INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION

AND JOURNALISM
(JOU1(2)C01)

STUDY MATERIAL

I & II SEMESTER
COMPLEMENTARY COURSE
B.A. ENGLISH & MALAYALAM

UNIVERSITY OF CALICUT
SCHOOL OF DISTANCE EDUCATION
CALICUT UNIVERSITY P.O.
MALAPPURAM - 673 635, KERALA

19701
School of Distance Education
University of Calicut
Study Material
I & II Semester
B.A. English & Malayalam
Complementary Course
JOU1(2)C01: Introduction to Communication and Journalism

Prepared by:
Dr. P.P. SHAJU
Associate Professor & Head
Dept. of Journalism
Mary Matha Arts College, Mananthavady.

Scrutinised by:
Dr. ABDUL MUNEER. V,
Head ,Department of Journalism, EMEA College, Kondotty
Modified as per 2020 Syllabus
Dr. P.P. SHAJU, Associate Professor & Head, Dept. of Journalism,
Mary Matha Arts College ,Mananthavady
Re Scrutinized by
Dr. RAJEEV MOHAN
Assistant Professor, Department of Journalism
Thunchath Ezhuthachan Malayalam University, Tirur .

DISCLAIMER
"The author(s) shall be solely responsible
for the content and views
expressed in this book".
 JOU1(2)C01: Introduction to Communication and Journalism

Contents

1. Introduction to Communication 3 - 23
Definition, elements and types of communication, functions
and dysfunctions of mass communication. Models of Aristotle,
Lasswell, Shannen and Weaver, Osgood and Schramm, Berlo.
Stimulus response theory, Normative theories.
2. Mass Media 24 - 46
Advantages and disadvantages of print media, media ethics,
challenges faced by print media. Films: birth of film, film in
India, CFBC. Radio: radio in India, strength and limitations,
FM, community radio, radio on mobile. Television: TV in
India, 24x7 television channels. Characteristics, internet, blog,
online newspapers, social media networks, troll, citizen
journalism, online media platform.
3. Freedom of the Press 47 - 55
Article 19(1)(a), reasonable restrictions, defamation,
censorship, RTI Act, contempt of court, plagiarism, sting
operation.
4. History of Indian Press 56 - 78
Hicky, James Silk Buckingham, Serampore missionaries, Ram
Mohan Roy, Gandhi as a journalist, freedom movement and
press, press commissions, PCI, emergency, paid news,
corporatisation of media.

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5. Evolution of Malayalam Journalism 79 - 97

Rajyasamacharam, Paschimodayam, Njana Nikshepam,
Deepika, Western Star, Paschima Tharaka; Kerala Mithram,
Kerala Patrika, Manorama, Malayalam press and freedom
struggle. Kerala Kaumudi, early literary and women‘s
publications.
6. Legends of Journalism 98 - 108
S Sadanand, Goenka, Pothen Joseph, Kuldeep Nayar,
Madhavan Kutty, K Jayachandran, T N Gopakumar, Leela
Menon, Hermann Gundert, Varughese Mappillai,
Swadeshabhimani, Kesari, Kesava Menon, C V Kunhiraman.

Appendix 1 : Syllabus 109 - 111

Appendix 2 : Model question paper 112 - 113

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Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION

The term communication originates from the Latin word

communis which means ‗common‘ and denotes the act of
imparting, conveying or exchanging ideas through speech,
writing or signs. It is one of the fundamental needs of human
beings and it is as important as the physical requirement for
food and shelter. Thus, communication can be considered as
an individual as well as a social need.
Communicating with one another is a basic need for
every human being and the denial of this need poses a threat to
a person‘s meaningful existence. For example, the severest
punishment for a child or student is to be isolated, to be left
alone and not to be spoken to. Grown-ups too, and especially
the aged, need company and other persons to communicate.
The courts send the culprits to prisons, thus starving them of
the basic need and the fundamental right to communicate.
The emergence of internet and social media networks in
particular have revolutionised the manner in which we
communicate with one another. The media, therefore, has a
very strong influence on us both as individuals and as society.
DEFINITION OF COMMUNICATION
Simply defined, communication is the art of transmitting
information, ideas and attitudes from one person to another. It
is a process of transmitting a message from a source to an
audience through a channel. For example, in a conversation,
which is the most common type of communication, the person
who speaks is the source and the person who listens is the
audience. What is transmitted by the person who speaks is the
message and the spoken voice carried through the air is the
channel.

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According to Joseph A Devito communication refers to

the act by one or more persons, of sending and receiving
messages, distorted by noise, within a context, with some effect
and with some opportunity for feedback.
Theodorson and Theodorson define communication
1) The transmission of information, ideas, attitudes, or
emotions from one person or group to another (or others)
primarily through symbols.
2) Communication may be defined as ‘social interaction
through messages.’ (George Gerbner)
Thus, in the most general terms, communication implies
a sender, channel, message, receiver, relationship between
sender and receiver, effect, context in which communication
occurs and a range of things to which messages refer.
Good communication aims at imparting knowledge as
well as helping people to gain a clear view of the meaning of
knowledge. Effective communication has also the potential to
help overcome several problems and issues experienced by
individuals and societies. It can also help attain the goals of
economic and social well-being.
ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATION
Elements of communication refer to the basic
components involved in an act of communication. These
elements are also called the universals of communication
because they are present in every communication act
regardless of whether it is intrapersonal, interpersonal, group,
public or mass communication. These elements are briefly
mentioned below:
1. Source : A person who sends a message or a signal is the
source in communication. Communication by definition
demands that someone send signals and someone receive them.

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Source as a starting point in communication plays an important

role in the communication process.
2. Receiver : A person who receives the message or signal is
the receiver in a communication process. The receiver could be
one person (as in intrapersonal communication), two persons
(as in interpersonal communication), or a mass of people (as in
mass communication).
3. Context : Communication always takes place within a
context. It can either restrict or stimulate the communication
process. Communication in a funeral home, a public park, a
cricket stadium and in a church will be entirely different.
4. Message : Message is anything that is sent and received.
Generally we think of communication messages as being
verbal (oral or written). We can also communicate nonverbally.
The clothes we wear, the way we walk, the way we shake
hands, the way we sit, the way we smile etc. are examples of
nonverbal communication.
5. Channel : It is the route or vehicle along which the
message is transmitted from a sender to receiver. When you
talk to a friend, the sound waves that carry your words
constitute the channel. When you write something, the piece of
paper becomes the channel. Newspapers, magazines, radio,
television and internet become the channels in mass
communication.
6. Noise: Noise in communication refers to anything that
distorts or interferes with the message. The screeching of a
passing car, sun-glasses a person wears, prejudices, bias, poor
grammar etc. interfere with the effective and efficient
transmission of messages from the sender to the receiver.
7. Encoding: Two important elements in communication are
‗encoding‘ (at the sender end of the model) and ‗decoding‘ (at
the receiver end). Encoding means that the message is

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translated into a language or code suitable for transmission to

the intended receivers. The act of producing message -- for
example, speaking or writing -- is termed as encoding. By
putting our ideas into sound waves we are putting these ideas
into a code. Similarly, when we write, we are expressing our
ideas in certain symbols.
8. Decoding: The act of understanding or comprehending a
message is referred to as decoding. When we speak, we are
putting our ideas into sound waves (encoding). By translating
sound waves into ideas, we are taking them out of the code
they are in and hence decoding. Similarly, when we read a
text, we are decoding the written symbols of a language.
9. Feedback: The information that is fed back to the source is
known as feedback. Feedback, in general, refers to any process
by which the communicator obtains information as to whether
and how his/her intended receiver has received the message.
Such information can help to modify ongoing or future
communication behaviour. In a face to face communication
situation this may take the form of questions, requests to repeat
something, gesture, response and so on. In mass
communication, feedback of these kinds is mainly replaced by:
audience research, sales figures, studio audiences, try-outs,
letters and phone calls.
10. Effect : The consequences of communication are referred
to as effect. Communication has always some effect on one or
more persons. The effect could be on the source or on the
receiver or on both of them.
TYPES OF COMMUNICATION
Communication has been classified into several types
depending upon the social groups in which it takes place and
upon the technical devices used to facilitate it. The types range
from the intrapersonal and interpersonal to the group and mass
communication.

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1. INTRAPERSONAL COMMUNICATION
Communication that takes place within an individual is
called intrapersonal communication. The individual functions
here as the source and receiver. It includes our reflection,
contemplation, meditation, our inner monologues, our
reflection upon ourselves, and our relationships with others
and with our environment. Conversing with the Divine may be
termed trans-personal communication.
In intrapersonal communication, the starting point and
destination of messages are within the same person. The
principal functions carried in this communication are
commonly referred to as ‗thinking‘ and ‗feeling‘.
Intrapersonal communication occurs when we think, feel,
meditate as well as when we verbalise to ourselves. During
intrapersonal communication, we observe ourselves and
become more aware of our personal consciousness.
2. INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION
Interpersonal communication is face to face
communication between two persons or more in close physical
proximity. In other words, interpersonal communication
describes any mode of communication, verbal or nonverbal,
between two or more people. It is considered the most
effective type of communication because it is personal, direct,
intimate and allows maximum interaction in word, gesture and
expression. Communication between two persons is also
known as dyadic communication.
Interpersonal communication is a dialogue or
conversation without the intervention of a machine like
telephone. When a mechanical device ‗mediates‘ in an
interpersonal exchange, it is called interpersonal mediated
communication. A telephonic conversation or internet chatting
between two individuals is an example of such mediated
communication

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3. GROUP COMMUNICATION
Communication by many persons in a face-to-face
situation is described as group communication. Here, as the
group grows in size communication tends to become more and
more of a monologue reducing participation. The degree of
directness, therefore, depends on the size of the group, the
place where it meets and also the relationship of the members
of the group to one another. In group communication feedback
is more difficult to measure and respond to. It takes time
before meanings are classified and responses assessed. Thus,
group communication is a more complex process than
interpersonal communication.
4. PUBLIC COMMUNICATION
Public communication occurs when a group becomes
too large for all members to contribute. One characteristic of
public communication is an unequal amount of speaking. One
or more people are likely to deliver their remarks to the
remaining members, who act as an audience. The audience is
unable to talk back in a two-way conversation as in
interpersonal or small group setting. In some cases, audiences
can have a chance to ask questions and offer brief comments,
and in very large public meetings the nonverbal reactions
(clapping, hooting, howling etc) offer a wide range of clues
about audiences‘ reception of the speaker‘s remarks. Public
meetings and political conventions are examples of public
communication.
5. MASS COMMUNICATION
Mass Communication is the process of delivering
information, ideas and attitudes to a sizeable and diversified
audience. This is done through the use of media developed for
that purpose namely newspapers, magazines, radio, television,
websites, social media networks. The act of mass

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communication is much more complex than that of face to face

communication. It is addressed to masses, to an extremely
large audience. Mass communication is all around us and it is
the principal means by which we obtain information and form
attitudes.
Mass communication really began with the invention of
the printing press which brought revolutionary changes in
society. But communication explosion actually began with the
emergence of electronic media. We have reached a stage
where we get live pictures and reports of events as they unfold
in any part of the world. We live in a mass mediated society.
6. VERBAL AND WRITTEN COMMUNICATION
Verbal communication refers to spoken messages that we
transmit by producing sounds. In general, we spend a great
deal of time participating in verbal communication either as
speakers or listeners. Verbal communication is important to
human relationship starting from interpersonal, group
communication to other communication contexts. Oral
communication is vital to personal, social and public life in all
societies.
Written communication refers to communication through
written or printed words. Although, it is verbal in nature,
written communication has a non-verbal dimension. Written
communication is formal, literate and follows the rules of
grammar. Written communion is accessible only to the literate.
This is the primary disadvantage of written communication. In
a country like India, millions of illiterates cannot use this
medium. Secondly, it is costly and time consuming. Thirdly,
feedback on written communication is delayed as compared to
oral communication.
7. NON VERBAL COMMUNICATION (NVC)
Human beings communicate verbally through words and

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nonverbally through facial expressions and body movements.

Non-verbal communication can be understood as the process
of sending and receiving messages without the use of words.
However, it should be noted that non-verbal communication
can take place either alone or with words.
We often consider that communication means only
words. The reason for thinking along this line is simple: we
mostly use words while communicating. In fact, we
communicate also by facial expressions, body movements, eye
movements, appearances, spatial behaviour, postures etc.
FUNCTIONS OF MASS COMMUNICATION
The popularity and persuasive influence of the mass
media can only be maintained by its significant functions.
Mass communication performs the following functions in
society.
1. Inform : Mass media carry out this function by keeping us
informed about the latest news in our region and around the
world. In many societies mass media have become the
principal means of information. It is through the mass media
that we get to know the various events that take place around
the world.
2. Entertain : Mass media design their programmes to
entertain. They attempt to entertain, to capture the attention of
large numbers of people. Mass media help us to pass time and
to relax with family and friends.
3. Educate : Media is a great teacher and educator. Most of
the information that we have obtained is not from classrooms
but from mass media like newspapers, magazines, radio,
television and internet. We have learnt a lot on music, politics,
film, art, sociology, psychology, computers and a host of other
subjects from the media and not from school or college
classrooms.

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4. Reinforce : Media function to reinforce or make stronger

our beliefs, attitudes, values and opinions. For example, the
communists will expose themselves to communist publications
and programmes and they will emerge ideologically reinforced
from such experiences. Similarly, the anti-communists will
expose themselves to messages in line with their ideology and
will emerge reinforced or stronger in their convictions.
5. Socialise : Socialising is a process in which an individual
adopts the behaviour, norms and values of a society. One of
the main functions of any media system is to socialise its
viewers, readers and listeners. The media provide the receivers
with values, opinions and rules that society judges to be proper
and just.
6. Activate : Mass media can activate audience or move
people to action. They function to get the audience to
channelise their opinions and pressurise the government and
other civic bodies to act. The activating function of media
occur more in response to advertisements.
7. Change or persuade : Media do not function primarily to
change our behaviour. But media can be used to form public
opinion, influence voting behaviour, change attitudes,
moderate behaviour, expose claims and sell products. Mass
media do not have incredible power to change people‘s minds.
However, well structured media campaign with persuasive
messages can have an effect on people‘s attitudes and habits.
8. Confer status : If you list the 100 most important people
in the country, they would undoubtedly be the people who
have been given a great deal of mass media exposure. Media
confer status to people with great media exposure. Without
such exposures the people would not have been important at
least in the popular mind.
9. Focus attention : Mass media have the ability to focus

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public attention on certain problems, events and issues at a

given time. The devastating outbreak of Covid 19 pandemic in
2019 and its super spread all over the world causing more than
50 million death and loss of livelihood were the lead stories in
most of our media. Consequently, the attention of the entire
world was focussed on the pandemic during period.
10. Ethicise : By making public certain deviations from the
norms, the media can arouse people to change the situation. It
provides people with a collective ethics or ethical system. For
example, without the wide media coverage of social activist
Anna Hazare‘s fast unto death in March 2011 in New Delhi to
press the government to legislate Jan Lokpal Bill, there would
not have been much public outcry against corruption. The
media coverage ultimately led the Union Government to
constitute a joint committee to draft the Lokpal Bill to be
presented before the Parliament.
DYSFUNCTIONS OF MASS COMMUNICATION
Undesirable consequences of the media are generally
termed as dysfunctional effects. They are also referred to as
negative functions of media. The concept of dysfunctional
effects of media was first explained by Robert Merton, an
American media sociologist in the 1950s. Along with several
positive and desirable functions, media has also certain
dysfunctions.
For example, public health campaign is basically good
and desirable. But, such messages can cause fear and panic
among the public. The Nipah epidemic that hit Kerala in 2018
is a good example in this context. The vigorous campaign, on
the one hand, created awareness on the deadly virus and the
various preventive measures. On the other hand, the campaign
caused fear and panic among people by distancing them from
public transport systems, shopping centres, visiting friends and
relatives and even to the extent of skipping schools and

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offices. The Covid 19 pandemic that ravaged the world from

2020 also had similar lessons. Protocols and precautions to
prevent the spread of virus were important. But at the same
time, fear mongering and panicking did not serve any purpose.
Mass media provides prestige or status to individuals
whose photographs, life styles and statements that constantly
appear on media. This is unavoidable. But, some individuals
and institutions try to grab media exposure through several
wrong methods. In order to get media coverage, these agencies
manipulate media. They are also cases where deviant
individuals commit major crimes to get media attention.
Ethicizing is an important function of media. Media
enforces and reinforces social norms in society in a variety of
ways. Along with the positive aspect of this function, there can
also be negative impact. The social norms are reinforced in
such a manner that social changes become almost impossible.
Narcotizing is one of the chief social consequences of
mass media upon audience, according to P.H. Lazarsfeld and
R. Merton. Increasing dosages of mass media may
unknowingly transfer the energies of individuals from active
participation into passive knowledge. Repeated reporting of
crime stories in the media can desensitize people who are fed
with an overdose of crime news. People get tired of such news
and stop reacting to such events as long as they are not
individually affected. In this context, media can make audience
members mentally and psychologically ‗sleepy‘.
BASIC COMMUNICATION MODELS AND THEORIES
In the broadest sense, a model is a systematic
representation of an object, event or a process in a graphic
form. It provides a simplified view of something to be studied.
They also clarify the structure of complex events and lead us to
new discoveries. Students of communication often use models

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to try to present a simplified version of communication,

containing the essential components of a communication
process. Communication models offer a convenient way to
think about communication, providing a graphical checklist.
1. ARISTOTLE’S MODEL OF COMMUNICATION
One of the earliest recorded models is attributed to the
ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle. He represented
communication as rhetoric (speech) where an orator speaks to
large audience. The model, proposed by Aristotle, is a linear
one in which there are three elements in communication such
as speaker, speech and audience. This model focuses
principally on public speaking. Aristotle‘s model has a speaker
and the emphasis is on personal debate. Rhetoric or persuasive
communication is based on the Greek model. Aristotle‘s model
can be graphically presented in the following manner.

Aristotle proposed a model of communication suitable

for public speaking. He put the speaker at the centre of the
communication process. The speaker prepares a message for
an intended audience. The message is intended to have an
effect, that is to influence the audience. The audience is seen to
be passive and ready to be influenced by the speaker‘s
message. To put it in other words, according to Aristotle a
speaker sends a message to an audience and the audience is
affected by the message received.

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2. LASSWELL’S MODEL OF COMMUNICATION

(1948)
Harold Lasswell, a political scientist, studied very
carefully the American presidential election (1948). He
introduced an important communication model based on his
studies on the process of political campaigning and
propaganda. According to Lasswell, a convenient way to
describe an act of communication is to answer the following
questions:
Who?
Says What?
In Which Channel ?
To Whom?
With What Effect ?

Based on the above statement, we can prepare the

Lasswell formula with corresponding elements of
communication process. Lasswell was attempting to describe
his observations about the process and effect of newspapers on
readers. The newspaper reporter or editor is the ―who.‖
The news story content is the ―says what.‖
The format and form of the newspaper is the ―in what
channel.‖
The ―to whom‖ is the reader.
The ―with what effect‖ refers to actions motivated in the
reader from exposure to news stories.

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3. MATHEMATICAL MODEL OF COMMUNICA-

TION (1948)
C. E. Shannon and W. Weaver‘s (1948) model of
communication, also known as mathematical model, provided
for the first time, a general model of communication process
that could be treated as a common ground of such diverse
disciplines as journalism, rhetoric, linguistics, and speech and
hearing sciences. This model explains among other things how
communication happens and how communication sometimes
fails.
This theory was basically designed by Shannon and
Weaver for an American telephone company during the World
War II. Their intention was to find out the most efficient
channel of communication for the transfer of information. This
model has a direct bearing on human communication.

Shannon and Weaver‘s model, as shown above, breaks

the process of communication down into eight discrete
components:
1. An information source is a person who creates a
message.
2. The message is anything sent by the information source
and received by the destination.
3. Transmitter, for Shannon‘s immediate purpose, was a
telephone instrument that captures an audio signal,
converts it into an electronic signal, and amplifies it for
transmission through the telephone network.

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4. The signal is anything which flows through a channel.

5. A carrier or channel, represented by the small unlabelled
box in the middle of the model, is the route or the
vehicle through which message is carried from the source
to the destination.
6. Noise is anything that interferes or confuses the signal
carried.
7. A receiver in Shannon‘s conception, is the receiving
telephone instrument. In face to face communication a
set of ears (sound) and eyes (gesture) are the receivers.
8. A destination is the person who consumes and processes
the message.
This model suggests that communication within a
medium is frequently direct and unidirectional. But in the real
world, communication is hardly unidirectional.
4. OSGOOD AND SCHRAMM’S CIRCULAR MODEL, 1954
This model was first introduced by Charles Osgood and
it was adapted by Wilbur Schramm (1954). This model is
circular.

They conceived decoding and encoding as activities

maintained simultaneously by sender and receiver. Besides,
the encoder and decoder are described equals, performing

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identical functions. There is also a provision for feedback in

this model. A notion of ―interpreter‖ as an abstract
representation of the problem of meaning.
This model is a clear break from the traditional linear
(one-way) communication process. This model is more
suitable to describe interpersonal communication on account of
the inclusion of feedback and less suitable to mass
communication process which has no provision for instant
feedback.
5. BERLO’S SMCR MODEL - 1960
David K. Berlo‘s SMCR (Source, Message, Channel, and
Receiver) model focuses on the individual characteristics of
communication. It stresses the relationship between the source
and receiver, important variables in the communication
process. The more highly developed the communication skills
of the source and the receiver, the more effectively the
message will be encoded and decoded.

Berlo‘s model represents a communication process that

occurs as a source drafts messages based on one‘s
communication skills, attitudes, knowledge, and social and
cultural system. These messages are transmitted along the
channels which can include sight, hearing, touch, smell, and
taste. A receiver interprets messages based on the individual‘s
communication skills, attitudes, knowledge, and social and
cultural system. The limitation of the model is its lack of
feedback.

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BASIC MASS COMMUNICATION THEORIES

What do media do with the audiences? This is an
important area of audience centred or source centred media
approach. It primarily focuses on the mass media units such as
newspapers, magazines, films, radio and television
programmes. In this context, media is considered to be all
powerful. In addition, the audience passively consumes all that
the media dish out and act accordingly.
A second approach is what the audience does with
various media messages. This approach constitutes the
reception analysis and here the audience is perceived to be
active. In the following pages we deal with some of the
elementary media theories.
1. STIMULUS RESPONSE THEORY
The stimulus response theory is also known as magic
bullets or hypodermic needle theory. This is basically a theory
that consider media to be all powerful and the audience to be
mere passive recipients of messages. Besides, the audience has
no ability to be critical of the messages. This theory gained
currency in the 1930s and 1940s when media emerged as an
important institution in moulding public opinion.
The critics of this theory say that in real life, media can
never be so powerful and the audience to be so passive.
Audience do not gulp down all the messages as given by the
media. Audience, based on their socio-psychological make up,
accept, reject or negotiate the messages.
2. NORMATIVE THEORIES OF MEDIA
Fred Siebert, Theodore Peterson and Wilbur Schramm in
their work Four Theories of the Press elaborate four normative
theories of media, namely, authoritarian, libertarian, social
responsibility and Soviet media theories. Denis McQuail has
added two more theories to the above list such as development

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media theory and democratic participant theory. A brief

explanation of these theories is given below.
a. Authoritarian media theory
The authoritarian theory describes a situation where a
government under a dictator or ruling elite imposes restrictions
over the media. Here the media has to act as a servant of the
State or a mouthpiece of the government. If media institutions
or journalists fail to uphold the authority of the State, then they
will be censored, shut down or jailed.
The media in general are expected to subordinate to the
established authorities. Press freedom is severely restricted.
Pre-censorship is an accepted practice. There can be
government run or controlled newspapers, television and radio
stations.
b. Libertarian theory of media
Libertarian theory of media, occasionally referred to as
free press theory, is founded on the fundamental right of an
individual to freedom of speech and expression. Thus, it is the
exact opposite of the authoritarian theory of the media. The
individual is given maximum freedom to express and also to
choose the media of his or her liking. There should not be any
censorship on freedom of expression.
However, unrestricted individual freedom can pose
dangers to a nation‘s security, privacy of individuals and
society‘s value system. In situations dominated by
competitions, reliance on advertising and ownership by
business tycoons, the media is likely to protect the interest and
freedom of the rich and powerful.
c. Social responsibility theory
Largely unrestricted press freedom in America was
misused by the press owners and other vested groups.

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Consequently, there was a pressure on the American

government to regulate media for safeguarding the larger
interest of the society. Thus, an independent commission
headed by Robert Hutchins (Chancellor of Chicago University)
along with 12 other experts from different fields was appointed
in 1942 to look into the role of the media.
The recommendations, known as Hutchins Commission
Report, were released in 1947. The commission found that
libertarian approach to media freedom had failed to meet the
informational and social needs of the poor and marginalized
sections of society. On the other hand, the commission found
that such media system has increased the power of the elite.
Similarly, there was also little diversity of views in the media.
The commission recommended that media had certain
obligations to society and its well-being. Public interest was a
greater value than unregulated freedom of the media. Thus,
self regulations by the media and regulations by the
government were essential. The media should maintain high
professional standards and adhere to truth, accuracy,
objectivity and balance.
d. Soviet media theory/ Totalitarian media theory
The Soviet system has passed away and with it the Soviet
media theory. But we will outline the basic principles of this
theory. The primary functions of the media were to educate,
inform, motivate and mobilize citizens and support progressive
movements. Censorship and restrictions on the media were
considered legitimate. The press, broadcasting, cinema, book
publishing – all message systems - were in the service of the
State.
e. Development media theory
Development media theory applies to the media in
developing countries. The four theories of the media, namely,

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authoritarian, libertarian, social responsibility and Soviet

media theories were said to have no direct bearing on the
developing countries of Asia, Africa and South America.
Development media theory advocates that media should
support the ruling government to bring about development. It
must be supportive rather than critical of the government until
the nation is well established and its economic development
goals are achieved. For this purpose, certain media freedom
need to be curbed in the interest of national integration,
economic and social development. Hence, the stress is on
development journalism and development communication.
f. Democratic – participant theory
Democratic – participant theory advocates media support
for cultural pluralism at the grassroots level. The emphasis is
on the positive uses of the media where everyone will have an
access and right to communicate. There is a need for local and
community participation in news production and distribution
process. Small media or community media should be
encouraged and the governments should offer subsidies to
these media to survive.
Commercial, political or bureaucratic controls of the
media should give way to democratisation of information as
well as the right to participation in the production and
distribution of media products. The theory emphasizes the
importance of the role of the receiver in communication
process such as the right of the citizens to relevant information,
right to be heard, right to reply.
For further reading
1. A Dictionary of Communication and Media Studies :
James Watson & Anne Hill
2. Communication Models: Denis McQuail & Sven
Windahl

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3. Dynamics of Mass Communication: Joseph Dominick

4. Mass Communication in India : Keval J Kumar
Review questions
I. Write answers in 50 words.
1. Magic Bullet Theory 2. Noise
3. Harold Lasswell 4. Group Communication
II Write short essays.
1. Aristotle‘s model of communication
2. Intra-personal communication.
3. Define a communication model. Why do we need
communication models?

III Write an essay on the following not exceeding four

pages.
1. Illustrate and explain any two basic communication
models of your choice.
2. ‗Non-verbal communication has a decisive role in any
communication process.‘ Discuss
3. Explain Normative theories of the press. Assess their
relevance in the current communication scenario.

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Chapter 2
MASS MEDIA

Journalism is one of the most important professions in

the world. It informs citizens about various events that take
place in their community, state, country and world. The
reports of journalists help people to form opinions and know
the current affairs. Journalists inform the public through
newspapers, magazines, radio, television and websites. These
means of communication are often referred to as news media.
PRINT MEDIA
The invention of movable type by Johannes Gutenberg, a
German, around 1450s was a turning point in history. He
designed, set the type and printed two hundred copies of his
famous forty-two line Bible. Gutenberg‘s innovation touched
off a communication revolution in the Western world and
gradually in the other parts of the world. The printing press
spread and consequently more and more books appeared in the
language of the ordinary people.
The history of newspaper is as long as the history of
books. Edwin Emery, a distinguished historian of journalism,
has defined the following characteristics of a true newspaper:
a. Is published at least weekly
b. Is produced by a mechanical printing process
c. Is available to people of all walks of life for a price
d. Prints news of general interest rather than items on
specialised topics such as religion or business
e. Is readable by people of ordinary literacy
f. Is timely, and

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g. Is stable over time.

By the above definition, the first true newspaper was the
Oxford Gazette, later called London Gazette. First published in
1665 under the authority of the British Crown, the Gazette
appeared twice weekly. Its publication continued into the
twentieth century.
The first daily newspaper in English, The Daily Courant,
began publication in London on March 11, 1702. This was a
newspaper of high quality and considerable integrity. But it
lasted only for a few days. The Pennsylvania Evening Post
and Daily Advertiser published in 1704 is considered the first
daily newspaper in the US.
Bengal Gazette, published by James Augustus Hicky, a
British citizen, in 1780 in Calcutta is the first newspaper in
India. The first Malayalam newspaper was Rajyasamacharam
It was published by the Basel Mission Society (BMS) at
Thalassery in 1840 under the guidance of Dr Hermann
Gundert.
Advantages and limitations of newspapers
The newspaper is a powerful medium. It is powerful
because it has the ability to influence the way people view the
world, as well as their opinion of what they see.
1) Newspaper can report stories in detail. It provides more
detailed news than radio or television.
2) It permits readers to absorb news at their own speed and
on their schedule.
3) Readers can skip items that do not interest them.
4) Newspaper can print certain material that appeals to only
a small percentage of the reading public such as death
notices, stock market listings and classified
advertisements.

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5) Newspaper is cheaply available for less than the price of

a cup of tea or coffee.
6) A large number of people can be reached in a given
geographical area.
7) Newspaper can be easily recycled after reading.
8) Newspaper has great mobility, that is, one can easily
carry newspaper to wherever one travels.
9) Newspapers give the most important details in the very
first paragraph. This is an important factor considering
that people have very short attention spans.
An important issue in newspaper is that it has a very
short life duration. The normal life span of a daily newspaper
is 24 hours. Breaking stories first appear on the electronic
media and then on the daily newspapers. Large number of
youngsters have begun to ask why should they read
newspapers when they can get minute by minute updates of
news on their smartphones. Generally, newspapers are messy
with commercials. Environmentalists point out that
newspapers cause pollution. Large numbers of trees are cut
worldwide to produce newspaper (newsprint) that has a life
span of merely 24 hours.
CHALLENGES FACED BY PRINT MEDIA
For the past many years, the newspaper circulation and
readership all over the world is on the decrease except in Asia.
This fact has been reiterated by World Association of
Newspapers and News Publishers (WAN-IFRA) 2014 report.
The literacy rate in several Asian countries including India is
on the rise and this results in increased number of readers year
by year. The spectacular growth of Hindi and regional
newspapers in India is a good example to prove this point. On
the other hand, the once thriving European and US print media

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industry is losing readers alarmingly. Where do these readers

go?
Researchers are of the opinion that readers are fast
switching over to the digital media especially the tablets and
mobile phones with internet connectivity. Journalism is
evolving rapidly in a ―mixed media‖ of traditional newspapers
and broadcast stations combined with a ―new media‖ of on-
line journalists. Some of the challenges faced by print media
are listed below.
1. Proliferation of news media
First came newspapers. Then magazines. Film, radio and
television came later. Soon online versions of newspapers
enlarged the news media scene. Now millions of bloggers,
countless web sites, web broadcasts, and ―podcasts‖ have
become news providers. All make up the ―body‖ of today‘s
news media, and there is no visible end to this proliferation. It
is the case everywhere including our country.
2. Changes in news media audience
The proliferation of news outlets means that audiences
can read and watch their news on various channels and web
sites. In other words, media audiences have fragmented.
People get their news updated throughout the day, when they
want it. They surf the internet to find the stories that interest
them. In response, more and more news outlets cater to smaller
and smaller demographics or ―niches.‖
3. Convergence of media
The fragmentation of the news audience has prompted
some major news organizations to attempt to ―re-assemble‖ a
large news audience by providing news across many media
platforms. Major Indian news organizations such as The Times
of India, Malayala Manorama and Mathrubhumi provide news
via a convergence of their newspapers, magazines, television

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stations, radio stations, websites and other publishing

concerns.
4. Business Values
As newsrooms become small parts of large corporations,
there is a danger that profit-seeking and economic imperatives
may cause newsrooms to compromise their ethical standards.
Business values, such as the need to meet the demand of
investors and advertisers, may affect journalistic honesty.
Inside the newsrooms, journalists may find themselves in
conflicts of interest — reporting on economic and other issues
can have a direct effect on the interests of their news
corporation.
5. Overdependence on advertising revenue
The first is the growing dependence on advertising
revenue and the declining share of revenue from newspaper
sales due to very low cover prices in many regions. For many
large newspapers, advertising revenue already accounts for
85% and more of the total revenue. To gain entry into new
markets, they lower the cover prices further, increasing their
dependence on advertising.
6. Paid news system
Press Council of India defines paid news as any news or
analysis appearing in any media (print and electronic) for a
price in cash or kind as consideration. By this arrangement
politicians pay money to media houses for favourable coverage
of political candidates in the election campaign. Failure on the
part of the candidates to pay money can result in a blackout of
his/her political campaign in the media. Paid news undermines
the basic principles of journalism. It corrupts news,
abandoning the separation between news and advertisements.

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FILM
Film, one of the most captivating media, was born
towards the end of 19th century and grew up in the 20th century.
Photography paved the way to modern visual communication
starting with film. Photography made the possibility of
capturing still images. The next attempt was to capture moving
pictures. Attempts to make moving pictures were taking place
in several parts of the world especially in the US, UK and
France.
Auguste and Louis, better known as Lumiere brothers,
patented a camera on February13, 1895 which could also
project films. They made the first film which lasted for one and
a half minutes using the newly developed camera and the film
was later screened on March 22, 1895 at a hall in Paris. The
film Workers Leaving the Lumiere Factory depicted workers
coming out of the factory during the lunch break. This magic
invention drew the attention of people in large numbers to get
a glimpse of the moving pictures.
This movie along with the other short films (The Arrival
of a Train at la Ciotat, Baby Dinner, Waterer Watered) were
screened in different parts of France. Lumiere brothers
travelled around the world in 1896 to exhibit a series of short
films in Europe, US, India, Japan, Egypt and Australia. The
Lumiere films were silent depiction of routine activities of
ordinary people which lasted at the most two minutes.
Cinema was first exhibited in India by the Lumiere
brothers on July 7, 1896 at Watson‘s Hotel in Mumbai, six
months after its public exhibition in Paris.
FILMS IN INDIA
Feature films found their place in India in 1912 when the
first film Pundalik was made by R. G. Torney and N. G.
Chitre. It was based on the life of a Maharashtrian saint by the

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same name. But it was half British in its make. This film was
followed by Raja Harischandra in 1913 by Dhundiraj Govind
Phalke, popularly known as Dadasaheb. He is credited with
laying the foundation for the Indian film industry and many
describe him as the father of Indian films. Government of India
has named the highest film award after Dadasaheb Phalke. It is
given annually to the best film personality in the country.
For people who make films, the medium provides an
opportunity for expression, an opportunity to practise a
complex craft as well as a livelihood. It may seek to educate
(as in the case of documentaries), persuade and influence (as
in the case of propaganda films) and entertain (as in the case of
feature films). For the audience the film may be an escape and
an engaging lesson in history, morality or human relationship.
Films grew from the tradition of theatre and popular
amusement and as such they have much to do with
entertainment. Feature films almost always take their viewers
from the mundane details of everyday life to the magical world
of make-believe.
CENTRAL BOARD OF FILM CERTIFICATION (CBFC)
It is a certifying body which certifies all Indian and
foreign films – feature, short and long films prior to their
exhibition. Its headquarters is in Bombay and has regional
offices in Bombay, Bangalore, Madras, Cuttack, Calcutta,
Hyderabad, New Delhi and Thiruvananthapuram.
The films are reviewed for the purpose of certification
and the reports are treated as confidential. The central board of
film censors has to come out with specific reasons when it asks
for cuts in a films and it must also furnish the particulars of
guidelines under which cuts are sought to be effected to the
film producer.
The films are certified as ‗U‘ for unrestricted exhibition,
‗A‘ for public exhibition restricted to adults only, ‗UA‘ for

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unrestricted public exhibition subject to parental guidance for

children below the age of 12 and ‗S‘ for public exhibition
restricted to specialized audiences such as business groups,
sports personnel and doctors.
RADIO
Radio is one of the most important means of
communication. Millions of people depend on the radio for
news and other programmes. The portability and the low price
of mass produced radio sets have contributed to the
popularity of this medium. Radio broadcasting once had much
the same entertainment role as television has today.
Radio stations are places where radio programmes are
broadcast. The heart of a radio station is the studio. There are
two types of radio transmission. They are amplitude
modulation (AM) and frequency modulation (FM).
Radio, like many other inventions, developed from the
theories and experiments of many people. It was in 1895 that
Guglielmo Marconi, an Italian inventor, sent the first radio
communication signals through the air. In 1901, Marconi‘s
radio equipment sent radio signals across the Atlantic Ocean
from England to Newfoundland. Later, experimental radio
broadcasts began in 1910 in the US. Regular radio services
began in many countries in the 1920‘s.
The rise of television in the 1950‘s ended the golden age
of radio broadcasting. The popularity of the frequency
modulation (FM) broadcasts and digital radio broadcast amply
prove that radio is not a dying medium but a vibrant one.
Development of radio in India
In India, as early as August 1921, The Times of India in
collaboration with the Posts and Telegraphs Department
broadcast a special programme from its Bombay office.
The first radio programme in India was broadcast by the

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Radio Club of Bombay in June 1923. Radio clubs were formed

in Calcutta and Madras in 1923 and 1924 respectively. It was
followed by the setting up of Indian Broadcasting Company
that began broadcasting in India in June 1927 on an
experimental basis in Bombay and Calcutta. In 1930, Indian
Broadcasting Company handed over the Bombay station to the
Government and it was renamed the Indian State Broadcasting
Service (ISBS). Later, it was renamed All India Radio on June
8, 1936. Short wave transmission began in India in 1938. It
was soon followed by the launching of the External Service
Division of AIR in 1939.
Radio in the post-independence era
At the time of independence, the AIR network had only
six stations located at Delhi, Bombay, Calcutta, Madras,
Lucknow and Tiruchirapalli with a total of 18 transmitters. As
against a mere 2,75,000 receiving sets at the time of
independence, today the number would be countless taking
into account the radio sets and the mobile phones that provide
radio service.
The broadcast scenario has drastically changed with 197
stations with 305 transmitters which include 145 medium
wave, 55 short wave and 105 FM transmitters providing radio
coverage to 97.3% of the population.
Radio is a widely used mass communication medium. It
has great potentiality in the dissemination of information and
in providing education and entertainment to millions of
people. However, optimum use of this medium is made by the
rural population as their access to other media is limited.
Radio as a mass medium has great relevance in a country
like India even amidst the overwhelming presence of television
and the new media. The vast majority of the rural population in
India has no power supply and as such their access to

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television sets is limited. In these areas, All India Radio‘s

programmes continue to be the only source of information and
entertainment.
STRENGTHS OF RADIO
• Radio broadcast can be highly target selective by station
format
• Intrusive and local
• Relatively low cost and production charges
• Excellent local market coverage
• Credibility is high among the target location
• Radio is considered portable medium
• Personal
• Community involvement is high
• Strong promotional vehicle
LIMITATIONS OF RADIO
• Lack of visual support
• Major investment to manage a radio station
• Fractionalized audience due to same formats
• Considered as a background medium
• Passive listeners
• Channel surfing leads to incomplete messages
• Difficult to build large reach
FREQUENCY MODULATION (FM)
FM broadcast is essentially a local radio channel with a
reach of 70 km radius from the place of transmission. This
broadcast provides crystal clear reception to the listener and it
has traditionally been used for airing music. FM broadcast was

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introduced in India in 1977 in Chennai but it was not really

popularised till 1992. Presently there are 105 FM transmitters
in India including Kochi, Devikulam and Kannur stations in
Kerala. The Government of India has privatised FM
broadcasting in the country. Private FM radio stations such as
Club FM, Red FM, Radio Mango and others are operating in
Kerala.
COMMUNITY RADIO
Radio broadcasting is generally categorised into
commercial and public broadcasting. Community radio comes
into the third category. It serves specific geographic
communities. Community radio broadcasts content that is
popular and relevant to local, specific audiences who are often
overlooked by commercial broadcasters.
These stations are operated and owned by the
communities they serve. Many of these stations are
generally non-profit and provide a mechanism for enabling
individuals, groups, and communities to tell their own stories,
to share experiences and to become creators and contributors
of media. Community radio has been built around the ideals of
access and participation.
Indian government implemented new Community Radio
Guidelines in November 2006 which permitted NGOs,
educational institutions and agricultural institutions to own and
operate community radio stations. Community radio stations in
India can have a coverage area of approximately a 12-km
radius. According to the Ministry of Information &
Broadcasting there were 148 operational community radio
stations in India as on 25 April 2013.
Janvani (Kannur), Radio Mattoli (Wayanad), Ahalia
Radio (Palakkad), Hello Radio (Thrissur), Radio DC
(Thiruvananthapuram), Radio Benzigar (Kollam), Ente Radio

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(Kollam), Global Radio (Alapuzha), Radio Macfast

(Pathanamthitta), Radio Media Village (Kottayam) and
Mangalam Radio (Kottayam) are some of the functioning
community radio stations in Kerala. Of these, Radio Mattoli
stationed in Mananthavady is one of the best community radio
stations in Kerala. It has completed ten years of broadcasting
in 2019.
RADIO ON MOBILE PHONES
Digital technology has revolutionized every walk of life
including our consumption of news and entertainment
programmes. We need not carry a radio set to listen to radio
programmes anymore. Distances are no barrier in listening to
programmes of your favourite radio stations. Internet enabled
digital technologies have made things easy and we can listen to
the radio programmes in our handy mobiles phone sand tabs.
The internet has further expanded the reach and
listenership of radio programmes worldwide. A community
radio station programme broadcast within a radius of 10
kilometres can be accessed by persons anywhere in the world
with an appropriate app installed in the mobile phone. There
are numerous apps also to listen to your favourite radio
programmes.
Most smartphones have built-in FM receivers which
means everyone could have free and easy access to radio.
Listening to the radio using your phone‘s FM, instead of the
internet, saves valuable data and battery life. We can also
stream many radio stations over the internet. In fact, many
radio stations now have dedicated apps to make it easy to listen
online.
TELEVISION
The name television comes from a Greek word meaning
‗far‘ and a Latin word meaning ‗to see‘. Thus the word

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television means to see far away programmes and events.

Many scientists contributed to the development of television,
and no single person can be called its inventor. Many
experimental television broadcasts took place in the late 1920‘s
and the 1930‘s. The British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC)
started the world‘s first public television service in 1936,
broadcasting from London.
Strength of television
• Demonstration ability by combining sight, sound and
motion
• Ability to reach large national audiences instantaneously
• Credible and prestige media
• Considered highly persuasive
• Low cost per minute (CPM) in reaching the target
audience
• High impact medium
Limitations of television
• Very expensive production costs
• High costs of entry
• Difficult to generate adequate reach and frequency unless
media budget is very large
• Availabilities greatly affected by season cycles and
viewing patterns
24X7 TELEVISION NEWS CHANNELS IN INDIA
Doordarshan‘s monopoly was challenged by CNN in
1991 with the live coverage of the Gulf War. The live coverage
of war and other events sparked off a demand for more
channels that provide news and entertainment without the
unnecessary interventions from the government. Later, Star TV

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went on air in India in 1991 with multiple channels. This

marked the beginning of a cable television revolution in the
country. Star TV Network introduced five major television
channels into the Indian broadcasting space that had so far
been monopolised by Doordarshan. Zee TV was the first
privately owned Indian channel to broadcast over cable
networks.
With the launch of Sun TV in 1992, South India saw the
birth of its first private television channel. Following Sun TV,
several television channels sprung up in the Southern States.
Among these are Tamil channel Raj Television and
Malayalam channel Asianet, both launched in 1993.
NDTV 24x7 (English) and NDTV India (Hindi) launched
in 2003 under the leadership of Prannoy Roy were the first
privately owned 24x7 news channels in India. It was followed
by several news channels both in English, Hindi and other
regional languages posing challenge to Doordarshan.
In Kerala too, viewers had no choice but DD
programmes until August 1993 when Asianet, the first private
television channel in Malayalam began satellite broadcasting.
Since Government of India did not permit private television
channels to uplink programmes from the country, Asianet had
to set up its studios on foreign locations and broadcast the
programme using a Russian satellite. This channel, right from
the beginning, catered to entertainment and information needs
not met so far by State-run Doordarshan. Its focus on
entrainment especially films and film–based programmes
along with news and news based programmes made the
channel very popular. Surya TV (1998) and Kairali (2000)
followed suit with broadcast of news and entertainment
programmes.
India Vision, the first 24-hour exclusive news channel in
Malayalam, commenced operation on April 21, 2003. It

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ushered in an era of professional news gathering and live

reports of events. News bulletins in Malayalam television
channels, which so far largely consisted of a reading exercise,
witnessed a sea change with the arrival of India Vision. It was
followed by Asianet(2003), People, Manorama News (2007),
Jai Hind (2008), Reporter (2011), Mathrubhumi (2013),
MediaOne (2013) and News18 Kerala (2016), Twentyfour
News (2018). Unfortunately, India Vision, the first 24x7 news
channel in Malayalam ceased broadcasting in 2015 due to
financial and also political reasons.
NEW MEDIA
Until the 1990s media relied primarily upon print and
broadcast models such as newspaper, magazines, television
and radio. The last thirty years have seen rapid transformation
in media with the arrival of computers and internet. New
media, and particularly the internet, provides the potential for a
democratic public sphere in which citizens can participate in
well informed non-hierarchical debate pertaining to their social
structures. But some writers fear that the new media has gone
into a handful of powerful transnational corporations who can
dictate terms and control the news flow.
CHARACTERISTICS OF NEW MEDIA
Internet replaces the ―one-to-many‖ model of traditional
mass communication with the possibility of a ―many-to-many‖
web of communication. New media, with its unique
characteristics, is redefining our understanding of media. Let
us analyse some of the important features of new media.
1. Hypertextuality
The prefix ‗hyper‘ is derived from the Greek meaning
‗above, beyond or outside.‘ Hypertext has come to describe a
text which provides a network of links to other texts that are
‗outside, above and beyond‘ itself. Any verbal, visual or audio

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data that has within itself links to other data might be referred
to hypertext. This facility of the new media enables a reader
with possibilities of navigation.
2. Multimediality
Multimedia can be seen as the sum of different media
formats such as audio, video, graphics and text. Unlike
traditional media, the digital media can simultaneously provide
news in different media formats in a single platform. This
feature makes digital media more attractive and
comprehensive.
3. Digital
In digital media process all data are converted into
numbers or binary codes. Digitisation enables data to be
compressed into very small spaces. It can also be accessed at
very high speed and stored. The opposite of digital is analogue.
The latter refers to the process of storing physical properties in
another physical form such as old newspaper archives and
conventional library. in
4. Interactivity
Interactivity stands for user engagement with media
texts. People are no longer on the receiving end. While the
‗old‘ media offered passive consumption new media offer
interactivity. New media allows consumers and users to get
more involved. This can be seen in simple acts like
commenting on news stories or writing a review. Individuals
with the appropriate technology can produce their online
media content including images, text, and sound about
whatever they choose.
Evolution of internet
Internet was first developed in US in 1960s. This project
sponsored by US government was initially intended for

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military and academic research. An experimental network

named ARPANET (Advanced Research Project Agency
Network) was launched in 1969 involving four US
universities. In 1973 network expanded to Europe. Significant
growth in the use of the internet began in the late 1980s.
The birth of the World Wide Web in the early 1990s
introduced graphic user interface and a protocol for hyper
linking information stored in different computers. This
provided access to millions and took internet to the masses.
Internet in India
India found a place in the internet map in 1987. ERNET
(Educational and Research Network), India‘s first internet
service, was launched in 1987. ERNET was a collaborative
project of Dept. of Electronics and the United Nations
Development Programme (UNDP). Ordinary people had no
access to net at that stage, as ERNET was confined to
educational and research institutions. Commercial net access
was introduced in 1995 through VSNL, then a public sector
undertaking. Presently, there are more than 200 internet service
providers in India. The resulting competition lowered the cost
and led to the rapid growth of internet connections. The arrival
of 3G and 4G technology and the greater reach of smart
phones are going to take internet to more and more people.
ONLINE MEDIA PLATFORMS
Online media commonly refers to news content available
through Internet accessible on any digital device (smartphone,
laptop, desktop and others) containing interactive user
feedback and creative participation. Common examples of new
media include websites such as online newspapers,
websites, blogs, wikis, and social media (Facebook,
WhatsApp, Twitter, Instagram).
A defining characteristic of new media is dialogue. It

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enables people around the world to share, comment on and

discuss a wide variety of topics. Unlike any of past
technologies, new media is grounded on an interactive
community.
BLOG
A blog (a contraction of the term ―weblog‖) is a type of
website, usually maintained by an individual with regular
entries of commentary, descriptions of events, or other material
such as graphics or video. A good blog should be updated
regularly and be well-written with eye-catching pictures.
Many blogs provide commentary or news on a particular
subject; others function as more personal online diaries. A
typical blog combines text, images, and links to other blogs,
web pages and other related sites. The possibility for readers to
leave comments in an interactive format is an important feature
of many blogs.
The term ―weblog‖ was coined by Jorn Barger in 1997.
The short form, ―blog,‖ was coined by Peter Merholz, who
split the word weblog into the phrase we blog in the sidebar of
his blog peterme.com in April 1999. In 2003 blog entered the
Oxford English Dictionary.
Blogs can come up with a competing, contradictory or an
alternative report other than those published/broadcast in the
conventional media. Internet has provided an inexpensive
medium and an audience previously not available. Bloggers
have taken the major media organizations to task for the
apparent distortions. Reputed newspapers like The New York
Times had to publish corrections in response to the
commentary written by bloggers.
The modern blog evolved from the online diary, where
people would keep a running account of their personal lives.
Most such writers call themselves diarists, journalists, or

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journalers. Early blogs were manually updated components of

common web sites. However, with the evolution of technology,
the publishing process became feasible to a much larger and
less technical population. Blogs can be hosted by dedicated
blog hosting services, or they can be run using blog software
or on regular web hosting services.
ONLINE NEWSPAPERS
Traditional mass media like newspapers, magazines,
radio and television have a conventional format. A reader is
required to buy or share a newspaper/ magazine to access the
content. Similarly, TV or radio set should be tuned in to get the
content. The emergence of internet has revolutionised the
transmission of information. An internet user can access either
fully or partially the content of the conventional media from
any part of the globe.
Online journalism made its impact felt in India in the mid
1990s. The Hindu is the first Indian newspaper that launched
an internet edition in the country in 1995. Dipika is the first
Malayalam newspaper that launched an internet edition.
Most newspapers during the initial period of the internet
editions basically used the same text and photographs that
formed the contents of the print dailies. These newspapers
hardly had news and features prepared exclusively for the
internet edition. Most of the news stories and pictures of the
printed dailies were automatically placed on the web edition.
But this scenario has drastically changed. There are
separate web departments with trained staff of editors and
other professionals to update the edition. Leading newspapers
like The Hindu, The Times of India, Hindustan Times and
others including Malayala Monorama, Mathrubhumi have
exclusive web department managed by trained reporters and
editors.

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CITIZEN JOURNALISM
Citizen journalism, also known as public, participatory,
democratic or street journalism, is an emerging concept where
the members of the public play an active role in the process of
collecting, reporting, analysing and disseminating news and
views. When ordinary persons in their capacity take the
initiative to report things or express views about events and
issues around them is popularly described as citizen
journalism.
Citizen journalists are not bound by the conventional
norms of a journalist. They take up initiatives to express ideas
irrespective of their educational or professional background. In
a way this emerging form of journalism is promising scenario
of breaking free from media bias as well as taking local news
to a global platform.
With the internet stepping in, the scope of media has
tremendously expanded. The rich who own the media enjoy
monopoly on their empire. They have deprived people of their
freedom by hiring or employing correspondents, contributors
and columnists who report in a biased manner. They hardly
ever accept write-ups from a commoner. These and other
reasons have contributed to the origin and growth of citizen
journalism.
Citizen journalism has provided a forum to challenge and
even disprove reports of the conventional media and official
press releases. This is a positive sign in the right direction.
Citizen journalism is literally by the people and as such it is
more democratic and transparent. It is likely to become a
potential mass medium of the future.
SOCIAL MEDIA NETWORKS
Oxford online dictionary defines social media networks
as websites and applications that enable users to create and

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share content or to participate in social networking. Social

media differ from traditional or industrial media in many ways,
including quality, reach, frequency, usability, immediacy, and
permanence. There are many effects that come from internet
usage. According to Nielsen, internet users continue to spend
more time with social media sites than any other type of site.
The average daily time spent on social media by the internet
users world wide has increased from 90 minutes in 2012 to 136
minutes in 2018 as per the study by Statista.
Today, teens, parents and grandparents alike are on social
media. 72 percent of all adult internet users in the US are
active on at least one social network in 2013, a remarkable
increase from just eight percent in 2005. The trend is more or
less similar in our country as well. Digital media has come
with a big bang and it has impacted every walk of life in the
shortest time possible. At the same time the technology is
evolving. We are familiar with the closing down of Orkut in
2014, a popular social media network that had millions of
followers previously. Facebook Instagram, TikTok, Twitter,
LinkedIn are some of the leading social media websites.
TROLL
Wikipedia defines a troll as a person who begins
arguments or upsetting people by posting inflammatory,
extraneous, or off-topic messages in an online community
with the intent of provoking readers into an emotional
response or disrupting normal, on-topic discussion, often for
the troll‘s amusement.
Controversial posts from celebrities and political leaders
usually attract strong responses from trolls. Some of them can
be humorous stuff like the cartons that appear in the print
media. But some can be hard hitting comments intended to
provoke people.

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Internet meme
An internet meme is a virally-transmitted photograph that
is embellished with text that make fun 0f an authority,
celebrity, cultural symbol or social idea. The majority of
memes are movie clips or scenes with added subtexts that are
intended to be funny, often to publicly ridicule human
behaviour. Meme is noteworthy for two reasons: it is a
worldwide social phenomenon, and meme travels from person
to person quickly through social media.
Trolls and memes are used interchangeably by most
people. Troll has become an umbrella term to describe videos,
photos intended to tease and critique. But there are differences
between these terms. Troll, as described above, is used to
embarrass or shame people. It intends to insult people. A
meme, on the other hand, is the use of images with text that
make us laugh and think without openly hurting others.
Mostly, memes are funny ideas.
For further reading
1. James Watson & Anne Hill : A Dictionary of
Communication and Media Studies
2. Joseph R. Dominick : The Dynamics of Mass
Communication
3. Mass Communication in India: Dr. J V Vilanilam
4. Mass Communication in India : Keval J Kumar
5. Online Journalism: A Basic Text - Tapas Ray, Cambridge
University Press
Review questions
I. Write answers in 50 words.
1. Lumiere Brothers 2. Fourth Estate
3. Advantage of print media 4. Paid news

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5. Citizen journalism 6. Blogging

II Write short essays.
1. Dhundiraj Govind Phalke
2. Advantages and limitations of TV
3. Community radio 4. CBFC
4. Digital journalism 5. Social media activism
II Write an essay on the following not exceeding four
pages:
1. Trace the origin and growth of radio in India.
2. Assess the challenges faced by the Indian print media
especially with the onslaught of digital media.
3. ―The onslaught of television channels has posed the
many challenges to radio broadcast.‖ — Discuss.
4. Trace the history of internet as a medium of
communication and its impact on journalism.

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Chapter 3
FREEDOM OF THE PRESS

Freedom of the press is the right to publish facts, ideas

and opinions without interference from the government or
from private groups. This right applies to the print media,
including books and newspapers, and to the electronic media,
including radio, television and online media.
Freedom of the press has been disputed since modern
printing began in the 1450‘s, because words have great power
to influence people. A number of governments place limits on
the press because they believe the power of words would be
used to oppose them. Many governments have taken control of
the press and use them to promote their interest. Most
publishers, writers and journalists on the other hand, fight for
as much freedom as possible.
Freedom of press – provisions in Indian Constitution
In our country, pride of place has been given to freedom
of speech and expression which is the mother of all liberties.
In order to realize this objective, ‗freedom of speech and
expression‘ has been guaranteed as a fundamental right in
Article 19 (1) (a) of the Constitution.
This freedom is referred to in general terms and includes
not only freedom of speech which manifests itself through oral
utterances, but also freedom of expression. This freedom of
expression had a wide implication and it includes the right of
free propagation and free circulation of ideas without any
restraints on publication.
Article 19(1) of the Constitution reads as follows:
19(1) All citizens shall have the right:

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a) To freedom of speech and expression

Although prime importance is accorded to the freedom of
speech and expression, this freedom is not absolute. Article 19
(2) of the Indian Constitution imposes reasonable restrictions
in the exercise of this right in the interest of:
(i) Sovereignty and integrity of India
(ii) Security of the State
(iii) Public order
(iv) Decency or morality
(v) Contempt of court
(vi) Defamation
(vii) Incitement to an offence.
The freedom of speech and expression enshrined in the
Indian Constitution has a vast implication and includes all
possible forms of expressing thoughts, feelings and
expressions. Such expressions may be made by writing,
printing, painting or by any other means including expression
through the press.
Another significant point is that the press in India does
not enjoy any special rights or privileges which cannot be
claimed or exercised by an ordinary citizen. The press stands
on no higher footing than any citizen and cannot claim any
privilege not exercisable by a citizen.
DEFAMATION / LIBEL
A libel is broadly defined as a published defamation of
character. Four elements must be to initiate a defamation case
against a media report.
1. Publication (communication to a third party)
2. Identification (mentioning the name of the individual or a
group of individuals either directly or indirectly)

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3. Harm to a person‘s reputation (injuring a person‘s

reputation)
4. Proof of fault (the plaintiff must prove actual malice)
Defences against defamation
The principal defences against libel/defamation cases
involving the press are provable truth, privilege of reporting
fairly and truly official proceedings or statements, right of fair
comment, constitutional defenses, consent and mitigatory
defences. These are discussed below.
1. Truth
Provable truth of a news story is a complete defense in
court cases. The best safeguard against a libel litigation is to
make certain before publication that any potentially
defamatory statement is true and that it can be proved to be
true.
2. Privilege of reporting truly and fairly
Journalists are privileged to provide a full, fair and
accurate report of court proceedings, Parliament, Legislative
assemblies, official discharge of public officials‘ duties etc.
Both the press and the persons involved in these activities are
protected from legal proceedings.
3. Fair comment
The right of fair comment by a newspaper extends to its
reports on public performance by musicians, stage performers,
coaches and players, artists, writers and others who present
their work or performance to the public.
4. Constitutional defences
Anything said or done by the members inside the
Parliament or Legislative assemblies, the testimony of a
witness during a trial in a court etc. are absolute defences

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against libel cases.

5. Mitigatory defenses
Proving the absence of malice helps to mitigate or lessen
the amount of damages awarded. A retraction, correction,
apology etc. published are mitigatory defenses.
RIGHT TO INFORMATION ACT, 2005
Right to information is central to a democratic
government. All that are legislated and executed by an elected
government should be transparent. A citizen should not only
have the freedom to speech and expression but also the right to
information on all the activities of the government except those
dealing with the security of the country. Information on the
government documents, press releases, circulars, reports,
samples, models, log books, file jottings etc either in
print/electronic format should be available to citizens.
Indian Parliament passed the Right to Information Act
(RTI Act) on May 11, 2005. The Act came into force on
October 12, 2005 in all states except Jammu and Kashmir. The
rights in RTI Act can be roughly grouped into five.
 Right to pose questions and seek information from
government.
 Right to get copies of government documents.
 Right to inspect any government documents
 Right to inspect the works undertaken by the
government.
 Right to collect samples of government works.
Citizens can seek information not only from government
departments but also from any body/company/corporation that
run on government funds. Citizen can apply for information on
a white paper with a court fee stamp of Rs 10/-. It should be

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addressed to the Information officer/Assistant information

officer in the government offices concerned.
Application for information should be processed in the
stipulated days (30-35 days). Emergency information that
affects the life and freedom of a person should be handed over
within 48 hours. If information is not handed over or rejected
without proper reasons; provide incomplete or misleading
information, RTI Act has provision to impose fine ranging Rs.
250-25000/- from the government servant/s. There is also
provision to appeal to higher bodies for not getting the
information sought.
CONTEMPT OF COURTS ACT, 1971
Contempt of Courts Act 1971 is a very complex and
lengthy law that journalists have to deal within their career.
Civil contempt pertains wilfully disobeying judicial decrees,
orders etc. Criminal contempt of the court is defined as the
publication which interferes with or undermines the
administration of justice or has a tendency to do so. The media
frequently face criminal contempt of court.
A fair criticism of judgement is not considered a
contempt. But it is advisable that journalist deals with caution
before writing anything more than a straight report of a court
case. The journalist should consult a legal expert when
commenting on judicial matters.
At present, a court of law has unrestricted right to punish
any one of contempt of court. Legal experts are of different
opinions on amending this unrestricted right of the court to
punish individuals or organisation in the name of contempt of
court.
CENSORSHIP
Generally speaking, censorship is the control of speech
and other forms of human expression. Legally speaking,

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censorship involves the attempts of government agencies to

curb public forms of communication. These include holding
public meetings and protests, publishing books and other
written materials, and providing viewpoints and information in
newspapers, magazines, radio, television and internet.
Types of censorship
a. Moral censorship is the removal of materials that are
obscene or otherwise considered morally questionable.
Pornography is an example.
b. Military censorship is the process of keeping military
intelligence and tactics confidential and away from the enemy.
c. Political censorship occurs when governments hold back
information from their citizens. This is often done to exert
control over the population and prevent free expression that
might encourage rebellion.
d. Religious censorship is the means by which any material
considered objectionable by a certain faith is removed. This
often involves a dominant religion forcing limitations on less
prevalent ones. Alternatively, one religion may shun the works
of another when they believe the content is not appropriate for
their faith.
e. Corporate censorship is the process by which editors in
corporate media outlets intervene to disrupt the publishing of
information that portrays their business or business partners in
negative light.
f. Internet censorship
Digital revolution sweeping across the world has
awakened governments to impose stringent censorship on the
internet. Most countries including democratic countries have
enacted cyber laws that establish prior restraint and also
subsequent punishment on the internet materials.

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PLAGIARISM
The practice of taking someone else‘s work or ideas and
passing them off as one‘s own is generally described as
plagiarism. It involves stealing someone else‘s intellectual
work and presenting them as one‘s own original work.
Plagiarism in academia and journalism has a centuries-old
history. But the emergence of the Internet, the physical act of
copying the work of others has become much easier.
Manually checking a big text for plagiarism is a time
consuming process. This barrier is effectively overcome with
the use of digital tools. They are fast, reliable and cost
effective. A plagiarism checker tool provides results within
seconds of running the test, helping the checker establish the
authenticity of work. There are many digital tools available in
the market. Some of them are paid and others free. Unicheck,
PlagScan, Grammarly, Plagramme and PlagTracker are some
of the popular anti-plagiarism software.
STING OPERATION
A sting operation can be defined as an operation
designed to catch a person committing a crime by means of
deception. The word sting derives from American usage to
mean a police undercover operation designed to trap criminals.
When these techniques are applied by a journalist to unearth
exclusive information, it can be called investigative
journalism, undercover journalism or sting operation. In a
general sense, sting operation is an information-gathering
exercise where facts are not easy to obtain by simple requests
and searches.
Positive and negative sting operations
On the basis of the purpose sting operations can be
classified as positive and negative. Positive sting operation is
one which results in the interest of the society. It is carried out

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in the public interest. Due to positive sting operation society is

benefited because it makes government and other entities
responsible and accountable.
On the other hand, negative sting operations do not benefit
society, but they do harm the society and individuals. It
unnecessarily violates the privacy of the individual without
any benefits to society.
Do We Need Sting Operations?
The media plays an important role in a democratic society.
Sting operations are methods of uncovering information. ―The
heart of journalism has to be public interest‖ and sting
operations, serve public interest. If journalism is committed to
democratic accountability, then the question that needs to be
asked is whether the public benefits as a result of specific sting
operation. Does the press fulfill its social responsibility in
revealing wrongdoing? Whose interests are being affected?
Whose rights are being invaded? Is the issue a matter of
legitimate public interest? These are some questions which
need to be answered when going for a sting operation or going
for making legislation on it.
For further reading
1. Laws of the Press in India : D D Basu
2. Journalism: Ethics, Codes, Laws : B Someswar Rao
3. Freedom of the Press, Constitution and Media
Responsibility: Y.K. D‘souza
Review questions
I Write short notes:
1. Press Freedom 2. Constitutional defences
3. Tehelka.com 4. Censorship

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II Write short notes:

1. Article 19 (1) (a)
2. Reasonable restrictions imposed on Article 19 (1) (a)
3. Contempt of the court
4. Right to Information Act
II Write an essay on the following not exceeding four
pages:
1. Explain the term ‗Freedom of the Press‘, and examine in
detail the reasonable restrictions imposed on this
freedom.
2. Define libel. What are the defences against a libel suit

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Chapter 4
HISTORY OF INDIAN PRESS

Printing, the process reproducing text and images, has a

long history behind it. The printing has evolved over centuries
in different countries. Gutenberg began the work of a printing
press in 1436 in Mainz, Germany. It took him four years to
finish his wooden press which used movable metal type. The
firsts book printed in the press was the Bible.
The invention of printing press gradually paved the way
for the launch of newspapers and magazines. Just as printing
took several centuries to develop, the newspaper history had
also taken several years to evolve.
EVOLUTION OF INDIAN PRESS
Printing presses were first brought to India in the 16th
century by Christian missionaries for publishing evangelical
literature. Their publications included the Bible and other
materials that aided conversion and evangelisation. Dr Nadig
Krishna Murthy, a noted historian of the press, states that the
first printed book in India was Doctrina Christa (Doctrine of
Christ), a missionary publication in 1557. This book was
printed at a printing press set up by Jesuit priests in Goa.
The second printing press in India was established in
1578 at Punikael, a village in the Thirunelvely district in Tamil
Nadu. This too was a Christian initiative. Later a Tamil-
Portuguese dictionary was published in 1679 at Ambazhakkad
near Thrissur. Most of the early printing presses were set up by
Christian missionary groups to propagate the teachings of
Christ.
The English East India Company also set up printing
presses in different places to aid efficient administration of the

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subcontinent. Printing presses began operation in Bombay,

Madras and Calcutta in the late 17th and 18th centuries. The
birth of the first newspaper in the country was towards the end
of the 18th century.
I. JAMES AUGUSTUS HICKY
James Augustus Hicky brought out the first newspaper
in India. The first issue appeared on January 29, 1780 in
Calcutta, bearing the name Bengal Gazette or the Original
Calcutta General Advertiser. It was a weekly newspaper
published in English and addressed exclusively to the large
group of British residents in Calcutta.
Hicky was the founder, editor, printer and promoter of
this weekly. It was a two-page newspaper and the size of the
paper was 12 inches by 8 inches. Advertisements occupied
more space than reading matter. The lead stories were mainly
taken from old European newspapers.
Bengal Gazette contained news of the fighting between
the East India Company and various local kings. The other
contents in the paper included lengthy reports of the parties
hosted by British residents in Calcutta, advertisement notices
of properties and articles for sale, Hicky‘s column, poet‘s
corner and a section for letters to the editor. But it is
important to note that there was hardly any news that really
concerned the Indians.
Reports that another newspaper was being planned and
the subscribers of Hicky‘s Gazette were being approached
made him furious. He began to malign everyone who
supported the new venture. The grant of postal facilities to the
new paper called the India Gazette made Hicky attack
mercilessly Warren Hastings and his wife. Chief Justice
Elijah Impey became his special target of attack whom he
criticised for dubious ways of amassing wealth.

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Warren Hastings finally took action against Hicky for

defamation in 1781. He was convicted and sentenced to a
year‘s imprisonment and to pay a fine of Rs 2000. Officials
were under the impression that with Hicky in jail Bengal
Gazette would disappear. Their calculations were wrong.
Gazette continued to appear regularly while Hicky was in
prison.
In March 1782, the types for printing the paper were
confiscated and Bengal Gazette was suppressed by the East
India Company. This marked the premature and
unceremonious death of India‘s first newspaper.
The seizure of the press was a severe blow to the already
hurt editor. He faced trouble after trouble and suffered heavily
by courting the wrath of the authorities. He died in obscurity.
II. JAMES SILK BUCKINGHAM
James Silk Buckingham was the editor of Calcutta
Journal started by some British merchants in Calcutta to
propagate their views and to protect their interests. The first
issue of the paper appeared in Calcutta on October 2, 1818. It
was an eight-page biweekly newspaper priced at rupee one.
He was fearless in condemning the local custom of sati
(burning alive the wife in the funeral pyre of the deceased
husband) and the government‘s failure to put an end to it. He
gave prominence to news and views from Bengali and Persian
journals. He was also a friend of the Indian press and
defended its right to exist and voice the opinions of people.
Buckingham was also a champion of the freedom of the
press. He held views which were revolutionary in the
background of the prevailing notions about the press. He was
bold and impartial in his writings. He did not hesitate to attack
even the high dignitaries in East India Company.
By 1822 Calcutta Journal had increased its circulation

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and had gained wide popularity. British authorities became

intolerant on account of his persistent criticism of their
policies. Hastings administration came to an end in 1823, and
John Adam the acting Governor-General, deported
Buckingham to England. He was served an order of
deportation in 1823 with immediate effect for publishing
adverse remarks in the editorial of Calcutta Journal.
III SERAMPORE MISSIONARIES
Serampore missionaries were a group of Christian
missionaries from England who settled down at Serampore in
Bengal. The credit for starting the first language newspaper in
the country goes to this missionary group. Their publications
included:
1. Dig Darshan: It was started in 1818 as a monthly
magazine in Bengali. This journal carried reports of political
activities, but it carefully avoided political controversies.
Notices, articles relating to history and political news items
were published in this paper.
2. Samachar Darpan: The name of Dig Darshan was
changed to Samachar Darpan in 1819 and it was published
until 1840. The subscription rate of the weekly was one rupee
per month. It became a bilingual weekly in 1829. This journal
served not only as a propaganda material but was also a source
of information. It collected news from many places in Bengal
and nearby places. Information not available elsewhere could
be found in it.
3. The Friend of India: It was a monthly magazine in
English started on April 30, 1818. This magazine published
essays on subjects related to India and reviews of works on
India published either in Europe or in India. It stopped
publication in 1827 due to financial constraints.
The basic objectives of these papers were to aid

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missionary works and to support the views of the British

administrators in India. But it should be kept in mind that news
about India and Indians occupied the largest space in these
publications unlike Bengal Gazette.
IV. RAMMOHAN ROY
James Augustus Hicky with his Bengal Gazette was
definitely the pioneer of Indian journalism. However,
considering the content and context of his paper, it is
inappropriate to regard him as the father of Indian journalism.
This credit is accorded to Rammohan Roy (1772-1833) by
most historians including Nehru.
Rammohan was Bengal born in 1772. He mastered
Persian, Arabic, Sanskrit and English. The following
newspapers were published by Rammohan.
1. Sambad Kaumudi
It was a weekly in Bengali published in December 1821.
It was founded by Bhowani Charan Banerji who later became
disenchanted with the progressive ideas of Rammohan. The
Calcutta Journal edited by James Silk Buckingham gave
ample publicity in its columns to this new Indian project.
After the 13th issue, the Banerji left the paper on account of
disagreements with Rammohan‘s campaign against sati.
2. Mirat-ul-akhbar
This was the second journal brought out by Rammohan
in 1821. It was a weekly in Persian (the official language of
the Mughal Empire) and published on every Friday. This
weekly devoted space to national and international events.
Theological controversies and articles that called for social
reforms found their place in this weekly. The authorities were
disturbed over such articles and they feared that the writings
against sati might endanger the peace of society. Mirat-ul-
akhbar was shut down in 1823 to protest against the Press
Regulation Act of 1823.

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3. Brahminical Magazine
This was a monthly published in English to counter the
missionaries‘ propaganda. The editor‘s name was given as
Shiva Prasad Sharma who was a scholar and friend of
Rammohan. Twelve issues of this magazine appeared. Later, a
regular periodical in English and Bengali titled Brahmin
Sevadhi was started by Roy.
These publications marked the real beginning of
journalism in India as they were addressed to Indians in their
own languages. Rammohan used his journals to appeal to his
countrymen to free themselves from superstitious beliefs. He
also appealed to people to discard the rigidities of caste, to
acquire modern knowledge and to cultivate a sense of industry.
He demanded that authorities should open schools to impart
modern education.
PRESS AND FIRST WAR OF INDEPENDENCE
The victory of the British in the Battle of Plassey in 1757
in Bengal marked the real beginning of British domination in
India. From then on the British merchants gradually became
the real rulers in large parts of the subcontinent. They
annexed one kingdom after another.
The various events pursued by the Company had
shattered the social fabric in the country. Prohibition of Sati,
widow remarriage legislation, prohibition of the disinheriting
of a Hindu upon conversion and several other legislation
caused people to fear that their traditions and customs were in
danger. These reasons along with a host of offensive
regulations enacted by the Company set the general mood for
the 1857 uprising.
Indian press during this period was limited to certain
pockets namely Calcutta, Bombay, Madras, Pune and a few
other cities. The Indian initiatives in language journalism

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began by Rammohan Roy spread to several cities. Indian

language newspapers, although limited in number, reflected
and strengthened popular sentiments.
While the revolt was in progress, the British Government
promulgated a new Act in June 1857 to regulate the
establishment of printing presses and to restrain the circulation
of printed books and papers.
The 1857 uprising was ruthlessly suppressed by the
British. The sepoys had no unified plan of action and strategy.
Within a few months the British gained complete control over
the situation. The British administration wanted to put an end
to the passionate press functioning in several parts of the
country. A series of Press Acts were promulgated by the
British in order to prevent repetition of the upheaval. Several
Indian editors were prosecuted for publishing seditious
articles.
The 1857 uprising and its suppression accelerated a
national awakening. The event led to the formation of citizens‘
associations comprising teachers, lawyers and other sections of
the English- educated. The post-uprising period saw the
emergence of many journals and publications in several parts
of the country promoting national feeling.
FREEDOM MOVEMENT AND PRESS
The pioneering work of Rammohan Roy in the field of
journalism in the early 19th century led to a gradual growth of
newspapers, magazines and other publications in India. The
brutal suppression of the revolt of 1857, censorship of the
Indian nationalist press and founding of Indian National
Congress (INC) in 1885 and other citizens‘ associations were
shaping Indian public opinion against the British.
The Indian National Congress was founded by Allen
Octavian Hume in 1885 which in subsequent years was

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responsible for freeing the country from the British

imperialism. He wrote an open letter to the graduates of the
Calcutta University to face the challenge of self-sacrifice in
order to free the country.
The post-1857 period witnessed more stringent
regulations by the British government especially for the
vernacular press. Despite this, during the last quarter of the
19th century, what come to be known as a nationalist press
expanded phenomenally. Bal Gangadhar Tilak, one of the great
leaders of the national awakening, started two weeklies in
1880, Kesari in Marathi and Mahratta in English.
Several newspapers, both in English and regional
languages, began in different parts of the country. Most of the
powerful newspapers, The Times of India (founded in 1838),
Madras Mail (founded in 1860) and The Statesman (founded
in 1875) were owned by the British and they supported the
Government. A few newspapers owned by Indians, like The
Hindu (founded in 1878) and Amrita Bazar Patrika (founded
in 1868), took a moderate position. Only a few newspapers
took the extreme step of advocating total freedom for the
country.
World War I and press
The first World War had its repercussions in India. Three
days after the declaration of the War, an order was issued by
the Government of India taking control of the press in India
and controlling the publication of naval and military news.
The Anglo-Indian press opined those nationalist activities
should give way to the necessities created by the War. But the
Indian nationalist press pleaded that British Government
should accord to Indians the rights and liberties for which the
Allies were fighting in Europe.

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Emergence of Gandhi
Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi emerged as an important
leader of the freedom movement in the post War period. His
leadership gave a new direction to national struggle and he
came to occupy an unparalleled position in national politics.
He edited three publications namely Young India, Harijan and
Navajivan. Through these journals Gandhi guided the national
movement and propagated his ideas of nonviolence and
satyagraha.
The Non-Cooperation Movement launched by Gandhiji
had to be called off in 1919 as violence crept into the
movement. In the same year the police and military fired on
the unarmed and peaceful gathering of people at Jallianwalla
Bagh in Punjab. Many men, women and children were
massacred. Press censorship was imposed. The Government
kept the press uninformed of this cruel act. Nobody knew
what had really happened in Jallianwalla Bagh for a number of
days.
Several more English and regional newspapers began in
various parts of the country declaring support to the national
movement. The Indian Express, Free Press Journal, The
Dawn, Hindustan, Blitz, National Herald, Mathrubhumi etc.
aroused national consciousness in the length and breadth of
the country.
News Agencies
Reuters was the only news agency that provided world
news to Indian newspapers and periodicals. This imperial news
agency controlled the inflow and outflow of news distribution
in India. Many Indian leaders felt that a British-controlled
organisation would never reflect the Congress views
accurately. The man who translated this idea into a reality was
S Sadanand who had served for some years with Reuters. Thus

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Free Press of India (FPI) came into existence in 1927.

British government came down with a heavy hand on
this news agency. Free Press telegrams were subjected to
strict censorship and many newspapers were pressurised not to
publish news supplied by this agency. Sadanand had to close
down the agency eventually.
Quit India Movement
British authorities made every effort to control and
muzzle the nationalist press during the Quit India Movement
launched by Indian National Congress in 1942. Pro-Congress
newspapers like Hindustan Times of New Delhi edited by
Devadas Gandhi, and National Herald edited by Nehru had to
bear the brunt during this period. Gandhiji suspended the
publication of Harijan and other weeklies on account of pre-
censorship imposed by the Government. National Herald was
closed down in August 1942 and it resumed publication only
in 1945.
Transition to Independence
British owned newspapers began to change the
ownership into Indian hands. Like the owners of many
plantations and industrial units, the British proprietors decided
to sell the newspapers. The Times of India was sold to
Ramakrishna Dalmia and The Madras Mail also came under
Indian management. The Statesman came under the Tatas.
Conclusion
The saga of the Indian freedom movement is almost
synonymous with the history of Indian press. National
consciousness was aroused, sustained and promoted by
newspapers and periodicals. The Indian press played a valiant
role in the struggle for freedom. The nationalist press had to
face the wrath of the British by way of censorships, fines,
arrests, exiles, outright closure and suppression. The

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nationalist press showed a great sense of commitment and

dedication during the struggle for national freedom.
VII. PRESS AFTER INDEPENDENCE
With independence, the former leaders of the freedom
struggle became the new rulers of India. For the press it
marked a change in its role. It was a honeymoon period for
the press and government. It was not easy for the press to
adopt the role of an adversary to that generation of politicians.
Under these circumstances, journalism became too
dependent upon official handouts, ceremonies and
inaugurations for daily coverage. There were no serious expose
by the press during the entire era of Nehru as Prime Minister
except during the Chinese aggression.
Ms Indira Gandhi was the next most dominant political
figure in the country. In the early 1970s, a strong opposing
movement under the leadership of the Sarvodaya leader
Jayaprakash Narayan picked up momentum. A powerful
section of the press extended its support to the movement. The
government viewed some dimensions of the movement as
dangerous enough to the country and a national Emergency
was declared on June 25, 1975.
The press was gagged and censorship was imposed. The
19 months of the Emergency was the darkest period for the
Indian democracy and the press was its easy victim. It is
important to note that in these dark days, the press largely
played a docile role, barring a few exceptions like The Indian
Express, The Statesman etc.
The exposure of the 2G spectrum allocation scandal
which would have never come to light but for the alert press, is
just one example of the height the Indian press can sometimes
scale. Recent examples of scams unearthed by the media
include scandals of coal allocation, Adarsh flat,

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Commonwealth games, Madhya Pradesh Vyapam, Haryana

teachers‘ recruitment, Wakf Board land scandals etc. But
follow-up investigations of these public scams are lacking, and
are rarely pursued to the end.
On-the-spot investigative reports are few and far
between. Further, journalists are inclined to accept many
favours from government such as subsidised housing and
medical facilities, and it is therefore not surprising that they
rush to the same government when they have differences with
editors and with management or when they demand higher
salaries and better working conditions. The media is a very
important institution in a democracy. It is unhealthy to entrust
it entirely to journalists; a vigilant public, courts and Press
Council are needed to keep a watchful eye on the media.
VIII. GANDHI AS A JOURNALIST
Mahatma Gandhi is universally known as a great
champion of nonviolent struggles. He led millions of Indians
into freedom from the greatest imperialist power of the time.
Along with the active leadership in the freedom struggle,
Gandhi was also a great journalist and promoter of
newspapers. His papers provided a great moral support and a
sense of direction to the nonviolent freedom struggle
movement against the colonialist.
Gandhi’s publications
Indian Opinion was a weekly published in four
languages namely English, Gujarati, Tamil and Hindi during
1903-1915 in South Africa. This weekly drew attention of the
authorities to the legal and political difficulties encountered by
the Indian community in South Africa.
Gandhi returned from South Africa and began his
political activities in India. He was also the editor of Young
India (1919-1931), and Harijan (1933-1942 and 1946-

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January 1948). Young India had a Gujarati edition called

Navajeevan. Harijan had both Gujarati and Hindi editions.
Gandhi suspended the Non-Cooperation Movement in
February 1922 owing to ‗the crime of Chauri Chaura‘ in
Gorakhpur district (U P) where a marching mob set fire to a
police station and then hacked to death 21 policemen. The
defeat of his political programme certainly did not weaken his
pen.
Gandhi‘s newspapers were subjected to stoppages and
revival according to the political situations. C Rajagopalachari
and Pothen Joseph edited the papers while Gandhi was in
prison.
Among the publications of Gandhi, Harijan was the most
important one because it had the greatest reach and became the
Bible of the Congress and the masses led by Gandhi. Harijan
was published in Hindi and Gujarati under the names Harijan
Bandhu and Harijan Sewak respectively.
The publication of Harijan was stopped in 1942 and was
resumed in 1946. Gandhi was assassinated on January 30,
1948. Slowly readers‘ interest in the weekly dwindled and it
ceased publication in 1949.
Editorial topics
All these journals which Gandhiji described as
viewspapers were organs of political and social movements
and discussed with intensity and concentration the problems
that demanded immediate action. The topics and their
treatment in the journals varied according to the historical
contingency. But at the same time there was a common refrain
running through them all, namely the insistence on truth and
nonviolence, on fairness to all and the public good.
Objectives of journalism
Journalism was a noble profession for Gandhi.

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According to him, a newspaper had three objectives to serve in

a society. The first objective is to understand the popular
feelings and give expression to them. The second is to arouse
among the people certain desirable sentiments. The third
objective is to fearlessly expose popular defects. His
newspapers carried no advertisements and depended solely on
subscription from readers. This enabled him to be totally
independent in expressing his views. He had also written on
the curse of advertisements in his journals.
Gandhi’s views on ads
Gandhi‘s newspapers did not carry any ads and they
solely depended on subscription from readers. However
‗Young India‘ had accepted advertising. But Gandhi firmly
believed that it was undesirable to depend on advertisements if
editorial freedom is to be maintained. Gandhi argued that most
advertisements resulted from unhealthy competition to
promote luxury items which the large majority of the
population could not afford to buy.
Conclusion
Gandhi was a great force to be reckoned with in the
Indian freedom struggle. The noble objectives upheld by him
in journalism are a model for media professionals and
institutions. His papers promoted national feelings and gave a
sense of direction to the freedom struggle. Gandhiji was
certainly an editor with a difference. Although his objectives
in journalism are uncompromising, demanding and financially
unviable in the present context, it is worthwhile to emulate the
spirit of Gandhian journalism.
PRESS COMMISSIONS
After independence, there was a constant demand by
editors and journalists urging the Government of India to
enquire into the state of the press in India and put forward

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recommendations that can be enacted for the benefit of the

press. First Press Commission under the chairmanship of
Justice G.S. Rajyadhyaksha was formed on September 23,
1952.
The commission submitted its report on July 14, 1954
after two years of work. The major recommendations of the
Commission are briefly explained below :
1) Press Council : The Commission‘s first recommendation
was to constitute a Press Council. The Council is to look into
the freedom, independence, standard and development of the
press.
2) Registrar of newspapers in India : A Press Registrar
should be appointed for the country as a whole. It will be the
responsibility of this officer to bring out an annual report
which will contain the facts and figures relating to the industry.
3) Price-page schedule : A minimum price should be fixed at
which papers of a particular size can be sold. It also
recommended that the quantum of advertisement in a week‘s
issue of a newspaper should not exceed 40 % of the total print
area.
4) Advertising council : An advertising council may be
created to advise on the ethics of advertising, to organise
market research and to carry out readership surveys.
5) Newsprint : Apart from increasing the manufacture of
newsprint, the State Trading Corporation should acquire
indigenous newsprint and sell it along with imported newsprint
at equated price.
5) News agencies : There should not be State-owned or State-
controlled news agencies. The Government should give no
assistance to the news agencies in order to ensure their
independent operations.

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7) Government advertisements : With regard to the

allocation of government advertisements, there should not be
any discrimination between newspapers merely on the grounds
of their political or communal backgrounds.
8) Declaration of ownership : The complete statements of the
names of proprietors and responsible executives of the
newspaper should be published periodically.
9) Monopolies : Diversity of opinion should be promoted in
the interests of free discussion of public affairs. The Press
Registrar should bring to the notice of the Press Council if any
monopolies arise in the newspaper industry.
Second Press Commission
Ms. Indira Gandhi, the then Prime Minister, constituted a
ten-member commission in 1980 under the chairmanship of
Justice K. K. Mathew. The Commission placed its report
before the Parliament on November 5, 1982. The major
recommendations are the following.
1) MRTP Act and the press : The Commission recommended
that the Monopolies and Restrictive Trade Practices Act of
1969 should be made applicable to the newspaper industry.
The Commission held that there is no justification for
exempting the newspaper industry from the provisions of the
Act.
2) Delinking the press from other business concerns:
Majority of the members of the commission felt that it was
necessary to insulate the press from the dominating influence
of other business concerns.
3) News to advertisement ratio : The Commission
recommended that for the freedom of the press to be effective,
the present degree of dependence on advertisement will have
to be lessened. A news to advertisement ratio is absolutely

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essential for promoting fair competition among existing units

and the new entrants.
4) Newspaper Development Commission : In order to
improve the quality of newspapers, especially medium and
small ones, the Commission recommended the setting up of a
Newspaper Development Commission.
PRESS COUNCIL OF INDIA (PCI)
The concept of press council first emerged in Sweden 1916
to maintain and improve the standards of newspapers. The
Press Council of India Act deals not only with journalists,
editors, newspaper proprietors or the press in general but also
the general public who have grievances against the press. The
Act established a press council for the purposes of preserving
the freedom of the press and of maintaining and improving the
standard of newspaper and news agencies in the country as a
statutory body.
Origin of Press Council
Thus, Press Council of India was set up on July 4, 1966
as per the Press Council Act of 1965. Later, a second Press
Council came into existence on October 1, 1970 with a wider
range of functions, jurisdiction, authority and power.
However, on December 8, 1975, during the Emergency era, it
was abolished through a presidential ordinance.
After the Emergency period, the Janata Government
introduced the Press Council Bill in 1977. This Bill was
adopted by the Parliament in 1978.
Objectives of the Press Council:
a) To maintain the independence of newspapers and news
agencies.
b) To build up a code of conduct for the press
c) To encourage a sense of responsibility

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d) To express its opinion when issues are referred to it by

the Government
e) To maintain and improve the standards of newspapers
and news agencies
Composition of Press Council
PCI is a body corporate having perpetual succession. It
consists of a chairperson and 28 other members. The
chairperson is by convention a retired judge of the Supreme
Court of India.
Thirteen members are to be elected from among
working journalists, out of which six are to be editors of
newspapers. Six proprietors of newspapers -- two each from
small, medium and big newspapers -- are also elected. One
member is nominated from the news agencies. The UGC, Bar
Council and the Sahitya Academy send one member each.
Five Members of Parliament -- three from Lok Sabha and two
from Rajya Sabha -- are also nominated. PCI chairman and
members hold the office for three years.
Powers of Press Council
The Council has the power to consider complaints suo
moto, in addition to inquiring into complaints brought before
it. If satisfied that a violation of misconduct has taken place,
the PCI may warn, admonish or censure the newspaper, news
agency, editor or journalist or disapprove the conduct,
recording the reasons in writing. For conducting the inquiry,
the PCI has the same powers to issue summons as a civil
court.
The Press Council is not armed with any punitive
powers. But it can ensure that abuses do not pass without
anybody noticing them or daring to raise a protest. Similarly,
the opinions expressed by the Press Council will be a reminder
to the press to make necessary changes.

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Conclusion
There has been a gradual change in the tenor of the press
from being the guardian of the society to a mere entertainer
with business and profits being the primary aim. Media, in
general, resort to sensationalism and vulgarity to market its
commodity by rubbing shoulders with the political powers and
using religious and communal issues. All freedom and no
responsibility is a dangerous portend especially in a press with
little or no social responsibility. It is strongly felt that in the
interests of the society the Press Council should be vested
with more powers to contain scurrilous writing by the press.
PRESS DURING EMERGENCY (1975- 1977)
On June 25, 1975, Ms Gandhi declared emergency. The
emergency lasted for 19 months and this period is considered
to be the darkest period in the post-independence history. On
the same day her political opponents like Morarji Desai,
Jayaprakash Narayan, Ray Narain, Chandrashekhar, Charan
Singh, Ashok Mehta, Piloo Modi and K R Malkani were
arrested. The same day Government issued the central
censorship order and guidelines for the press.
The Central Censorship Order addressed to all printers,
publishers and editors, prohibited the publication of news,
comments, rumours, or other reports relating to actions taken
by the Government in accordance with proclamation of
emergency in any newspaper, periodical or other documents
without their first being submitted for scrutiny to an authorised
officer of the Government. The Chief Censor was given total
responsibility for supervising and directing censorship.
During the emergency many journalists were jailed,
newspaper offices were raided and power supply was cut off to
printing presses. The press as a whole did not stand up against
the emergency. It crawled during this period whereas it was
expected to bend only.

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The government guidelines and censorship orders had

effect throughout the country following the declaration of
emergency. Perhaps, the two best known papers which stood
up against the Government‘s repressive tactics were The
Indian Express and The Statesman. The Indian Express was
cool to Government pressure to publicise the benefits of the
emergency. The Government then arrested Kuldip Nayar,
Express news service editor, dissolved the board of directors
and appointed a new board consisting of persons approved by
the Government. In 1977 the Government accused The
Statesman of mismanagement and impounded the passport of
managing director C R Irani. The news agencies too became
the targets of attack and they were merged into one agency
known as Samachar.
PAID NEWS
Paid news system, an unethical practice, was largely
reported in the media during the Assembly election in
Maharashtra in 2009. By this arrangement politicians pay
money to media houses for favourable coverage of political
candidates in the election campaign. Failure on the part of the
candidates to pay money can result in a blackout of his/her
political campaign in the media. Millions of rupees have been
reportedly paid to media houses for paid news. The readers of
media were cheated with the consent of greedy media houses.
Paid news undermines the basic principles of journalism.
It adulterates news, abandoning the separation between news
and advertisements. The Press Council of India defines paid
news as any news or analysis appearing in any media (print
and electronic) for a price in cash or kind as consideration.
Although the election commission and the Press Council
of India have come up with a series of actions, paid news still
appear in media especially during election campaigns.

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CORPORATISATION OF MEDIA
Many of the major media institutions in India were run
by companies which had investments in industry and
commerce prior to and after independence. However, there was
reasonable editorial independence and the presence of
independent minded editors ensured that the media outputs
were of a certain standard. The insulation between the media
and owner‘s business interests were thinning as the decades
went by. The trend is definitely towards intense corporatisation
of the media.
The Dainik Bhaskar group, which, in 1958, ran a single
edition Hindi newspaper from Bhopal, has a market
capitalization of Rs 4,454 crore (as on July 30. 2010), owns
seven newspapers, two magazines, 17 radio stations, and has a
significant presence in the printing, textiles, oils, solvent
extraction, hotels, real estate, and power-generation industries.
On May 19, 2012, the Aditya Birla group announced that
it had acquired a 27.5 per cent stake in Living Media India
Limited, that owns Aaj Tak and Headlines Today and a host of
publications including India Today.
On December 21, 2012, Oswal Green Tech, formerly
Oswal Chemicals & Fertilizers, acquired a 14.17 per cent
shareholding in New Delhi Television (NDTV).
One of the latest examples of a business corporation
taking control of the media was the takeover of the Network 18
by the Mukesh Ambani‘s Reliance Industries Ltd in 2014.
Network18 has several media entities such as TV18,
HomeShop18, CNN-IBN, First Post, IBN 18 , Web 18, Studio
18, Shop 18, Infomedia 18, and Viacom 18. Rajdeep Sardesai,
a respected journalist and head of the CNN-IBN television
news channel in English resigned along with several other
journalists protesting over the takeover by the Reliance.

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In 2018, a sting operation nicknamed ―Cobrabost 136‖

by Pushp Sharma of Cobrapost showed videos of meetings
held with owners and high ranking personnel of more two
more than two dozen media houses both mainstream and
regional. These included the biggest ones and smaller ones, the
oldest ones and newer ones. Invariably almost all of agreed to
publish/telecast communally and politically motivated and
misleading information as a campaign in return for payments.
The media houses agreeing to run such malicious
campaign included Times of India, India Today, Hindustan
Times, Zee News, Network 18, The New Indian Express and
many. This again proves the point that corporate interests
override the ethics of journalism in India. The sting operation
amply demonstrate the fact that money precedes over fair and
objective journalism.
For further reading
1. Journalism in India : Rangaswami Parthasarathy
2. Indian Journalism: Dr Nadig Krishna Murthy
3. The Press in India : G N S Raghavan
4. History of Press in India : S Natarajan
5. Mahatma Gandhi, the Journalist : S N Bhattacharya
6. India’s Newspaper Revolution : Robin Jeffrey
Review questions
I Write short notes in 50 words:
1. James Augustus Hicky 2. Serampore Missionaries
3. James Silk Buckingham 4. Harijan
5. Press Commission 6. INS
II Write short essay on the following in 150 words.
1. Role of the press during the 1st War of Independence

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2. ‗When the press was asked to bend, you chose to crawl.‘

Analyse this statement in the background of the role
played by the press during the emergency era of 1975-
1977.
3. ‗Press Council of India is a paper tiger.‘ - Comment.
Write an essay on the following not exceeding four pages:
1. Critically analyse Bengal Gazette, the first newspaper in
India.
2. Elucidate the contribution of Rammohun Roy towards
Indian journalism.
3. ‗Mahatma Gandhi was an editor with a difference.‘---
Analyse this statement outlining his contribution to
journalism.

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Chapter 5
HISTORY OF MALAYALAM JOURNALISM

Christian missionaries were among the pioneers in Indian

journalism. The Serampore missionaries published Dig
Darshan from 1818, the first language newspaper in India. In
Kerala too, the credit for starting the first newspaper goes to a
Christian missionary group from Germany, the Basel Mission
Society (BMS). The history of early Malayalam press and the
role of Christian missionaries in laying the foundation for
Malayalam journalism can be traced through the history of the
important journals.
1. Rajyasamacharam
This was the first journal published in Malayalam. The
Basel Mission Society brought it out from June 1847 from a
press owned by the Mission at Illikkunnu near Thalassery.
The content of this paper was exclusively Christian religious
matters such as miraculous cures, good luck for the converted
Christians, critical comments on other religions and letters
from priests.
Rajyasamacharam was a lithographed six-page monthly
magazine. It had a fine layout, banner headings and double
deck headlines. It is believed that the magazine had altogether
42 issues. Copies of Rajyasamacharam were distributed free
of cost. Although the name of the editor was not mentioned, it
is assumed by many scholars that Dr Hermann Gundert was
the man behind this first Malayalam journal. This paper lasted
upto 1850.
2) Paschimodayam
This was the second journal in Malayalam brought out
from October 1847 from Thalassery. The publisher of this

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paper too was the Basel Mission Society. It had the same
format and layout as that of Rajyasamacharam but its content
included articles on natural science, astronomy, geography and
history. Paschimodayam was a typical Christian publication.
The reason for the inclusion of general topics was to instruct
the newly converted Christians on general topics along with
Christian teachings.
Paschimodayam consisted of eight pages and was sold
for two paise per copy. Although the name of the editor (F
Muller) was mentioned in the paper, it is widely believed that
publications from Basel Missions were closely guided by Dr
Hermann Gundert. According to some historians this journal
lasted till June 1857.
3) Keralopakari
It was magazine published by the Basel Mission Society
from 1878. It was printed from Mangalore. Its contents
included articles on Christian literature, essays, proverbs,
parables, stories with moral content and Western literature.
4) Njana Nikshepam (Treasury of Knowledge)
Njana Nikshepam, a monthly magazine in Malayalam,
was published by the Church Mission Society (CMS) in
Kottayam from November 1848. It was the third among the
publications in Malayalam and it was the first newspaper
printed in letter press developed by Rev Benjamin Bailey.
Although Njana Nikshepam was a Christian publication,
its contents included secular news and social activities,
customs and traditions of Syrian Christians. This paper had
also several other distinct features. The place of publication,
price, volume and title of the paper in Malayalam and English
were prominently displayed on the front page.
Its first editor was Banjamine Bailey, a foreign
missionary who introduced letter press in Kerala. Njana

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Nikshepam is published today as the official news letter of the

Church of South India (CSI).
5) Deepika
Nasrani Deepika started publication from St Joseph‘s
Press at Mannanam on April 15,1887. This paper was founded
basically to spread the teachings of Christ and to promote the
interests of the Syrian Christians. But the goals of this paper
were not restricted to these alone. Nasrani Deepika has
changed with the times and it has played a decisive role in
Kerala society. The paper actively supported various popular
movements such as Malayali Memorial (1891), Equal Rights
Campaign (1919), Vaikom Sathygraha (1924) and Abstention
Movement (1933).
Nasrani Deepika began as a fortnightly in 1887. From
1895, it was published thrice on month. It became a weekly in
1899 and in 1927 it became a daily. This once again became a
weekly from 1931 to 1938. In 1938, the name Nasrani
Deepika was changed to Deepika and the place of publication
was shifted from Mannanam to Kottayam.
Deepika is the oldest surviving newspaper in Malayalam.
Presently it is published from Kottayam, Thiruvananthapuram,
Kannur, Kochi, Calicut and Thrissur. Rashtra Deepika
Eveninger, Cinema Deepika, Karshakan, Career Deepika etc.
are some of its sister publications.
Conclusion
The early Malayalam press was essentially sectarian.
Most of the publishers were missionary organisations who
used newspapers solely for propagating Christian religious
values and teachings. But Malayalam press was also gradually
evolving into an institution capable of reflecting larger social
concerns. The Christian missionary publications laid a strong
foundation for the present day enviable state of Malayalam

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press. The publications aroused an awakening in Kerala and

contributed greatly to the spread of literacy and overall social
development.
Western Star & Paschimataraka
The first of ‗real newspaper‘ to be published from
Kerala was in English language. This publication titled
Western Star started from Kochi in 1860. Charles Lawson was
appointed the editor. Four years later in 1864 a Malayalam
edition of the Western Star started publication from Kochi
under the banner Paschimataraka. The new paper was edited
by T J Paily in the beginning and later by Kalloor Oommen
Philippose Asan.
The Western Star continued to be published from Kochi
for a long time. In due course there was a change in the
ownership of the paper. This was followed by a change in
location. The publication base was shifted to Trivandrum.
Thereafter its appearance was irregular.
Kerala Mitram
Kerala Mitram was the result of the dare and hope of a
Gujarathi to start a newspaper at a time when the publications
in Malayalam were predominantly controlled by Christian
missionaries. This weekly newspaper from Kochi began on
January 1,1881.
Devji Bhimji, a Gujarathi settled in Kochi, was the
promoter of this paper. Kandathil Varghese Mappilai, the
founder editor of Malayala Manorama, was the first editor of
Kerala Mitram.
Kerala Mitram’s pages contained local news as well as
foreign news, critical reports on palace administration, literary
articles, book reviews etc. Although it was a weekly
newspaper at first, it was later published thrice a month. Its
publication went on uninterrupted for 14 years. Kerala

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Mitram could not continue publication much after the death of

Devji Bhimji.
Kerala Patrika
Kerala Patrika was published as a weekly from Calicut
in 1884. Its founder-editor was Chenkulath Kunhirama
Menon. The editor laid emphasis on promoting nationalist
feelings and on opposing the autocratic functioning of the
bureaucracy.
Kunhirama Menon was highly impressed with the
working of Amrita Bazar Patrika of Calcutta and he modelled
his paper after the Calcutta newspaper. It is said that Kerala
Patrika was the first Congress newspaper in Malayalam.
Kerala Patrika was published for a long time. After a
short interruption in 1930 the paper resumed publication in
1938. Later this paper continued publication from Kochi in
1947 for some time.
Malayala Manorama
Malayala Manorama is one of the largest circulated
language dailies in India with a circulation of more than two
million copies. With more than a century of experience in
newspaper industry, Malayala Manorama has been on the
vanguard of innovation, professionalism and social
commitment.
The proprietors of Malayala Manorama say: ‗the story
of Malayala Manorama is not just a story... It is a saga of
nativity, exile, martyrdom and resurrection...‘ Manorama’s
history can be traced through these four stages.
1. Nativity
The Malayala Manorama Company was registered as a
joint stock company in Travancore in 1888. It was the second
company to be registered and the first to have started operation

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in Travancore. Its share capital consisted of 100 shares, each

priced at Rs 100.
Although the company was registered in 1888, the first
issue rolled out of its press in Kottayam on March 22, 1890. It
was a weekly published on Saturdays. Kandathil Varghese
Mappilai, a talented writer and an experienced hand in
newspaper business, was the founder-editor of Manorama.
From August 7, 1901, Malayala Manorama became a
biweekly published on Wednesdays and Saturdays. Kandathil
Varghese Mappilai passed away in 1904 and K C Mammen
Mappilai became the editor. The new editor vigorously
campaigned for the rights of the people in the face of
autocratic rule in Travancore. Manorama actively supported
the civil right movements, agitations for responsible
government and social reforms. The paper became a triweekly
(Tuesday, Thursday, Saturday) on July 2, 1918. From January
26,1928 Malayala Manorama became a daily newspaper.
2. Exile and Martyrdom
Malayala Manorama antagonised the Travancore
Government when it actively supported the Abstention
Movement (Nivarthana Movement). This movement was
launched for the redistribution of legislative constituencies to
ensure equitable representation of all sections of the society.
Later, the paper backed the State Congress movement for
responsible government. Sir C P Ramaswami Aiyer, the
Dewan of Travancore, brutally suppressed the agitations.
Manorama carried detailed reports of the police high-
handedness in this event.
On September 9,1938, the Dewan banned Malayala
Manorama and confiscated the press. Mamman Mappilai was
prosecuted and imprisoned in connection with the liquidation
of National and Quilon Bank. Soon after the ban, the

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proprietors tried to bring out the paper from Kunnamkulam in

Thrissur but it did not last long.
3. Resurrection
Manorama could reappear only after nine long years of
dormancy. It resumed publication on November 29, 1947 after
the advent of freedom and the introduction of responsible
government in Travancore. Mamman Mappilai, the editor,
passed away on December 31, 1953. His eldest son K M
Cherian became the new editor. Manorama set up a second
edition in Calicut in 1966. K M Mathew, assumed office
after the death of his brother K M Cherian in 1973.
4. Post-resurrection era
Manorama is one of the largest circulated language
newspapers in India. According to the reports of the Audit
Bureau of Circulation (Dec 2019) the combined circulation of
Malayala Manorama is 2,308,612 copies. According to World
Association of Newspapers (WAN), as of 2016, it was the 14th
most circulated newspaper in the world. It has a whopping
readership of 9758000 readers according to Indian Readership
Survey (IRS) 2019 reports.
Role of Malayalam Press during the Freedom Struggle
The present day Kerala comprised three different
administrative units in the pre-independence period --- the two
princely states of Travancore and Cochin, and Malabar which
was under the direct rule of the Madras Presidency. The
independence movement that picked up momentum in the
early 20th century gradually spread to the entire country.
Kerala was no exception. Political consciousness and national
awakening was active. The press played a valiant role in the
freedom struggle.
Christian missionaries and local governments established
a number of schools which led to a social awakening and

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spread of literacy. Many newspapers were started in various

places and a few among them vigorously supported the Indian
National Congress and its activities. But it should be observed
that not every Malayalam newspaper wholeheartedly
supported the freedom movement. A brief history of the
leading newspapers that played a key role in the freedom
struggle is given below.
1) Lokamanyan
It was edited by K Neelakanda Pillai and published by
Poovathungal Sebastian from Thrissur from 1920.
Lokamanyan actively supported the Indian National Congress
and it activities. It also highlighted the misdeeds of the Kochi
Government.
The government prosecuted the editor and publisher
and sentenced them to six months imprisonment on charges of
sedition. The paper was closed down as a result.
2) Swarad
Swarad was a biweekly newspaper published from
Kollam. This paper was started in 1921 for the purpose of
spreading the ideology of INC and to support its activities in
Travancore. Swarad played a prominent role in Vaikom
Satyagraha. From 1926, Swarad became a daily and its
headquarters was shifted from Kollam to Thiruvananthapuram.
This newspaper was at the forefront in criticising the
Travancore Newspaper Regulation Act of 1926 promulgated
by Dewan Watts. But Swarad could not survive long in the
midst of hostilities from Government. A K Pillai was the
editor of the paper.
3) Mathrubhumi
In the 1920s, there were four newspapers published from
Calicut namely Kerala Patrika, Kozhikodan Manorama,
Kerala Sanchari and Mitavadi. These papers supported the

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British government and hardly any of them reported the

activities of the Congress. Hence Congress leaders felt the
need to set up a printing press and publish a newspaper.
Mathrubhumi Printing and Publishing Company Ltd was
registered as a public limited company on February 15, 1922.
The first issue went to the public on March 18, 1923. It was a
triweekly published on Tuesday, Thursday and Saturday.
The founders of Mathrubhumi were members of the
Indian National Congress led by K P Kesava Menon (1886-
1978). Its shareholders were 352 men and women from Kerala.
The paper lost money regularly in the initial years but that did
not matter because its goals were not those of profitable
commerce but of social service.
Mathrubhumi battled gallantly with the British
authorities before independence and bitterly with the
communists from the late 1930s. Mathrubhumi was in the
forefront of the events such as Vaikom Satyagraha, Guruvayur
Satyagraha and Aikya Kerala Movement etc. K P Kesava
Menon who was the founder-editor of Mathrubhumi was sent
to jail for his leadership role in Vaikom Satyagraha.
At the peak of the civil disobedience movement in April
1930, Mathrubhumi became a daily. As practically the only
source of information for the people of Malabar about the
developments in the national movements, its circulation base
was gradually extending to remote villages. Following a
critical editorial on the incarceration of a political worker
without trial, the government came down on the paper
demanding a security of Rs 2000.
Mathrubhumi became a daily on April 6, 1930. The
Madras Presidency banned the paper in 1942 on account of its
vigorous campaign for independence. But the British
Government was forced to withdraw the ban on account of
people‘s agitations. Similarly, Sir C P Ramaswami Aiyer

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banned the paper in Travancore for nine years for writing

about the autocratic rule of the Dewan.
Mathrubhumi was one of the first newspapers in
Malayalam to use a rotary press for printing. Similarly it was
the first newspaper to start offset printing in Kerala and offer
daily newspaper in colour.
In 1962, Mathrubhumi started a second edition in Kochi
and led the circulation figures in Kerala for a few years. This
was the only period in which Mathrubhumi stood first in
circulation in Kerala. According to the Audit Bureau of
Circulation (December 2019 Reports) the combined
circulation of Mathrubhumi is 1,230,778 copies. The Indian
Readership Survey 2019 puts the readership of Mathrubhumi
at 64.55 lakh. It is in the 11th position in India in terms of
readership.
4. Al-Ameen
Al-Ameen was one of the most important newspapers that
strengthened the national movement. This paper began in
October 12, 1924 from Calicut. It was edited and promoted by
Muhammed Abdul Rahiman. He was a great leader of the
freedom struggle and a reformer in the Muslim community.
While other newspapers faced difficulties from the
Government, Al-Ameen had to face obstacles both from the
Government and the orthodox sections of the Muslim
community.
Al- Ameen became a daily in 1930 and it had to
continuously face many problems from the Government.
Through an ordinance the Madras Presidency confiscated the
press in August 1930 and demanded to execute a bond of Rs
2000. The progressive ideas put forward by Al-Ameen also
provoked the orthodox elements of the Muslim community.
The paper resumed publication on November 20, 1930 as

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a daily. But due to financial difficulties it had to be reverted as

a triweekly. On March 15, 1939 Al- Ameen became once again
a daily newspaper. The Madras Government banned the paper
on September 26,1939 for its campaign for non-cooperation in
World War II. Eventually, the newspaper had to close down.
5) Malayala Rajyam
It was a weekly newspaper edited and published by K G
Shanker from Kollam in 1929. Its main aim was to support the
Congress Party‘s activities. This paper made a special
arrangement with API (Associated Press of India) and Reuters
for getting the latest world news.
Malayala Rajyam is said to be the first morning
newspaper in Kerala. In 1931, it become a daily newspaper.
The paper had its own transportation system to distribute
copies to agents on time. Thus, it became one of the largest
circulated newspapers in the 1930s. Modern printing
equipment provided the new daily a modern appearance in
layout and appearance. In fact the Malayalarajyam was the
first Malayalam daily to go in for a rotary press. The illustrated
Malayalarajyam Weekly was a prestigious publication of the
time.
After the prolonged illness of K G Shanker, the
ownership of the paper changed hands. Soon it became a pro-
government newspaper.
6) Deenabandhu
This newspaper was started as a weekly on January 26,
1941 from Thrissur with V R Krishnan Ezhuthachan as its
editor. Right from its inception, the paper wholeheartedly
supported the Congress and the freedom struggle. Its editor
was imprisoned in 1942 during the Quit India Movement.
Deenabandhu had also to face stiff opposition from the
royal regime in Travancore. The paper was officially banned

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from this area. But the enterprising workers of the paper

smuggled copies to Travancore through underground channels
located in the British enclaves of Thangassery and
Anchuthengu. The ban was lifted only after independence.
Deenabandhu was banned in the princely state of Kochi in
1942 and it could reappear only from1944.
It became a daily on January 26,1946 and the place of
publication was shifted to Ernakulam. Sir C P Ramaswami
Aiyer banned the circulation of this paper in Travancore. After
a splendid innings spread over 21 years the Deenabandu
finally succumbed to financial difficulties and ceased
publication in 1962.
Conclusion
It is nearly impossible to give an exhaustive list of the
names of newspapers and journals that played a role in the
freedom struggle. We have discussed the publications that had
played a predominant role in the freedom struggle. Several
other newspapers had also contributed to the freedom struggle
movement.
The freedom struggle was a fertile period in Malayalam
journalism. Newspapers sprang up in quick succession, often
to go under with equal speed. Most of these publications could
not survive owing to financial difficulties and in some cases
following repression by the authorities. The prominent among
them include Bhaje Bharatham, Bhaje Keralam, Kerala
Kesari, Yuvabharatham, Deepam, Prabhatham, Pauraprabha
and Pauradhwany.
The history of Malayalam journalism is intricately
interwoven with the history of the freedom struggle in Kerala.
Among the many newspapers that supported the freedom
struggle, only a handful have survived till today. But all of
them played an important role in shaping opinions, instructing

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people and carrying out the watchdog function of media.

Importantly, these newspapers mobilised people for the
country‘s freedom struggle against the imperialist.
Kerala Kaumudi
Noted writer and social thinker C V Kunhiraman
launched Kerala Kaumudi as a periodical in 2011. It became a
daily on November 1, 1940 under the editorship of
Kunhiraman‘s son K Sukumaran from Thiruvananthapuram.
The newspaper prospered under his leadership and it enjoyed
the patronage of large readers. Kaumudi championed the cause
of backward communities especially the Ezhava.
Kaumudi was one of the most respected newspapers
and it was the third largest circulated newspaper in Kerala.
Unfortunately, the paper could not maintain the lead in
circulation. However, Kerala Kaumudi Flash, an eveninger
launched on November 1, 2006 has become very popular. It is
considered the largest circulated mid-day newspaper in
Malayalam. Presently Kerala Kaumudi has editions from
Kozhikode, Kochi, Allapuzha, Kollam, Kottayam, Bangalore,
Kannur, Thrissur, Pathanamthitta apart from
Thiruvananthapuram.
Early literary publications in Malayalam
Publications of stories and serialsed novel, biographies
and other literary works were part and parcel of the early
newspapers and magazines in Malayalam. But exclusive
magazines devoted entirely to literature began several years
after the publication of the first newspaper in Malayalam.
1. Vidya Vilasini
According to Puthupally Raghavan, a noted historian of
Malayalam journalism, the first literary publication in
Malayalam was Vidhya Vilasini. It was published in 1881 from
Thiruvananthapuram and printed at Keralodayam Press. It was

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a 24 page publications. The magazine did not have any write-

up of the functioning of the government or of the bureaucracy.
It was a dedicated literary publication. Although, the magazine
enjoyed the active patronage of the Travancore Royal family
and other well wishers, it was closed down just before the
completion of the second anniversary.
2. Vidya Vinodhini
Vidya Vinodhini launched in 1899 under the leadership
of C P Achutha Menon was the second literary magazine in
Malayalam. The readers in those days did not have enough
opportunity to read many of the literary works . Hence, the
publishers of the Vidya Vinodhini wanted to provide readers
with a variety of literary works. Its contents were far more
richer than Vidya Vilasini. The former had book reviews and
essays on variety of subjects. Several leading writers of the
time were associated with the magazine. The magazine was
closed down after 12 years of publication.
3. Janaranjini
This magazine was published from Nadapuram in 1890.
K C Narayanan Nambiar was its editor. Its contents included
poems, articles and other literary works. The magazine was
published for six years and it ceased publication in 1896.
4. Kavanodayam
It was launched in 1896 from Nadapuram. K C
Narayanan Nambiar and Kadathanatt Krishna Warrier were the
editors of the magazine. Several unpublished works lying in
palaces and libraries were collected and published in the
magazine. It was also at the forefront in publishing the works
of several leading writers of the time. The magazine lasted for
16 years.
5. Bashaposhini
Bashaposhini, from the house of Malayala Manorama,

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was published 1898 under the editorship of Kandathil Varghese

Mappila. The magazine is still published and it stands tall
among the literary publications.
The magazine had focused on prose rather poetry right
from its beginning. Bashaposhini was a rallying point for
several leading writers of Malayalam. It has carved a coveted
place among the literary magazines.
Rasikaranjini, Mangalodayam and Kavana Kaumudi
were some of the other important literary magazine of the early
20th century.
Early Women’s publications in Malayalam
Malayalam was far ahead of the other Indian languages
in publications of newspapers and magazines. Malayalam
newspapers and magazines lead in circulation and readership
in India. A brief history of the early women‘s magazine of
Malayalam is briefly described below.
Keraliya Suguna Bodhini, an exclusive women‘s
magazine was first printed as early as 1892 from
Thiruvananthapuram. As per the objectives of the publishers,
the magazine was intended to be a platform for the information
and entertainment needs of women.
Sharada was the second women‘s magazine as per
Puthupally Raghavan‘s Kerala Pathrapravarthana
Charithram. It was founded in 1904 from Thripunithura, Kochi
under the proprietorship of K Narayana Menon. The magazine
was closed down after two years. Later, it resumed publication
from Thiruvananthapuram under the editorship of
Swadeshabhimani Ramakrishna Pilla.
Bhasha Sharada from Punaloor under the editorship of
Anchal R Velu Pilla was launched in 1915. Although, most of
the writers of magazine were women, it was mostly literary
magazine than a women‘s magazine. Mahilaratnam started in

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1916 from Thiruvananthapuram was another women‘s

magazine in Malayalam. Its contributors included
Kumaranasan and Ulloor.
Mahila published by B Bhagirathiyamma from 1921
lasted fro for than 20 years as per records of Kerala
Patrapravarthana Charithram. Sumangala, Vanithamithram,
sthreesahodiri, Muslim Vanitha, Vanitha Kusumam and others
were the women’s magazine in Malayalam published and later
closed down for one reason or other.
Of these, Vanitha Kusumam started from Kottayam in
1927 was the first magazine that actively advocated freedom
and rights of women. It had more than 2000 subscribers, a
substantial figure in those days.
Publications of political parties and religious groups
1. Deshabhimani
Starting at Kozhikode in 1942 as a weekly, and
graduating to daily in 1946, Deshabhimani has been steadily
growing in popularity. The second edition was added in 1968
at Kochi, followed by the third in 1989 at
Thiruvananthapuram, the fourth in 1994 at Kannur and the
fifth at Kottayam in 1997. Deshabhimani was included in the
Indian Readership Survey 2010 and it was rated as the third
largest read daily in Kerala.
Deshabhimani was started as a weekly newspaper from
Kozhikode and it became a daily in 1946. M.S. Devadas was
its founder-editor. Deshabhimani was banned by the Madras
Government in 1948 and it could reappear only in 1951. After
the split in the Communist Party in 1964, Deshabhimani came
under the control of the Communist Party of India (Marxist).
From then on, it is known as CPI(M)‘s official newspaper.
2. Chandrika
Chandrika was started as a weekly from Thalaserry on

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March 26, 1934. It was started as the mouthpiece of the

Muslim League and it continues to be the official newspaper of
Indian Union Muslim League (IUML). In 1939, Chandrika
became a daily newspaper and later the place of publication
was shifted to Calicut from February 1946. It introduced offset
printing in 1990 and started a second edition from Kochi in
1992.
3. Madhyamam
Madhyamam is a Kozhikode based daily newspaper
promoted by the Ideal Publication Trust linked to Kerala Unit
of the Jamaat-e Islami. The inauguration of the newspaper‘s
office and its publication was held on June 1, 1987. Noted
journalist, Kuldip Nayar, was the chief guest on the occasion.
P.K. Balakrishnan was its founder-editor. In a short time this
paper was accepted by the readers and its circulation increased
significantly. Madhyamam launched a second edition from
Kochi in May 1993. Presently, Madhyamam is published from
Kozhikode, Kochi, Thiruvananthapuram, Kannur,
Malappuram, Mangalore, and Bangalore.
4. Janmabhumi
It is the official newspaper of the BJP Kerala unit. It
began from Ernakulam on November 14, 1977 under the
editorship of Prof. M. P. Manmathan and published by
Mathruka Pracharanalayam. Janmabhumi was earlier a
magazine run by Nawab Rajendran from Thrissur. It was
bought by Mathruka Pracharanalayam. It is also published
from Kozhikode.
5. Thejas
Thejas, managed by Intermedia Publishing Ltd., was the
mouthpiece of the NDF ( presently, Popular Front of India).
The paper was launched in Feb 2006. Later, it started another
edition from Trivandrum followed by a third edition from

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Cochin. It also had editions in the Gulf. Due to financial

difficulties, the paper stopped printing in 2018.
6. Janayugam
Janayugam is the official mouthpiece of Communist
Party of India (CPI). It was first launched from Kollam in 1947
under the editorship of N. Gopinathan Nair. Later it was
closed down due to financial difficulties. This newspaper was
relaunched on May 31,2007.
7. Siraj
Siraj is a daily newspaper founded in 1984. It is brought
out by Thoufeeque Publications from Calicut,
Thiruvananthapuram, Kochi, Kannur, Bangalore, Dubai, Oman
and Qatar. This newspaper is promoted by A P Sunni faction.
8. Suprabhatham
This newspaper is published under the leadership of
Samastha Kerala Jamiyyathul Ulama, a prominent Sunni
Muslim organisation. It has editions from Kozhikode,
Malappuram, Kannur, Thrissur, Kochi, Thiruvananathapuram
and Palakkad. Suprabhatham was founded in 2014. A Sajeevan
is its chief editor as of 2019.
For further reading
1. Madhyama Nighandu : P K Rajasekaran & S N
Jayaprakash
2. Kerala Pathra Pravarthana Charithram : Puthupally
Raghavan
3. Aa Lokam Muthal E-lokam Vare : J V Vilanilam
4. Vrithantha Patrapravarthanam: K Ramakrishana Pillai
5. Pathra Bhasha: Kerala Press Academy

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Review questions
I Write short notes not exceeding 50 words
1. Rajyasamacharam 2. Paschimodayam
3. Jnana Nikshepam 4. Deepika
II Write short essay on the following not exceeding 150
words:
1. Role of Al Ameen in freedom struggle
2. List the important newspapers of political parties in
Kerala.
III Write an essay on the following not exceeding four
pages:
1. Trace the history of Malayalam journalism with special
emphasis on the Christian Missionary initiatives in
printing and publishing.
2. Trace the history of Malayala Manorama.
3. ‗Mathrubhumi was the child of the Non-Cooperation
Movement.‘ ---Explain the role of Mathrubhumi and
other Malayalam newspapers in the freedom struggle.

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Chapter 6
LEGENDS OF JOURNALISM

1. S SADANAND (1900–1953)
S. Sadanand is remembered as a fearless freedom fighter
and a brilliant editor. He is mostly remembered as the
proprietor and editor of Free Press of India, a nationalist news
agency founded in 1927 and The Free Press Journal, a daily
newspaper in English, established in 1930 and published
from Mumbai.
The British government came down with a heavy hand
on this news agency. Free Press of India telegrams were
subjected to strict censorship and many newspapers were
pressurised not to publish news supplied by this agency.
Sadanand had to close down the agency eventually. The
British Indian Government prosecuted him under Press Laws
and convicted in 1930.
In 1930, he founded The Free Press Journal (FPJ) which
actively supported the freedom struggle movement. FPJ was a
launch pad for several budding journalists in India. Bal
Thackeray, R. K. Laxman and TJS George were some of the
former employees of FPJ. Sadanand was a self-taught
journalist. He died at age 53 in 1953.
2. RAMNATH GOENKA (1904–1991)
Ramnath Goenka was a brave publisher who dared to
challenge the authorities. He launched The Indian Express and
created the Indian Express Group with various English and
regional language publications. The Ramnath Goenka
Excellence in Journalism Awards, named after Ramnath
Goenka, have become one of the most prestigious awards for
Indian journalists almost like Pulizter Award in US.

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Goenka bought The Indian Express and became a

newspaper baron. In 1941 he was elected President of the
National Newspaper Editor‘s Conference. He was also
appointed a member of the Constituent Assembly of India.
Goenka is perhaps known Indian journalism mostly for
his fierce opposition to former Prime Minister Ms Indira
Gandhi during the days of the Emergency (1975-77). While
many other reputed newspapers chose to remain silent, The
Indian Express was at the forefront in the fight against
Emergency.
3. POTHAN JOSEPH (1892 – 1972)
Pothan Joseph is recognized as one of the greatest Indian
journalists. He was a close associate of Jawaharlal Nehru and
for some time he was the editor of Mahatma Gandhi‘s Young
India. After completing his two-year Intermediate Course at
Kottayam CMS College , he took his degree from Presidency
College, Madras.
While in Secunderabad, he got the first regular
journalistic job of writing a column in the Hyderabad Bulletin.
The Bombay Chronicle under B G Horniman was popular in
those days. A couple of journalist friends introduced him to
Horniman who appointed him a journalist in Chronicle. This
was an opening for him to the world of journalism.
Joseph had plenty of opportunity to meet and move with
great personalities in his life such as Gandhiji, Jawaharlal
Nehru, Devadas Gandhi, Dr S Radhakrishnan, Ramnath
Goenka, Mohammed Ali Jinnah, C Rajagopalachari, Sarojini
Naidu, and Indira Gandhi.
He was either the founder or developer of many famous
newspapers such as Hindustan Times, The Mail, The Indian
Express, Deccan Herald and The Dawn of Pakistan started in
Delhi by Muhammad Ali Jinnah. He was most well known for
his deeply thought-provoking column Over a Cup of Tea.
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4. KULDIP NAYAR (1923 –2018)

Kuldip Nayar was one of the stalwarts of Indian
journalism. He belonged to a tribe of journalists whose
commitment, integrity and honesty stood above everything
else.
Nayar was initially an Urdu press reporter. Later, he was
appointed the editor of the Delhi edition of The Statesman. He
had been at the forefront of covering many historic occasions
of the country such as 1971 Indo-Pak war, liberation of
Bangladesh and the infamous Emergency of 1975. He was one
of the first journalists to be jailed during the Emergency for his
detailed documentation of human rights violations and
corruption by governments. Later, he had also headed the
news agency, United News of India (UNI).
He wrote syndicated columns and articles that were
published in over 80 newspapers in 14 languages. Nayar‘s
popular column, ‗Between the Lines‘, was a true reflection of
his dedicated advocacy for the freedom of the press. Nayar‘s
autobiography entitled Beyond the Lines was released in July
2012. He passed away on 23 August, 2018 at the age of 95.
5. V. K. MADHAVAN KUTTY (1934 –2005)
V. K. Madhavan Kutty was a senior journalist who was
stationed in New Delhi as chief of bureau of Mathrubhumi for
most of his career. He retired from Mathrubhumi after serving
40 years. He was also one of the founding directors of Asianet,
the first private television channel in Malayalam.
His long innings in New Delhi as a senior journalist
earned him greater visibility among the media fraternity and
Malayalees in the Capital. Thus, he was deeply involved in all
matters connected with Kerala and became a spokesman in the
capital for all the legitimate causes connected with Malayalees
and Kerala.

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Kutty had also written several books. He was honoured

with Sahitya Akademi Award and Padmashree (2002) by the
Government of India. He was awarded the Swadeshabhimani
Puraskaram in 2002 by the Kerala Government.
6. K JAYACHANDRAN
K Jayachandran was a daring journalist who actively
championed the cause of the poor and marginalised. He was a
committed journalist who took a clear and decisive stand on
issues, fought for those things which he thought were
important and was willing to face the consequences.
After completing Bachelor of Journalism from University
of Calicut, he joined Mathrubhumi as a reporter. Soon he
became a cult figure among the journalists for his earth
shaking reports from Wayanad on the deprivation and
dispossession of the tribals and marginalised. Jayachandran
was at the forefront in fighting for the cause of environment
and human rights.
He had to leave Mathrubhumi as his reports did not go
well with the policies of the management. He was later part of
Asianet and his down to earth reports made him a venerable
journalist among the public.
Jayachandran was a reporter with a difference. He picked
up stories that were largely neglected by the mainstream media
and journalists. His candid reports have directed the attention
of the authorities and public to the issues that he championed.
Like the noted journalist P Sainath who had earned a special
place for his agricultural and rural reporting. He died on 24
November, 1999.
7. T. N. GOPAKUMAR (1957–2016)
T. N. Gopakumar, popularly known among his colleagues
as TNG, was the editor in chief of Asianet News. He began his
career with The Indian Express. He had also worked for

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Mathrubhumi, News Time, Statesman and The Independent. He

also contributed to BBC Radio before joining Asianet.
Gopakumar was famous for his news show Kannadi on
Asianet which he anchored for 22 years. Kannadi was a news-
based show that looks at social and political issues incisively.
The show had completed 1,000 episodes. He was very popular
among the Malayalee audience with his Kannadi programme
and a familiar figure of Asianet from its inception.
8. LEELA MENON (1932- 2018)
Leela Menon was a pioneer women journalist from
Kerala who pursued the cause of women and marginalised
sections of society. Menon, who began her journalistic career
with The Indian Express in New Delhi in 1978, shot into the
limelight for her wide-range of ‗exclusive‘ stories and
courageous reporting. At a time when a very few women
journalists from Kerala showed the courage to enter the field,
she led the way for them. She worked with The Indian Express
in New Delhi, Kochi and Kottayam.
―She came into the profession after leaving a secure
government job. She might not have even been getting half of
what she was earning before. That shows her dedication to the
profession. She was an extremely daring journalist and had a
tremendous sense of news,‖ recalled M K Das, former Kerala
resident editor of The Indian Express.
After her long stint with Express from 1978 to 2000, she
started writing columns for The Hindu, Outlook and
Madhyamam. Later, she joined Janmabhumi as its chief editor.
LEGENDS OF MALAYALAM JOURNALISM
1) DR HERMANN GUNDERT (1814-1893)
Dr Hermann Gundert was a German missionary who
came to Kerala in 1839 to propagate the teachings of Jesus
Christ. He contributed greatly to the growth of Malayalam

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language, literature and journalism. He came to Thalassery as

a Protestant missionary in 1839 where he stayed till 1849.
From 1849 till 1856, Dr Gundert was posted at Chirakkal
near Kannur where he stayed till he was transferred to
Mangalore in 1856. He became the first Inspector of School
for Malabar and Canara. After he returned to Germany in
1859, he managed a publishing house at Calw, Germany, till
his death in 1893.
As a Christian missionary, Gundert lands here, learns
Malayalam and compiles the first comprehensive
Malayalam-English dictionary which is still considered as a
great source book. He also wrote books on Malayalam
grammar and history. He also produced the first Malayalam
textbook (patamala) for children.
It was under his leadership that the two earliest
newspapers, Rajyasamacharam and Paschimodayam were
published. It could be said that Gundert laid the foundation
for the enviable growth of Malayalam journalism.
2) KANDATHIL VARGHESE MAPPILAI (1857-1904)
Kandathil Varghese Mappilai began his career in
journalism as the editor of the Kochi-based Kerala Mithram.
He realized the successful business model of a secular
newspaper by working with Kerala Mithram.
Varghese Mappilai resigned from this Kerala Mithram
and established Malayala Manorama Company in Kottayam
with the intention of starting a newspaper. The model
succeeded in the context of the Christian Missionary
dominated publishing scenario in the Central Travancore.
He was only 31 when he founded Malayala Manorama.
He taught Malayalam at CMS College, Kottayam. He launched
Malayala Manorama while he was a teacher. In 1891 Varghese
Mappillai formed a literary club, Bhashaposhini Sabha. Under

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the aegis of Sabha, Bhashaposhini magazine was started by

Varghese Mappillai in 1892. Kandathil Varghese Mappilai, a
trend-setter in journalism and a great visionary, passed away at
the age of 47 in 1904.
3) SWADESHABHIMANI RAMAKRISHNA PILLAI
(1878-1916)
Ramakrishna Pillai began his career in journalism as the
editor of Kerala Darpan in 1899 while he was a BA student.
Later he edited another magazine Upadyayan in 1900 and in
the following year he edited Kerala Panchika. This paper
carried out a series of exposures of the corruption in the
bureaucracy.
Pillai joined Malayali in 1903 and continued his attacks
against the Government. Disagreement with the proprietors of
the newspaper led to his resignation. Later, Pillai started a
magazine Keralan on his own in 1905. This publication lasted
up to his deportation in 1910.
Malayali was started in 1886 in order to promote the
interests of the Nair community in Travancore. K Ramakrishna
Pillai became its editor in July, 1903. Under the pen name
Keralan, Pillai wrote articles and editorials criticising the
Divan of Travancore and his maladministration. Pillai was
asked by the proprietors to mellow down the writings. Pillai
refused to tone down and resigned the editorship of Malayali.
Swadeshabhimani
Vakkam Abdul Khadar Moulavi, an enlightened
nationalist, started this paper on January 19, 1905.
Ramakrishna Pillai assumed the editorship of this paper on
January 17, 1906. From then on, he exposed corruption and
nepotism widely prevalent in the Travancore Government.
Swadeshabhimani was one of the first Malayalam
newspapers to sign a contract with Reuters to get foreign

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news. Soon, Swadeshabhimani became a very popular

newspaper. The authorities were waiting to pounce on this
paper on account of its anti-government policies.
Finally, the then king of Travancore, Srimoolam
Thirunal, banned the paper on September 26, 1910. The press
was confiscated and Ramakrishna Pillai was deported from
Travancore.
The deported editor selected Kunnamkulam in Cochin
State as the launching pad for his next journalistic venture. He
edited Atmaposhini for two years till 1915. He passed away on
March 28, 1916 in Kannur.
4) KESARI BALAKRISHNA PILLAI (1889-1960)
A Balakrishna Pillai was a daring journalist who severely
criticized the dictatorial functioning of the Travancore
Government through the papers he edited. He was fearless in
confronting the authorities and made no compromise on issues
concerning common people.
Samadarshi which commenced publication from
Thiruvananthapuram in 1918 was a powerful and popular
vehicle of public opinion. Pillai joined the paper in 1923 as its
editor. The sharp criticism in Samadarshi went down well
with the readers. But the authorities were displeased. The
notorious Travancore Newspaper Regulations of 1926 were an
offshoot of Pillai‘s intense criticisms. The management of the
paper was not prepared to invite official displeasure and Pillai
had to resign in 1926.
On June 4, 1930 Pillai started Prabhodakan on his own.
He spared no words in his criticism of the Government. The
Government revoked the license granted to Prabhodakan as
per the Travancore Newspaper Regulations Act of 1926. Thus,
the weekly stopped publication on September 10, 1930.

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Kesari
Pillai launched Kesari on September 18, 1930, a week
after the closure of Prabhodakan. The contents and format of
Kesari were very similar to those of Prabhodakan. Right
from the very beginning Kesari championed the cause of a
democratic Government in Travancore. Scathing criticism of
the authorities was taken up with an added zeal in the columns
of Kesari.
Pillai, through the columns of Kesari, continued to be a
headache to the Government. The authorities finally
suppressed Kesari in 1935. Kesari was a borrowed title. A
new law was enacted which stipulated that persons who
published newspapers without licences in their own names
should deposit an additional amount of Rs. 1000/- as security.
Although many supporters of Kesari came forward with
money and other assistance to continue the publication,
Balakrishna Pillai declined the offer and closed down the
paper.
6) K P KESAVA MENON (1886-1978)
Mathrubhumi, the second largest circulated daily in
Kerala, began publication on March 18, 1923. Menon, the
founder-editor, made Mathrubhumi a voice of the forces
fighting for freedom. He courted imprisonment in the Vaikom
Sathyagraha.
Menon spent several years in Malaysia as a barrister. He
was a minister of propaganda in the parallel government set up
by Subhash Chandra Bose in Malaya in 1927. He returned to
India after the independence and assumed the editorship of
Mathrubhumi.
Mathrubhumi, under the dynamic leadership of Menon,
played a memorable role in the freedom struggle and did much
to spread the ideals of Gandhi and the Congress party.

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He was India‘s High Commissioner to Sri Lanka in 1951.

He was also a member of the Kerala Sahithya Academy
during 1957-60. He was honoured with Padma Bhushan by
the nation. He passed away in 1978.
7) C V KUNHIRAMAN
C V Kunhiraman started his association with journalism
in Sujana Nandini published from Quilon in 1890. Later, he
started Kerala Kaumudi as a weekly in 1911 from Mayyanad.
Kunhiraman could not work as the editor since he was a
government employee. He resigned the job and took up the
editorship of the paper in 1912.
Kerala Kaumudi championed the cause of uplifting the
socially and economically backward sections of the society,
especially, the Ezhava community. Kunhiraman through the
columns of Kerala Kaumudi commented on political, social
and cultural affairs. Under his editorship, Kerala Kaumudi
prospered and became a respected newspaper. A weekly,
Navajeevan, and a magazine, Kathamalika, were also
published by the Kerala Kaumudi group under the editorship
of Kunhiraman.
The paper became a daily in 1940. Kunhiraman‘s son,
K Sukumaran became the managing editor of the paper.
Kaumudi’s place of publication was later shifted from
Mayyanad to Kollam and from there to Thiruvananthapuram.
For further reading
1. Madhyama Nighandu: P K Rajasekaran & S N
Jayaprakash
2. Kerala Pathra Pravarthana Charithram: Puthupally
Raghavan
3. Aa Lokam Muthal E-lokam Vare: J V Vilanilam
4. Vrithantha Patrapravarthanam: K Ramakrishana Pillai

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5. Pathra Bhasha: Kerala Press Academy

Review questions
I Write short notes in 50 words:
1. Dr Hermann Gundert 2. C V Kunhiraman
3. K Shankar Pilla 4. K Jayachandran
II Write short essays on the following in 150 words:
1. Provide a profile of the life and works of Ramnath
Goenka.
2. Critically analyses the contributions of Leela Menon.
3. ‗S. Sadanad was a doyen of Indian journalism.‘
Comment.
II Write an essay on the following not exceeding four
pages:
1. ‗Ramakrishna Pillai and Balakrishna Pillai were the two
legends in Malayalam print media.‘ Substantiate this
statement by assessing their journalistic endeavours.
2. Analyse the contributions of Kandathil Varghese
Mappilai and K P Kesava Menon to Malayalam
journalism.

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APPENDIX 1: SYLLABUS
Complementary Course in Journalism
Semester I/II Course I Code: JOU1(2)C01
Introduction to Communication and Journalism
Contact Hours: 6 Credits: 4
Module I: Fundamentals of communication, Definitions of
communication, elements of communication, types of
communication, functions and dysfunctions of mass
communication; Models of Communication - Aristotle,
Shannon and Weaver, Lasswell, Schramm and Berlo;
Normative theories; Magic Bullet theory.
Module II: Print media –advantages and limitations of print
media, Challenges faced by Print Media.
Electronic media and film: characteristics of radio and
television –strengths and limitations of radio and television,
F.M radio, Community radio, radio on mobile; 24X7 News
Channels in India. –Communication aspect of film, Film
censorship and Certification.
New media: Definitions- characteristics of new media –
evolution of internet – online media platform: blog – online
newspapers – citizen journalism – social media- troll. Impact
of New media on other media
Module III: Freedom of the press, Freedom of speech and
expression in Indian Constitution – Article 19(1) (a) and
reasonable restrictions – defamation; Right to Information Act,
Media ethics: contempt of court, Censorship and CBFC,
Plagiarism, sting operations.
Module IV: Evolution of Indian press, Evolution of Print
Media world-wide; Evolution of Indian Press: James Augustus
Hicky – James Silk Buckingham – Serampore missionaries –
Raja Ram Mohan Roy –freedom movement and the press –

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Gandhi as a journalist – press in the post-independence period,

Press Commissions, Press Council of India, Press during the
Internal Emergency, Contemporary Press in India: Paid News,
Corporatisation of media.
Module V: History of Malayalam press: Rajya samacharam–
Paschimodayam – Njana Nikshepam Western Star and
Paschima Tharaka; Deepika– Kerala Mithram – Kerala Patrika
– Malayala Manorama – Mathrubhumi – Kerala Kaumudi –
Al-Ameen – Deenabhandu; Early Literary publications in
Malayalam; Early Women‘s publications in Malayalam;
Publications by political and religious organizations,
Malayalam press during the Freedom Struggle.
Module VI: Legends of journalism: Prominent personalities of
Indian journalism- S.Sadanand, Ram Nath Goenka, Pothen
Joseph, Kuldeep Nayyar, V.K. Madhavan Kutty, K.
Jayachandran, T N Gopakumar, Leela Menon, Legends of
Malayalam Journalism: Hermann Gundert – Kandathil
Varughese Mappillai – Swadeshabhimani Ramakrishna Pillai –
Kesari Balakrishna Pillai – K.P. Kesava Menon –
C.V.Kunhiraman.
Books for Reference
1. James Watson and Anne Hill : A Dictionary of
Communication and Media Studies, Edward Arnold
Group, London.
2. Joseph R. Dominick : The Dynamics of Mass
Communication, McGraw Hill, New Delhi.
3. Denis McQuail and Sven Windahl: Communication
Models.
4. Keval J Kumar : Mass Communication in India, Jaico
Publishing House, New Delhi, 2005.
5. Dr. J V Vilanilam : Mass Communication in India.

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6. GNS Raghavan, ‗The Press in India‘.

7. Robin Jeffrey, ‗India‘s Newspaper Revolution‘.
8. Puthupally Raghavan, ‗Kerala Pathrapravarthana
Charithram‘.
9. M.V.Thomas, ‗Bharathiya Pathracharithram‘, Bhasha
Institute.
Books for Further Reading
1. Uma Joshi : Textbook of Mass Communication and
Media, Anmol Publications New Delhi, 1999.
2. O.M. Gupta and Ajay S. Jasra : Internet Journalism in
India, Kanishka Publishers, New Delhi, 2002.
3. Kuppuswami : Communication and Social Change.
4. Rangaswami Parthasarathy, ‗Journalism in India‘.
5. Dr.Nadig Krishna Murthy, ‗Indian Journalism‘.
6. Mehra Masani, ‗Broadcasting and the People‘.
7. G.C.Aswathy, ‗Broadcasting in India‘.
8. Amanas Ramachandran Nair, ‗Chalachithra Padhanagal‘.

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APPENDIX 2 Model Question Paper

FIRST/SECOND SEMESTER BA DEGREE EXAMINATION
Complementary Course
JOU 1(2) CO1: INTRODUCTION TO
COMMUNICATION AND JOURNALISM
Time: 2.5 hours Max. Marks: 80
SECTION A
The questions carry 2 marks each; Ceiling : 25 Marks
1. Noise
2. BMS
3. Feedback
4. Aristotle‘s model of communication
5. Intrapersonal communication
6. Kannadi
7. CBFC
8. Bengal Gazette
9. Kerala Mithram
10. Troll
11. Young India
12. RTI
13. Community Radio
14. Citizen Journalism
15. Paid News
SECTION B
The questions carry 5 marks each; Ceiling : 35 Marks
16. Explain Shannon and Weaver model with diagram.

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17. Examine the relevance of Magic bullet theory

18. What is Right to Information Act?
19. What are the contributions of Mahatma Gandhi to Indian
Journalism?
20. Explain the working of first Press Commission.
21. Explain the specialties that make Television unique.
22. Briefly describe the evolution of Mathrubhumi daily
23. Briefly describe major political publications published in
Malayalam.
SECTION C
Answer any 2 questions
24. What are the functions and dysfunctions of mass
communication?
25. Narrate the evolution of Malayalam Press.
26. Explain Freedom of Expression in Indian Constitution.
27. Discuss the positive and negative impacts of New Media
on other media.
(2 x 10 = 20 marks)

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