security issue: A WAN network has more security issues as compared to LAN and
MAN network as all the technologies are combined together that creates the security
problem.
o Needs Firewall & antivirus software: The data is transferred on the internet which
can be changed or hacked by the hackers, so the firewall needs to be used. Some
people can inject the virus in our system so antivirus is needed to protect from such a
virus.
o High Setup cost: An installation cost of the WAN network is high as it involves the
purchasing of routers, switches.
o Troubleshooting problems: It covers a large area so fixing the problem is difficult.

Internetwork

o An internetwork is defined as two or more computer network LANs or WAN or

computer network segments are connected using devices, and they are configured by
a local addressing scheme. This process is known as internetworking.
o An interconnection between public, private, commercial, industrial, or government
computer networks can also be defined as internetworking.
o An internetworking uses the internet protocol.
o The reference model used for internetworking is Open System
Interconnection(OSI).

Types Of Internetwork:

1. Extranet: An extranet is a communication network based on the internet protocol such

as Transmission Control protocol and internet protocol. It is used for information sharing.
The access to the extranet is restricted to only those users who have login credentials. An
extranet is the lowest level of internetworking. It can be categorized as MAN, WAN or other
computer networks. An extranet cannot have a single LAN, atleast it must have one
connection to the external network.
2. Intranet: An intranet is a private network based on the internet protocol such
as Transmission Control protocol and internet protocol. An intranet belongs to an
organization which is only accessible by the organization's employee or members. The main
aim of the intranet is to share the information and resources among the organization
employees. An intranet provides the facility to work in groups and for teleconferences.

Intranet advantages:

o Communication: It provides a cheap and easy communication. An employee of the

organization can communicate with another employee through email, chat.
o Time-saving: Information on the intranet is shared in real time, so it is time-saving.
o Collaboration: Collaboration is one of the most important advantage of the intranet.
The information is distributed among the employees of the organization and can only
be accessed by the authorized user.
o Platform independency: It is a neutral architecture as the computer can be connected
to another device with different architecture.
o Cost effective: People can see the data and documents by using the browser and
distributes the duplicate copies over the intranet. This leads to a reduction in the cost.

network connecting devices

NIC
Network Interface Card (NIC) is a hardware unit that connects the computer to
a computer network for communication with other devices.
Network interface card supports almost all-standard data
transfer process between the computers and other devices.
Main purpose of NIC is to allow both wired and wireless
communications, establish the communications between
computers connected via local area network (LAN) as well as
communications over large-scale network through Internet Protocol and to provide the
necessary hardware circuitry. There are two types of NIC. One is inbuilt with the
motherboard and other is inserted externally.
Modem
The word modem stands for modulator and demodulator. It is a
device, which translates data from binary (digital) code to analog data
that can be transmitted over the telephone network. Modulation is the
conversion from binary (digital) to analog and demodulation is analog
to binary (digital). When you send a file from your PC to analog
signal, it is converted to analog signal by your modem and converted
back to digital when it arrives at the destination by the modem connected that computer. A similar
procedure occurs when you send a fax from your PC.
Router
It is a highly intelligent, protocol sensitive linking device used to link
similar or dissimilar LANs. If they don’t use the same protocols and /
or you don’t want to send all messages between the two, it can get a
bit tricky. A router, which can be hardware, software, or both, is a
device that connects two networks. Example: (a) Ethernet to Ethernet (b) Ethernet to token ring (c) MAN to
WAN
Hub/Switch
The hub/switch is the standard and important components of networking which is used to connect
computers. Hub is used to receive incoming data, amplify and distribute.
There are three types of hubs are used in networking:
⚫ Active Hubs: Most hubs are active; that is, they regenerate and retransmit signals in the same way
as a repeater does. Because hubs usually have eight to twelve ports for network computers to
connect to, they are sometimes called multiport repeaters. Active hubs require electrical power
to run.
⚫ Passive Hubs: Some types of hubs are passive; examples include wiring panels or punch-down
blocks. They act as connection points and do not amplify or regenerate the signal; the signal
passes through the hub. Passive hubs do not require electrical power to run.
⚫ Hybrid Hubs: Advanced hubs that will accommodate several different types of cables are called
hybrid hubs.

Network Topologies
The pattern of combination of computers for transferring data is called networking topology. It is a
physical layout of the network’s computers, terminals, and links. These are Star, Ring, Bus, Mesh and
Hybrid topology.
A network topology describes the geographic orientation and arrangement of networking components. It is also
defined by the arrangement of computers, cables, and other components on a network. It is a map of a physical network.

Bus Topology
The bus topology is the smallest and most widely
used of the network designs. It consists of one Node
continuous length of cabling called trunk and a
terminating resistor called terminator at each end.
The data communications message travel along the
Terminator Bus
bus in both directions until it is picked up by
workstation. If the message is missed or not
recognized, it reaches the end of the cabling and
dissipates at the terminals. The number of devices
and length of cable can be easily expanded.
Advantages
⚫ The bus topology is simple, reliable, easy to use and easy to understand.
⚫ The bus requires the least amount of cable to connect the computer together and is, therefore, less
expensive than other cabling arrangement.
⚫ It is easy to extent a bus.
⚫ It is best suited for small networks.
Disadvantages
⚫ The cable length is limited. This limits the number of stations that can be connected.
⚫ This network topology can perform well only for a limited number of nodes.
⚫ If the trunk fails, it disturbs whole network.

Ring Topology
In a ring topology, every node in the network is connected to two other nodes and the first and the last
nodes are connected to each other. The data that are
transmitted over the network pass through each of the nodes
in the ring until they reach the destination node. In a ring
network, the data and the signals that pass over the network
travel in a single direction. The ring topology does not require
a central server to manage connectivity between the nodes and
facilitates an orderly network operation. But, the failure of a
single station in the network can render the entire network
inoperable.
Advantages
▪ Failure of cables or node disrupts the topology.
▪ The data being transmitted between two nodes passes through all the intermediate nodes.
▪ A central server is not required for the management of this topology.
▪ They are very easy to troubleshoot because each device incorporates a repeater.
Disadvantages
▪ Not very popular, due to complicated software and error prone.
▪ Communication delay is the directly proportional to number of node (n) and links.
▪ The failure of a single node of the network can cause the entire network to fail.
▪ The changes made to network nodes affects the performance of the entire network

Star Topology
All the nodes are connected to server or master
computer. The master computer controls all the Node
local work stations or computers (nodes). The
failure of nodes is detected easily. Host computer
controls communication between any two
computers. Local computers are not attached
directly to each other. In this topology, several Server

devices are connected to central devices.

Advantages
▪ It is easy to prepare.
▪ It is easy to modify and add new computers to a star network without disturbing the rest of
network.
▪ Single computer failure does not affect other computer in a network.
▪ The hub can detect a network fault and isolate the defected computer in a network.

Disadvantages
▪ If the central hub fails, the whole network stops.
▪ Requires more cable than most topologies.

Tree Topology
In a tree topology, each device is connected
to it own port or hub just like a tree topology.
Tree or “star of star” topology interconnects
hubs in hierarchical fashion, so one hub at
the top will be connected to many other hubs,
which will break off to devices or even more
hubs. A tree topology is the variation of star
topology. As in star, nodes in a tree are
linked to a central hub that controls the
traffic in the network. The central hub of in
the tree is an active hub. An active hub
contains a repeater, which is a hardware device that regenerates the received bit patterns before sending
them out.
Advantages
▪ Easy to extend because the tree topology is divided into many sub-units.
▪ Easy to add new nodes or branches.
▪ Allows the network to isolate and prioritize communications from different computer.
▪ In case of hub or device failure, the networks continue to operate, which makes it easy to
find the fault hub or device.
Disadvantages
▪ The entire network depends on the root. If the main root or hub fails to operate, then the
entire network will fail to operate.
▪ It is expensive.

4.4 Transmission media

On any network, the various entities must communicate through some form of media. Just as humans
can communicate through telephone wires or sound waves in the air, computers can communicate
through cables, light, and radio waves. Transmission media enable computers to send and receive
messages. Transmission media provides the path through which electrons (data) flow.
Transmission media provides the physical path through which electrons flow. At the physical layer of OSI model of
networking, electrons represent network data as binary 0s and 1s. Transmission media provides these electrons with
a guided or unbound communications path.

Bound Media (Guided Media)

Guided Transmission Media uses a "cabling"
system that guides the data signals along a Transmission
media
specific path. The data signals are bound by the
"cabling" system. Guided Media is also known
as Bound Media. A signal travelling along any
Bound Unbound
of these media is directed and contained by the media media
physical limits of the medium. Some bounded
media are given below.
▪ Twisted pair
▪ Coaxial cable
▪ Optical fibre cable
Twisted pair
It is oldest, but very common transmission media. It is made from copper wires twisted to each other.
It is used for either analog or digital transmission. It can transmit data several kilometers without
amplifier. It has high error rate beyond 100m. A twisted pair consists of two conductors (copper), each
with its own coloured plastic insulation. Colours are used both to identify the specific conductors in a
cable and to indicate which wires belong in pairs and how they are relate to other pairs in a large bundle.
The twisting is done in order to avoid the interference of noise. However the twisting does not always
eliminate the impact of noise, but it does significantly reduce it. Types of twisted pair are unshielded
twisted pair (UTP) and Shielded twisted pair (STP).

Advantages
⚫ It is less expensive
⚫ It is widely available
⚫ It is easy to work
Disadvantages
⚫ It has low bandwidth
⚫ It has low security
⚫ It emits electromagnetic interference.
Types of twisted pair
⚫ Unshielded twisted pair (UTP): UTP cable is the common type of telecommunication medium
today. It transmits both data and voice. A twisted pair consists of two conductors (copper), each
with its own colour plastic insulation. UTP cable does not offer high bandwidth or as good
protecting from interference as coaxial cable or fibre optics cable. But UTP cables are less
expensive and easy to use
⚫ Shielded twisted pair (STP) cable: STP cable has metal foil or braided mesh covering each pair
of insulated conductors. The metal casing prevents the penetration of electromagnetic noise. It
can also eliminate the phenomenon called crosstalk, which is the undesired effect of one circuit
to another circuit. STP is suitable for environments with electrical interference; however, the
extra shielding can make the cables quite bulky.

Comparison between UTP and STP

⚫ STP is more difficult to
install then UTP
⚫ Data protection is high in
STP than UTP Protective plastic Braided ou ter In su latin g Copper
coverin g con du ctor m aterial wire
⚫ STP is expensive than UTP
Coaxial cable
Coaxial consists of a stiff (solid) copper wire as the core. It is surrounded by insulating materials. The
insulator is encased by a cylindrical conductor, often as closely woven braided mesh. The outer
conductor is covered in protective plastic sheath.
It can spans longer distance at higher speed than twisted pairs. The construction and shielding of coaxial
cable give it a good combination of high bandwidth and excellent noise protection. The bandwidth of
coaxial cable depends upon quality of cable, length and signal to noise ratio of data signal. It is used for
cable TV and MAN. It is also used in Telephone network
Types of coaxial cable:
⚫ Thin coaxial cable: 10 Base 2 refers to the specifications for thin coaxial cable carrying Ethernet
signals. The 2 refers to the 200 meter as length, but in actual condition, the length is only 185
meter observed for efficient communication. This cable is popular in linear bus network.
⚫ Thick coaxial cable: 10 Base 5 refers to the specifications for thick coaxial cable carrying
Ethernet signal. The 5 refers to 500 meter length of cable for efficient transmission of data. Thick
coaxial cable has an extra protective plastic cover that helps keep moisture away from the canter
conductor.
Advantages
⚫ It has higher Bandwidth than twisted pair
⚫ It is less susceptible to electromagnetic interference
Disadvantages
⚫ It is expensive than twisted pair
⚫ It is inflexible
⚫ It is easily tapped

Optical Fiber cable

It is made up of glass or plastics that transmit signals in the form of light. It is similar to coaxial cable
except without the braid. Fiber optic cable is made of a light conducting glass or plastic core through
which light propagates. The core is surrounded by a glass cladding with lower index of refraction than
the core, to keep the light source in the core. Next comes a thin plastic jacket to protect the cladding.
Fibers are typically grouped in bundle, protected by an outer sheath.
Jacket (Plastic)
Stren gthen in g fibers
Core (glass)

Claddin g

Advantages
⚫ They have much greater bandwidth than twisted pair and coaxial cable.
⚫ They do not have speed limits or bandwidth limitations
⚫ They are much thinner than. twisted pair and coaxial cable.
⚫ They are much lighter than. twisted pair and coaxial cable
⚫ They are less susceptible than metal cable to interference.
⚫ A signal can run for miles without requiring regeneration.
⚫ They are difficult to tap
⚫ They are not affected by EMI – Electromagnetic Interference
Disadvantages
⚫ They have limited bend radius
⚫ By bending the normal optical fiber cables, some leakage of signal could be induced and that can
be used for hacking the information in them.
⚫ They are expensive
⚫ They are difficult to splice
⚫ They are inflexible
Unbound Media
Unbounded / Unguided media or wireless media doesn't use any physical connectors between the two
devices communicating. Usually the transmission is send through the atmosphere but sometime it can
be just across the rule. Wireless media is used when a physical obstruction or distance blocks are used
with normal cable media. Unbound media transports electromagnetic waves with out using physical
conductor. Instead signal are broadcast through air, and available to any one who has a device capable
of receiving them. Some unbound media are radio waves, micro waves, infrared waves, microwave,
satellite, wireless media etc.

Microwave
It is an electromagnetic wave and frequencies between 1 to 300 GHz. This
system uses high-frequency radio signals to transmit data through space.
Microwaves frequencies waves cannot bend and passed obstacles like hill.
Hence it is necessary that microwaves transmission be in a line-of-sight.
Line-of-sight communication means that there must be an unblocked
direct line between the workstation and transceiver. Microwaves signals
become weaker after travelling a certain distance and required power amplification. That’s why
repeaters are used at regular interval of 25-30 km in between transmitting and receiving stations.
Microwaves system permits data rate of about 16 Gbps. They are generally installed to link big
metropolitan city.
Advantages
⚫ It has a Speed of light
⚫ It has high bandwidth.
⚫ It is relatively inexpensive.
Disadvantages
⚫ It has Line-of-sight only
⚫ It does not cover large space.
⚫ It uses encryption for security
Satellite
Communication satellites in a space
orbiting 22,000 miles above the earth
are also used as microwave relay
stations because they rotate at the precise point and speed above the equator that makes them appear
stationary to microwave transmitters on the ground. Satellite links use microwave frequencies in
the order of 4 -12 Giga-Hz. Satellite contains amplifier that amplify feeble frequencies coming
from earth stations.
The satellites which are positioned at an altitude of 35,800 km in a circular equatorial orbit would appear
to remain motionless in sky. That’s why satellites placed at altitude of 35,800 km (22,000 miles) are
called geosynchronous satellite. Since a satellite is positioned in a geosynchronous orbit, it always stays
over the same point on the ground. This allows a ground station to aim its antenna at a fixed point in
the sky. Transmitting a signal from ground to satellite is called up linking; the reverse is called down
linking. The data transfer rate of up-link is lower than that of the down-link.
Advantages
⚫ It has very high bandwidth
⚫ It covers large space.
Disadvantages
⚫ It is expensive
⚫ It has signals experience propagation delay
⚫ It uses encryption for security
Wireless media
Some common types of wireless media are infrared, light and radio. Infrared
transmission is usually limited to a small area, e.g. one room, with the transmitter
pointed towards the receiver. The hardware is inexpensive and does not require an
antenna. A network that uses electromagnetic radio waves operates at radio
frequency and its transmissions are called RF transmissions. Each host on the
network attaches to an antenna, which can both send and receive RF.
Advantages
⚫ They are flexible.
⚫ They are portable

Disadvantages
⚫ The data transfer rate is slower than hard-wired method.
⚫ It has subject to interference.

4.5 Cellular Network : 2G, 2.5G, 3G, 4G, 5G

A cellular network or mobile network is a communication network where the link to and from end nodes is
wireless. The network is distributed over land areas called "cells", each served by at least one fixed-
location transceiver (typically three cell sites or base transceiver stations ).

Launch Year
Stands for

1G First Generation 1979 (Obsolete)

2G Second Generation 1991

3G Third Generation 2001

4G Fourth Generation 2009

5G Fifth Generation 2019

1G, 2G, 3G, 4G and 5G are the generations of mobile networks

There have been five generations of mobile networks so far. 1G, 2G, 3G, 4G and 5G
represent the five generations of mobile networks where G stands for ‘Generation’ and the
numbers 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 represent the generation number. Since the early 1980s, we have
seen a new generation of mobile networks nearly every ten (10) years.

Each generation of mobile networks (e.g. 2G) has a set of requirements fulfilled by the
relevant cellular technologies (e.g. GSM). Examples of cellular technologies include AMPS,
GSM, UMTS, CDMA2000, LTE, etc.
Mobile networks started their journey in a very decentralised way, and different regions, e.g.
Nordic, US, UK, Germany, Japan etc., followed their own preferred technologies for
launching local cellular services.

1G – First Generation

1G stands for the first generation of mobile networks that were designed to provide
basic voice calling services. 1G networks started in the early 1980s and were introduced
in different parts of the world through various FDMA-based analogue technologies,
including AMPS, NMT, TACS, J-TACS and C-Netz.

First-generation (1G) cellular technologies included AMPS (Advanced Mobile Phone

System), NMT (Nordisk MobilTelefoni or Nordic Mobile Telephone), TACS (Total Access
Communications System) and C-Netz (Funktelefonnetz-C or Radio Telephone Network C).
AMPS was primarily used in the US and some Asian countries, whereas NMT was deployed
in the Nordic/Scandinavian region, TACS mainly in the UK, and C-Netz in Germany.

While Japan was the first country in the world to launch a commercial cellular network in
1979, it later adopted a variant of AMPS called J-TACS (Japanese Total Access
Communication System). For clarity, the TACS technology in the UK was also a variant of
AMPS. 1G networks were based on the Frequency Division Multiple Access technology
(FDMA).

I have written a dedicated post on analogue and digital cellular networks that provides further
details on the first generation of mobile networks. The AMPS technology was later upgraded
to its digital version, D-AMPS, a key second-generation technology which you can learn
about in this dedicated post on AMPS vs D-AMPS.

2G – Second Generation

2G stands for the second generation of mobile networks that initially offered voice calls,
text messages and limited mobile internet. 2G networks started in the early 1990s and
were introduced in different parts of the world through various digital technologies,
including GSM, D-AMPS and IS-95.

The second-generation (2G) mobile networks are digital, and they replaced the first-
generation (1G) networks. 2G networks enabled highly secure voice calls, text messages
(SMS), and limited mobile data services. 2G networks started in the 1990s and were deployed
in different parts of the world through various digital technologies.

The most widely used technology standard for the second generation of mobile networks
is Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM). Digital Advanced Mobile Phone
System (D-AMPS) and Interim Standard 95 (IS-95) are the other technologies that were used
for launching second-generation mobile networks (2G).

The second generation of mobile networks employed two new access technologies, TDMA
(Time Division Multiple Access) and CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access). Access
technologies are part of the mobile radio network that allows a mobile phone to connect to
the mobile network wirelessly through radio waves. The original GSM and D-AMPS
networks were circuit-switched and not designed to provide efficient data services.

GSM networks added an enhancement called General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) that
introduced new network nodes in the GSM architecture to provide efficient mobile data
(internet) services. GPRS is a second-generation enhancement and is often referred to as 2.5G
as it paved the way for the 3G data services that later utilised the same network nodes that
GPRS originally introduced. These nodes are part of the mobile core network and are
called SGSN (Serving GPRS Support Node) and GGSN (Gateway GPRS Support Node).

In addition, another enhancement, EDGE – Enhanced Data for Global Evolution, was
launched after GPRS and before the 3G networks to improve the peak download speeds from
171.2 kbps (with GPRS) to 384 kbps (with EDGE). EDGE is also a second-generation
enhancement and is referred to as 2.75G because it bridged the gap between GPRS and 3G
UMTS. We have a dedicated post on GPRS, EGPRS and EDGE that you may check out for
more information.

Another key technology of the 2G era is IS-95, commercially known as cdmaOne. IS-95 was
the first-ever CDMA-based mobile network and was also designed to support mobile data.
There have been two versions of IS-95: IS-95 A and IS-95 B.

IS-95 A can support peak download data rates of up to 14.4 kbps. IS-95 B can improve these
rates to up to 115 kbps. IS-95 is also important because it is the technology that evolved to
CDMA2000 for the 3G cellular services. We have a dedicated post on IS-95 vs CDMA2000,
which can help you understand the difference between these two technologies.

3G – Third Generation

3G stands for the third generation of mobile networks that offer voice, text and data
services. The technologies that enable 3G are UMTS and CDMA2000 which are based
on the CDMA technology. UMTS is the 3G technology for GSM, and CDMA2000 is the
3G technology for IS-95.

There have been two 3G migration tracks which were both based on the CDMA technology
(Code Division Multiple Access). The first track was UMTS for migrating GSM networks to
3G, and the other track was CDMA2000 for IS-95 and D-AMPS.

UMTS, which represents the first track, stands for Universal Mobile Telecommunication
System. It employs Wideband Code Division Multiple Access (WCDMA) for its air interface
to offer peak download data rates of up to 2 Mbps. The average data rate with UMTS is
around 384 kbps.

We have a dedicated post on 3G UMTS that dives deeper into the technical aspects, including
frequencies, bandwidths and more. High-Speed Packet Access (HSPA) networks are built
upon the UMTS technology. HSPA can offer peak downlink and uplink speeds of up to 14.4
Mbps and 5.76 Mbps, respectively.
UMTS was introduced as part of the 3GPP Release 1999, which later saw enhancements in
the form of HSDPA (High-Speed Downlink Packet Access), HSUPA (High-Speed Uplink
Packet Access) and Evolved High-Speed Packet Access (HSPA+) to provide data rate
improvements. HSPA+ can offer data rates of up to 42 Mbps in the downlink and 11.5
Mbps in the uplink.

The other track, CDMA2000, was mainly for IS-95 and D-AMPS. CDMA2000 can support
peak data rates of up to 153 kbps in the downlink and the uplink. The data rates in
CDMA2000 networks were later enhanced through EVDO (EVolution Data Optimized).
EVDO can offer maximum download speeds of up to 14.7 Mbps and top upload speeds of up
to 5.4 Mbps.

4G – Fourth Generation

4G stands for the fourth generation of mobile networks that are data-only networks
enabled by the LTE technology. 4G networks use packet-switching to offer IP-based
voice calls and text messages in addition to high-speed mobile data. LTE is the 4G
technology for both UMTS and CDMA2000.

4G is enabled by the LTE technology, which stands for Long Term Evolution (of mobile
networks). LTE is the 4G migration path for key 3G technologies, including UMTS and
CDMA2000. Even though another technology WiMAX (Worldwide Interoperability for
Microwave Access), can also fulfil the 4G requirements, LTE has been the primary
technology for worldwide 4G deployments.

LTE networks are fully packet-switched and do not have a circuit-switched part. A packet-
based technology Voice over LTE (VoLTE), is responsible for enabling voice calls and text
messaging in 4G LTE networks. However, LTE networks have a 2G/3G circuit-switched
fallback, which allows them to facilitate voice calls and SMS over 2G or 3G networks if the
VoLTE capability is not supported by the phone or your mobile operator.

LTE can offer peak downlink data rates of up to 300 Mbps and lower latencies than3G
networks. From a customer use case viewpoint, 4G LTE networks can offer reliable mobile
broadband services due to the average speeds they can enable. LTE on your mobile phone
can also work as a mobile hotspot to provide an internet backup for your home broadband.

After the launch of LTE, some enhancements were introduced in the form of LTE Advanced
(LTE-A) and LTE Advanced Pro. LTE-Advanced and LTE-Advanced Pro are shown on the
mobile phone screen as LTE+ and can support maximum theoretical speeds of up to 1 Gbps
and 3Gbps, respectively. The average 4G LTE speeds are considerably lower than the peak
speeds. On average, 4G LTE Advanced networks can offer download speeds of around 65
Mbps.

LTE uses Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access – OFDMA for radio access,
which is highly efficient than earlier radio access technologies. OFDMA supports a highly
efficient modulation technique, QAM – Quadrature Amplitude Modulation, which generates
higher data rates to utilise the available frequency better. You may also check out our post
on LTE and LTE+ symbols on your phone for a general understanding of 4G LTE and to
learn what it means for you as a customer.

If you are new to mobile communications and trying to build a quick understanding of mobile
networks and how the industry works, check out this slide deck created for beginners.

A quick guide to mobile communications for professionals

5G – Fifth Generation

5G stands for the fifth generation of mobile networks that are data-only and offer
average download speeds of around 150 to 200 Mbps. It is the latest generation of
mobile networks enabled by the New Radio technology (NR). 5G networks can offer
latencies as low as one millisecond.

The 5G New Radio (NR) technology is based on Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple
Access (OFDMA), just like LTE. However, it is different from the earlier generations of
mobile networks as it can cater to a wide variety of use cases by leveraging its in-built
flexibility. It can also operate in various frequency bands, including high and low
frequencies.

The higher frequency bands for 5G have limited coverage but very low latency (less than one
millisecond), suitable for real-time services. The use cases for 5G are categorised into three
main classes: enhanced mobile broadband (eMBB), massive Machine Type Communication
(mMTC) and ultra-reliable low latency communications (uRLLC). We have a dedicated post
on eMBB, mMTC and uRLLC, which can help you understand these three critical pillars of
5G.
As per the laws of physics, lower frequency bands have higher latency but much better
coverage. Therefore, mass deployment of 5G in the wider geographical areas can benefit
from the lower frequency bands. On the other hand, the higher frequency bands have lower
latency. Hence, they are ideal for providing communications for real-time applications like
self-driving cars, manufacturing, virtual reality (VR), and other IoT (Internet of Things)
services. Like the IP-based voice calling capability in LTE networks (VoLTE), 5G networks
have VoNR or Voice over NR, also known as Voice over 5G (Vo5G).

Is 5G a lot faster than 4G LTE?

Compared to 4G, 5G can offer much higher data rates on average. While the peak
download speed of 5G is over 10 Gbps, the average speeds are around 150 Mbps to 200
Mbps. Currently, most 5G deployments are non-stand-alone (NSA) that use a
combination of 4G and 5G networks to deliver 5G services.

From a technology viewpoint, 5G can offer peak speeds of up to 10 Gbps compared to LTE-
Advanced Pro, which can enable peak speeds of 3 Gbps. So on average, 5G is arguably ten
times better than 4G LTE. It is important to note that it all depends on your mobile operator
as to how much capacity they allocate, which configurations they use, etc.

Also, 4G LTE networks are mature now with LTE-Advanced and LTE-Advanced Pro
deployments. 5GNR networks are still new and are likely to see enhancements over the next
few years, just like LTE networks did. At the moment, most 5G deployments are non-stand-
alone (5G NSA), which means they are not complete or end-to-end 5G deployments.

5G non-standalone is when the 5G technology is enabled by a combination of 4G and 5G

networks. If you want to find out exactly what average speeds to expect from 4G and 5G
networks, check out our dedicated posts on average 4G speeds and average 5G speeds to see
real-life speed tests results.

What is the main difference between 4G and 5G?

The main difference between 4G LTE and 5G NR is that the maximum bandwidth in 5G is
higher than in 4G LTE networks. As a result, 5G NR networks can accommodate higher data
rates than 4G LTE. The average download speed with LTE-Advanced is around 65 Mbps
(UK- Berkshire), whereas the average download speed with 5G NR is around 150-200 Mbps.
Important to note that the 5G networks are still in their infancy, and most deployments are
non-standalone so far. Have a look at our dedicated post to understand the overall difference
between 4G LTE, LTE Advanced and 5G networks.