Conduction Heat Transfer at Steady State 75

The reduction of heat flow by insulation in practice always necessitates a compromise between the
effectiveness of insulation and the minimization of capital cost. By employing a multilayer aluminium foil
in vaccum, it is possible to create an almost perfect insulation, but the cost involved becomes prohibitive.
Gases with their low values of thermal conductivity offer great resistance to heat flow by conduction,
but allow appreciable heat transfer by convection and radiation. However, if the gas or air is trapped in a
porous or fibrous material, its capacity to transfer heat by convection and radiation is very much reduced.
The effective conductivity of a composite material may tend to reach the value of k for air (0.026 W/mK)
at 20°C. As insulation thickness increases, the capital cost increases, but the cost in terms of heat loss or
energy cost decreases. The break-even point is called ‘economic thickness’ of insulation. Various types of
imsulation have been discussed in earlier section.

2.4 EXTENDED SURFACES

Convection heat transfer between a surface (at Tw) and the fluid surrounding it (at T•) is given by
Q = hA(Tw – T•)
where h is the heat transfer coefficient and A is the surface area of heat transfer. For gases h(= k f /dt) is low,
since the thermal conductivity kf of a gas film is low. For heat transfer from a hot gas to a liquid through a
wall, hgas << hliquid. To compensate for low heat transfer coefficient, surface area A on the gas side may be
extended for a given Q. Such an extended surface is termed as fin.
Let us consider the plane wall of Fig. 2.17(a). If Tw is fixed, there are three ways in which the heat
transfer rate may be increased.

Fig. 2.17(a) Combined conduction Fig. 2.17(b) Use of fins to enhance heat
and convection in a bar transfer from a plane wall:
Bare surface and Finned surface

1. The convection coefficient h could be increased by increasing the fluid velocity or/and the fluid
temperature T• could be reduced. However, increasing h even to the maximum possible value is
often insufficient to obtain the desired heat transfer rate or the costs related to blower or pump power
required to increase h may be prohibitive.
2. The second option of reducing T• is often impractical.
3. The heat transfer rate may be increased by increasing the surface area across which convection
occurs. This may be done by using fins that extend from the wall into the surrounding fluid
[Fig. 2.17(b)]. The thermal conductivity of the fin material has a strong effect on the temperature
distribution along the fin and thus the degree to which the heat transfer rate is enhanced. Figure 2.18
shows different fin configurations. A straight fin is any extended surface that is attached to a plane
76 Heat and Mass Transfer

wall. It may be of uniform cross-sectional area, or its cross-sectional area may vary with the distance
x from the wall. An annular fin is one that is circumferentially attached to a cylinder. A pin fin or
spine is an extended surface of circular cross-sections. Pin fins may also be of uniform or non-
uniform cross-section.

Fig. 2.18 Fin configurations (a) Straight fin of uniform cross-section, (b) straight fin of nonuniform cross-section,
(c) annular fin and (d) pin fin

2.4.1 Fins of Uniform Cross-sectional Area

Let us first consider the simplest case of straight and pin fins of uniform cross section (Fig. 2.19). Each fin
is attached to the base surface of To and extends into a fluid of temperature T•. The perimeter of the fin, P,
which is uniform is 2(L + b) or, P @ 2L, if the thickness of the fin is small (b << L). If the fin is very thin and
its length l is long, it can be assumed that there is no radial temperature variation and heat gets conducted
axially along the length. This heat is then dissipated to the surroundings by convection. The problem thus
reduces to axial heat conduction along the fin with distributed heat sink from the sides. It is thus treated
as one-dimensional heat conduction. Let us consider a small volume element at a distance x from the base
or root of the fin of thickness dx. The rate at which heat enters the element is Qx and the heat leaving the
element is Qx + dx. In that small distance dx, let QD be the heat transferred by convection. Then by energy
balance.

Fig. 2.19 Conduction and convection in a straight fin or a thin rod

 Conduction Heat Transfer at Steady State 77

Qx = Qx + dx + QD (2.76)

dT
Now Qx = – kA
dx
d
and Qx + dx = Qx + (Qx ) dx
dx
d d Ê dT ˆ
Qx – Qx + dx = – (Qx) dx = – Á - kA ˜¯ d x
dx dx Ë dx
2
d T
= kA dx (2.77)
dx 2
Now QD = hP dx (T – T•) (2.78)
Let excess temperature at any section q = T – T•
dq dT
=
dx dx
d 2q d 2T
= (2.79)
dx 2 d x2
From Eqs (2.76) – (2.79),
d 2q
kA dx = hP dx q
dx 2
d 2q
hP
2
q= (2.80)
dx kA
hP
Let m2 = , so that
kA
d 2q
– m 2q = 0 (2.81)
dx 2
By using the operator D,
(D 2 – m 2)q = 0
(D – m) (D + m)q = 0
Either (D – m)q = 0 or (D + m)q = 0
dq dq
= mq, = m dx
dx q
lnq = mx + A
or q = emx eA = C1 emx (2.82)
where C1 is a constant.
If (D + m)q = 0
dq
= – mq
dx
dq
= – m dx
q
78 Heat and Mass Transfer

lnq = – mx + B
or q = C2 e–mx (2.83)
where C2 is a constant.
Therefore, from Eqs (2.82) and (2.83), the general solution for temperature distribution is
q = C1 emx + C2 e–mx (2.84)
where C1 and C2 are constants to be evaluated from the boundary conditions given below:
(1) When x = 0, T = T0, q = q 0 = T0 – T•
q0 = C1 + C2 (2.85)
(2) When x = l, T = T1, q = q l = Tl – T•
q l = C1 e ml + C2 e–ml (2.86)

Case 1 At the tip,

Ê dq ˆ
–k Á ˜ = hq l (2.87)
Ë dx ¯ x = l
From Eq. (2.84) on differentiation and substitution,
– k (C1m e–ml – C2m e–ml ) = h(C1 eml + C2 e–ml) (2.88)
From Eqs (2.85) and (2.88) the constants C1 and C2 are given to be
qq q
C1 = and C2 = (2.89)
1 - s e 2 ml s - e -2 ml
h + mk
where s=
h - mk
The temperature distribution, Eq. (2.84), becomes
h
cosh m(l - x) + sinh m(l - x)
q mk
= (2.90)
qo h
cosh ml + sinh ml
mk
At x = l,
ql 1
= (2.91)
qo h
cosh ml + sinh ml
mk
Heat transfer from the fin base
Ê dq ˆ
Qo = – kA Á ˜
Ë dx ¯ x = 0
h
+ tanh ml
mk
= (hPkA)1/2 qo (2.92)
h
1+ tanh ml
mk
It may be noted that conservation of energy demands that the rate at which heat is transferred by convection
from the fin must be equal to the rate at which heat is conducted through the base of the fin. Accordingly,
 Conduction Heat Transfer at Steady State 79

the alternative formation for Qo is

Qo = ÚA f
h(T - T• ) dAs

= ÚA f
hqdAs (2.93)
where dAs = elemental surface area = P dx and Af is the total fin surface area (including the tip).
Case 2 The fin is thin and long enough so that the heat loss from the tip is negligible. All the heat Qo is
convected out along the length and no heat is dissipated from the tip surface.
Ê dq ˆ
Q1 = – kA Á ˜ = hA q l = 0 (i.e. Tl = T•)
Ë dx ¯ x = l
Ê dq ˆ
ÁË ˜¯ =0
dx x = l
d
(C1e mx + C2 m e - mx ) x=l =0
dx
or, (C1 m emx – C2m e–mx )x = l = 0
C1e m1 = C2 e–ml
C2
= e 2ml (2.94)
C1
Since C1 + C2 = qo
C1 + C1 e2ml = q o
1 e - ml
C1 = q o = q
1 + e ml / e - ml e + e - ml
o ml

e ml
and C2 = C1 e2ml = q o
e ml + e - ml
Substituting in Eq. (2.84),
q = C1 emx + C2 e–mx
e - ml q o e ml
= qo emx + e–mx
e ml + e - ml e ml + e - ml
qo
= [e– m (l – x) + e m (l – x)]
e ml
+ e - ml
cosh m (l - x)
= qo
cosh ml
q cosh m (l - x )
= (2.95)
qo cosh ml
This is the temperature distribution along the fin.
At the tip, x = l,
80 Heat and Mass Transfer

qo
q l = Tl – T • =
cosh ml
= Temperature difference at the tip
ql 1
= (2.96)
qo cosh ml
It gives the temperature of the fin at its tip (T1).
The rate of heat transfer.

Ê dq ˆ d È cosh m (l - x) ˘
Qo = – kA Á ˜
Ë dx ¯ x = 0
= – kA Íq o ˙
dx Î cosh ml ˚ x = 0

È (- m) sinh m (l - x) ˘
= – kAqo Í ˙
Î cosh ml ˚x = 0
Qo = mk Aqo tanh ml (2.97)
1/ 2
Ê hP ˆ
where m= Á ˜
Ë kA ¯
It is found from Eqs (2.96) and (2.97), that as l
increases, Q (i.e. tanh ml) increases rapidly at first and
then the rate slowly decreases and becomes asymptotic
at ml = 3, which indicates that any further increase in
length will not substantially increase the rate of heat
transfer. Also, as l increases, q l decreases (Fig. 2.20).
Case 3 If the temperature is given at the fin tip T1, then q1
= T1 – T•, and the resulting expressions for temperature
distribution and heat transfer are
q (q l / q o ) sinh mx + sinh m (l - x)
= (2.98)
qo sinh ml
cosh ml - (ql / qo )
and Q o = (hPkA)1/2 qo (2.99)
sinh ml Fig. 2.20 Functions for determination of heat flow
Case 4 For very long fin, l Æ •, q l Æ 0 and temperature distribution in a thin rod

qo = C1 + C2
0 = C1 e• + C2 e–•
C1 = 0, C2 = q 1
q = q1 e–mx
q
= e–mx (2.100)
ql
 Conduction Heat Transfer at Steady State 81

Table 2.1 Equations for temperature distribution and rate of heat transfer for fins of uniform cross section**
S. Tip condition Temperature Fin Heat Transfer
No. (x = L) case distribution, q /qo Rate, Q fin
1. Convecting tip
[cosh m (l - x) + (h / mk ) sinh m (l - x) ] Èsinh ml + (h / mk ) cosh ml ˘˚
dq M Î
hq (l) = – k
dx
[cosh ml + (h / mk ) sinh ml ] ÈÎ cosh ml + (h / mk ) sinh ml ˘˚
x=l

2. Adiabatic tip: cosh m (l - x) M tanh ml

dq
=0 cosh ml
dx x =1
3. Fixed tip temperature: [(q l / q o ) sinh mx + sinh m (l - x)] [cosh ml (q l / q o )]
q (l) = q l M
sinh ml sinh ml

4. Infinite fin e–mx M
(l Æ •): ql (l) = 0

** q = T – T•; q o = q (0) = To – T•;

hP q tip Ttip - T•
m2 = ; M = [hP kAq)1/2 q o; =
kA qo To - T•
100
% error =
cosh ml
Ê dq ˆ
Q = – kA Á ˜ = – kA [C2 (–m) eo]
Ë dx ¯ x = 0
= mK Aqo (2.101)
The foregoing results are summarised in Table 2.1 and Fig. 2.21. A table of hyperbolic functions is given
in Appendix B.1.

Fig. 2.21 Schematic representation of four boundary conditions at the tip of a fin

82 Heat and Mass Transfer

For nonuniform cross-sections of fins, the solutions are quite complex and the interested student is
referred to Schneider [1] and Arpaci [2].
The temperature of a fluid flowing in a tube is often measured by a thermometer or thermocouple put
into a well which is welded into the tube wall as shown in Fig. 2.22(a). If the fluid temperature differs
greatly from the outside temperature, then the tube wall has a lower temperature than the gas and heat
flows by conduction from the well to the tube wall. The end of the well where the thermometer bulb or
thermocouple junction is placed may become colder than the fluid, and the indicated temperature will not
be the true fluid temperature. The error can be calculated by Eq. (2.91) or (2.96), whichever is deemed
appropriate. Figure 2.20 and Table 2.2 give the necessary length of the tube when the error must be confined
within a certain limit.

Fig. 2.22(a) Thermometer well Fig. 2.22(b) Temperature measurement in flow in a tube

Table 2.2 Calculation functions for heat conduction in a rod

ml 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 3 4 5 6
cosh ml 1 1.1276 1.543 2.352 3.762 10.07 27.31 74.21 201.7
tanh ml 0 0.4621 0.7616 0.9052 0.9640 0.9951 0.9993 0.9999 1

If the length of well is found to be greater than the tube diameter, it is necessary to locate the well
obliquely in the tube [Fig. 2.22(b)]. Heat radiation between the end of the well and the tube wall may cause
an additional error in temperature measurement. This will be dealt with in Chapter 7.

2.4.2 Fin Performance

We may recall that fins are used to increase the heat transfer from a surface by increasing the effective
surface area, and not by increasing the heat transfer coefficient. However, the fin itself represents a
conductive resistance to heat transfer from the original surface. Therefore, one cannot be sure that by the
use of fins the heat transfer rate will be increased. It can be assessed by evaluating the fin effectiveness, e f.
It is defined as a ratio given as follows:
Heat transfer rate with fin Qo
ef = = (2.102)
Heat transfer rate without fin hA q o
where A is the cross-sectional area of the fin. In any design ef should be as large as possible, and in general,
the use of fins is rarely justified unless ef ≥ 2.
For any one of the four tip conditions given in Table 2.1, the effectiveness for a fin of uniform cross-
section may be obtained by dividing the appropriate expression for Qo by hAqo. For the infinite fin (Case 4)
the result is
 Conduction Heat Transfer at Steady State 83

(hP kA)1 / 2 q o Ê kP ˆ
1/ 2
ef = = Á ˜ (2.103)
hA q o Ë hA ¯
For Case 2 with negligible tip loss
1/ 2
(hP kA )1 / 2 qo tanh ml Ê kP ˆ
= Á
Ë hA ˜¯
ef = tanh ml (2.104)
hA qo
It is observed that fin effectiveness is enhanced by
1. The choice of a material of high thermal conductivity like copper and aluminium. Although copper
has a higher thermal conductivity, aluminium alloys are more common because they are of low cost
and density.
2. Increasing the ratio of the perimeter to the cross-sectional area of the fin, P/A. The use of thin, but
closely spaced, fins is preferred to that of thick fins.
3. The low value of heat transfer coefficient h. The fins are required when the fluid is a gas rather
than a liquid, particularly when the heat transfer from the surface is by natural convection. If fins
are to be used on a surface separating a gas and a liquid, they are generally placed on the gas
side, which is the side of lower heat transfer coefficient (hliq >> hgas, hnatural convection <<
hforced convection).
Fin performance may also be quantified in terms of a thermal resistance. Treating the difference between
the base and fluid temperatures as the driving potential, a fin resistance may be defined as
q0
R t, f = (2.105)
Q0
This result is very useful in the sense that a finned surface can be represented by a thermal circuit. An
appropriate expression for Q0 depending on the fin tip condition may be used from Table 2.1.
Dividing Eq. (2.105) into the expression for thermal resistance due to convection at the exposed base
1
Rt, b =
hA
and substituting from Eq. (2.102), it follows that
Rt , b
ef = (2.106)
Rt , f
Hence, the fin effectiveness may be interpreted as a ratio of thermal resistances, and to increase e f it
is necessary to reduce the conductivity/convection resistance of the fin R t, f. If the fin is to enhance heat
transfer, its resistance must not exceed that of the exposed surface, R t, b.
The thermal performance of a fin is also measured by a parameter called fin efficiency, h f. The maximum
driving potential for convection is the temperature difference between the base (x = 0) and the fluid, qo = To
– T•. Hence, the maximum rate at which a fin could dissipate energy is the rate that would exist if the entire
fin surface were at the base temperature, i.e. if the thermal conductivity of the fin is infinity.
Actual heat transfer from fin
Therefore, hf =
Maximum heat transfer from fin if entiree fin
surface were at fin base temperature
Qo Qo
= = (2.107)
Qmax hA f q o
where A f is the total surface area of the fin.
84 Heat and Mass Transfer

Actual heat transfer from a fin.

(Qo)act = h f (Qo)max = h f hA f qo (2.108)
For a long thin fin with insulated tip
Qo = (hP kA)1/2 qo tanh ml
1/ 2
Ê hP ˆ
where m= Á ˜
Ë kA ¯
The fin efficiency is then

(hP kA)1 / 2 q o tanh ml Ê kA ˆ 1 / 2 tanh ml

hf = =Á ˜
hPl q o Ë hP ¯ l

tanh ml
= (2.109)
ml
For a rectangular fin (Fig. 2.19),
P = 2L + 2b @ 2L, A = Lb
Af = 2L1 + 2lb = 2l(L + b) @ 2Ll
1/ 2 1/ 2
Ê h 2L ˆ Ê 2h ˆ
m= Á = Á ˜
Ë kLb ˜¯
(2.110)
Ë kb ¯
1/ 2
(h P k A)
hf = q o tanh ml
h Af qo
1/ 2
(h 2L k L b )1 / 2 tanh ml Ê kb ˆ tanh ml
= = Á ˜
h 2L l Ë 2h ¯ l
tanh ml
= (2.110a)
ml
p 2
It is the same expression as in Eq. (2.109). For a pin rod, P = pd and A = d , where d is the pin
4
diameter.
1/ 2 1/ 2
Ê hp d ˆ Ê hˆ
m= =2 Á ˜ (2.111)
Á p 2˜ Ë kd ¯
ÁË k d ˜¯
4
By evaluating h f, the actual heat transfer from a fin can be computed from Eq. (2.108).
Fins come in many shapes and forms, some of which are shown in Fig. 2.23. A compromise of the cost,
the weight, the available space, the pressure drop of the fluid and heat transfer characteristics determines
the suitability of fin geometry.
If a rectangular fin is long, wide and thin.
P/A = 2L/Lb = 2/b, and m = (hP/kA)1/2
tanh (hPl 2 / kA)1 / 2
hf =
(hPl 2 / kA)1 / 2