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UNIT-I

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MACHINE INSTRUCTIONS AND PROGRAMS

Numbers, Arithmetic Operations and Characters
Number Representation
We obviously need to represent both positive and negative numbers.
Three systems are used for representing such numbers :
• Sign-and-magnitude
• 1’s-complement
• 2’s-complement
In all three systems, the leftmost bit is 0 for positive numbers and 1 for negative
numbers. The figure in the next page illustrates all three representations using 4-bit numbers.
Positive values have identical representations in al systems, but negative values have
different representations. In the sign-and-magnitude systems, negative values are represented
by changing the most significant bit (b3 in next page figure) from 0 to 1 in the B vector of the
corresponding positive value. For example, +5 is represented by 0101, and -5 is represented
by 1101. In 1’s- complement representation, negative values are obtained by complementing
each bit of the corresponding positive number. Thus, the representation for -3 is obtained by
complementing each bit in the vector 0011 to yield 1100. clearly, the same operation, bit
complementing, is done in converting a negative number to the corresponding positive value.
Converting either way is referred to as forming the 1’s-complement of a given number.
Finally, in the 2’s-complement system, forming the 2’s-complement of a number is done by
subtracting that number from 2n.
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Hence, the 2’s complement of a number is obtained by adding 1 to the 1’s

complement of that number.

Addition of Positive numbers

Consider adding two 1-bit numbers. The results are shown in figure 2.2. Note that the
sum of 1 and 1 requires the 2-bit vector 10 to represent the value 2. We say that the sum is 0
and the carry-out is 1. In order to add multiple-bit numbers, we use a method analogous to
that used for manual computation with decimal numbers. We add bit pairs starting from the
low-order (right) and of the bit vectors, propagating carries toward the high-order (left) end.

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Characters
Character data isn't just alphabetic characters, but also numeric characters,
punctuation, spaces, etc. Most keys on the central part of the keyboard (except shift, caps
lock) are characters.
As we've discussed with signed and unsigned ints, characters need to represented. In
particular, they need to be represented in binary. After all, computers store and manipulate 0's
and 1's
However, there aren't such properties for character data, so assigning binary codes for
characters is somewhat arbitrary. The most common character representation is ASCII, which
atands for American Standard Code for Information Interchange.
One main reason to use ASCII is we need some way to represent characters as binary
numbers (or, equivalently, as bitstring patterns). There's not much choice about this since
computers represent everything in binary.

Instructions and Instruction Sequencing

A computer must have instructions capable of performing four types of
operations.
• Data transfers between the memory and the processor registers
• Arithmetic and logic operations on data
• Program sequencing and control
• I/O transfers

(i) Register Transfer Notation

Transfer of information from one location in the computer to another. Possible
locations that may be involved in such transfers are memory locations that may be involved
in such transfers are memory locations, processor registers, or registers in the I/O subsystem.
Most of the time, we identify a location by a symbolic name standing for its hardware binary
address.
Example, names for the addresses of memory locations may be LOC, PLACE, A, VAR2;
processor registers names may be R0, R5; and I/O register names may be DATAIN,
OUTSTATUS, and so on. The contents of a location are denoted by placing square brackets
around the name of the location.
Thus, the expression
R1 [LOC]
Means that the contents of memory location LOC are transferred into processor register R1.

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As another example, consider the operation that adds the contents of registers R1 and
R2, and then places their sum into register R3. This action is indicated as
R3 [R1] + [R2]
This type of notation is known as Register Transfer Notation (RTN). Note that the
right-hand side of an RTN expression always denotes a value, and the left-hand side is the
name of a location where the value is to be places, overwriting the old contents of that
location.

(ii) Assembly Language Notation

Another type of notation to represent machine instructions and programs. For this, we
use an assembly language format. For example, an instruction that causes the transfer
described above, from memory location LOC to processor register R1, is specified by the
statement
Move LOC, R1
The contents of LOC are unchanged by the execution of this instruction, but the old
contents of register R1 are overwritten.
The second example of adding two numbers contained in processor registers R1 and
R2 and placing their sum in R3 can be specified by the assembly language statement
Add R1, R2, R3

(iii) Basic Instructions

The operation of adding two numbers is a fundamental capability in any computer.
The statement
C=A+B
In a high-level language program is a command to the computer to add the current
values of the two variables called A and B, and to assign the sum to a third variable, C. When
the program containing this statement is compiled, the three variables, A, B, and C, are
assigned to distinct locations in the memory. We will use the variable names to refer to the
corresponding memory location addresses. The contents of these locations represent the
values of the three variables. Hence, the above high-level language statement requires the
action.
C [A] + [B]
To carry out this action, the contents of memory locations A and B are fetched from
the memory and transferred into the processor where their sum is computed. This result is
then sent back to the memory and stored in location C.

Addressing Modes
In general, a program operates on data that reside in the computer’s memory. These
data can be organized in a variety of ways. If we want to keep track of students’ names, we
can write them in a list. Programmers use organizations called data structures to represent the
data used in computations. These include lists, linked lists, arrays, queues, and so on.
Programs are normally written in a high-level language, which enables the programmer to use
constants, local and global variables, pointers, and arrays. The different ways in which the
location of an operand is specified in an instruction are referred to as addressing modes.

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(i) Implementation of Variable and Constants

Variables and constants are the simplest data types and are found in almost every
computer program. In assembly language, a variable is represented by allocating a register or
memory location to hold its value. Thus, the value can be changed as needed using
appropriate instructions.

Register mode - The operand is the contents of a processor register; the name (address) of
the register is given in the instruction.

Absolute mode – The operand is in a memory location; the address of this location is given
explicitly in the instruction. (In some assembly languages, this mode is called Direct).

(ii) Indirection and Pointers

In the addressing modes that follow, the instruction does not give the operand or its
address explicitly, Instead, it provides information from which the memory address of the
operand can be determined. We refer to this address as the effective address (EA) of the
operand.
Indirect mode – The effective address of the operand is the contents of a register or memory
location whose address appears in the instruction.

Basic input/output operations

We now examine the means by which data are transferred between the memory of a
computer and the outside world. Input/Output (I/O) operations are essential, and the way they
are performed can have a significant effect on the performance of the computer.
Consider a task that reads in character input from a keyboard and produces character
output on a display screen. A simple way of performing such I/O tasks is to use a method
known as program-controlled I/O. The rate of data transfer from the keyboard to a computer
is limited by the typing speed of the user, which is unlikely to exceed a few characters per
second. The rate of output transfers from the computer to the display is much higher. It is
determined by the rate at which characters can be transmitted over the link between the
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computer and the display device, typically several thousand characters per second. However,
this is still much slower than the speed of a processor that can execute many millions of
instructions per second. The difference in speed between the processor and I/O devices
creates the need for mechanisms to synchronize the transfer of data between them.

The keyboard and the display are separate device as shown in fig a. the action of
striking a key on the keyboard does not automatically cause the corresponding character to be
displayed on the screen. One block of instructions in the I/O program transfers the character
into the processor, and another associated block of instructions causes the character to be
displayed.
Striking a key stores the corresponding character code in an 8-bit buffer register
associated with the keyboard. Let us call this register DATAIN, as shown in fig a. To inform
the processor that a valid character is in DATAIN, a status control flag, SIN, is set to 1. A
program monitors SIN, and when SIN is set to 1, the processor reads the contents of
DATAIN. When the character is transferred to the processor, SIN is automatically cleared to
0. If a second character is entered at the keyboard, SIN is again set to 1, and the processor
repeats.

Stacks and queues

A computer program often needs to perform a particular subtask using the familiar
subroutine structure. In order to organize the control and information linkage between the
main program and the subroutine, a data structure called a stack is used. This section will
describe stacks, as well as a closely related data structure called a queue.
Data operated on by a program can be organized in a variety of ways. We have
already encountered data structured as lists. Now, we consider an important data structure
known as a stack. A stack is a list of data elements, usually words or bytes, with the accessing
restriction that elements can be added or removed at one end of the list only. This end is
called the top of the stack, and the other end is called the bottom. Another descriptive phrase,
last-in-first-out (LIFO) stack, is also used to describe this type of storage mechanism; the last
data item placed on the stack is the first one removed when retrieval begins. The terms push

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and pop are used to describe placing a new item on the stack and removing the top item from
the stack, respectively.
Another useful data structure that is similar to the stack is called a queue. Data are
stored in and retrieved from a queue on a first-in-first-out (FIFO) basis. Thus, if we assume
that the queue grows in the direction of increasing addresses in the memory, which is a
common practice, new data are added at the back (high-address end) and retrieved from the
front (low-address end) of the queue.
There are two important differences between how a stack and a queue are
implemented. One end of the stack is fixed (the bottom), while the other end rises and falls as
data are pushed and popped. A single pointer is needed to point to the top of the stack at any
given time. On the other hand, both ends of a queue move to higher addresses as data are
added at the back and removed from the front. So two pointers are needed to keep track of the
two ends of the queue.

Subroutines
In a given program, it is often necessary to perform a particular subtask many times
on different data-values. Such a subtask is usually called a subroutine. For example, a
subroutine may evaluate the sine function or sort a list of values into increasing or decreasing
order.
It is possible to include the block of instructions that constitute a subroutine at every
place where it is needed in the program. However, to save space, only one copy of the
instructions that constitute the subroutine is placed in the memory, and any program that
requires the use of the subroutine simply branches to its starting location. When a program
branches to a subroutine we say that it is calling the subroutine. The instruction that performs
this branch operation is named a Call instruction.
After a subroutine has been executed, the calling program must resume execution,
continuing immediately after the instruction that called the subroutine. The subroutine is said
to return to the program that called it by executing a Return instruction.

Parameter Passing
When calling a subroutine, a program must provide to the subroutine the parameters,
that is, the operands or their addresses, to be used in the computation. Later, the subroutine
returns other parameters, in this case, the results of the computation. This exchange of
information between a calling program and a subroutine is referred to as parameter passing.
Parameter passing may be accomplished in several ways.

Additional Instructions
Logic instructions
Logic operations such as AND, OR, and NOT, applied to individual bits, are the basic
building blocks of digital circuits, as described. It is also useful to be able to perform logic
operations is software, which is done using instructions that apply these operations to all bits
of a word or byte independently and in parallel.

(a) Shift and Rotate Instructions:

There are many applications that require the bits of an operand to be shifted right or
left some specified number of bit positions. The details of how the shifts are performed
depend on whether the operand is a signed number or some more general binary-coded
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information. For general operands, we use a logical shift. For a number, we use an arithmetic
shift, which preserves the sign of the number.

Logical shifts:
Two logical shift instructions are needed, one for shifting left (LShiftL) and another
for shifting right (LShiftR). These instructions shift an operand over a number of bit positions
specified in a count operand contained in the instruction.
The general form of a logical left shift instruction is

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Computer Organization By: H. Ateeq Ahmed