Mech Unit 2
Mech Unit 2
HAPTER
Manufacturing Processes
1. Casting: Molten metal is poured into a mold and allowed to solidify. This
process is used to produce a wide variety of products, including engine
blocks, crankshafts, and machine parts.
3. Machining: Metal is removed from a work piece using a cutting tool. This
process is used to produce high-precision parts, such as engine pistons and
valves.
6. Injection molding: Molten plastic is injected into a mold and allowed to solidify.
This process is used to produce a wide variety of plastic products, such as toys,
bottles, and electronic components.
Manufacturing processes can be classified into two main types: primary and secondary.
• Primary manufacturing processes convert raw materials into basic materials, such
as steel, aluminum, and plastic.
Here are some examples of manufacturing processes used to produce different types of
products:
1. Cars: The bodies of cars are typically made using sheet metal forming processes.
The engine blocks, crankshafts, and other metal parts are made using casting or
forging processes.
2. Electronics: The circuit boards in electronic devices are made using photo
lithography, a process that uses light to create patterns on a silicon wafer. The
electronic components are then assembled on the circuit boards using surface
mount technology.
5.1.1Principles of casting
3. Solidification: The molten material solidifies in the mold, taking on the shape of
the mold cavity.
4. Mold removal: The mold is broken open and the casting is removed. Factors
affecting casting quality
1. The quality of the molten metal: The molten metal should be free of impurities
and defects.
2. The design of the mold: The mold should be designed to allow the molten metal
to flow freely and to solidify evenly.
3. The casting process: The casting process should be controlled carefully to avoid
defects such as porosity and shrinkage.
• Sand casting: This is the oldest and most widely used casting process. It is a
versatile process that can be used to produce castings of all sizes and shapes.
• Die casting: This is a high-volume casting process that is used to produce castings
with high precision and repeatability.
• Centrifugal casting: This is a casting process that is used to produce castings with
a tubular shape. Applications of casting
2. Aerospace parts :Aircraft engine components, landing gear, and other aerospace
parts are commonly cast.
3. Machine parts: Gears, bearings, housings, and other machine parts are commonly
cast.
4. Hand tools: Hammers, wrenches, and other hand tools are commonly cast.
5. Decorative items: Statues, plaques, and other decorative items are commonly cast.
Casting is a versatile and widely used manufacturing process for producing metal
products. It is a complex process that requires careful control of the molten metal and
the casting process. However, when done correctly, casting can produce high-quality
castings with complex shapes and fine detail.
1. Yield strength: The yield strength of a material is the minimum stress required to
cause plastic deformation. The yield strength of a material increases with strain
hardening.
3. Flow curve: The flow curve of a material is a graph that shows the relationship
between stress and strain for the material. The flow curve can be used to
determine the forces required to deform a material to a desired shape.
4. Friction: Friction between the work piece and the die or mold can resist
deformation. Friction can be reduced by using lubricants and by designing the die
or mold to minimize contact area.
Metal forming processes can be classified into a number of different categories,
including:
1. Near net shape forming: Metal forming can be used to produce parts that are very
close to their final shape. This reduces the amount of machining that is required,
which can save time and money.
2. High strength and hardness: Metal forming can produce parts with high strength
and hardness. This is because the deformation process causes the grains in the
metal to flow and align, which creates a stronger and more homogeneous
structure.
3. Good surface finish: Metal forming can produce parts with a good surface finish.
This is because the dies and molds are typically made of very smooth materials.
4. Cost-effectiveness: Metal forming is a cost-effective manufacturing process for
mass production of parts.
Metal forming is a complex and challenging field, but it is also a rewarding one. By
understanding the principles of metal forming, engineers can design and produce high-
quality metal parts at a competitive cost.
basic principles:
The specific principles that are used in a particular joining process depend on the
materials being joined and the desired properties of the joint. For example, welding is a
coalescence process that uses heat to melt the materials being joined, while soldering is
a coalescence process that uses a filler metal to melt and bond the materials together.
Adhesive bonding is an adhesion process that uses an adhesive to bond the materials
together.
Here are some of the most common joining processes:
1. Welding: Welding is a process that uses heat to melt the materials being joined,
forming a permanent bond. There are many different types of welding processes,
such as arc welding, gas welding, and laser welding.
2. Brazing and soldering: Brazing and soldering are processes that use a filler metal
to melt and bond the materials together. Brazing uses a filler metal with a melting
point that is above 450°C, while soldering uses a filler metal with a melting
point that is below 450 °C.
3. Adhesive bonding: Adhesive bonding is a process that uses an adhesive to bond
the materials together. Adhesives can be used to bond a wide variety of materials,
including metals, plastics, and ceramics.
Here are some of the factors that should be considered when selecting a joining
process:
1. The materials being joined: The type of materials being joined will determine
which joining processes are feasible. For example, some joining processes, such as
welding, are only suitable for certain types of metals.
2. The desired properties of the joint: The desired properties of the joint, such as
strength, ductility, and corrosion resistance, will also influence the choice of
joining process.
3. The cost and complexity of the process: The cost and complexity of the joining
process must also be considered. Some joining processes, such as welding, can be
expensive and complex, while others, such as adhesive bonding, are relatively
simple and inexpensive.
It is important to select the right joining process for the specific application in order to
ensure that the joint is strong, durable, and meets all of the required requirements.
The basic principles of machining processes are the same regardless of the specific type
of machining being performed. These principles include:
1. Relative motion between the cutting tool and the work piece: There must be
relative motion between the cutting tool and the work piece in order for
machining to occur. This motion can be created by either moving the cutting tool
or moving the work piece.
2. Shearing: Machining is a shearing process, in which the cutting tools shears off
material from the work piece. This shearing occurs when the cutting tool is
applied to the work piece with sufficient force.
3. Chip formation: When material is removed from the work piece by the cutting
tool, it forms chips. The size and shape of the chips depends on a number of
factors, including the type of material being machined, the cutting tool geometry,
and the machining parameters.
1. Type of material being machined: The type of material being machined has a
significant impact on the machining process. Different materials have different
properties, such as hardness, toughness, and ductility. These properties affect the
machinability of the material, which is a measure of how easily the material can
be machined.
2. Cutting tool geometry: The geometry of the cutting tool also has a significant
impact on the machining process. The cutting tool geometry includes factors such
as the rake angle, clearance angle, and flank angle. These factors affect the chip
formation process and the surface finish of the work piece.
3. Machining parameters: The machining parameters include the cutting speed, feed
rate, and depth of cut. These parameters control the rate at which material is
removed from the work piece and the surface finish of the work piece.
There are many different types of machining processes, but some of the most common
include:
2. Aerospace parts: Aircraft components, space craft components, and other aero
space parts are commonly machined.
3. Medical devices: Surgical instruments, implants, and other medical devices are
commonly machined.
5. Consumer goods: Consumer goods such as appliances, tools, and toys are
commonly machined.
1. Turning: Rotating a work piece while a cutting tool removes material to create a
desired shape
Milling: Using a rotating cutting tool to remove material from a work piece to create
a desired shape.
Routing: Using a rotating cutting tool to cut shapes out of materials such as wood
plastic, and metal
1. Accuracy and precision: CNC machines can produce parts with very high
accuracy and precision. This is because the machines are controlled by
computers, which can accurately follow the instructions in the G-code file.
2. Repeatability: CNC machines can produce identical parts over and over again.
This is because the machines are not affected by human error.
4. Productivity: CNC machines can operate 24/7 without getting tired. This means
that they can produce parts much faster than manual machining processes.
Overall, CNC machines are a powerful tool for manufacturing a wide variety of parts
with high accuracy and precision. They are used ina wide range of industries and offer a
number of advantages over manual machining processes.
2. 3D printing can be used to create custom objects, such as prosthetics and dental
implants.
3. 3D printing is relatively fast and efficient, which can save time and money on
manufacturing costs.
4. Overall, 3D printing is a powerful and versatile technology that has the potential
to revolutionize many industries.
3D printing is a rapidly growing technology with the potential to change the way we
make things. It is an exciting time to be involved in this field.
Smart manufacturing is still in its early stages of development, but it has the potential
to revolutionize the manufacturing industry. It is already being adopted by a number of
leading manufacturers, and it is expected to become more widespread in the coming
years.
Here are some examples of how smart manufacturing technologies are being used
today:
1. Sensors are being used to collect data on the condition and performance of
machines. This data can be used to predict when maintenance is needed, and to
avoid unplanned downtime.
2. AI is being used to automate tasks such as quality inspection and process
optimization.
3. Big data analytics is being used to identify trends and patterns in manufacturing
data. This information can be used to improve decision-making and to identify
Opportunities for improvement
4. Cloud computing is being used to store and analyze manufacturing data. This
allows manufacturers to access their data from anywhere, and to scale their
operations up or down as needed.
Smart manufacturing is a complex and rapidly evolving field, but it has the potential
to transform the manufacturing industry. By using data to improve their operations,
manufacturers can become more efficient, productive, and agile.
1. Thermodynamics is the study of the relationships between heat, work, and energy.
It provides the foundation for understanding how thermal systems work.
2. Fluid mechanics is the study of the behavior of fluids, such as air and water .It is
important for understanding how fluids flow through and around thermal
systems.
3. Heat transfer is the study of how heat energy moves from one place to another. It
is essential for designing thermal systems that operate efficiently.
1. Power generation: Thermal engineers design and operate power plants that
generate electricity from fossil fuels, nuclear energy, and renewable energy
sources such as solar and wind power.
2. Heating and cooling: Thermal engineers design and install heating, ventilation,
and air conditioning (HVAC) systems in buildings. They also design and
manufacture heating and cooling equipment, such as furnaces, air conditioners,
and refrigerators.
3. Refrigeration: Thermal engineers design and build refrigeration systems that are
used to preserve food and other perishable goods. They also design and
manufacture refrigeration equipment, such as compressors, condensers, and
evaporators.
4. Other applications: Thermal engineering is also used in a variety of other
applications, such as the design of automotive engines, aircraft engines, and
industrial processes.
Thermal engineering is a broad and important field that plays a vital role in many
industries. Thermal engineers use their knowledge of thermodynamics, fluid
mechanics, and heat transfer to design and analyze systems that involve the transfer of
heat energy. Thermal engineering is a challenging but rewarding field that offers many
career opportunities.
1. Water tube boilers have a series of tubes through which the water flows. The heat
from the furnace is transferred to the water through the walls of the tubes. Water
tube boilers are typically more efficient than fire tube boilers, but they are also
more complex and expensive to manufacture.
2. Fire tube boilers have a series of tubes through which the hot gases from the
furnace flow. The water surrounds the tubes, and the heat is transferred to the
water from the hot gases. Fire tube boilers are simpler and less expensive to
manufacture than water tube boilers, but they are also less efficient.
Both water tube boilers and fire tube boilers can be used to generates team or hot water.
The type of boiler that is used depends on the specific application.
2. The hot air flows through the tubes in the boiler, transferring heat to the water
inside the tubes.
5. The steam is then piped out of the boiler and used for its intended purpose.
1. Electricity generation: Steam boilers are used to generate steam, which is then
used to drive turbines to generate electricity.
2. Heating buildings: Steam boilers are used to heat water, which is then circulated
through pipes and radiators to heat buildings.
3. Industrial processes: Steam boilers are used to provide steam for a variety of
industrial processes, such as food processing, paper making, and textile
production.
Boilers are an essential part of many modern industries and play a vital role in our daily
lives.
5.10 Otto cycle
The Otto cycle is a thermodynamic cycle that describes the processes that occur in a
spark-ignition internal combustion engine. It is the idealized cycle for gasoline engines
and is also used in some other types of engines, such as small gas turbines.
The Otto cycle consists of four strokes:
1. Intake stroke: The piston moves down the cylinder, drawing in a mixture of air
and fuel.
2. Compression stroke: The piston moves up the cylinder, compressing the air-fuel
mixture.
3. Power stroke: The spark plug ignites the air-fuel mixture, causing it to combust.
The expanding gases push the piston down the cylinder, generating power.
4. Exhaust stroke: The piston moves up the cylinder, expelling the spent exhaust
gases.
The Otto cycle is a heat engine, which means that it converts heat energy into
mechanical energy. The heat energy comes from the combustion of the air-fuel mixture.
The Otto cycle is not a perfect heat engine, and some of the heat energy is lost to the
environment. However, the Otto cycle is a relatively efficient heat engine, and it is the
type of engine used in most cars today.
The Otto cycle can be visualized on a pressure-volume (PV) diagram. The four strokes
of the cycle are represented by the following four processes:
2. Process2-3: Constant volume heat addition: The spark plug ignites the air-fuel
mixture, and the heat energy from the combustion process causes the gas pressure
to increase. This process is constant volume, which means that the volume of the
gas does not change.
173Manufacturing Processes
3. Process 3-4: Isentropic expansion: The expanding gases push the piston down the
cylinder. This process is isentropic, just like the compression process.
4. Process4-1: Constant volume heat rejection: The exhaust valve opens, and the
spent exhaust gases are expelled from the cylinder. This process is constant
volume, just like the combustion process.
The net work output of the Otto cycle is equal to the area enclosed by the four processes
on the PV diagram. The thermal efficiency of the Otto cycle is the ratio of the net work
output to the heat energy added to the system. Thermal efficiency can be improved by
increasing the compression ratio of the engine.
5. The Otto cycle is a versatile and efficient heat engine, and it is widely used in a
variety of applications.
1. Intake stroke: The intake valve opens and the piston moves down, drawing air
into the combustion chamber.
2. Compression stroke: The intake valve closes and the piston moves up,
compressing the air in the combustion chamber.
Figure 5.1:P V and T S diagram of diesel cycle
3. Power stroke: Fuel is injected into the compressed air and ignites due to the high
temperature and pressure. The combustion process drives the piston down,
producing work.
4. Exhaust stroke: The exhaust valve opens and the piston moves up, expelling the
exhaust gases from the combustion chamber.
ThefourstrokesoftheDieselcyclearerepresentedbythefourlinesegmentsonthePV diagram:
ThenetworkdonebytheDieselcycleisequaltotheareaenclosedbythefourline segments on
the PV diagram.
Diesel engines are more efficient than spark-ignition engines (such as gasoline
engines) because they operate at higher compression ratios. This is because the fuel in a
diesel engine is ignited by the heat of compression, rather than by a spark plug.
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Diesel engines are also more fuel-efficient than spark-ignition engines, especially at
high loads. This is because diesel engines burn fuel more completely than spark ignition
engines.
1. Automobiles
2. Trucks
3. Buses
4. Trains
5. Ships
6. Construction equipment
7. Power generation
Diesel engines are known for their reliability and durability, and they can operate for
long periods of time without requiring major maintenance.
The Diesel cycle is a compression ignition cycle, meaning that the fuel is ignited by the
heat of compression rather than by a spark plug. This is achieved by compressing the air
in the combustion chamber to a very high temperature and pressure. When the fuel is
injected into the compressed air, it ignites spontaneously.
1. Compression: Air is drawn into the combustion chamber and then compressed by
the piston. This increases the temperature and pressure of the air.
2. Combustion: Fuel is injected into the compressed air and ignites spontaneously.
The combustion process drives the piston down, producing work.
3. Expansion: The piston continues to move down, expanding the combustion gases.
This produces more work.
4. Exhaust: The exhaust valve opens and the piston moves up, expelling the exhaust
gases from the combustion chamber.
The Diesel cycle is a very efficient way to convert heat energy into mechanical work.
Diesel engines are typically more efficient than spark-ignition engines, and they can
also operate on a wider range of fuels.
Condenser: The condenser rejects heat from the refrigerant to the surrounding
environment, causing the refrigerant to condense into a liquid.
The hot, high-pressure refrigerant gas then enters the condenser, where it rejects
heat to the surrounding environment and condenses into a liquid. This process
releases heat to the environment.
Expansion valve: The expansion valve reduces the pressure of the refrigerant,
causing it to partially evaporate.
The liquid refrigerant then passes through an expansion valve, which reduces its
pressure. This causes some of the refrigerant to evaporate, which absorbs heat
from the surrounding environment.
177Manufacturing Processes
Evaporator: The low-pressure refrigerant vapor then enters the evaporator, where
it absorbs heat from the surrounding environment and completely evaporates.
This process cools the surrounding environment.
The refrigerant circulates through the cycle continuously, absorbing heat from the
evaporator and rejecting heat to the condenser.
Refrigeration and air conditioning cycles are very efficient at transferring heat. They
are used in a wide variety of applications to keep food fresh, cool homes and businesses,
and provide comfort in hot weather.
Here are some examples of how refrigeration and air-conditioning cycles are used:
2. Air conditioners: Air conditioners use refrigeration cycles to cool homes and
businesses by removing heat from the indoor air and rejecting it to the outdoor air.
3. Heat pumps: Heat pumps use refrigeration cycles to heat and cool homes and
businesses. They can transfer heat from a cooler location to a warmer location, or
vice versa.
5.13 IC engines
An internal combustion engine (ICE) is a heat engine in which the combustion of a fuel
occurs with an oxidizer (usually air) in a combustion chamber that is an integral part of
the working fluid flow circuit. In an internal combustion engine, the expansion of the
high-temperature and high-pressure gases produced by combustion applies direct force
to some component of the engine. The force is typically applied to pistons (piston
engine), turbine blades (gas turbine), a rotor (Wankel engine), or a nozzle (jet engine).
IC engines are used in a wide variety of applications, including:
1. Automobiles
5.14 Introduction to 2-Stroke engines178
2. Trucks
3. Buses
4. Motorcycles
5. Trains
6. Ships
7. Aircraft
8. Generators
9. Industrial machinery
There are two main types of IC engines: reciprocating engines and rotary engines.
1. Reciprocating engines have pistons that move up and down in cylinders. The
most common type of reciprocating engine is the four-stroke engine, which is
used in most automobiles and light trucks. Other types of reciprocating engines
include two-stroke engines, six-stroke engines, and diesel engines.
2. Rotary engines have a rotating rotor that moves around a stationary housing. The
most common type of rotary engine is the Wankel engine, which is used in some
Mazda sports cars.
The basic operating principle of all IC engines is the same. The engine first draws in a
mixture of air and fuel. The mixture is then compressed, ignited, and combusted. The
combustion produces high temperature and high pressure gases, which expand and
push the pistons or rotor. This motion is then converted into rotary motion by a
crankshaft, which can be used to drive a variety of machines and vehicles.
179Manufacturing Processes
3. They are very versatile and can be used in a wide variety of applications.
IC engines are a mature technology that has been around for over 150years.They are
still the most common type of engine used in vehicles today. However, there is a
growing interest in developing new types of engines, such as electric vehicles and
hydrogen fuel cell vehicles, that are more efficient and produce fewer emissions.
A two-stroke engine works by using the crank case as a pump to move air and fuel in to
the combustion chamber. During the compression stroke, the piston moves up and
compresses the air-fuel mixture in the combustion chamber. At the top of the
compression stroke, the spark plug ignites the air-fuel mixture, which causes the piston
to move down.
As the piston moves down, it pushes the exhaust gases out of the exhaust port. At
the same time, the intake valve opens and the crankcase pump draws a fresh mixture of
air and fuel into the crankcase.
The piston then moves back up, compressing the fresh air-fuel mixture in the
crankcase. At the top of the compression stroke, the intake valve closes and the exhaust
valve opens. The piston then moves down again, pushing the fresh air-fuel mixture into
the combustion chamber and the exhaust gases out of the exhaust port.
This cycle repeats itself every time the crankshaft rotates once.
1. Advantages:
Disadvantages:
1. Motorcycles
2. Lawnmowers
3. Weed trimmers
4. Chainsaws
5. Snowblowers
6. Outboard motors
7. Generators
8. Air compressors
Two-stroke engines are still widely used in many applications, but they are being
phased out in some areas due to emissions regulations.
1. Intake: The intake valve opens and the piston moves down the cylinder, drawing
in a mixture of air and fuel.
2. Compression: Both the intake and exhaust valves are closed, and the piston moves
up the cylinder, compressing the air-fuel mixture.
3. Power: The spark plug ignites the air-fuel mixture, causing it to expand rapidly
and drive the piston down the cylinder. This is the only stroke that produces
power to turn the crankshaft.
4. Exhaust: The exhaust valve opens and the piston moves up the cylinder, pushing
out the spent exhaust gases. Once the exhaust stroke is complete, the cycle begins
again with the intake stroke.
Four-stroke engines are the most common type of internal combustion engine used in
automobiles, trucks, and other motor vehicles. They are also used in many other
applications, such as lawn mowers, generators, and boats.
Four-stroke engines are more efficient than two-stroke engines, and they produce
fewer emissions. They are also quieter and more reliable. However, four-stroke engines
are also heavier and more complex than two-stroke engines.
4. Longer lifespan
1. Automobiles
2. Trucks
3. Buses
4. Motorcycles
5. Lawnmowers
6. Generators
183Manufacturing Processes
7. Boats
8. Airplanes
9. Industrial machinery
Four-stroke engines are a versatile and efficient type of internal combustion engines
that are used in a wide variety of applications.
Spark-ignition (SI) and compression-ignition (CI) engines are the two most common
types of internal combustion engines. They are used in a wide variety of applications,
including cars, trucks, buses, boats, and generators.
SI engines are generally powered by gasoline, and they use a sparkplug to ignite the
air-fuel mixture in the combustion chamber. The spark plug creates a high-voltage
electrical spark that ignites the mixture, causing it to burn rapidly and expand. This
expansion drives the piston down, which in turn rotates the crankshaft.
CI engines are generally powered by diesel fuel, and they rely on the heat of
compression to ignite the air-fuel mixture. In a CI engine, the air is compressed to a
very high temperature and pressure, which causes the diesel fuel to ignite
spontaneously when it is injected into the combustion chamber. This combustion
process also drives the piston down and rotates the crankshaft.
Here is a table that summarizes the key differences between SI and CI engines:
SI engines are commonly used in cars, trucks, buses, motorcycles, and boats. They are
also used in some small generators. CI engines are commonly used in heavy-duty
trucks, buses, construction equipment, and agricultural equipment. They are also used
in large generators and marine engines. Advantages and disadvantages of SI and CI
engines:
1. SI engines
(a)Advantages:
Disadvantages:
2. CI engines:
(a) Advantages:
(b) Disadvantages:
Overall, SI and CI engines have different strengths and weaknesses. The best type of
engine for a particular application depends on a variety of factors, including fuel costs,
emissions requirements, and performance requirements.
2. Electric motor(s): Electric and hybrid vehicles have one or more electric motors,
which are powered by batteries. The electric motor(s) can propel the vehicle on
their own, or they can work in conjunction with the ICE to improve fuel efficiency
and performance.
3. Battery pack: Electric and hybrid vehicles have a battery pack, which stores the
electrical energy that powers the electric motor(s).The battery pack can be
charged by plugging the vehicle into an external power source, or by regenerative
braking.
4. Power control unit: The power control unit manages the flow of power between
the ICE, the electric motor(s), and the battery pack. It ensures that the right
amount of power is being used at the right time.
In addition to these main components, electric and hybrid vehicles also have a variety of
other components, such as a transmission, cooling system, and climate control system.
5.17 Electric and Hybrid Vehicles186
Electric and hybrid vehicles work in different ways, but they both use the combination
of an ICE and an electric motor to propel the vehicle.
In an electric vehicle, the electric motor is the only source of power. The battery pack
is charged by plugging the vehicle into an external power source, and the electric motor
uses the stored electrical energy to propel the vehicle.
In a hybrid vehicle, the ICE and the electric motor(s) work together to propel the
vehicle. The ICE can power the vehicle directly, or it can be used to generate electricity
to power the electric motor(s).The battery pack can also be charged by regenerative
braking.
The specific way that the ICE and electric motor(s) work together in a hybrid vehicle
depends on the type of hybrid system. There are three main types of hybrid systems:
1. Parallel hybrid systems: In a parallel hybrid system, the ICE and electric motor(s)
can power the vehicle independently or in conjunction with each other.
2. Series hybrid systems: In a series hybrid system, the ICE powers a generator,
which in turn powers the electric_motor .The ICE, does not directly power the
wheels.
3. Plug-in hybrid systems: Plug-in hybrid systems have a larger battery pack than
other types of hybrid systems. This allows the vehicle to travel further on electric
power alone. Plug-in hybrid systems can be plugged into an external power source
to charge the battery pack.
1. Reduced emissions: Electric and hybrid vehicles produce less tailpipe emissions
than conventional gasoline-powered vehicles. This helps to improve air quality
and reduce greenhouse gas emissions.
2. Improved fuel efficiency: Electric and hybrid vehicles are more fuel-efficient than
conventional gasoline-powered vehicles. This can save you money on fuel costs.
187Manufacturing Processes
3. Reduced noise: Electric vehicles are much quieter than conventional gasoline
powered vehicles. This can make for a more pleasant driving experience.
4. Performance: Electric and hybrid vehicles can offer excellent performance, thanks
to the instant torque provided by the electric motor(s).
Electric and hybrid vehicles are becoming increasingly popular as people look for ways
to reduce their environmental impact and save money on fuel. These vehicles offer a
number of benefits, including reduced emissions, improved fuel efficiency, reduced
noise, and excellent performance.