Name: Date:

5
Experiment

Amplitude Modulation (AM)

Objectives:
1. Demonstrate an-amplitude-modulated carrier in the time domain for different modulation
indexes and modulating frequencies.
2. Determine the modulation index and percent modulation of an amplitude-modulated carrier
from the time domain curve plot.
3. Demonstrate an amplitude-modulated carrier in the frequency domain for different
modulation indexes and modulating frequencies.
4. Compare the side-frequency voltage levels to the carrier voltage level in an amplitude-
modulated carrier for different modulation indexes.
5. Determine the signal bandwidth of an amplitude-modulated carrier for different modulating
signal frequencies.
6. Demonstrate how a complex modulating signal generates many side frequencies to form the
upper and lower sidebands.

Materials:
Function generators
One oscilloscope
One spectrum analyzer
Multiplier
Summer
Voltage source

The primary purpose of communications system is to transmit and receive information such
as audio, video, or binary data over communications medium or channel. The basic components in
a communications system are the transmitter, communications medium or channel, and the receiver.
Possible communications media are wire cable, fiber optic cable and free space. Before the
information can be transmitted, it must be converted into an electrical signal compatible with the
communications medium. This is the purpose of the transmitter. The purpose of the receiver is to
receive the transmitted signal from the channel and convert it back into its original information signal
form. If the original electrical signal is transmitted directly over the communications channel, it is
called baseband transmission. An example of communications system that uses baseband
transmission is the telephone system.
 Noise is defined as undesirable electrical energy that enters the communications system and
interferes with the transmitted message. All communications system are subject to noise in both
communications channel and the receiver. Channel noise comes from the atmosphere (lightning),
outer space (radiation emitted by the sun and stars), and electrical equipment (Electric motors and
fluorescent lights). Receiver noise comes from the electronic components such as resistors and
transistors, which generate noise due to thermal agitation of the atoms during electrical current flow.
In some cases noise obliterates the message and in other cases it results in only partial interference.
Although noise cannot be completely eliminated, it can be reduced considerably.
Often the original electrical information (baseband) signal is not compatible with the
communications medium. In that case, this baseband signal is used to modulate a higher frequency
sine wave signal that is in a frequency spectrum that is compatible with the communications medium.
The higher-frequency sine wave signal is called a carrier. When the carrier frequency is in the
electromagnetic spectrum it is called a radio frequency (RF) wave, and it radiates more efficiently
and propagates a longer distance than a baseband signal. When information is transmitted over a
fiber optic cable, the carrier frequency is in the optical spectrum. The process of using a baseband
signal to modulate a carrier is called broadband transmission.
There are basically three ways to make a baseband signal modulate a sine wave carrier:
amplitude modulation (AM), frequency modulation (FM) and phase modulation (PM). In amplitude
modulation, the baseband information signal varies the amplitude of the higher-frequency carrier
and the frequency of the carrier remains constant. In frequency modulation, the baseband
information signal varies the frequency of the higher-frequency carrier and the carrier amplitude
remains constant. Phase modulation is a different form of frequency modulation and the carrier is
similar in appearance to a frequency-modulated carrier. Thus, both FM and PM are often called as
angle modulation. In this experiment, you will examine the characteristics of amplitude modulation.
In amplitude modulation, the carrier frequency remains constant, but the instantaneous
value of the carrier amplitude varies in accordance with the amplitude variation of the modulating
signal. An imaginary line joining the peaks of the modulated carrier waveform, called the envelope,
is the same shape as the modulating signal with the zero reference line coinciding with the peak value
of the unmodulated carrier. The relationship between the peak voltage of the modulating signal
(Vm) and the peak voltage of the unmodulated carrier (Vc) is the modulation index (m).

𝑉𝑚
𝑚=
𝑉𝑐

Multiplying the modulation index (m) by 100 gives the percent modulation. When the peak
voltage of the modulating signal is equal to the peak voltage of the unmodulated carrier, the percent
modulation is 100%. An unmodulated carrier has a percent modulation of 0%. When the peak
voltage of the modulating signal (Vm) exceeds the peak voltage of the unmodulated carrier (Vc)
overmodulation will occur, resulting in distortion of the modulating (baseband) signal when it is
recovered from the modulated carrier. Therefore, it is important that the peak voltage of the
modulating signal be equal or less than the peak voltage of the unmodulated carrier with amplitude
modulation.
Often the percent modulation must be measured from the modulated carrier displayed on
an oscilloscope. When the AM signal is displayed on an oscilloscope, the modulation index can be
computed as
𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑚=
𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 + 𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛

where Vmax is the maximum peak-to-peak voltage of the modulated carrier and Vmin is the
minimum peak-to-peak voltage of the modulated carrier. Notice that when Vmin=0, the modulation
index (m) is equal to 1 (100% modulation), and when Vmin = Vmax, the modulation index is equal
to 0 (0% modulation).
When a single-frequency sine wave amplitude modulates a carrier, the modulating process
causes two side frequencies to be generated above and below the carrier frequency by an amount
equal to the modulating frequency (fm). The upper side frequency (fUSF) and the lower side frequency
(fLSF) can be determined from

𝑓𝑈𝑆𝐹 = 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑓𝑚 and 𝑓𝐿𝑆𝐹 = 𝑓𝑐 − 𝑓𝑚

A complex modulating signal, such as square wave, consists of a fundamental sine wave
frequency and many harmonics, causing many side frequencies to be generated. The highest upper
side frequency and the lowest side frequency are determined by the highest harmonic frequency
(fm(max)), and the highest lower side frequency and the lowest upper side frequency are determined by
the lowest harmonic frequency (fm(min)). The band of frequencies (fc + fm(min))and (fc + fm(max)) is called
the upper sideband. The band of frequencies (fc - fm(min))and (fc - fm(max)) is called the lower sideband.
The difference between the highest upper side frequency (fc + fm(max)) and lowest lower side frequency
(fc - fm(max)) is the bandwidth occupied by the modulated carrier. Therefore, the bandwidth (BW) can
be calculated as

𝐵𝑊 = (𝑓𝑐 + 𝑓𝑚(max) ) − (𝑓𝑐 − 𝑓𝑚(max) ) = 2𝑓𝑚(max)

The bandwidth occupied by the modulated carrier is the reason a modulation carrier is
referred to as broadband transmission.
 The higher the modulating signal frequencies (meaning more information is being
transmitted), the wider the modulated carrier bandwidth. This is the reason a video signal occupies
more bandwidth than an audio signal. Because signals transmitted on the same frequency interfere
with one another, this carrier bandwidth places a limit on the number of modulated carriers that can
occupy a given communications channel. Also, when a carrier is overmodulated , the resulting
distorted waveshapes generates harmonics that generate additional side frequencies. This causes the
transmitted bandwidth to increase and interfere with other signals. This harmonic-generated
sideband interference is called splatter.
When an AM signal is observed on an oscilloscope, it is observed in the time domain (voltage
as a function of time). The time domain display gives no indication of sidebands. In order to observe
the sidebands generated by a modulated carrier, the frequency spectrum of the modulated carrier
must be displayed in the frequency domain (sine wave voltage levels as a function of frequency) on
a spectrum analyzer.
A sine wave-modulated AM signal is a composite of a carrier and two side frequencies, and
each of these signals transmit power. The total power transmitted (Pt) is the sum of the carrier power
(Pc) and the power of the two sidebands (Pusf and Plsf). Therefore,

𝑃𝑇 = 𝑃𝐶 + 𝑃𝑈𝑆𝐹 + 𝑃𝐿𝑆𝐹

The total power transmitted (Pt) can also be determined from the modulation index (m)
using the equation
𝑚2 𝑚2 𝑚2 𝑚2
𝑃𝑇 = 𝑃𝐶 (1 + ) = 𝑃𝐶 + 𝑃𝐶 ( ) = 𝑃𝐶 + 𝑃𝐶 ( ) + 𝑃𝐶 ( )
2 2 4 4

Therefore, the total power in the side frequencies (Psf) is

𝑚2
𝑃𝑆𝐹 = 𝑃𝐶 ( )
2
And the power in each side frequency is
𝑚2
𝑃𝑈𝑆𝐹 = 𝑃𝐿𝑆𝐹 = 𝑃𝐶 ( )
4

Notice that the power in the side frequencies depends on the modulation index (percent
modulation) and the carrier power does not depend on the modulation index. When the percent
modulation is 100% (m=1), the total side-frequency power (Psf) is one-half of the carrier power (Pc)
and the power in each sideband (Pusf and Plsf) is one-quarter of the carrier power (Pc). When the
percent modulation is 0% (m=0), the total side frequency power (Psf) is zero because there are no
side frequencies in an unmodulated carrier. Based on these results, it is easy to conclude that an
amplitude-modulated carrier has all the transmitted information in the sidebands and no information
in the carrier. For 100% modulation, one –third of the total power transmitted is in the sidebands
and two-thirds of the total power is wasted in the carrier, which contains no information. When a
carrier is modulated by a complex waveform, the combined modulation index of the fundamental
and all the harmonics determines the power in the sidebands. In a later experiment you will see how
we can we remove the carrier and transmit the same amount of information with less power.
Because power is proportional to voltage squared, the voltage level of the side frequencies is
equal to the square root of the side-frequency power. Therefore, the side-frequency voltage can be
calculated from
𝑚2 𝑉𝑐 2 𝑚2
𝑃𝑈𝑆𝐹 = 𝑃𝐿𝑆𝐹 = 𝑃𝐶 ( ) = ( )
4 𝑅 4

𝑉𝑈𝑆𝐹 2 𝑉𝐿𝑆𝐹 2 𝑉𝑐 2 𝑚2
= = ( )
𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 4
𝑚2
𝑉𝑈𝑆𝐹 2 = 𝑉𝐿𝑆𝐹 2 = 𝑉𝑐 2 ( )
4
𝑚
𝑉𝑈𝑆𝐹 = 𝑉𝐿𝑆𝐹 = 𝑉𝐶 ( )
2

This means that the voltage of each side frequency is equal to one-half of the carrier voltage
for 100% modulation of a sine-wave modulated carrier. When a carrier is modulated by a complex
waveform, the voltage of each side frequency can be calculated from the separate modulation indexes
of the fundamental and each harmonic.

Procedure:
Step 1 Create circuit figure 5-1. This circuit will demonstrate how mathematical multiplication of
carrier and modulating (baseband) signal, and then adding the carrier to the multiplication
result, will produce an amplitude-modulated carrier. Bring down the function generator
enlargement and make sure that the following settings are selected: Sine Wave, Freq = 5kHz,
Ampl = 1V, Offset = 0. Bring down the oscilloscope enlargement and make sure that the
following settings are selected: Time base (Scale = 50us/Div, Xpos=0, Y/T), Ch A
(Scale=1V/Div, Ypos=0, DC), Trigger (Pos edge, Level = 0, Auto).
Figure 5-1 Amplitude Modulation

Step 2 Run the simulation to one full screen display, then pause the simulation. Notice that you
have displayed an amplitude-modulated carrier plot on the oscilloscope screen. Draw the
curve plot in the space provided below and show the envelope on the drawing.

Step 3 Based on the function generator amplitude (Modulating sine wave voltage, Vm) and the
voltage of the carrier sine wave (Vc), calculate the expected modulation index (m) and
percent modulation.

- In this step, with a modulation index (m) of 0.(half of the previous value in step 1), the sideband voltages
are expected to be reduced compared to step 6. Since the sideband frequencies are directly related to the
modulation index, they are also expected to be closer to the carrier frequency. This translates to sideband
voltages that are approximately half of what they were in step 6 (where m = 1 and sideband voltages were
likely Vc/2). In simpler terms, the sideband voltages are now expected to be around Vc/4.
Step 4 Determine the modulation index (m) and percent modulation from the curve plot in Step 2.

Question: How did the value of the modulation index and percent modulation determine the curve
plot compare with the expected value calculated in Step 3?
- The measured values compared to the expected values, shows no discrepancy. Hence, the curve plot
will show very deep modulation with minimal distortion or attenuation like the ideal case.

Step 5 Bring down the spectrum analyzer enlargement and make sure that the following settings are
selected: Frequency (Center = 100kHz, Span = 100kHz), amplitude (Lin,Range = 0.2V/Div),
Resolution = 500Hz.
Step 6 Run the simulation until the resolution Frequencies match, then pause the simulation. You
have displayed the frequency spectrum for a modulated carrier. Draw the spectral plot in the
space provided below.

Step 7 Measure the carrier frequency (fC), the upper sideband frequency (fUSF), the lower sideband
frequency(fLSF), and the voltage amplitude of each spectral line and record the answers on
the spectral plot.
Question: What was the frequency difference between the carrier and each of the side frequencies?
How did this compare with the modulating signal frequency?
- The frequency difference between the carrier wave and each of the sidebands in AM is
exactly equal to the frequency of the modulating signal.

How did the frequency of the spectral line compare with the carrier frequency?

- With a spectral line at 100kHz and a carrier frequency of 100.195kHz, the discrepancy is minimal.

- Interestingly, the .
 How did the voltage amplitude of the center spectral line compare with the carrier amplitude?
- While the carrier amplitude is 1 volt, the center spectral line shows a voltage amplitude of
834.842 mV, indicating a minor deviation.

Step 8 Calculate the expected bandwidth (BW) of the modulated carrier based on the frequency
of the modulating sine wave (fM).

Step 9 Determine the bandwidth (BW) of the modulated carrier from the frequency spectral plot
and record your answer on the spectral plot.

Question: how did the bandwidth of the modulated carrier from the frequency spectrum compare
with the calculated bandwidth in step 8?
- The bandwidth of the modulated carrier from the frequency spectrum (9.961kHz) has a slight
difference with the calculated bandwidth in step 8 (10kHz).

Step 10 Calculate the expected voltage amplitude of each side frequency spectral line (VUSF and
VLSF) based on the modulation index (m) and the carrier voltage amplitude (VC)

Question: How did the calculated voltage values compare with the measured values on the spectral
plot?
- While the expected voltage was 500mV, the measured values (Vlsf: 501.745 mV and Vusf: 480.148 mV)
show minimal deviations, indicating a successful measurement within a small tolerance range.

What was the relationship between the voltage levels of the side frequencies and the voltage level of
the carrier? Was this what you expected for this modulation index?
Step 11 Change the modulating signal amplitude (function generator amplitude) to 0.5V (500mV).
Bring down the oscilloscope enlargement and run the simulation to one full screen display,
then pause the simulation. Notice that you have displayed an amplitude-modulated carrier
curve plot on the oscilloscope screen. Draw the curve plot in the space provided and show
the envelope on the drawing.
Step 12 Based on the voltage of the modulating (baseband) sine wave (Vm) and the voltage of the
carrier sine wave (Vc), calculate the expected modulation index (m) and percent modulation.

Step 13 Determine the modulation index (m) and percent modulation from the curve plot in
Step11.

Questions: How did the value of the modulation index and percent modulation determined from
the curve plot compare with the expected value calculated in Step12?

- The measured values (modulation index: 0.492 V, percent modulation: 49.2%) are very close to the
expected values (0.499 V and 49.86%, respectively).

How this percent modulation compare with the percent modulation in step 3 and 4? Explain any
difference.
- The measured percent modulation (49.85%) is almost half of the values obtained in steps 3 and 4.

Step 14 Bring down the spectrum analyzer enlargement. Run the simulation until the resolution
frequencies match, then pause the simulation. You have plotted the frequency spectrum for
a modulated carrier. Draw the spectral plot in the space provided.
Step 15 Measure the carrier frequency (fc), the upper sideband frequency(fUSF), the lower side
frequency(fLSF), and the voltage amplitude of each spectral line and record the answers on
the spectral plot.
Step 16 Determine the bandwidth (BW) of the modulated carrier from the frequency spectral plot
and record your answer on the spectral plot.
Question: How did the bandwidth of the modulated carrier from the frequency spectrum compare
with the bandwidth on the spectral plot in Step6? Explain.
- Since the frequency remained constant throughout both steps, the resulting bandwidths are identical
at 9.961 kHz in both cases

Step 17 Calculate the expected voltage amplitude of each side frequency spectral line (VUSF and
Vlsf) based on the modulation index (m) and the carrier voltage amplitude (Vc).

Questions: How did the calculated voltage values compare with the measured values on the spectral
plot?
- The calculated voltage (249.94 mV) shows excellent agreement with the measured values of
Vusf (248.423 mV) and Vlsf (258.270 mV).

What was the relationship between the voltage levels of the side frequencies and the voltage level of
the carrier? How did it compare with the results in Step6?

- In this step, with a modulation index (m) of 0.498 (half of the previous value in step 1), the sideband voltages
are expected to be reduced compared to step 6. Since the sideband frequencies are directly related to the
modulation index, they are also expected to be closer to the carrier frequency. This translates to sideband
voltages that are approximately half of what they were in step 6 (where m = 1 and sideband voltages were
likely Vc/2). In simpler terms, the sideband voltages are now expected to be around Vc/4.
Step 18 Change the modulating signal amplitude (function generator amplitude) to 0V (1uv). Bring
down the oscilloscope enlargement and run the simulation to one full screen display, then
pause the simulation. Draw the curve plot in the space provided.

Step 19 Based on the voltage of the modulating (baseband) sine wave (Vm) and the voltage of the
carrier sine wave (Vc), calculate the expected modulation index (m) and percent modulation.

Step20 Determine the modulation index (m) and percent modulation from the curve plot in Step
18.

Questions: How did the value of the modulation index and percent modulation determined from
the curve plot compare with the expected value calculated in Step19.?

- Both the measured modulation index and percent modulation are zero, which aligns perfectly with
the expected values of zero. This suggests the absence of any modulation in the signal.

How did this waveshape compare with the previous amplitude-modulated waveveshapes? Explain
any difference.

- This graph displays a distinct change from the previous waveforms. Here, the peak values on
both the positive and negative sides of the curve appear equal, suggesting a transition towards a
square wave shape.
Step 21 Bring down the spectrum analyzer. Run the simulation until the resolution Frequencies
match, then pause the simulation. You have plotted the frequency spectrum for an
unmodulated carrier. Draw the spectral plot in the space provided.

Step 22 Measure the frequency and voltage amplitude of the spectral line and record the values on
the spectral plot.
Questions: How did the frequency of the spectral line compare with the carrier frequency?

How did the voltage amplitude of the spectral line compare with the carrier amplitude?

How did this frequency spectrum compare with the previous frequency spectrum?

Step 23 Change the modulating frequency to 10kHz and the amplitude back to 1 V on the function
generator. Bring down the oscilloscope and run the simulation to one full screen display,
then pause the simulation. Notice that you have displayed an amplitude-modulated carrier
curve plot on the oscilloscope screen. Draw the curve plot in the space provided and show
the envelope on the drawing.
Question: How did this waveshape differ from the waveshape for a 5 kHz modulating frequency in
Step2?
- Increasing the modulating frequency from 5 kHz to 10 kHz shows no significant change in the overall
waveshape of the signal on the graph. This suggests the amplifier effectively handles the higher
frequency information.

Step 24 Bring down the spectrum analyzer enlargement. Run the simulation until the resolution
frequencies match, then pause the simulation. You have plotted the frequency spectrum for
a modulated carrier. Draw the spectral plot in the space provided.

Step 25 Measure the carrier frequency (fc), the upper sideband frequency (fUSF), and the lower
sideband frequency (fLSF) of the spectral lines and record the answers on the spectral plot.
Step 26 Determine the bandwidth (BW) of the modulated carrier from the frequency spectral plot
and record your answer on the spectral plot.
Question: How did the bandwidth of the modulated carrier for a 10kHz modulating frequency
compare with the bandwidth for a 5kHz modulating frequency in Step6?
- With a modulating frequency of 10 kHz, exhibits a wider bandwidth (39.843 kHz) compared to step 6
(9.961 kHz bandwidth) with a 5 kHz modulating frequency.
Step 27 Measure the voltage amplitude of the side frequencies and record your answer on the
spectral plot in step 24.

Question: was there any difference between the amplitude of the side frequencies for 10 kHz plot
in Step 24 and the 5 kHz plot in step 6? Explain.

Step 28 Change the modulating frequency to 20 kHz on the function generator. Run the simulation
until the resolution frequencies match, then pause the simulation measure the bandwidth
(BW) of the modulated carrier on the spectrum analyzer and record the value.

Question: How did the bandwidth compare with the bandwidth for the 10kHz modulating
frequency? Explain.

- Doubling the modulating frequency from 10 kHz to 20 kHz resulted in a further bandwidth increase
to 39.844 kHz

Step 29 Change the modulating signal frequency back to 5 kHz and select square wave on the
function generator. Bring down the oscilloscope enlargement and run the simulation to one
full screen display, then pause the simulation. Notice that you have displayed a carrier
modulated by a square wave on the oscilloscope screen. Draw the curve plot in the space
provided and show the envelope on the drawing.
Question: How did this waveshape differ from the waveshape in Step 2?
- This waveform exhibits equal peak voltages on both its positive and negative excursions, similar to a
square wave but drops for a significant amount of time then goes back to its former value. This is a
significant change compared to the waveshape in step 2, which displayed unequal peak voltages.

Step 30 Determine the modulation index (m) and percent modulation from the curve plot in Step
29.

Step 31 Bring down the spectrum analyzer enlargement. Run the simulation until the resolution
frequencies match, then pause the simulation. You have plotted the frequency spectrum for
a square-wave modulated carrier. Draw the spectral plot in the space provided. Neglect any
side frequencies with amplitudes less than 10% of the carrier amplitude.

Step 32 Measure the frequency of the spectral lines and record the answers on the spectral plot.
Neglect any side frequencies with amplitudes less than 10% of the carrier amplitude.
Question: How did the frequency spectrum for the square-wave modulated carruer differ from the
spectrum for the sine-wave modulated carrier in Step 6? Explain why they were different.

- Interestingly, the frequency spectrum between the two are both identical.
Step 33 Determine the bandwidth (BW) of the modulated carrier from the frequency spectral plot
and record your answer on the spectral plot. Neglect any side frequencies with amplitudes
less than 10% of the carrier amplitude.
Question: How did the bandwidth of the 5 kHz square-wave modulated carrier compare to the
bandwidth of the 5 khZ sine wave modulated carrier in Step 6? Explain any difference.

- Similar to the observation in the frequency spectrum, the bandwidth between the two are
also identical.

Step 34 Reduce the amplitude of the square wave to 0.5V (500mV) on the function generator. Bring
down the oscilloscope enlargement and run the simulation to one full screen display, then
pause the simulation. Draw the curve plot in the space provided.

Step 35 Determine the modulation index (m) and percent modulation from the curve plot in Step
34.
Question: What is the difference between this curve plot and the one in Step 29? Explain.

- Similarly to step 29, this waveform exhibits equal peak voltages on both its positive and negative
excursions, similar to a square wave but drops for a significant amount of time then goes back to
its former value. The difference is that the intervals now have greater value with equal peak voltages
for a period of time.