Chapter 1

Basic Concepts

Introduction
Electricity is one of the most important forms of energy available to man. It affects
everyone’s lives in many ways. If you take time to think about your everyday life you will
realize that our lives are full of devices that depend upon electricity. These devices depend
on the electrical circuits inside them to work. The circuits often change the electrical energy
into other forms of energy such as heat, light and sound. An Electronic System is a physical
interconnection of components, or parts, that gathers various amounts of information
together with the aid of input devices such as sensors, responds in some way to this
information and then uses electrical energy in the form of an output action to control a
physical process or perform some type of mathematical operation on the signal. But
electronic control systems can also be regarded as a process that transforms one signal
into another so as to give the desired system response. Then we can say that a simple
electronic system consists of an input, a process, and an output with the input variable to
the system and the output variable from the system both being signals. There are many
ways to represent a system, for example: mathematically, descriptively, pictorially or
schematically. In this chapter the basic concepts of electricity and electronics will be
discussed.

Basic Electricity Concepts

Electric circuits
An electric circuit is a closed loop or network made up of electrical components such as
batteries, bulbs, switches and wires.

Electric current
Electric current is the name given to the flow of negatively charged particles called
electrons.

Current is measured in amperes, usually referred to as ‘amps’ (A). Current is the rate of flow
of electrical charges (called electrons) through a circuit.
Voltage

In most circuits a battery or voltage supply is used to drive the electrons through the
components. Voltage is measured in volts (V).

Resistance
All materials conduct electricity. The materials that conduct electricity well are called
conductors and those that are poor conductors are called insulators. Metals are good
conductors while rubber and glass are good insulators. A good conductor offers very little
resistance to the flow of electrical current. In other words, it lets currents flow with very little
voltage being applied. Resistance is therefore a measure of how much voltage is required
to let a current flow. Resistance is measured in ohms (Ω).

Electron flow - conventional current

Scientists in the early nineteenth century decided the direction of conventional current flow.
It seemed to them that current flowed from the positive side of power supplies to the
negative side. It was not until the twentieth century that electrons were discovered and the
true direction of current flow was proved.

Conventional current flows from positive to negative.

As stated earlier, electric current is the flow of electrons but often it is more useful to
consider electric current to flow in the opposite direction. This is called conventional current.

Batteries and voltage supplies

Batteries and voltage supplies are the source of power behind all electrical circuits. Without
a power source, electrical circuits will not work. In your work (as in most electronic circuits)
all power sources will be low-voltage  this normally means everyday batteries or a low-
voltage power supply. The low-voltage supplies and batteries will normally supply between
three and 12 volts. Electronic components normally work on much lower voltages and so
the circuits must be designed carefully. The symbols for batteries and voltage supplies are
shown in figure 1.2a and b respectively. Note the positive and negative side of the battery in
figure 1.2c.
 (a) (b)

(c)
Figure 1.2

Direct current (DC.)

The voltage supplied by batteries or low-voltage supplies is direct current (d.c.). This is the
normal type of supply to low-voltage circuits. Alternating current (AC) supplies are high-
voltage usually 230 volts. This is the normal supply in homes and schools. Many portable
electric power tools work from 110 volts for safety.

Resistors
Resistors are basic components in electrical and electronic circuits. They limit the amount of
current flowing in circuits or parts of circuits. Resistors are roughly cylindrical and have
coloured stripes. They also have connection wires sticking out of each end.

The stripes indicate the value of the resistors. The colours represent numerical values
according to a special code.

Resistor colour code

Resistors are marked with what is known as a resistor colour code. Each band that
surrounds the body of the resistor helps identify the value (in ohms) and the tolerance (in
per cent). In most resistors only four colour bands are used. The colour code chart for
resistors is shown below. The colours are used to represent different numbers, and in this
way we are able to tell the value for each digit.
 First and second colour
Digit Multiplier
band

Black 0 x1

Brown 1 x 10

Red 2 x 100

Orange 3 x 1000 or 1 K

Yellow 4 x 10 000 or 10 K

Green 5 x 100 000 or 100 K

Blue 6 x 1 000 000 or 1 M

Silver means divide by

Violet 7
100

Grey 8 Gold means divide by 10

Tolerances:
 brown  1%
 red  2%
White 9
 gold  5%
 silver  10%
 none  20%

Standard values
Resistors are supplied in a range of standard values: 1.0, 2.2, 3.3, 4.7, 5.6, 6.8, 7.5, 8.2 and
9.1. These standard values can then be multiplied by 10, 100, 1000, and so on. Typical
values of resistors are 220 R, 100 K, 680 R, etc. Some other popular sizes are also
available, such as 270 R and 390 R.

4-band resistor colour code layout

4-band resistor colour code layout

Example 1.0 If the colours on the above resistor are:
1st band  red
2nd band  violet
3rd band  brown
4th band  gold
Then using the table on the previous page, the value of this resistor is 270  and its
tolerance is 10 per cent. This is worked out as ‘2’ for the red first band, ‘7’ for the violet
second band and ‘times 10’ for the brown third band. For most purposes you can ignore the
tolerance. In the above example the manufacturers guarantee that the resistor will not vary
from the marked resistance by more than 10 per cent.

Symbol for resistance

Although the symbol for ohms is ‘’ it is often shown as a capital R; that is, 270 ohms can
be expressed as either 270  or 270 R.
Diodes
Diodes are devices that allow current to flow in one direction only.

Current will flow through the diode only when the anode (positive side) is connected to the
positive side of the circuit and the cathode (negative side) is connected to the negative side
of the circuit.

Light-emitting diodes: A light-emitting diode is a special diode that gives out light when
current is flowing through it. LEDs are used as indicators to tell when a circuit (or part or a
circuit) is working. You can tell the cathode of an LED as it is the short leg and there is a
‘flat’ on the plastic casing.

As with the normal diode, the current can only pass one way.

Switches
Switches are useful input devices (or transducers) that have metal contacts inside them to
allow current to pass when then they are touching. There are several ways in which the
contacts in mechanical switches can be operated. The main types are  push-button,
toggle, key, slide, magnetic (reed) and tilt. These switches are ‘digital’ input devices as they
can only be on or off. The switches shown above are all single pole with single or double
throws. These are known as SPST and SPDT switches. The symbols are shown below.

Microswitches: Microswitches are small switches that are useful for detecting motion. They
are especially good as sensors and limit switches. Typical systems that use microswitches
are traffic barriers and lift systems.

(a) (b)
Microswitch

The microswitch above has a roller fixed to a lever that detects movement and throws the
switch. It has three terminals: common, normally open (NO) and normally closed (NC).
Figure 1.5b shows the commonly used microswitch. Like most microswitches, this one can
be wired in three ways.
 C and NO: this is a normal on/off switch.
 C and NC: this allows current to flow when the switch is not operated.
 C, NC and NO: when wired like this it acts as a changeover switch.
Microswitches are single-pole double-throw (SPDT) switches.

Basic Electricity Definitions

Electricity: Electricity, simply put, is the flow of electric current along a conductor. This
electric current takes the form of free electrons that transfer from one atom to the next.
Thus, the more free electrons a material has, the better it conducts. There are three primary
electrical parameters: the volt, the ampere and the ohm.
The Volt: The pressure that is put on free electrons that causes them to flow is known as
electromotive force (EMF). The volt is the unit of pressure, i.e., the volt is the amount of
electromotive force required to push a current of one ampere through a conductor with a
resistance of one ohm.
The Ampere: The ampere defines the flow rate of electric current. For instance, when one
coulomb (or 6 x 1018 electrons) flows past a given point on a conductor in one second, it is
defined as a current of one ampere.
The Ohm: The ohm is the unit of resistance in a conductor. Three things determine the
amount of resistance in a conductor: its size, its material, e.g., copper or aluminum, and its
temperature. A conductor’s resistance increases as its length increases or diameter
decreases. The more conductive the materials used, the lower the conductor resistance
becomes. Conversely, a rise in temperature will generally increase resistance in a
conductor.
Ohm’s Law
Ohm’s Law defines the correlation between electric current (I), voltage (V), and resistance
(R) in a conductor.
Ohm’s Law can be expressed as: V = I × R
Where: V = volts, I = amps, R = ohms
Ampacity: Ampacity is the amount of current a conductor can handle before its temperature
exceeds accepted limits. These limits are given in the National Electrical Code (NEC), the
Canadian Electrical Code and in other engineering documents such as those published by
the Insulated Cable Engineers Association (ICEA). It is important to know that many
external factors affect the ampacity of an electrical conductor and these factors should be
taken into consideration before selecting the conductor size.
Resistance: The electrical resistance of a circuit component or device is defined as the
ratio of the voltage applied to the electric current which flows through it: If the resistance is
constant over a considerable range of voltage, then Ohm's law, I = V/R, can be used to
predict the behavior of the material. Although the definition above involves DC current and
voltage, the same definition holds for the AC application of resistors. The unit of electric
resistance is ohm (Ω)
R=V/I
Where
R = resistance (ohm, Ω)
V = electrical potential (volt)
I = current flow (ampere)
Electrical Conductance: If resistance is the word we use to symbolize the measure of how
difficult it is for electrons to flow, then a good word to express how easy it is for electrons to
flow would be conductance.
Mathematically, conductance is the reciprocal, or inverse, of resistance:

G=1/R
Where
G = conductance (Siemens, S)
The greater the resistance, the less the conductance, and vice versa. This should make
intuitive sense, resistance and conductance being opposite ways to denote the same
essential electrical property.
Resistivity: Whether or not a material obeys Ohm's law, its resistance can be described in
terms of its bulk resistivity. The resistivity, and thus the resistance, is temperature
dependent. Over sizable ranges of temperature, this temperature dependence can be
predicted from a temperature coefficient of resistance. The electrical resistivity of a material
is also known as its specific electrical resistance. It is a measure of how strongly a material
opposes the flow of electric current. A definition of resistivity is the electrical resistance per
unit length and per unit of cross-sectional area. This is for a particular material at a specified
temperature.
Electrical Conductivity: Electrical conductivity is a measure of how well a material
accommodates the movement of an electric charge. It is the ratio of the current density to
the electric field strength. Its SI derived unit is the Siemens per meter, but conductivity
values are often reported as percent IACS. IACS is an acronym for International Annealed
Copper Standard, which was established by the 1913 International Electrochemical
Commission. Electrical conductivity which is the ability of a material to carry the flow of an
electric current (a flow of electrons) is expressed as

Where ρ is the resistivity. For a body of length L, resistance R, and cross sectional area A,
the electrical conductivity is given by

For a metal, increases at lower temperatures.

Resistance Variation with Temperature: There are some materials mainly metals, such
as silver, copper, aluminum, which have plenty of free electrons. Hence this type of
materials can conduct current easily that means they are least resistive. But the resistivity of
these materials is highly dependable upon their temperature. Generally metals offer more
electrical resistance if temperature is increased. On the other hand the resistance offered by
a non – metallic substance normally decreases with increase of temperature. If we take a
piece of pure metal and make its temperature 0° by means of ice and then increase its
temperature from gradually from 0°C to 100°C by heating it. During increasing of
temperature if we take its resistance at a regular interval, we will find that electrical
resistance of the metal piece is gradually increased with increase in temperature. If we plot
the resistance variation with temperature i.e. resistance Vs temperature graph, we will
get a straight line as shown in the figure below. If this straight line is extended behind the
resistance axis, it will cut the temperature axis at some temperature, − t 0°C. From the graph
it is clear that, at this temperature the electrical resistance of the metal becomes zero. This
temperature is referred as inferred zero resistance temperature. Although zero resistance of
any substance cannot be possible practically. Actually rate of resistance variation with
temperature is not constant throughout all range of temperature. Actual graph is also
shown in the figure below.

Let’s R1 and R2 are the measured resistances at temperature t1°C and t2°C respectively.
Then we can write the equation below,

From the above equation we can calculate resistance of any material at different
temperature. Suppose we have measured resistance of a metal at t 1oC and this is R1. If we
know the inferred zero resistance temperature i.e. t0 of that particular metal, then we can
easily calculate any unknown resistance R2 at any temperature t2°C from the above
equation.
Temperature coefficient of resistance: is the measure of change in electrical resistance
of any substance per degree of temperature rise. Let a conductor having a resistance of R 0
at 0°C and Rt at t°C respectively. From the equation of resistance variation with temperature
we get

This αo is called temperature coefficient of resistance of that substance at 0°C. From the
above equation, it is clear that the change in electrical resistance of any substance due to
temperature rise mainly depends upon three factors-
1. The value of resistance at initial temperature,
 2. Rise of temperature and
3. The αo.
This αo is different for different materials, so effect on resistance at different temperature are
different in different materials. So the temperature coefficient of resistance at 0°C of any
substance is the reciprocal of the inferred zero resistance temperature of that substance.
The value of this coefficient is not constant, it depends upon the initial temperature on which
the increment of resistance is based. When the increment is based on initial temperature of
0°C, the value of this coefficient is α o – which is nothing but the reciprocal of the respective
inferred zero resistance temperature of the substance. But at any other temperature,
temperature coefficient of electrical resistance is not same as this α o. Actually for any
material, the value of this coefficient is maximum at 0°C temperature. Say the value of this
coefficient of any material at any t°C is α t, then its value can be determined by the following
equation,

The value of this coefficient at a temperature of t2°C in the term of the same at t1°C is given
as,

Insulator: An electrical insulator is a substance in which the conduction band is widely

separated from the valence band. An example is Al2O3, which has resistivity ρ = 1 x 1014Ω
cm. A thermal insulator is a body with is not a thermal conductor and acts to prevent the
loss of heat from a system.
Electrical Conductor: An electrical conductor is a substance through which electrical
current flows with small resistance. Metals are generally excellent electrical conductors. In
the language of solid state physics, the electrons in conductors lie in a so-called "conduction
band" that is directly on top of a so-called "valence band." Resistance increases with
increasing temperature in conductors
Semiconductor: A substance in which the conduction band separated by valence band by
a band gap. For a semiconductor, resistance decreases as temperature increases.
Semiconductors can be intrinsic (silicon) or extrinsic ("doped"). As is an n-doped
semiconductor and Al and B are p-doped. Ge, with a resistivity of ρGe = 8.9 x 10Ω cm, is a
semiconductor.

Electronics Definition and Applications

The world's reliance on electronics is so great that commentators claim people live in an
"electronic age." People are surrounded by electronics—televisions, radios, computers,
mobiles, Laptop and DVD players, along with products with major electric components,
such as microwave ovens, refrigerators, and other kitchen appliances, automatic vehicles,
Robotics, as well as hearing aids and medical instruments and numerous applications in
industry.

Definition
The branch of engineering which deals with current conduction through a Vacuum or Gas or
Semiconductor is known as Electronics. An electronic device is that in which current flows
through a vacuum or gas or semiconductor. This control of electrons is accomplished by
devices that resist, carry, select, steer, switch, store, manipulate, and exploit the electron.
Or
Electronics deals with electrical circuits that involve active electrical components such as
vacuum tubes, transistors, diodes and integrated circuits, and associated passive
interconnection technologies. Commonly, electronic devices contain circuitry consisting
primarily or exclusively of active semiconductors supplemented with passive elements; such
a circuit is described as an electronic circuit.

Applications of Electronics
Electronic components: capacitor (C), cathode ray tube (CTR), diode (D), digital signal
processor (DSP, field effect transistor (FET), integrated circuit (IC), junction gate field effect
transistor (JFET), inductor (L), Liquid crystal display (LCD), light dependent resistor (LDR,
light emitting diode (LED), Metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor (MOSFET),
transistor (Q), resistor (R), relay (RLA, RY), switch (SW), transformer (T), thermistor (TH),
transistor (Tr), integrated circuit (U, IC), variable capacitor (VC), variable resistor (VR) and
more.
Consumer Electronics: include products like – Audio Systems, Video Systems, TV
(Television), Computer, Laptop, Digital Camera, DVD Players, Home and Kitchen
Appliances, GPS, Mobiles Phones etc.
Communication: Electronic communication systems connect people around the world.
Using telephones, Internet and computers, people in different countries communicate
almost instantly. Radios transmit sounds and televisions transmit sounds and pictures great
distances. Cellular telephones enable a person to call another person. Within seconds, fax
machines send and receive copies of documents over telephone lines/Satellite.
Information processing: Scientists, artists, students, government and business workers,
and hobbyists at home all rely on computers, Internet to handle huge amounts of
information quickly and accurately. Computers solve difficult mathematical problems,
maintain vast amounts of data, create complex simulations, and perform a multitude of
other tasks that help people in their everyday lives.
Medicine and research: Include product like X-ray machines ECG (Electrocardiogram) use
radiation to take images of bones and internal organs. Radiation therapy, or radiotherapy,
uses X-rays and other forms of radiation to fight cancer. Many hearing-impaired people
depend on hearing aids to electrically amplify sound waves.
Computers and other electronic instruments: provide scientists and other researchers
with powerful tools to better understand their area of study. Computers, for example, help
scientists design new drug molecules, track weather systems, and test theories about how
galaxies and stars develop. Electron microscopes use electrons rather than visible light to
magnify specimens 1 million times or more.
Automation: Electronic components enable many common home appliances, such as
refrigerators, washing machines, and toasters, to function smoothly and efficiently. People
can electronically program coffeemakers, lawn sprinklers, and many other products to turn
on and off automatically. Microwave ovens heat food quickly by penetrating it with short
radio waves produced by a vacuum tube.
Instrumentation: Measuring Instruments like CRO, Multimeter, ph-meter, strain gauge,
VTVM, Frequency Counter are used in different Laboratory/organizations.
Many automobiles have electronic controls in their engines and fuel systems. Electronic
devices also control air bags, which inflate to protect a driver and passengers in a collision.

Electronic systems
Electronic systems are generally represented schematically as a series of interconnected
blocks and signals with each block having its own set of inputs and outputs. As a result,
even the most complex of electronic control systems can be represented by a combination
of simple blocks, with each block containing or representing an individual component or
complete sub-system. The representing of an electronic system or process control system
as a number of interconnected blocks or boxes is known commonly as “block-diagram
representation”.

Figure 1.0 Block Diagram Representation of a Simple Electronic System

Electronic Systems have both inputs and outputs with the output or outputs being
produced by processing the inputs. Also, the input signal(s) may cause the process to
change or may itself cause the operation of the system to change. Therefore the input(s) to
a system is the “cause” of the change, while the resulting action that occurs on the systems
output due to this cause being present is called the “effect”, with the effect being a
consequence of the cause. An electronic system can be classed as “causal” in nature as
there is a direct relationship between its input and its output. Electronic systems analysis
and process control theory are generally based upon this Cause and Effect analysis. For
example in an audio system, a microphone (input device) causes sound waves to be
converted into electrical signals for the amplifier to amplify (a process), and a loudspeaker
(output device) produces sound waves as an effect of being driven by the amplifiers
electrical signals. But an electronic system need not be a simple or single operation. It can
also be an interconnection of several sub-systems all working together within the same
overall system.
Our audio system could for example, involve the connection of a CD player, or a DVD
player, an MP3 player, or a radio receiver all being multiple inputs to the same amplifier
which in turn drives one or more sets of stereo or home theatre type surround
loudspeakers. But an electronic system cannot just be a collection of inputs and outputs, it
must “do something”, even if it is just to monitor a switch or to turn “ON” a light. We know
that sensors are input devices that detect or turn real world measurements into electronic
signals which can then be processed. These electrical signals can be in the form of either
voltages or currents within a circuit. The opposite or output device is called an actuator that
converts the processed signal into some operation or action, usually in the form of
mechanical movement.

Types of Electronic System

Electronic systems operate on either continuous-time (CT) signals or discrete-time (DT)
signals. A continuous-time system is one in which the input signals are defined along a
continuum of time, such as an analogue signal which “continues” over time producing a
continuous-time signal. But a continuous-time signal can also vary in magnitude or be
periodic in nature with a time period T. As a result, continuous-time electronic systems tend
to be purely analogue systems producing a linear operation with both their input and output
signals referenced over a set period of time.

Continuous Signal

For example, the temperature of a room can be classed as a continuous time signal which
can be measured between two values or set points, for example from cold to hot or from
Monday to Friday. The continuous-time signal can be represented by using the independent
variable for time t, and where x(t) represents the input signal and y(t) represents the output
signal over a period of time t. Most signals present in the physical world which we can use
tend to be continuous-time signals. For example, voltage, current, temperature, pressure,
velocity, etc. On the other hand, a discrete-time system is one in which the input signals are
not continuous but a sequence or a series of signal values defined in “discrete” points of
time. This results in a discrete-time output generally represented as a sequence of values or
numbers. A discrete signal is specified only at discrete intervals, values or equally spaced
points in time for example, the temperature of a room measured at 1pm, at 2pm, at 3pm
and again at 4pm without regards for the actual room temperature in between these points
at say, 1:30pm or at 2:45pm.

Discrete Signals

However, a continuous-time signal, x(t) can be represented as a discrete set of signals only
at discrete intervals or “moments in time”. Discrete signals are not measured versus time,
but instead are plotted at discrete time intervals, where n is the sampling interval. As a
result discrete-time signals are usually denoted as x(n) representing the input and y(n)
representing the output.
Then we can represent the input and output signals of a system as x and y respectively with
the signal, or signals themselves being represented by the variable, t, which usually
represents time for a continuous system and the variable n, which represents an integer
value for a discrete system as shown.

Continuous-time and Discrete-time System

Interconnection of Systems
One of the practical aspects of electronic systems and block-diagram representation is that
they can be combined together in either a series or parallel combinations to form much
bigger systems. Many larger real systems are built using the interconnection of several sub-
systems and by using block diagrams to represent each subsystem, we can build a
graphical representation of the whole system being analysed.
When subsystems are combined to form a series circuit, the overall output at y(t) will be
equivalent to the multiplication of the input signal x(t) as shown as the subsystems are
cascaded together.

Series Connected System

For a series connected continuous-time system, the output signal y(t) of the first subsystem,
“A” becomes the input signal of the second subsystem, “B” whose output becomes the input
of the third subsystem, “C” and so on through the series chain giving A x B x C, etc.
Then the original input signal is cascaded through a series connected system, so for two
series connected subsystems, the equivalent single output will be equal to the multiplication
of the systems, ie, y(t) = G1(s) x G2(s). Where G represents the transfer function of the
subsystem.
Note that the term “Transfer Function” of a system refers to and is defined as being the
mathematical relationship between the systems input and its output, or output/input and
hence describes the behaviour of the system.
Also, for a series connected system, the order in which a series operation is performed
does not matter with regards to the input and output signals as: G 1(s) x G2(s) is the same as
G2(s) x G1(s). An example of a simple series connected circuit could be a single microphone
feeding an amplifier followed by a speaker.

Parallel Connected Electronic System

For a parallel connected continuous-time system, each subsystem receives the same input
signal, and their individual outputs are summed together to produce an overall output, y(t).
Then for two parallel connected subsystems, the equivalent single output will be the sum of
the two individual inputs, ie, y(t) = G1(s) + G2(s).
An example of a simple parallel connected circuit could be several microphones feeding into
a mixing desk which in turn feeds an amplifier and speaker system.

Electronic Feedback Systems

Another important interconnection of systems which is used extensively in control systems,
is the “feedback configuration”. In feedback systems, a fraction of the output signal is “fed
back” and either added to or subtracted from the original input signal. The result is that the
output of the system is continually altering or updating its input with the purpose of
modifying the response of a system to improve stability. A feedback system is also
commonly referred to as a “Closed-loop System” as shown.

Closed-Loop Feedback System

Feedback systems are used a lot in most practical electronic system designs to help
stabilize the system and to increase its control. If the feedback loop reduces the value of the
original signal, the feedback loop is known as “negative feedback”. If the feedback loop
adds to the value of the original signal, the feedback loop is known as “positive feedback”.
An example of a simple feedback system could be a thermostatically controlled heating
system in the home. If the home is too hot, the feedback loop will switch “OFF” the heating
system to make it cooler. If the home is too cold, the feedback loop will switch “ON” the
heating system to make it warmer. In this instance, the system comprises of the heating
system, the air temperature and the thermostatically controlled feedback loop.

Transfer Function of Systems

Any subsystem can be represented as a simple block with an input and output as shown.
Generally, the input is designated as: θi and the output as: θo. The ratio of output over input
represents the gain, (G) of the subsystem and is therefore defined as: G = θo/θi

Transfer Function

In this case, G represents the Transfer Function of the system or subsystem. When
discussing electronic systems in terms of their transfer function, the complex operator, s is
used, then the equation for the gain is rewritten as: G(s) = θo(s)/θi(s)

Optoelectronics
Optoelectronics studies the interactions between optical waves and solid materials, most
often semiconductors. The most common devices are light emitters (LEDs and lasers) and
light absorbers (solar panels, photodetectors in various forms). Optoelectronics delves into
quantum mechanics and solid state physics. Semiconductor light emitters and absorbers
work the way they do by making use of the electronic Band gap, where the semiconductor
will absorb photons that have energies greater than the band gap and separate electrons
from the valence band and holes from the conduction band or, in the case of emitters, will
emit a photon with the same energy as the band gap when electrons and holes recombine.

An optoelectronic device is one that bridges the two worlds, allowing electricity to control
light, or allowing light to control electricity, or both. The most popular example of a
technology that comes directly from the field of optoelectronics is the laser. The laser
converts electricity into light, much like a light bulb or an LED. The difference is that all the
properties of the light are much more precisely controlled in the laser. Because of this
extremely fine control, the light can be made to focus onto very tiny spots to read or write
microscopic pits on a CD or DVD. The light from a laser can also be made so perfect that it
can travel many kilometers along an optical fiber without distorting the information it carries.
Other examples of optoelectronic technologies include LEDs, LCDs, plasma displays,
OLED (Organic LED), optical networking, solar cells, light sensors, chemical sensors,
optical gyroscopes, and photonic integrated circuits.

Chapter 1 Questions
1. Using the colour-code chart, determine the colours of the first three bands of the
following resistors.

No. Value Colour

1 270 R
2 1 K5
3 33 K
4 1 M2
5 330 R
6 150 R
7 82 K
8 560 R
9 6 K8
10 750 R
11 390 R
12 2 M1
13 82 R
14 4700 R
15 9 K1

2. Using the colour-coding code, calculate the values of the following resistors.

No. Value First three colour bands

1 red red red
 2 yellow violet black
3 grey red red
4 yellow violet orange
5 red red orange
6 orange orange orange
7 green blue brown
8 red violet black
9 grey red brown
10 brown green green
11 brown grey yellow
12 brown black yellow
13 green blue orange
14 brown grey black
15 brown grey green
16 blue grey orange
17 orange orange yellow
18 red red brown
19 grey red black
20 violet brown orange

Sze, S. M. (Ed.). Modern Semiconductor Device Physics. New York: Wiley, 1997.
Sapoval, B. and Hermann, C. Physics of Semiconductors. New York: Springer-Verlag,
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