CHAPTER-4: WATER CONVEYANCE

STRUCTURES
 4.1 Intake structures
 The intake structure (or head regulator) is a hydraulic device
constructed at the head of power canal, or a tunnel conduit
through which water is withdrawn from the reservoir.

 In high-head structures the intake can be either an integral part

of a dam or separate;

 In the form of a tower with entry ports at various levels which

may aid flow regulation when there is a wide range of
fluctuations of reservoir water level.
 Functions of Intakes
 To control flow of water in to the conveyance system. The
control is achieved by a gate or a valve.

 To provide smooth, easy and vortex or turbulence free entry of

water in the conveyance system which is to minimize head
loss.

 To prevent entry of coarse river born trash matter such as

boulders, logs, tree branches etc.

 To exclude heavy sediment load of the river from entering the

conveyance system.
 Types of Intakes
 Run - of - river intakes

 Dam intakes

 Tower intakes

 Shaft intakes

 Intakes of special type

 Run - of – river and canal intakes
 These are low head intakes which lead water into the diversion
canals.

 The inlet invert level of the intake is raised to form a sill so as

to prevent entry of rolling bed load into the canal

 A skimmer wall (a diaphragm which extends below the water

surface) abstracts the floating material from interring into the
canal

 Trash rack is provided at the entrance and may be equipped

with either manual or automatic power-driven rack cleaning
devices
 Dam intakes
For valley dam plants, the intake structure is provided usually in
the body of the dam; The penstocks are embodied in the dam

The main features of such an intake are:

 a trash rack structure in front of the dam

 a bell mouth inlet horizontal or inclined alignment,

 control gate installed either at or after the bell mouth,

 Cage-shaped intakes resting against the face of the dam and

supported on slab cantilevered from the dam provide larger
area of entry than the penstock intake area thus reducing
entrance losses
 Free-standing/ Tower intake structure
 The most common type of intake structure is the vertical
structure, generally referred to as a free-standing intake tower.

 It allows increased flexibility when locating the outlet works

at the site.

 The vertical tower is usually more economical and easier to

layout than the inclined intake structure.

 Conduits and openings, operating equipment, and access

features lend themselves more readily to arrangement in the
vertical structure.

 A service bridge provides access to the top of the structure.

 Shaft intake
• Is water conveying structure which may be vertical or
nearly vertical shaft driven at the reservoir site that
carries water to the penstock
 Head Race
 Head race may be a power canal, a pressure tunnel, or a pipe,
which in most cases conveying water from intake structure to
surge tank, forebay or pressure shaft, depending on the
arrangement of the scheme.
 Canals
 Canals are appropriate choice when the general topography of the terrain
is moderate with gentle slopes.

 However, when the ground is very steep and rugged, it becomes

uneconomical to construct canals as it follows longer distances and/or
needs provision of cross-drainage works and deep cuts and fills at a
number of appropriate locations.

 In such cases, it is advisable to go for tunnels or pipes.

 The choice, in fact, has to be made based on economic analysis.

 Where the topography of the region presents special formations, the

alternating use of open-canal and open-surface tunnel sections may
ensure the most economical development.
 4.2 Forebay
 It is located at the end of the head race power canal
 It is widened to the form of small basin which can store some water for
sudden demand by turbine.
 When forbay is provided, power canal should join the forbay gradually
through a transition to prevent flow separation.
 Forbay is a sort of regulating reservoir:
 When load decreases, water is stored in forbay and
 When load increases, water is withdrawn from it.
 It is also used as a final settling basin to accumulate sediment.
 Power Tunnels
 Tunnels are underground conveyance structures constructed by special
tunneling methods without disturbing the natural surface of the ground.

 used to convey water between reservoir and surge tank/forbay.

 To make the construction of tunnel an economical, the designer must establish

the followings;

1. The geologic formation through which the tunnel will pass is stable,

2. The tunnel would be much shorter than alternative canal,

3. The construction of a canal would be expensive because of nearly vertical

canyon walls, unstable soils, or other natural barriers.
 Tunnel is popular in hydropower schemes for the following
reasons:

 provides direct and short route for water passage;

 the work can be started at many points, thus leading

quick completion;

 natural landscape is not disturbed;

 tunneling work has become easier with the development

of drilling, blasting, and new mechanical equipment; and

 development of rock mechanics and stress analysis has

given great confidence regarding to the stability of
tunnels.
 Power Tunnels...
 Can be classified on basis of specific functions as:

1. Water carrying tunnels: It carries water from the reservoir to the surge tank.

2. Diversion tunnels: constructed for diverting water during construction, latter

either it could be plugged or serve as head race tunnel.

3. Service tunnels: these are classified as:

a) Ventilation tunnels: fitted with fans and provide fresh air to under
ground power house.

b) Cable tunnels: carries cables from underground power house to the

switch yard.

c) Access or approach tunnels: it provides passage from surface to under

ground power house.
 Power Tunnels…
 It can be classified on the bases of shape, alignment, design aspect and
pressure.
I. Shape: It can be circular or non circular.
 Circular is structurally suitable and stable when internal water pressure is
very high.
 Non-circular tunnels have a flat floor and nearly (vertically) or gently
walls.
 The advantage of this type of tunnel is for its convenience for
construction point of view.
 Power Tunnels…

II. Alignment:- There may be tunnels with vertical, horizontal or

inclined alignment.

III. Design aspect (lining):- Lining is a protective layer of concrete,

RCC or steel on the inner surface of the tunnel.

 Lining is required:

 To resist external forces;

 When the internal pressure is high;

 When there is a need to reduce internal friction; and

 Prevention or reduction of seepage losses.

 Pressure Tunnels....
IV. Pressure Head along the tunnels:
1. Low pressure tunnels (Hr<5m)
2. Medium pressure tunnels (5<Hr<l00m)
3. High pressure tunnels (Hr>100m) :-
 Usually steel lining is used
 Relative higher velocities in tunnels are permitted
 Force resisting structures should be provided:
 Pressure Tunnels....
• If the depth of overburden hr (m) and the specific weight of the
rock, ϒr (in t/m3), the resulting vertical rock pressure is: Pv =
0.1*ϒr * hr (kg/cm2)
• If η is the safety factor, the permissible internal Water pressure is:
P = Pv/η
• But the internal water pressure is: P = 0.1*ϒ * H (kg/cm2)
• The permissible head (static plus dynamic), may be obtained as:

but
• Hence, the equation may be reduced to:
If the steep valley sides constitute the overburden above the tunnel

Where: L is the shortest distance between the ground surface and the tunnel and
β is the average inclination of the valley slope. For horizontal terrain, L=
hr and cosβ = 1.
 Tunnelling Methods
1. Conventional (classical ) Tunnelling Methods:
 are cyclic operations involving, in sequence, drilling, blasting,
defuming, mucking and installation of required supports. The cycle is
interrupted for special operations such as grouting through very
difficult ground.

 In most modern tunnelling operations in competent rocks it is possible

to drill full face even when the tunnels have large cross-sections.

 However in conventional methods, large tunnels are driven by a series

of small tunnel excavations, called drifts.

The tunnel building process.mp4

 2. Tunnel Boring Machines
 Tunnelling machines have been used since 1954 to excavate
tunnels with diameter of about 1.8m to more than 11m.

 Rates of excavation of over 120m per day in soft ground and

about 30m per day in moderate hard lime stones and
sandstones can be achieved.

 A full face of TBM consists of a wheel cutter head fitted with

teeth or rollers to cut or spall the rock.

 The wheel is rotated at speeds varying from 4 to 10 rpm and it

varies according to diameter by means of electrical or
hydraulic disc motors.
 Tunnelling Methods...
Advantage and disadvantage of tunnel boring machines
S.N. Advantage Disadvantage
1 A smooth circular cross-section is The initial cost of tunnelling machine is high.
obtained, which is most stable and creates
the most favourable distribution of stresses
in rocks around the tunnel.
2 Less support is required than in drilled and Large and complex ventilation system may be required to reduce
blasted tunnels. dust and heat and to provide suitable working conditions near the
tunnel heading.
3 There is no blast damage and rock around Control of alignment and grade may be difficult in soft sections of
the tunnel is left intact. rock.
4 In suitable rock the rate of progress of Working room at the tunnel heading is very limited as compared
tunnelling operations is much greater than with the available room in conventional methods.
in conventional tunnelling operations.
5 Blast damage to buildings or underground Rapid adjustments of techniques and equipment to changing rock
facilities in industrial and residential areas conditions cannot be made with the same ease as in conventional
is eliminated. methods.
6 Less manpower is required in a mole Tunnelling machines are generally designed for specific project
/TBM/ operation than in cyclic requirements of a particular project. In the absence of an accurate
/conventional/ tunnelling. knowledge of geological conditions it may not be possible to design
and construct a high performance machine that will be versatile
enough to meet unexpected damages of rapidly changing
underground geological conditions.
 4.3 Penstocks
Penstocks: Pressure conduit, usually of short length to convey water
from reservoir or Forebay to scroll case and then to turbines.
 Penstocks
 Are large diameter pipes, usually steel or concrete, used for conveying water
from the source (reservoir or forbay) to PH
 Thus penstocks are pressurized pipes.
 In designing penstocks, Water hammer pressure should be considered.
 Classification of penstocks
 Penstocks can be classified on the basis of:
a) Material of construction: - depending upon the need,
penstocks can be fabricated from variety of materials: steel ,
RCC , banded steel, cast steel and asbestos cement
b) Method of support: - penstock may buried, exposed above
ground or supported on piers.

Buried Penstock

Advantages Disadvantages
1. support is given by the soil and 1. Difficulty in inspection
provides better structural stability.
2. Pipe is protected from high 2. Possibility of sliding on step
temperature fluctuations slopes
3. Conservation of natural land escape 3. Difficulty in maintenance
4. Protection from slides 4. Expensive for long diameter in
rocky areas
• Exposed penstocks: supported on piers.
Advantages Disadvantages
1- Ease for inspection & 1- Direct exposure to
maintenance weather effect
2- Economical in rocky terrain & 2- Development of
large diameters. longitudinal stress due
to support and
3- Stability is insured with proper anchorage (requiring
anchorage expansion joints)
 Classification of penstocks…
c) Number of Penstocks:- can be single or multiple.

 When a single penstock feeds a number of turbines, manifolds are

used at the lower end of the penstock to direct flow to individual
units.

 The advantages of using a single penstock over the use of multiple

penstocks is on reduction of cost as:

 It requires less amount of material to be manufactured

 It requires less amount of civil work components such as

penstock supports and anchors.
 The disadvantage of using single penstock is the reduction of
safety on operation and there will be complete shutdown in
case of repair.

 For economical design,

 for low-head plants with short penstocks (multiple

penstocks); and

 for high head plants requiring long penstocks (single

penstock with manifold at the end).
 Penstock Bends
 Depending on the topography, the alignment of the penstock is
often required to be changed in direction.
 These changes in direction are accomplished by curved sections,
called bends.
Radius of bends is usually varied from 3 to 5 times the
diameter of the pipe and the deflection angles between each
successive segment are 5 to 10 degrees.
 Bends can be simple bends or compound bends.
Simple bends are bends when the change in alignment is only
in one plane (either vertical or horizontal).
Compound bends are bends in which the change in alignment
is in both planes (vertical and horizontal).
 Hydraulic design of penstocks
• Penstock diameter: - The diameter is selected to reduce
frictional losses within the penstock to an acceptable level.

 Selection of diameter is a trade-off between penstock cost and

power losses.

 A simple criterion for diameter selection is to limit the head loss

to a certain percentage (Loss in power of 4% is usually
acceptable).

 There are two methods to determine optimum penstock diameter.

1. Graphical approach

 The procedures for this method are:

 Select several possible diameters and compute power and

annual energy.

 Calculate and plot the present value of the energy loss over
the life of the plant for each diameter.

 Calculate and plot the cost of the pipe for each diameter.

 Both curves are added graphically and the optimum

diameter would be that closest to the theoretical optimum.
Additional Cost
Hydraulic design of penstocks …
 2. Empirical formula for Economical Penstock Diameter
 The selection of economical diameter can be made by either formula as follows:
0.25
0.43
 Q2 
1. G.S. Sarkaris’s Formula (1958) P
D  0.62 * 0.65  D  3.55 *  
H  2* g * H 
Where: D= diameter of the penstock (m), P= rated horse power (metric) of turbine
(1HP=0.736KW) and H= rated head of turbine (m) and Q= discharge in penstock
(cumec).
2. P. J. Bier’s formula (USBR) V  0.125* 2 * gH Where V= permissible velocity in
penstock (m/s). Knowing velocity and discharge, diameter can be calculated. Other
formula for P. J. Biers (USBR-1958): D  0.176* ( P / H )
0.466

3. G. Isakassons formula: D  Q for steel lined shaft at a depths from 30 to 80m

0.40

4. F. Fahlbush’s formula: D  0.62* Q and D  1.12* H * Q

C
0.48
S
0.12 0.45

Where: Dc= diameter of concrete lined conduits, Ds= diameter of steel lined
pressure shafts, Q= design discharge (m3/s) and H = design head (m).
0.1875
hf  2Q 2  10.3 2Q 2 L 
D 
5. Using manning’s equation: L  10.3 * D 5.333 ,From the above equation  h f 
If we limit „hf‟ at “4*H/100”, D can be computed knowing Q, η and L, by the above
equation.
 Hydraulic design of penstocks …
 Liner Thickness: the following relations may be used to determine the thickness
of penstock pipe: P * r *1000
t (mm) 
1. Cylinder Formula: q Where: P= internal pressure (t/m2), r = radius
of penstock (m), and q= allowable hoop stresses (t/m2)
2. Pacific gas and Electric Co’s formula: H   0.002* q * t 
 
 D  0.00012* t 
Where: H= maximum allowable head on the pipe centre line (m), D= inside diameter
(m), q= allowable hoop stress (t/m2) and t= thickness of pipe shell (mm).
3. Barlows Formula:  0.002* q * t 
H  
 D  0.002* t 

P.r
t  0.15
4. As per ASME code: s  0.6 * P
Where: t- thickness of penstock wall (cm); P- Water pressure (N/ cm2); r- Radius
(cm); S- Design stress (N/ cm2) and η -Joint efficiency factor, 0.15cm is allowance
for corrosion.
 Hydraulic design of penstocks …
Example-1: - A scheme has a gross head of 85m, a discharge of 3m3/s, and a 173m
long penstock in welded steel. Calculate the diameter so the power losses due
to friction do not surpass 4%. Assume Manning’s roughness coefficient for
steel pipe is 0.012.
0.1875
 10.3 * 0.0122 * 3 2 * 173 
D     0.93m
 4 * 85 / 100 

Example-2: A penstock with an internal diameter of 120cm supplies water at head

equipment to 17.6kg/cm2. There is a possibility of 20% increase in pressure.
The design stress and the efficiency of the joint may be assumed to be
1020kg/cm2 and 85% respectively. Calculate the approximate wall thickness of
penstock required using ASME method.
 Solution
Solution
Given: D= 120cm, P=17.6kg/cm2 pressure increased by 20%, S= 1020 kg/cm2
and η = 85%
Required: wall thickness, t
Solution: Total pressure intensity, P=17.6 +0.2*17.6=21.12kg/cm2.

P.r 21.12 * 60
t  0.15   0.15  1.635cm
s  0.6 * P 0.85 *1020  0.6 * 21.12
Number of Penstocks and Equivalent Penstock Diameters
 Number of penstock
• For low head plants, it may be possible to provide several penstocks as the number of
units.
• In the case of high head plants, several units are usually connected to a common penstock.
 Equivalent Penstock Diameter
• Whenever one main penstock has to be bifurcated into two or more, or instead of one
main, two equivalent pipes are to be laid; the question of finding equivalent area arises.
• This can be found by equating losses in one or two pipes. If “hf” is head lost (m of water),
then  4 2 gD * h f Where “f” is Darcy Weisbach friction coefficient
Q 
2
D
16 f *L 2.5 1 / 2.5
Q1  D1  Q 
• Rewriting the above equation: . Therefore, 
D   or D2   2  * D1
Q2  2  Q1 

• When one pipe is bifurcated into two i.e. discharge is halved, in order that there may be
same loss in the pipe system as in case of bigger main penstock: D2 = D1/2^0.4 = D1/1.32
• When discharge is to be divided in to three pipes: D2 = D1/3^0.4 = D1/1.55
• When discharge is to be divided in to four pipes: D2 = D1/4^0.4 = D1/1.74
• Such arrangement will ensure same frictional loss as in the original system of one pipe.
 Penstocks support
 Penstock supports can be classified as anchor blocks, slide blocks and trust
blocks:
 Anchor blocks: - are massive concrete blocks, encasing the penstock pipe at
interval in order to anchor down the pipe to the ground securely.
 They are necessary at all horizontal and vertical bends of the penstock pipe.
They are mostly used at interval of 150m or more.
 In the closed type of anchor, the penstock is embedded in concrete. In the
open-type, the penstock is anchored to concrete by rings.
 The major forces which act on anchor blocks are the following:
 Weight of the pipe and enclosed water
 hydrostatic force on a bend
 Friction forces on slide blocks located between the anchor and expansion
joint
 Thermally induced stresses, when expansion joints are not incorporated
 The weight of the anchor block itself
 Penstocks support…
 Thrust Blocks: - are special form of anchor whose sole purpose is to
transmit forces primarily caused by hydrostatic pressures at horizontal
bends along a buried penstock to undisturbed soil which provides the
reaction force.
 Penstocks support…
 Slide Blocks or supporting pier: - A slide block carries the weight of pipe
and water, and restrains the pipe from upward and sideway movements,
but allows it to move longitudinally.