Unit 3

Error is a condition when the receiver’s information does not match the
sender’s information. During transmission, digital signals suffer from noise
that can introduce errors in the binary bits traveling from sender to receiver.
That means a 0 bit may change to 1 or a 1 bit may change to 0.
Types of Errors:
Single bit errors and burst errors are two common types of errors that can occur
in digital communication systems, particularly in the transmission of data.
Here's a brief explanation of each:

1. Single Bit Error:

A single-bit error refers to a type of data transmission error that occurs when
one bit (i.e., a single binary digit) of a transmitted data unit is altered during
transmission, resulting in an incorrect or corrupted data unit.

The only one bit of a given data unit is changed from 1 to 0 or from 0 to 1.

Single-Bit Error

2. Burst Error:
When several consecutive bits are flipped mistakenly in digital transmission, it
creates a burst error. This error causes a sequence of consecutive incorrect
values.
 Burst Error

Difference Between Single Bit Error and Burst Error in Computer

Network
Single-Bit error Burst Error

Multiple bits of a data packet is being

Only one bit of a data packet
corrupted in a very short period of
is altered or corrupted.
time(bursting).

May occur randomly and

It occurs like a cluster and affect consecutive
can affect individual bits in
bits of a data packet.
a data packet.

Minor data corruption and High data corruption(Clustered errors) and

easy to restore the original. hard to detect and restore to original. Robust
This error can be handled coding required like Reed-Solomon codes or
using CRC, parity bit etc. convolutional codes.

As only one bit is altered so In a short sequence multiple bits are altered so
it is easy to correct the it is hard to correct and may lead to entire
wrong sequence. corruption of data packet.

Redundancy:
The central concept in detecting or correcting errors is redundancy. To be able to
detect or correct errors, we need to send some extra bits with our data. These
redundant bits are added by the sender and removed by the receiver. Their
presence allows the receiver to detect or correct corrupted bits.

Longitudinal Redundancy Check (LRC)

Longitudinal Redundancy Check (LRC) is a form of error-checking mechanism
used in data communication to ensure the accuracy of transmitted data. It is a
simple method that involves adding a parity byte (or bytes) to the data being
transmitted.
Here's a basic overview of how LRC works:
1. Data Division: The data to be transmitted is divided into blocks or frames.
2. Parity Calculation: For each block or frame, a parity byte is calculated based
on the longitudinal (column-wise) values of the data. This can be done using
various methods, such as XOR (exclusive OR) or simple addition.
3. Transmission: The original data along with the calculated parity byte is
transmitted.
4. Reception: At the receiving end, the data is received, and a new parity byte is
calculated using the same method as in the transmission.
5. Error Checking: The received parity byte is compared with the calculated
one. If they match, it indicates that the data is likely to be error-free. If there is a
mismatch, it suggests that an error may have occurred during transmission.
6. Error Correction: Depending on the level of error detection and correction
needed, the system may take appropriate actions. In some cases, error correction
might be performed, while in others, a request for retransmission might be
initiated.
Vertical Redundancy Check
Vertical Redundancy Check is also known as Parity Check. In this method, a
redundant bit also called parity bit is added to each data unit. This method
includes even parity and odd parity. Even parity means the total number of 1s in
data is to be even and odd parity means the total number of 1s in data is to be
odd. Example – If the source wants to transmit data unit 1100111 using even
parity to the destination. The source will have to pass through Even Parity
Generator.

Even parity VRC

➢ Parity generator will count number of 1s in data unit and will add parity
bit.
 ➢ In the above example, number of 1s in data unit is 5, parity generator
appends a parity bit 1 to this data unit making the total number of 1s even
i.e 6 which is clear from above figure.
➢ Data along with parity bit is then transmitted across the network. In this
case, 11001111 will be transmitted.
➢ At the destination, This data is passed to parity checker at the destination.
The number of 1s in data is counted by parity checker.
➢ If the number of 1s count out to be odd, e.g. 5 or 7 then destination will
come to know that there is some error in the data. The receiver then
rejects an data unit.
Advantages:
• VRC can detect all single bit error.
• VRC is simple to implement and can be easily incorporated into
different communication protocols and systems.
• It is efficient in terms of computational complexity and memory
requirements.
• VRC can help improve the reliability of data transmission and reduce
the likelihood of data corruption or loss due to errors.
• VRC can be combined with other error detection and correction
techniques to improve the overall error handling capabilities of a
system.
Disadvantages:
• The major disadvantage of using this method for error detection is that
it is not able to detect burst error if the number of bits changed is even,
i.e. 2, 4, 6, 8, …….etc.
• Example – If the original data is 1100111. After adding VRC, data
unit that will be transmitted is 11001111. Suppose on the way 2 bits
are 01011111. When this data will reach the destination, parity
checker will count number of 1s in data and that comes out to be even
i.e. 8. So, in this case, parity is not changed, it is still even. Destination
will assume that there is no error in data even though data is
erroneous.
• VRC is not capable of correcting errors, only detecting them. This
means that it can identify errors, but it cannot fix them.
• VRC requires additional overhead bits to be added to the data stream,
which can increase the bandwidth and storage requirements of the
system.
Longitudinal Redundancy Check (LRC) (DO NOT WRITE THIS IN
EXAM)
Calculation: Imagine stacking the blocks in towers. LRC would check each
tower's height by counting how many blocks are in each column and adding a
special block that represents whether the total number is even or odd.
Vertical Redundancy Check (VRC):
Calculation: Now, imagine laying the blocks out in rows. VRC would check
each row by adding a special block that represents whether the total number of
blocks in that row is even or odd.
Forward Error Correction (FEC):
➢ Forward Error Correction (FEC) is a technique used in computer
networks to enhance the reliability of data transmission by adding
redundant information to the transmitted data.
➢ This redundant information allows the receiver to detect and correct
errors that may occur during transmission without the need for
retransmission requests.
Here's how FEC typically works:
1. Encoding: Before transmission, the sender's data is processed using an FEC
algorithm, which adds redundancy to the data. This redundancy can take various
forms, such as parity bits, checksums, or more complex mathematical
transformations.
2. Transmission: The encoded data, along with the added redundancy, is
transmitted over the network to the receiver.
3. Decoding: Upon receiving the data, the receiver applies the same FEC
algorithm to the received data to detect and correct errors. If the FEC algorithm
detects errors, it uses the redundant information to reconstruct the original data.
Hamming Code:
eneral Algorithm of Hamming code: Hamming Code is simply the use of
extra parity bits to allow the identification of an error.
➢ Write the bit positions starting from 1 in binary form (1, 10, 11, 100,
etc).
➢ All the bit positions that are a power of 2 are marked as parity bits (1, 2,
4, 8, etc).
➢ All the other bit positions are marked as data bits.
➢ Each data bit is included in a unique set of parity bits, as determined its
bit position in binary form. a. Parity bit 1 covers all the bits positions
whose binary representation includes a 1 in the least significant position
(1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, etc). b. Parity bit 2 covers all the bits positions whose
binary representation includes a 1 in the second position from the least
significant bit (2, 3, 6, 7, 10, 11, etc). c. Parity bit 4 covers all the bits
positions whose binary representation includes a 1 in the third position
from the least significant bit (4–7, 12–15, 20–23, etc). d. Parity bit 8
covers all the bits positions whose binary representation includes a 1 in
the fourth position from the least significant bit bits (8–15, 24–31, 40–
47, etc). e. In general, each parity bit covers all bits where the bitwise
AND of the parity position and the bit position is non-zero.
➢ Since we check for even parity set a parity bit to 1 if the total number of
ones in the positions it checks is odd.
➢ Set a parity bit to 0 if the total number of ones in the positions it checks
is even.
Determining the position of redundant bits – These redundancy bits are
placed at positions that correspond to the power of 2.
As in the above example:
• The number of data bits = 7
• The number of redundant bits = 4
• The total number of bits = 11
• The redundant bits are placed at positions corresponding to power of
2- 1, 2, 4, and 8

• Suppose the data to be transmitted is 1011001, the bits will be placed

as follows:
Determining the Parity bits:
• R1 bit is calculated using parity check at all the bits positions whose
binary representation includes a 1 in the least significant position.
R1: bits 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11

• To find the redundant bit R1, we check for even parity. Since the
total number of 1’s in all the bit positions corresponding to R1 is an
even number the value of R1 (parity bit’s value) = 0
• R2 bit is calculated using parity check at all the bits positions whose
binary representation includes a 1 in the second position from the
least significant bit. R2: bits 2,3,6,7,10,11

• To find the redundant bit R2, we check for even parity. Since the
total number of 1’s in all the bit positions corresponding to R2 is odd
the value of R2(parity bit’s value)=1
• R4 bit is calculated using parity check at all the bits positions whose
binary representation includes a 1 in the third position from the least
significant bit. R4: bits 4, 5, 6, 7

1. To find the redundant bit R4, we check for even parity. Since the
total number of 1’s in all the bit positions corresponding to R4 is odd
the value of R4(parity bit’s value) = 1
2. R8 bit is calculated using parity check at all the bits positions whose
binary representation includes a 1 in the fourth position from the
least significant bit. R8: bit 8,9,10,11

• To find the redundant bit R8, we check for even parity. Since the
total number of 1’s in all the bit positions corresponding to R8 is an
even number the value of R8(parity bit’s value)=0. Thus, the data
transferred is:
Error detection and correction: Suppose in the above example the 6th bit is
changed from 0 to 1 during data transmission, then it gives new parity values
in the binary number:

For all the parity bits we will check the number of 1’s in their respective bit
positions.
For R1: bits 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11. We can see that the number of 1’s in these bit
positions are 4 and that’s even so we get a 0 for this.
For R2: bits 2,3,6,7,10,11 . We can see that the number of 1’s in these bit
positions are 5 and that’s odd so we get a 1 for this.
For R4: bits 4, 5, 6, 7 . We can see that the number of 1’s in these bit positions
are 3 and that’s odd so we get a 1 for this.
For R8: bit 8,9,10,11 . We can see that the number of 1’s in these bit positions
are 2 and that’s even so we get a 0 for this.
The bits give the binary number 0110 whose decimal representation is 6. Thus,
bit 6 contains an error. To correct the error the 6th bit is changed from 1 to 0.
IEEE Standrads:
IEEE stands for Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) standards play a crucial
role in shaping the landscape of computer networks.
These standards are developed through a strict process involving industry
experts, researchers, and practitioners to ensure reliability, and efficiency in
networking technologies.
Here are some notable IEEE standards in computer networks:
The IEEE 802 series of standards encompasses a wide range of specifications
related to computer networking. Here's a brief overview of the standards you
mentioned:

IEEE 802.1: This group of standards focuses on network management and

protocols for Local Area Networks (LANs) and Metropolitan Area Networks
(MANs). Some of the key standards in this group include:
Ex: - Think of this as the "manager" of the network, making sure everything
runs smoothly and efficiently.

- IEEE 802.1Q: Defines Virtual LANs (VLANs) and related mechanisms for
Ethernet networks. Ex: Mobile networks

- IEEE 802.1X: Specifies port-based network access control, which is

commonly used for securing wired and wireless networks.
- 802.1X is like it ensures only authorized devices can access the network.

- IEEE 802.1D: Defines the Spanning Tree Protocol (STP)it prevents the
lopping in the network) for loop prevention in bridged networks.
- 802.1D is like preventing loops in the network by finding the best paths for
data to travel.
2. IEEE 802.2: This standard specifies the Logical Link Control (LLC)
sublayer of the Data Link Layer (Layer 2) of the OSI model. It defines the
frame format and the protocol used for communication between network
devices.
- Imagine this as the communication referee, making sure everyone follows
the rules and talks in a way that others understand.

3. IEEE 802.3: This is perhaps one of the most well-known standards in the
IEEE 802 series. It defines the physical layer and the Data Link Layer for
Ethernet networks. Key specifications within IEEE 802.3 include:
Ex: -It determine how fast data can travel on the network.

4. IEEE 802.4: This standard specifies the Token Bus network access method,
which was one of the early attempts at standardizing LAN technologies.
- In a Token Bus network, devices take turns sending data, preventing
everyone from trying to talk at once and causing chaos.

5. IEEE 802.5: This standard specifies the Token Ring network access method,
which was another early LAN technology. Token Ring networks use a token-
passing mechanism for controlling access to the network. Like Token Bus,
Token Ring has largely been replaced by Ethernet.
- In a Token Ring network, devices pass around a "token" (like a baton), and
only the device holding the token can send data. This ensures orderly
communication without collisions.

These standards, among others in the IEEE 802 series, have played a crucial
role in shaping the development and standardization of LAN and MAN
technologies, providing interoperability and compatibility among networking
eqipment from different vendors.

IEEE
Standard Description
 IEEE
Standard Description

IEEE 802 For LAN/MAN networks

Standards for LAN/MAN management and bridging and

IEEE 802.1
remote media access control bridging.

IEEE 802.2 For Logical Link Control connectivity.

IEEE 802.3 Standards for CSMA/CD.

IEEE 802.4 Standards for the token passing bus access.

For communication between LAN and MAN, and standard for

IEEE 802.5
token ring access.

Wireless LAN’s :

IEEE 802.11 Architecture:

IEEE 802.11 standard, popularly known as WiFi, it provides the architecture

and specifications of wireless LANs (WLANs). WiFi or WLAN uses high-
frequency radio waves instead of cables for connecting the devices in LAN.
Users connected by WLANs can move around within the area of network
coverage.

IEEE 802.11 Architecture

The components of an IEEE 802.11 architecture are as follows –

Access Point: It is a networking hardware device that allows other wifi

devices to connect to wired network
• Stations (STA) − Stations are the devices and equipment that are
connected to the wireless LAN.
• Ex: Laptops,desktop, wifi phone, it can be fixed mobile or portable
device.
• Each station has a wireless network interface controller.
• Basic Service Set (BSS) – (Every BSS has multiple stations and 1
access point)A basic service set is a group of stations communicating at
the physical layer level.
• It forms an ad-hoc contained network with station to station traffic
flowing directly and it also allows all wireless devices to communicate
with each other through a common medium ie:AP
• It contains only 1 AP that is connected to all stations ie: all wireless
devices within a network
• BSS can be of two categories depending upon the mode of operation−
o Infrastructure BSS − Here, the devices communicate with other
devices through access points.
o Independent BSS − Here, the devices communicate in a peer-to-
peer basis in an ad hoc manner.
• Extended Service Set (ESS) − It is a set of all connected BSS.As name
defines it extends services
• BSS provides short range wireless communication but ESS provides long
range wirelesss communication
• Distribution System (DS) − It connects access points in ESS.
• All AP are connected to each other by a common DS
• Dss usually connects ore than one AP to form ESS and allows users to
move freely.
• With the help of DS more than one AP can get connected to the same
LAN
MAC Sublayer:
➢ The MAC (Media Access Control) sublayer is a component of the Data
Link Layer (Layer 2) in the OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model of
networking.
➢ It is responsible for controlling access to the physical transmission medium
(such as Ethernet cables or Wi-Fi channels) .
➢ The MAC sublayer defines how devices on a network transmit data frames
without interfering with each other.

➢ MAC address or media access control address is a unique identifier allotted

to a network interface controller (NIC) of a device.

➢ It is used as a network address for data transmission within a network

segment like Ethernet, Wi-Fi, and Bluetooth.

➢ MAC Addresses are unique 48-bit hardware numbers of a computer that

are embedded into a network card (known as a Network Interface Card)
during manufacturing..

➢ A MAC address comprises of six groups of two hexadecimal digits,

separated by hyphens, colons, or no separators. An example of a MAC
address is 00:0A:89:5B:F0:11
 ➢ .It typically comes in the form of a peripheral card that can be installed
inside a computer or as a built-in component on motherboards
Overall, the MAC sublayer plays a crucial role in ensuring efficient and reliable
communication between devices on a network by controlling access to the
transmission medium and managing data transmission.
Addressing Mechanism:

➢ Network addresses are always logical, i.e., software-based addresses.

➢ A network address refers to an address used to identify a device within a

network, typically at the network layer (Layer 3) of the OSI model.

➢ In the context of TCP/IP networking, the most common network

addresses are IP addresses (Internet Protocol addresses).

➢ IP addresses uniquely identify devices on a network, allowing them to

communicate with each other across different networks.

➢ IP addresses are logical addresses that can be assigned dynamically or

statically, and they can change as devices move between networks or as
network configurations change.

- IP addresses can be IPv4 addresses (e.g., 192.168.1.1) or IPv6 addresses

(e.g., 2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334).

Note: MAC addresses are used to verify the computer's physical address. It
uniquely identifies the network's devices. While IP addresses are used to
uniquely identify a device's network connection, they do not indicate whether a
device is connected to a network.

Bluetooth Architecture:
Piconet
Bluetooth: Bluetooth is a network technology that connects mobile devices
wirelessly over a short range to form a personal area network (PAN).

There are two types of Bluetooth networks −

• Piconets
• Scatternets

Piconets

➢ A piconet is a network of devices connected using Bluetooth technology.

In a piconet, one device acts as the master, and up to seven other devices
act as slaves.
➢ The master device coordinates communication within the piconet, and
each slave device communicates directly with the master.
➢ Communication can take place between a master node and a slave node in
either one-to-one or one-to-many manner. However, no direct
communication takes place between slaves.
➢ In Bluetooth technology, a parked node refers to a device that is
temporarily inactive within a piconet but remains synchronized with the
piconet's master.
➢ Parked nodes are typically used when a piconet has reached its maximum
capacity of active devices (seven slaves) but additional devices need to be
connected and synchronized for potential future activity.
Scatternodes

➢ A scatternet is an interconnected collection of two or more piconets.

They are formed when a node in a piconet, whether a master or a slave,
acts as a slave in another piconet.
➢ This node is called the bridge between the two piconets, which connects
the individual piconets to form the scatternet.

In simpler terms, it's like having several smaller groups of Bluetooth devices
(piconets) that can communicate with each other.

➢ Your smartphone forms one piconet with your wireless headset.

➢ The smart speaker forms another piconet with the smart light bulbs and
sensors.
➢ Your smartwatch can switch between connecting to your smartphone's
piconet when you're using it and connecting to the smart speaker's piconet
when you're in a different room.

This setup forms a scatternet where multiple piconets (in this case, the
smartphone's and smart speaker's) coexist and allow devices to communicate
with each other. The smartwatch acts as a bridge, enabling communication
between the two piconets by switching its connection as needed.
Mobile Generations:
The generations of mobile networks (1G, 2G, 3G, 4G, 5G) refer to different
stages of advancement in wireless telecommunications technology. While these
networks primarily focus on mobile communication, they also rely on computer
networks to enable various functionalities.
Here's how these generations relate to computer networks:

1. 1G (First Generation):
- Introduced in the 1980s, 1G networks were analog systems primarily used
for voice communication.
- Limited data capabilities, focused mainly on voice calls.

2. 2G (Second Generation):
- Introduced in the early 1990s, 2G networks marked the transition to digital
technology.
- Offered digital voice communication and introduced basic data services such
as SMS (Short Message Service).
- GPRS (General Packet Radio Service) technologies provided slow data
connections, allowing basic internet access.

3. 3G (Third Generation):
- Rolled out in the early 2000s, 3G networks provided faster data speeds
compared to 2G.
- Supported higher data rates, enabling services like video calling and mobile
internet browsing.
- Offered more reliable connectivity to computer networks, facilitating
improved internet access on mobile devices.

4. 4G (Fourth Generation):
 - Emerged in the late 2000s and early 2010s, 4G networks offered significant
improvements in data speed and capacity.
- Enabled high-definition video streaming, online gaming, and other
bandwidth-intensive applications.

5. 5G (Fifth Generation):
- Currently being deployed, 5G networks promise even faster data speeds,
lower latency, and greater capacity compared to 4G.
- Intended to support emerging technologies like the Internet of Things (IoT),
augmented reality (AR), and virtual reality (VR).