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TABLE OF CONTENT

1. INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................4
2. DEFINITIONS AND ACRONYMS ......................................................................4
3. REFERENCES ......................................................................................................4
4. UNITS OF MEASURE ..........................................................................................4
5. GEOTECHNICAL STUDIES ................................................................................5
5.1. Geological report........................................................................................5
5.2. Geotechnical investigation plan...........................................................5
5.2.1. Site tests ................................................................................................. 6
5.2.2. Laboratory tests ..................................................................................... 8
5.3. Soil classification and geotechnical characteristics.........................8
5.4. Pile design ................................................................................................9
6. MATERIALS .......................................................................................................10
6.1. Material safety factors .........................................................................10
6.2. Concrete .................................................................................................10
6.2.1. Cement ...................................................................................................10
6.2.2. Admixtures .............................................................................................10
6.2.3. Aggregates .............................................................................................11
6.2.4. Environmental conditions .....................................................................11
6.2.5. Slump classes ........................................................................................11
6.3. Reinforcing Steel ..................................................................................12
6.4. Anchor bolts and embedded ring.......................................................12
6.5. Grout .......................................................................................................12
6.6. Backfilling soil .......................................................................................13
7. LOADS ...............................................................................................................13
7.1. Wind load ...............................................................................................14
7.1.1. Design Load Cases as per IEC-EN 61400 ............................................14
7.1.2. Reference Wind Speed ..........................................................................17
7.2. Seismic action .......................................................................................17
7.3. Load combinations ...............................................................................17
8. FOUNDATION LAYOUT ...................................................................................19
8.1. Forecasted quantities for direct foundations ..................................19
8.2. Shape of shallow foundation ..............................................................19
8.3. Deep foundations layout .....................................................................20
8.4. Reinforcement layout ..........................................................................20
8.5. Conduits for cables ...............................................................................22
8.6. Anchor bolt cage ...................................................................................24
9. DESIGN CHECKS ..............................................................................................25
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9.1. WTG manufacturer input .....................................................................25

9.2. Geotechnical checks .............................................................................25
9.2.1. Differential settlements ........................................................................25
9.2.2. Rotational and translational stiffness ..................................................26
9.2.3. Sliding ....................................................................................................28
9.2.4. Overturning ............................................................................................29
9.2.5. Soil bearing capacity check ..................................................................29
9.2.6. Foundation gapping...............................................................................31
9.2.7. Piles ........................................................................................................32
9.3. Structural checks ..................................................................................32
9.3.1. Raft check ..............................................................................................32
9.3.2. Tower connection check........................................................................35
9.3.3. Fatigue checks .......................................................................................40
10. DESIGN DOCUMENTATION CONTENTS .................................................41
10.1. Calculation report and design optimization.............................................41
10.1.1. Typical table of content .............................................................................43
10.2. Construction drawings ........................................................................44
11. WORKS EXECUTION REQUIREMENTS ...................................................46

ANNEXES

ANNEX A Reference codes, standards and books

ANNEX B Example of drawings for foundations of wind turbine generators
ANNEX C Extract from “structural design for power foundations. Pilot project:
foundation design for wind turbines report of study R.25.ES.00.000.00.008.00
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1. INTRODUCTION
The document provides the guidelines for the design and the construction of the foundations for Wind
Turbine Generators.
The requirements and guidelines reported in this document shall be considered as a minimum standard
to be satisfied. At the same time, local codes shall be taken into consideration and the most stringent
requirements would govern the design.
In order to overcome a lack of quality in the procedures of testing and placing different materials, the
EN, ACI, ASTM or BS code requirements are here shown and shall be applied where local codes are not
sufficiently clear to establish an acceptable level of design and quality of the work execution.
Minimum analysis to be performed, suggested criteria for the geotechnical and structural checks are
reported and shall be considered when dealing with the common design. Specific consideration on the
optimized design is also reported, summarizing the results of previous studies and underlining the
advantages of circular shape.
Finally, work execution procedures and report/drawing layouts are described. The scope is to ensure a
quality product and correct execution of works based on the experience gained in similar projects

2. DEFINITIONS AND ACRONYMS

• EGP: Enel Green Power
• WTG: Wind Turbine Generator
• DLC: Design Load Case
• CPT: Cone Penetration Test
• RQD: Rock Quality Designation
• SPT: Standard Penetration Test
• FEM: Finite Element Model

3. REFERENCES
For National and International standards and codes, for reference books and reports see Annex A.

This design criteria specification is referred to wind farm plants to be designed and built in different
regions. The codes herein considered aim to cover the international requirements well known and used
in common practice (European and American Codes have been considered and widely mentioned in the
text). Additional local codes shall be considered during the design, the execution and the testing of the
foundation. Their requirements shall be followed if they are more stringent than those stated in this
document.

4. UNITS OF MEASURE
All the documents, reports and drawings shall use the following unit of measure:
• force kN
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• moment kNm
• mass density kg/m3
• weight density kN/m3
• stress, pressure, strength and stiffness MPa (N/mm2)
• coefficient of permeability m/s
• coefficient of consolidation m/s2
• temperature °C (Celsius)
Other quantities, not explicitly mentioned here, shall be expressed in accordance with the international
system of units (SI).

5. GEOTECHNICAL STUDIES
The foundations of WTG fall in Category 2 as defined in EN 1997-1, since the expected dimensions,
loads and soil conditions can be considered conventional. Foundation may fall in Category 3 (see
reference) if unusual ground properties are encountered, or applied loads are exceptional, or the area is
highly seismic, or in other similar circumstances. Efforts to be made in conducting the geotechnical
investigation are proportional to the category level.

5.1. Geological report

Before preparing the geotechnical investigation plan, the designer should have already defined the main
characteristics of the area, or the characteristics should be already available from previous studies. In
any case a geological report shall be available before starting further investigations.
The geological report shall define, with specific reference to the project:
• the geo-morphological features of the area, any active or potential morphogenic processes and
instabilities (old and recent landslides), and their evolution trend;
• the local litho-stratigraphic sequence with the definition of the space distribution of the lithotypes,
of their state of alteration and fissuring and of their degradability;
• the hydro-geological aspects and eventual constraints present in the area;
• the risk of flooding, over an adequate return period;
• the seismic hazard of the site and of the design seismic activity;

5.2. Geotechnical investigation plan

All the relevant information shown in the geological report, the main morphological properties of the
area, the number and the locations of WTGs should be known before defining the geotechnical
investigation plan.
The investigation aims to define the mechanical and physical parameters of the soil and/or rock by
using site and laboratory tests. Annex A of EN 1997-2 may be used as a guide to select the tests to be
performed in order to identify the relevant soil properties. Necessary correlations may also be found on
BS 5930.
The investigation plan shall clearly include all the information about the position and the type of tests to
be performed by means of an adequate number of documents and drawings. Clear reference to the
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available geological data shall be done and the main characteristics shall be reported in the
investigation plan.

5.2.1. Site tests

The tests listed below shall be included in the geotechnical investigation plan, see also
[S.25.IT.X.00.000.00.598.00-General technical specifications for civil works]
• geophysical tests: they generally require the calibration of the collected data with direct
investigations (boreholes); the results are related to the soil mechanical properties and are useful
to establish the soil homogeneity within the loaded areas; finally, the further scopes is to detect
cavities (rocky sites) and to measures the Vs speeds of the encountered layers;
• piezometers: if data concerning the water ground level are not exhaustively recorded in the past,
the installation of an adequate number of piezometers is necessary; the type of piezometer shall
be adequate to the soil permeability as estimated from the geological report; piezometers shall be
installed during the preliminary stages of the geotechnical investigation in order to provide data
over an adequate period of time during the wet season;
• boreholes: points of direct investigation (boreholes with the collection of disturbed and
undisturbed soil samples) shall always be performed;
• penetrometers: if rock layers are not encountered at small depth, penetrometer tests shall be
performed. CPT or CPTU tests are usually preferable, since they give continuous data; as an
alternative SPT can be performed inside the borehole during its execution;
• electrical and thermal soil resistivity: those tests are necessary for a proper design of grounding
system and for the sizing of electrical cables.
In a standard scenario, the investigations shall be performed at the WTG locations and within its
footprint. Direct investigation shall be extended up to a depth where the increase of vertical stress is
expected to be small when compared to the vertical stress induced by the WTG at the foundation base
level (around 3 times the foundation radius). Generally the borehole depth is expected to be around 30-
40m.
The scenarios listed below shall be considered as non-standard scenarios:
• rock encountered at shallow depth: the total depth of direct investigation can be reduced, in any
case the boring shall be extended at least 5 m inside a layer of good quality rock (RQD>60%),
this limit may be lowered, if approved by EGP, during the site investigation if the boreholes will
highlight a good quality rock in the boreholes already completed;
• deep foundations: where, based on the geological report or during the execution of the survey,
the use of shallow foundation is considered not suitable, the depth of the investigation shall be
adequately extended up to the expected bearing layer of the pile tip;
• presence of cavities: if this risk is highlighted in the geological report, more geophysical tests
may be required; the use of electrical resistivity test is usually to be considered for such cases,
anyway the proper geophysical tests must be carefully defined in the investigation plan by
considering the soil and groundwater conditions;
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Figure 1 Output of electrical resistivity tests

• foundation close to a slope: the investigation (geophysical tests, piezometers, direct

investigations, with the collection of samples, and penetrometer tests) shall be extended to the
areas involved by the possible sliding surfaces.
• homogenous sites: the investigation plan can include more static penetrometer tests (CPT or
CPTu) and the number of point of direct investigation (boreholes) can by reduced: for some WTG
the CPTs and the boreholes shall be performed in the same location (in order to calibrate the
CPTs) while in some other WTG locations the investigation plan can include only pentrometer and
geophysical tests. In any case the investigation plan shall be validated by EGP.
Generally the investigations may be performed in different stages:
• a preliminary stage to define the main properties of the selected site (basic design);
• a final stage aiming to define the soil parameters in details, in order to have the executive design
of foundations.
During the preliminary investigations, a complete investigation (geophysical tests, piezometers, direct
investigations, with the collection of samples, and penetrometer tests) shall be performed at least for
one WTG falling in each homogeneous geological area, with a total amount of about 10% of the total
number of WTG (based on the geological studies, see Figure 2 for reference).

Figure 2 Locations selected in the preliminary stage for a basic design

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During the final investigation, the complete investigation (geophysical tests, direct investigations, with
the collection of samples, and penetrometer tests) shall be performed for each WTG foundation.

5.2.2. Laboratory tests

The tests performed on soil and rock samples should be adequate to define the physical and mechanical
parameters. A collection of samples shall be done at each borehole location. Several samples shall be
collected when different layers are encountered during boring, in order to have a proper
characterization of each layer. The physical and chemical properties (specific weight, water content,
grain size distribution, Atterberg limits, organic content, chloride and sulphate content, PH, etc..) shall
be defined.
As a minimum requirement, the mechanical properties for each layer shall be evaluated performing the
following tests:
• for cohesive soils: triaxial consolidated undrained test (TxCIU) or triaxial unconsolidated
undrained (TxUU), direct shear strength test and oedometer test;
• for rocky layers: performing uniaxial compression tests.
It must be noted that mechanical tests can be performed when adequate type of samples are collected
(undisturbed samples). Boreholes shall be performed using category A methods (continuous rotary
drilling methods), according to UNI EN-ISO 22475-1, and the samples quality shall be of class 1, as per
section 3 of UNI EN1997- 2. If a different reference code is used, the sampling procedure and the
sample handling must ensure the absence of disturbance.
In order to define physical characteristics (specific weight, water content, grain size distribution, etc)
disturbed soil samples may be used and the quality of direct site tests execution may be lower.

5.3. Soil classification and geotechnical characteristics

The data collected using the described tests shall be adequate to establish the allowable bearing
capacity of the foundation and to establish the foundation behavior during the WTG service life
(settlements evaluation and soil-foundation interaction).
The first properties to be evaluated when approaching the soil classification are the soil physical
characteristics:
• grain-size distribution, determined by means of sieves and/or a hydrometer analysis, according to
ASTM-D422, UNI EN ISO 14688-1;
• Atterberg limits, determined according to ASTM-D4318.
The ASTM-D2487/UNI EN ISO 14688-1 provides the soil classification system based on grain
dimensions. Main groups can be defined as follows.
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Table 1 Extract from EN ISO 14688-1

In order to avoid the use of local terminology in soil classification, the description of materials shall
follow the ASTM-D2487/UNI EN ISO 14688-1 terminology.
Additionally, ASSHTO/ASTM-D3282 or USCS classifications may be used.
As a general rule, as a minimum, the following mechanical characteristics shall be defined:

Rocks Coarse soils Fine soils

Geological classification Young’s modulus (static and Young’s modulus (static and
dynamic) dynamic)
Density or bulk mass density Poisson’s ratio Poisson’s ratio
Water content Shear modulus(static and Shear modulus(static and
dynamic) dynamic)
Porosity Drained shear strength Drained shear strength
Uniaxial compression strength Bulk density Undrained shear strength
Young’s modulus of elasticity Permeability Coefficient of consolidation
Poisson’s ratio Bulk density
Rock Quality Designation (RQD) Permeability
and Fracture Log
Table 2 Mechanical parameters for soils and rocks
Symbols and units to be used to describe these parameters are shown in Section 1.6 of EN 1997-1 or in
Section 2 of BS 1377 part 1.
The Report shall show, for each foundation, the design soil stratigraphy and shall specify for each layer
the physical definition and the relevant mechanical properties.

5.4. Trial Piles

In case of pile foundations the geotechnical characterization shall focus on the properties relevant to
define the soil-pile interaction. The geotechnical investigation shall be defined taking into account the
type of pile to be used.
In order to assess the pile strength more reliably, trial piles may be tested. Trial piles shall be of the
same type and dimensions of the piles used for the actual foundations. The number of trial piles shall be
adequate to the soil characteristics. The trial piles shall be positioned as close as possible to the location
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designed for the foundations; positions where soil has the lowest mechanical characteristics shall be
tested. At least two trial pile tests shall be performed in a site. The Axial test can be executed only after
the concrete has reached its design strength and shall be carried on until the predicted pile ultimate
load or significant settlements are reached.

6. MATERIALS
The properties of construction material shall be shown on the calculation report and on the construction
drawings. The following sections are listing the minimum properties of materials and the minimum
safety factors to be applied.

6.1. Material safety factors

Structural design shall be based on limit states. If not clearly defined in the applicable codes, the
following partial safety factors (gM) shall be applied to the characteristic values of the materials to

obtain the design values: gC = 1,5 for concrete; gs = 1,15 for reinforcing steel and gs = 1,25 for anchor

bolts and embedded steel ring.

6.2. Concrete
The characteristic cylindrical compressive strength, according to EN 196-1/EN 206-1/ASTM C39 of
concrete at 28 days shall normally be:
fck
[N/mm2]
12 fill and lean concrete
25 cast in situ piles
30 pedestal, raft
Table 3 minimum concrete strength
Before starting the execution of works, the proposed composition of concrete mix shall be tested, in
order to verify the design strength and other requirements. If local regulations are not available, the
requirements of EN 12390-1 and EN 12390-2 (or of ASTM C31 and ASTM C192) shall be followed for
the preparation, shape and curing of the samples. EN 12390-3 describes the procedures for the
strength evaluation. Equivalent standards, such as ASTM C39 may be used.

6.2.1. Cement
Cement shall be as defined in EN 197-1. Additional constituents may be present if particular
performances are required.

6.2.2. Admixtures
Admixtures may be used to improve the concrete performances. Usually admixtures are added to
accelerate or delay the setting and to improve the workability or the durability of concrete. The
admixture shall comply with UNI EN 934-2 / ASTM C494
Fly ash (conforming to EN 450 / ASTM C618) and silica fume (conforming to EN 13263 / ASTM C1240)
may be used if high strength concrete is necessary or particularly adverse environmental conditions are
expected.
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6.2.3. Aggregates
Aggregates to be used for concrete shall be in compliance with UNI EN 12620 and tested according to
EN 933-1. Due to the high concentration of reinforcing bars and steel inserts, the maximum allowable
diameter of aggregates should generally be 20-25mm. The designer shall evaluate the concentration of
reinforcement bars and determine the maximum diameter in order to avoid segregation of concrete.
In order to avoid concrete segregation in congested areas, the suitable space between bars, conduits,
connections etc. shall be properly evaluated during the design phase. Particular care shall be taken in
evaluating the maximum aggregate diameter for the pedestal and the areas around the connection.

Figure 3 Closely spaced bars

6.2.4. Environmental conditions

Chemical and physical exposure conditions shall be evaluated in addition to the mechanical actions.
Table 4.1 of EN 1992-1 shows all the possible scenarios as per EN 260-1. Exposure classes XC2-XC3
(wet, rarely dry or moderate humidity) are likely to occur and shall be considered as a minimum
requirement in a preliminary design phase. For the executive design the complete site characterization
shall be available.

6.2.5. Slump classes

Adequate workability of the concrete mix design shall be assured. Slump measurement, conducted as
stated in EN 12350-2/ ASTM C143 shall be performed.

Figure 4 Slump height

Once the value of h has been measured, five classes can be defined as per UNI EN 206-1:
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Class h (mm)
S1 10<h<40
S2 50<h<90
S3 100<h<150
S4 160<h<210
S5 h>210
Table 4 Slump classes
The slump class shall be stated on construction drawings and checked before starting the concrete
pouring activities at site. Generally class S3 is required but a higher class may be required by the
designer if particular circumstances are foreseen. For example, a higher slump class shall be required
for more congested area, such as the bottom part of the raft, where the bottom reinforcement and the
vertical bars may require a more fluid concrete (see Figure 3); lower slump classes are adequate for the
raft sloped portion.

6.3. Reinforcing Steel

Reinforcement shall consist of deformed bars and welded wire mesh with a minimum characteristic yield
strength fyk = 415 MPa for all structural members. As a reference, the following materials can be
accepted:
• Steel B450C as per the Italian NTC 2008
• ASTM A615 Grade 60 for bars
• A 497 for welded wire reinforcement
• Type 2 bars as per BS 4449
• Bst 500 according to DIN 488
• B-500-S according to EHE-08
Different materials can be accepted only if the mechanical characteristics are tested according to EN
ISO 15630-1/ASTM A370.

6.4. Anchor bolts and embedded ring

Bolts, nuts and washers shall be at least grade 8.8 (fyk = 640 MPa) and shall conform to EN ISO 898.
Alternative steel materials having the same properties of grade 8.8 may be used, conforming with the
dimensions given in EN ISO 4016.
In case an embedded steel ring is used, the steel shall be at least S355 J0 (fyk = 355 MPa) according to
EN 10025/ASTM A722, or equivalent

6.5. Grout
High strength non-shrinking grout shall be used for the connection of the steel plate of the tower to the
reinforced concrete foundation.
The grout compressive strength shall be at least 80 N/mm2 tested as per EN 196-1. Adequate bonding
to concrete shall be assured and tested in accordance to EN 1542; the grout shall have high fatigue
resistance (due to the presence of dynamic actions) and shall be suitable for the thickness to be filled
and the expected temperatures during the execution of work and operating life. Cementitious or epoxy
grouts may be used (such as Basf Masterflow).
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The designer shall define (and report on the construction drawings) the minimum grout resistance to be
reached before tensioning the anchor bolts

6.6. Backfilling soil

Since backfilling may generally be considered for structural checks, the property limits specified below
should be followed:
• density should be between 16 and 19 kN/m3;
• absence of organic material;
• compaction shall reach at least 95% of the maximum density, determined by the modified Proctor
test.
All the above characteristics shall be clearly indicated on construction drawings. The
geotechnical/structural checks shall be performed considering load factors equal to at least 0.9 or 1.35
when the backfilling load is to be considered favorable or unfavorable respectively.
The use of backfill above the original grade is generally not advisable, it is applicable only if necessary
for the site orography and shall in any case be validated by EGP. In this case, only the soil below the
original ground level shall be taken into account for stability checks, see Errore. L'origine riferimento
non è stata trovata. below:

Figure 5 Backfilling soil to be considered in stability checks

Where a proper protection to the erosion and the stability of the backfilling can be assured over the
whole service life of the plant, its contribution to the foundation stability may be considered, only if
approved by EGP. The unfavorable effects of the backfill placed above the existing grade shall always be
considered.
The designer shall define and properly report on the construction drawings the design limits and the
tests to be performed (site and laboratory tests) to verify those limits.

7. LOADS
In order to define the actions on the WTG and transmitted to its foundation, all the relevant site
parameters shall be identified.
The main action here considered is the wind load (see section 7.1). The wind velocity may be averaged
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in different ways according to the applied code. The reference value, to which the WTG is designed, is
defined as the maximum speed averaged over 10 minutes with a recurrence period of 50 years
expected at the hub height [IEC-EN 61400, latest edition].
The site parameters to define the snow and earthquake loads must be identified as well. The presence
of ground water shall be adequately investigated and, where necessary, the buoyancy effects shall be
taken into account.

7.1. Wind load

7.1.1. Design Load Cases as per IEC-EN 61400

In the following section, reference is made to [IEC-EN 61400, latest edition] for the definition of wind
turbine loads. Design of wind turbine is referred to different classes defined in terms of wind speed and
turbulence:

Table 5 WTG classes according to IEC EN 61400

Where:
Vref is the reference wind speed averaged over 10 minutes at the hub height with a recurrence
period of 50 years
Iref is the expected value of the turbulence intensity at 15 m/s
A defines the category with higher turbulence characteristics
B defines the category with medium turbulence characteristics
C defines the category with lower turbulence characteristics
The wind turbine shall be designed to withstand the wind conditions defined by the selected wind class.
Particular external conditions (such as offshore plants or plants in tropical storms areas) may require a
wind turbine class S.
While the transportation loads are not affecting the foundation design, Normal (frequently expected to
occur) and Abnormal (usually related to the activation of protection systems) situations shall be
considered in load case combinations. See Table 8 from IEC-EN 61400.
Manufacturer’s loads must be considered in the design of wind turbine foundations and clearly shown in
the calculation report (see section 10.1). In order to avoid uncertainties and misleading assumptions
during the foundation design, the WTG manufacturer shall provide all the relevant DLC (see section
9.1), with and without the safety factor as per the following Table 6 and Table 7.
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Table 6 Typical table of factored loads by manufacturer

Table 7 Typical table of unfactored loads by the manufacturer

The DLC shall be defined as per IEC-EN 61400-1 (latest edition), reported in the following Table 8 (note
that F indicates fatigue damage design, while U indicates ultimate limit state design; N is indicating the
normal DLC, while A indicates the abnormal DLC).
The axis orientation shall clearly defined as well.
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Table 8 Design Load Cases according to IEC-EN 61400

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7.1.2. Reference Wind Speed

The Vref defined as per IEC EN 61400-1 in the previous section may differ from similar parameters
defined in other structural codes.
Section 3.4.2 of the Italian Code (NTC 2008) and section 4.2 of EN 1991-1-4 code defines the basic
wind speed as the mean wind speed averaged over 10 minutes at an elevation of 10 m above the
ground level with an occurrence probability of 0.02 per year (TR=50 years).
Section 6 of ASCE 7-05 and Chapter V-2 of BS 6399-2 / CP3 defines the basic wind speed V as the 3-
seconds gust speed estimated to exceed at an average of once every 50 years.
International Building Code (IBC) refers to the fastest mile velocity (the average of the velocities
recorded during the time a horizontal column of air 1 mile long takes to pass a fixed point), value that
can be converted in the 3 seconds gust basic wind.
Correlations between the different ways to define the mean wind speeds can be found in [ASCE AWEA
Public release 2011].

7.2. Seismic action

The calculation report shall clearly indicate the reference code used for seismic design and define all the
relevant parameters.
As required in IEC-EN 61400, section 11.6, the ground acceleration shall be evaluated for a 475 year
return period; more stringent values shall be applied if required by local relevant codes.
Only in a preliminary estimation, a conservative method to calculate the earthquake action effects is
based on the assumption that only the first vibration mode of the structure is significant. This
assumption leads to a simplified estimation by considering the total mass of rotor, nacelle and half the
tower applied at the top of the tower. The design acceleration will be obtained from the design response
spectrum with 1% of critical damping.
During the executive design phases, the seismic action shall be determined by the WTG manufacturer.

7.3. Load combinations

The following Table 9 (extracted from IEC 61400) shows the safety factors for Ultimate Limit State,
referred to Normal, Abnormal and Transport-erection design situations (the latter shall not be
considered for foundation design). Normal situation is expected to occur frequently within the lifetime of
the turbine (including minor faults); Abnormal situations are related to severe faults and are less likely
expected to occur.
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Table 9 Partial safety factors for loads IEC EN 61400

Load factors for wind loads reported in the IEC shall be considered a minimum requirement. The
designer is responsible to verify if more stringent requirements found in the local codes are applicable
for the WTG foundation design. In any case, the designer shall consider the load combinations in
accordance with the suggestion of [AWEA-ASCE Recommended Practice for Compliance of Large Land-
based Wind Turbine Support Structures]:

the document deals with the American codes ASCE 7 and ACI 318, but the same assumptions can be
extended to other local codes.
The calculation report shall also include the seismic load combinations. The seismic loads shall be given
as per section 7.2. The relevant load combinations shall follow the recommendations given in section
11.6 of IEC-EN-61400 shall be followed. The seismic load shall be combined with an operational wind
load equal to the higher of:
a) loads during normal power production by averaging over lifetime;
b) loads during emergency shutdown for a wind speed selected so that the loads prior to the
shutdown are equal to those obtained as per a)
Furthermore, IEC-EN-61400 states that the load factor to be used for all load components shall be 1.0.
The combination of design seismic loads and factored extreme wind loads shall not be performed.
Serviceability Limit State checks shall be performed using the Normal Operational Loads and Fatigue
loads reported in the documentation provided by the WTG manufacturer.
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8. FOUNDATION LAYOUT

8.1. Forecasted quantities for direct foundations

In general, the typology and dimensions of foundation are obviously related to the WTG loads and to
the geotechnical characteristics. Based on previous experiences, the concrete amount expected for each
foundation of WTG varies from 150-200 m3, for 850kW turbines, to 350-450 m3, for 2-3MW turbines.
Generally, the reinforcement ratio ranges from 75 to 90 kg of steel per m3 of concrete for 850 kW
turbines or smaller and from 90 to 130 kg of steel per m3 of concrete for turbines up to 3 MW. Shape,
bar distribution and other requirements are specified in the following sections.

Figure 6 Typical reinforcement and formwork

8.2. Shape of shallow foundation

Reference is made to [R.25.ES.W.00.000.00.008.00], see Annex C, where the optimum shape of
foundation has been investigated. The circular shape has been found to be preferable, from an
economical and technical point of view.
Basically, the diameter of the foundation depends on the geotechnical and structural checks. Figure 7
and Figure 8 show the typical sections for conic rafts, with and without “pedestal”: D is the diameter, H
the total depth, L the width in plan of the sloped surface, whose maximum inclination to the horizontal
is αmax; the slab height, hslab, is divided into hedge and hslope; the difference between H and hslab
represents the height of the pedestal. If not required by particular site conditions (as for example the
risk of standing water around the foundation) the pedestal projection above ground level shall be in the
range of 20-30 cm.
Once the diameter is determined, the value of hedge will be fixed empirically, about D/30 or L/10 but not
less than 50 cm in rocky soil and 30 cm in granular soil, to assure an adequate thickness at the edge of
the foundations where the soil reactions are particularly concentrated. The thickness at the edge of the
foundation may be lower than the above mentioned limits if adequate calculations and FEM are
performed and only if validated by EGP, nevertheless the limits imposed by all the applicable codes shall
always be respected.
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Based on previous experience, amax should be limited to 25% for the feasibility of concrete pouring.

The pedestal is higher on fine and coarse soils, Figure 8, while a more economical design leads to lower
values for foundation on rocks, Figure 7.

Figure 7 Shallow foundation without pedestal

Figure 8 Shallow foundation with pedestal

8.3. Deep foundations layout

The minimum centre to centre distance shall be three times the pile’s diameter.
The distance between the edge of foundation and the pile surface shall be not less than 50 cm; hedge
should be at least “50 cm + Pile radius” but anyway not less than 1.0 m.

8.4. Reinforcement layout

The concrete cover “s” is defined as the net distance between the exposed concrete surface and the
reinforcing bars closest to it, as in Figure 9.
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Figure 9 Concrete cover

Environmental conditions and the concrete covers must be evaluated according to the applicable codes.
Nevertheless, the following values shall be respected as a minimum:

Structural element Min Cover (mm)

Cast in situ Piles 75
Foundation Rafts 50
Table 10 Minimum concrete covers
Different values may be evaluated for precast elements or only for the foundation rafts if particular
coatings are used or if the environmental conditions are exhaustively investigate and lower values are
applicable; any deviation to the limit shown in Table 10 shall be validated by EGP.
Transmission of forces between bars shall be assured by the provision of proper overlapping and the
use of welding or special splice-joints shall be avoided. The overlap length shall be at least 64 times the
bars diameter in tension and 32 times the bars diameter in compression, unless a more stringent value
is required by applicable codes. The designer can propose lower values only if calculated in accordance
with the applicable codes and properly documented.
Based on EN 1992, the horizontal and vertical spacing between parallel bars shall be at least the
maximum of the following:
• the maximum bar diameter;
• 20mm;
• the aggregates maximum diameter + 5mm.
The above limitations shall be carefully checked by the designer for radial reinforcement. While it is
easy to comply with the limitations at the edge of the foundations, the risk of congestion towards the
foundation centre is high (see Figure 10).

Figure 10 Congested reinforcing bars

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To facilitate the pouring of concrete, the use of multiple layers of bars (bundles bars), as per ACI 318
and EN 1992-1, is suggested; additionally the radial reinforcements may have different lengths and
may be bent in a staggered way. See the figure below for example.

Figure 11 Example of layout for radial horizontal reinforcement

Construction phases shall be considered in the drawings: to allow the proper pouring of concrete,
adequate space for a flexible pressure hose (150÷200 mm of diameter) shall be left in between the
reinforcing bars, at least at the locations highlighted in Figure 12.

Figure 12 Spots to be left to place the concrete pumping hose

8.5. Conduits for cables

The foundation drawings shall clearly define the position of the main conduits, in order to avoid any
defect during the installation. One of the following layout shall be used:
• below the foundation: from a structural point of view, the preferable path is in a trench below the
foundation filled with concrete, as per Figure 13;
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Figure 13 Conduits below the foundation

• inside the foundation: the minimum bending radius of the cables shall be verified before finalizing
the position of the conduits; this path is acceptable, provided that the anchor bolts are properly
embedded in the raft: only the space for the conduit shall be left below the bottom embedded
flange, se Figure 14;

Figure 14 Conduits inside the foundation

• where the previous paths are not suitable (for example where the transformer pad is placed close
to the WTG as per Figure 15) the conduits can be placed through the anchor cage. The only
suitable path is show in Figure 15: the conduits shall not be placed near the flanges (they shall be
close to the middle of the bolt length) and shall not pass through the pedestal, but through the
raft;

Figure 15 Acceptable conduits path through the anchor cage

In this case, the construction drawings shall clearly report the position of the conduits passing
through the cage. As per Figure 16, the conduits shall not be placed in the same area, it is
mandatory that two anchor bolt slots/spaces should be left empty immediately following a set of
anchor bolts through which the conduits are placed. No more than four conduits shall be placed in
the same slot/space between bolts.
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Figure 16 Conduits position through the anchor bolts

Different conduits layout may be proposed by the designer (for example conduits passing through the
pedestal), but shall be supported by proper documentation. The designer shall evaluate the Ultimate
Limit State, Serviceability Limit State, and Fatigue behavior of the foundation. The FEM shall be
performed containing the following minimum requirements:
• solid elements shall be used;
• the conduit path shall be modeled as a void;
• the material properties may be modeled as elastic material, but if such assumptions will not be
verified by the results (i.e. concrete in tension or in presence of excessive strains) the material
properties shall be modeled as elastic-plastic materials (see the following stress-strain graphs for
tensile and compressive concrete behavior and the symmetric behavior of steel);

a) b) c)
Figure 17 a) tensile behavior of concrete; b) compressive behavior of concrete;
c) symmetric behavior of steel
• the inclusion of reinforcement bars in the FEM is not generally required, but steel bars and steel
inserts shall be properly modeled if the simplified model (without reinforcing bars) will not
reproduce the stress path in a proper way, at least in the area around the conduits path.

8.6. Anchor bolt cage

The minimum embedment length of anchor bolts (through the pedestal and the raft) shall be at least
1600 mm. Moreover the portion of the bolts embedded in the raft must be not less than 60% of the
maximum raft height (see Figure 18).
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Figure 18 Anchor bolt minimum length

9. DESIGN CHECKS

9.1. WTG manufacturer input

The documentation provided by the WTG manufacturer shall contain all the necessary information for
the foundation design:
• Load Combinations, specifying:
o Ultimate Limit State Combination (Normal and Abnormal Extreme Load Cases),
o Serviceability Limit States Combinations (Operational Loads or Normal Operating Loads)
o Fatigue Loads sequence
o Seismic Load Combinations
• anchorage geometry and material properties
• post tension force (in case of anchor bolts)
• requirements to be met by the foundation in the serviceability limit state (maximum differential
settlement and minimum rotational and translational stiffness)
• maximum allowable gap between soil and foundation for Extreme Load Cases and for Operational
Load Cases
• requirements, numbers and geometry of the conduits for the cables

9.2. Geotechnical checks

9.2.1. Differential settlements

Immediate and consolidation settlements (whose principal effects may require years to be completed)
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shall be thoroughly investigated.

In a preliminary design stage the rotation may be evaluated, according to [Bowles], from:

(1 − υ 2 ) M
tan(θ ) = Iθ
E B2L
where B and L are the foundation dimensions (for a circle B=L); M is the overturning moment for
Operational Loads in the plane of B, Iθ can be evaluated using the following Table 11, ν and E are the
Poisson ratio and the deformation modulus.

Table 11 Definition of Iθ
In the executive design phase, the same approach may be used only to verify the results of more
complex calculations, the evaluation of short and long term behavior of the foundation shall be
accurately investigated and reported.
For long term analyses in cohesive soils, settlements must be checked considering the working life of
the WTG and the loads expected to act for a significant period (i.e. design load cases defined as
operational loads or normal production loads by the manufacturer). In case of non uniform or complex
stratigraphy, FEM analysis may be required.

9.2.2. Rotational and translational stiffness

The required foundation stiffness with respect to its dynamic behavior (rotational Kr and horizontal Kt
stiffness) shall be reported in the manufacturer documentation.
If the shallow foundation can be considered rigid compared to the soil, the following equations may be
used, unless more precise models are available:

8Gdyn R
Kt =
(2 − υ )
8Gdyn R 3
Kr =
3(1 − υ )
The above values are valid for circular foundations with radius R or octagonal foundation whose
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inscribed circle radius is R.

In case of analysis of existing foundations, different shapes may be found. For rectangular foundations,
an equivalent radius can be defined as shown in Table 12

Table 12 Definition of R for rectangular foundations

Gdyn is the dynamic shear modulus, defined for small deformations.
Such value may be estimated by means of dedicated laboratory tests (see ASTM D4015). Several
empirical equations correlating its value to other mechanics parameters or to site tests can be found in
[Bowles]. Nevertheless, the most reliable relations have been defined, relating the Gdyn value to the
shear wave velocity Vs.
The basic equation given in [Guidelines for Design of Wind Turbines (DNV/Risø)] relates the shear
modulus to the shear wave velocity and to the soil density:
G0 = ρVs2.
The achieved values for G0 are related to minimal shear deformations induced in the soil by the waves
propagation (typically γ is between 10-5 to 10-4). In order to obtain a value consistent with the
deformations due to the actual actions (typically the expected deformation γ is between 10-2 to 10-3);
the chart in Figure 19 can be used. The value for the shear modulus to be used for calculation of the soil
rotational stiffness is Gdyn= 0.35 G0 as shown in the following Figure 16.
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Figure 19 Dynamic Shear Modulus/ Measured Shear Modulus from shear wave velocity
vs Shear Deformation
Shear wave velocities may be easily investigate from the ground surface through Multychannel Analysis
of Surface Waves (MASW) or seismic refraction tests, or performing Down Hole or Cross Hole tests
inside the boreholes.
Even if the investigation may reach high depth, only the values related to the shallower layers shall be
taken into account, the measured wave velocities shall be averaged from the foundation plan up to a
depth where the soil pressure is 60% to 70% of the pressure applied at the foundation level (about 1,5
time the foundation radius). Figure 20 shows the pressure isobars for a uniformly loaded circular area.

Figure 20 Soil isobars (pressure bulbs) for circularly loaded areas

In case of several soil layers, the design shear wave velocity to be used to calculate G0shall be averaged
by considering as weight the stress level σz/q at each layer. Alternatively, more sophisticated methods,
such as FEM models, may be used.

9.2.3. Sliding
Horizontal actions transmitted from the WTG to the foundation imply the evaluation of the soil shear
resistance. Both undrained and drained conditions shall be considered. For drained condition the soil
resistance Rd is obtained by multiplying the total vertical design loads Nd by tan δ (design structure-
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ground friction angle; if not directly determined, its value can be set as 2/3 of the soil friction angle φ).

Rd = N d tan(δ )
(note that the design value of the friction angle is reduced by the partial safety factor).
For undrained soil conditions, the soil resistance is equal to the product of the base area under
compression multiplied by the undrained shear strength

Ru = Ac cu
materials safety factors shall be taken in accordance with the applicable codes.

9.2.4. Overturning
The factored stabilizing moment due to WTG selfweight, concrete and backfilling dead loads shall be
greater than the factored moment due to the horizontal actions.
Favorable effects of backfill weight should be accounted for only if their permanent presence is
positively assured (i.e. only the backfill below the original ground level can be considered, see section
6.6). The stabilizing moment due to passive earth pressure shall be neglected.

9.2.5. Soil bearing capacity check

The soil bearing resistance shall be evaluated considering the highest external actions, taking into
consideration the watertable. Evaluation shall be done for short and long term situations.
Safety factors of materials and loads for ultimate and service limit states design shall be those
prescribed by the applicable codes. Unless finite element models have been analyzed or more precise
evaluations have been performed, the soil pressure may be evaluated considering the effective loaded
area according to the Vesic method, as reported in [Bowles]. The soil ultimate bearing capacity (qult) is
related to the soil properties and to the geometry of the foundation:

qult = cN c sc d c ic g c bc + q N c sc d c ic g c bq + 0.5γB' cNγ sγ d γ iγ gγ bγ

Or, for F=0°

(
qult = 5.14 1 + sc' + d c' − ic' − bc' − g c' + q)
Where:

⎛ φ⎞
N q = eπ tan(φ ) tan 2 ⎜ 45 + ⎟
⎝ 2⎠
N c = ( N q − 1) cot(φ )
N γ = 2( N q + 1) tan(φ )
values for index of shape (s), depth (d), load inclination (i), soil inclination (g) and foundation base
inclination (b) may be found in the reference document. Where alternative methods (such as Mayerhof
or Hansen approach) are used, similar equations would be adopted, while the value of each index shall
be referred to the chosen method.
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Figure 21 Effective loaded area for circular and octagonal foundation

In case of circular or octagonal shallow foundation, the loaded area can be evaluated according to
[Guidelines for Design of Wind Turbines (DNV/Risø)]. The reacting area is an ellipse, whose axes are:

be = 2( R − e)
2
⎛ b ⎞
l e = 2 R 1 − ⎜1 − e ⎟
⎝ 2R ⎠
where e is the eccentricity due to the total bending moment and to the vertical load and R is the radius.
The loaded area is equal to

⎡ ⎛e⎞ ⎤
Aeff = 2 ⎢ R 2 arccos⎜ ⎟ − e R 2 − e 2 ⎥
⎣ ⎝R⎠ ⎦
equivalent to the area of a rectangle with the following dimensions:

le
leff = Aeff
be
leff
beff = be
le
In case of foundations close to a slope, the global stability shall be checked for both the upward and
downward slope around the WTG platform. As defined in section 5.2 the mechanical properties of the
area will be defined in the geotechnical studies and a consequent soil profile section must be defined
along the slope under investigation. The use of a proper 2D slope stability method (such as Bishop,
Janbu or Morgenstern and Price methods) is necessary. The output of the analysis shall report the
safety factors for the different sliding surfaces and highlight the one with the smallest safety factor (as
per the figures reported below):
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Figure 22 Global stability checks

Minimum safety factors shall be found in the applicable local codes.

9.2.6. Foundation gapping

An additional check to be performed is the foundation gapping check for shallow foundations. In order
to have a proper behavior of the WTG foundation, the pressures developed at the foundation-soil
interface shall be further investigated. The non-reacting area shall be adequately limited; generally the
manufacturer may require specific limitations. As a minimum, if more stringent requirements are not
reported in applicable codes:
• half of the foundation area shall be under compression for unfactored Extreme Loads (50%
gapping);
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• the whole surface shall be reacting under unfactored Operational Loads (0% gapping).

9.2.7. Piles
The design shall define the forces acting on piles. The system soil-pile shall be checked against the
axial, transversal or tensile failure. Tip and lateral (friction) forces shall generally be accounted
separately, since different safety factors may be prescribed by codes.
When considering the pile check for transversal forces, the resistance is related to the mechanism of
failure. It depends on the soil parameters, but also on the piles and pile cap geometry, i.e. it shall be
assessed if the pile head rotation can be considered fully restrained or not.
Uplift forces on piles shall be limited. For Operational Loads no tension is allowed on piles since cyclic
loadings would damage concrete. Tensile uplift forces may be allowed for the Extreme Loads and the
piles resistance shall be adequately checked considering the lateral (friction) resistance only.

9.3. Structural checks

The following sections are reporting the main structural checks to be performed by the designer in
addition to the “standard” structural checks typically performed for reinforced concrete structures.

9.3.1. Raft check

For shallow foundations of WTGs, the most stressed section is at the connection between the pedestal
and the raft. Punching shear check shall be performed for the pedestal perimeter, while flexural and
shear checks shall be performed along the slab.
For the shear design of the slab, the following requirements shall be met, as a minimum:
• the minimum shear reinforcement required by local codes for reinforced concrete members shall
always be applied: since the foundation will be loaded by cyclic actions, the exceptions for slab
and footings (where present in the local codes) shall not apply;
• in addition to the applicable requirements reported in the local codes, where the ratio between
the reinforcing radial bars in tension and the concrete section is lower than 1%, the maximum
characteristic shear resistance of concrete shall always be kept lower than the following value
[Paulay & Priestley]:

vck = (0,07 + 10ρ ) f c'

Where:

As
ρ= is the ratio between the flexural (radial) reinforcement and the unitary area;
bu d
As is the area of the flexural reinforcement in tension (in mm2), for a unitary arclength bu;
d is the effective depth of the section considered (in mm);

f c' is the characteristic cylindrical resistance of concrete (in MPa);

• where the design concrete shear resistance is exceeded, the whole external shear shall be
resisted by steel shear reinforcement without considering any concrete contribution.
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The design concrete shear resistance (Vcd) per unitary width shall be calculated applying the partial
factors on material (g) and/or on member resistance (Φ) in accordance with the applicable local codes:

Vck v ck
Vcd = = bu d
γ γ
Or

Vcd = ΦVck = Φ ⋅ vck bu d

The shear reinforcement shall be properly hooked and linked to the radial and circumferential
reinforcing bars. The shear reinforcement shall also be shaped and placed at adequate distance in order
to use this reinforcement as support to the top reinforcement during construction. See the following
Figure 23.

Figure 23 Shear reinforcement used as support for top reinforcement

Any eventual additional bar, intended for construction purposes only, shall not be accounted for in the
computation of the total steel quantities and shall not be reported on the foundation drawings.
Concentrated stresses at the edge of the circular foundation, due to the high soil pressures under
Extreme and Operational Loads, shall be adequately verified by the designer. In order to resist the
stresses in this area, the radial bars shall be properly hooked, or ‘C shaped’ bars shall be placed at the
edge, see Figure 24.
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Figure 24 Radial reinforcement at the foundation edge

In case of deep foundation, the pile cap shall be designed as a solid slab carrying concentrated loads
from the piles and from the WTG. The punching shear check shall be performed also on the pile with
maximum compressive force.
The connection of the pile head to the raft shall be checked as well. The maximum tensile force acting
on a pile head shall be adequately transferred to the pile cap by properly anchoring the pile
reinforcement to the slab. When the pile head rotation is restrained, the foundation shall be checked for
the corresponding design bending moments.
Since the interaction of the different actions and the structure geometry are complex, structural checks
shall be performed calculating the relevant stress through a FEM, for shallow or piled foundations. The
FEM analysis should be based on a 2-Dimensional shell (or plate) elements. The model shall properly
represent the foundation geometry, having the tapered thickness of the raft. In order to have an easier
understanding of the FEM results, the local axes for each shell shall be properly oriented (i.e. one of the
axes shall be radial). The elastic modulus of the material used to model the reinforced concrete shells
shall have the characteristic given by the applicable local codes.
The Designer shall apply to the foundation the loads given by the manufacturer, see section 9.1,
considering the most unfavorable combinations for the different elements to be checked. The effects of
buoyancy shall be considered and properly factored when they are unfavorable. It is stressed that the
stressed acting on the radial or circumferential direction shall be calculated considering the “Wood-
Armer” theory, as shown in Figure 25.
The soil shall be modeled using springs whose stiffness shall be calculated using the available
geotechnical properties of the soil. Springs shall be “compression-only springs”.
The stresses obtained from the FEM model shall be shown in the calculation report, see section 10, for
all the relevant positions along the slab. Those values shall be compared with the raft resistance,
calculated based on its geometry and on the radial, the circumferential and the shear reinforcement
provided.
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Figure 25 Wood-Armer resulting moments

Besides the Ultimate Limit State checks, also Serviceability Limit State checks shall be performed, as
required in the applicable codes. As a minimum check, the Designer shall verify that the maximum
crack width under Serviceability loads is below 0,3 mm. Operational Loads, as given in the WTG
manufacturer loads, shall be considered as Serviceability loads (if not clearly reported by the Loads
documentation, the Designer may use the same loads used for the 0% gapping, see section 9.2.6).
If the designer perform a design by using a 3-dimensional elements, the results obtained shall always
be compared with the usual 2D FEM model (based on shell/plate elements, as described above).
Eventual stress reductions achieved in the 3-D FEM may be considered in the structural checks by the
Designer only if approved by EGP.
In any case the stresses reached in the raft shall never lead to its plasticization in any section, since the
foundation shall always remain be in the elastic range, even in Ultimate Limit States.

9.3.2. Tower connection check

The number and diameter of the anchor bolts or the dimensions of the embedded steel ring are fixed by
the WTG manufacturer. In case of connection with anchor bolts, their length shall be defined by the
foundation designer after a preliminary design.
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Figure 26 Minimum anchor bolts length

When considering the area under compression, concrete and grout beneath the tower shall be checked
against the following:
• compression (crushing) failure: for the regions in contact with the flanges
• spalling: for the volume of concrete near the free edge of the pedestal
• splitting: due to the tensile forces rising in the deeper zones (this aspect is further considered in
this section in order to give guidelines for the calculation of adequate reinforcement)
In order to resist splitting (or bursting) forces, the provisions of [EN 1992-1] and [fib Model code] or
other codes can be followed by the designer to calculate the tensile forces.
The total tensile force may be estimate through a strut-and-tie model as in Figure 27:

1⎛ a⎞
T = ⎜ 1 − 0 .7 ⎟ F
4⎝ h⎠
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Figure 27 Compressed concrete s-a-t model for tower bottom plate

The value of bef may be limited by the free edge of the pedestal, but shall always be kept lower than 3a.
F is the maximum total compression. Its value (for unit length) can be evaluated considering the most
severe combination of bending moment (Md) and axial force (Nd) given by the manufacturer:

4M d Nd
F= +
πD 2
b πDb
where Db is the anchor cage diameter. The pretension force shall be added to the external actions.
Horizontal radial and circular bars shall be provided in order to resist the tensile force. The use of these
bars will ensure a cage around the concrete and will confine it to resist the high compression stresses
that will arise. Figure 28 shows radial “U-shaped” or “C-shaped” bars placed close to both the flanges.

Figure 28 Horizontal bars close to the flanges

When considering the area under tension, the concrete pull-out failure shall be checked. Models for
analyzing the mechanisms are given, among others, in [fib Model code].
The pull-out rupture surface generates from the bottom embedded flange and proceeds upward to the
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top of concrete. Unless more stringent requirements are stated in the applicable codes, the surface
inclination shall be assumed 45°, see Figure 29.
The design tensile resistance of concrete shall be checked against the design stress obtained by dividing
the tensile force by the rupture area. When the concrete resistance is overcome, the entire pull-out
force shall be resisted by adequate reinforcement, see [AWEA-ASCE Recommended Practice for
Compliance of Large Land-based Wind Turbine Support Structures].

45

Figure 29 Anchor bolt with embedded bottom flange and rupture cone
Such reinforcement shall be properly anchored to the bottom bars layer of the foundation. It is
preferable to have several bars positioned around the bolts in order to distribute the pull-out tensile
stresses over a wider area (see Figure 26).
Additionally, the resistance of the bottom embedded flange shall be checked: adequate dimensions and
thickness shall be provided. The concrete area above the embedded flange shall be checked against
concrete crushing and splitting (as described above for the area below the tower flange).

Figure 30 Embedded steel rings with internal and external studs

From a structural point of view, the use of anchor bolts is presently preferable to the embedded steel
ring, since the tension/compression forces can be better transmitted to the concrete foundation through
the reinforcement bars described above; moreover from a practical point of view, the use of anchor
bolts leads to easier concreting conditions at site.
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Nevertheless, in case embedded steel rings, as shown in Figure 30, are used by the WTG manufacturer
to connect the tower to the foundation, the following is required:
• shear studs on both the internal and external surface of the ring (as per Figure 30);
• holes at the top of the ring to allow the radial reinforcement to be properly anchored in the
central area, additional intermediate holes would be preferable.
The foundation designer shall satisfy the following requirements:
• the steel ring shall be embedded at least up to the 60-70% of the total foundation height, the
following scheme having the ring inside the pedestal is not acceptable;

Figure 31 Unacceptable position of the embedded ring

• vertical bars shall be placed as close as possible to the internal and external studs to provide
adequate resistance against the uplift forces. These bars shall resist the full uplift action; multiple
layers are preferable;
• radial bars shall pass through the embedded ring;
• horizontal bars to prevent concrete bursting shall be placed below the embedded ring.
Figure 32 shows a possible layout.
The contact region of the ring with the top concrete surface of the foundation is a critical discontinuity,
where local detachments may occur due to vibrations, shrinkage and temperature variations. A
protection from penetration of outside agents should be provided for preventing local corrosion and
water infiltration.

Figure 32 Bars for embedded steel ring connection

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9.3.3. Fatigue checks

Due to the dynamic actions transmitted by the WTG to the foundation, the fatigue behavior of concrete
and steel shall be checked. The following areas shall be checked and the analysis clearly shown in the
calculation report:
• grout below the tower flange;
• concrete below the grout and above the lower embedded flange;
• main top and bottom reinforcement;
• concrete at the critical raft section close to the pedestal.
When the WTG manufacture gives the fatigue loads as an equivalent static DLC (equivalent mean
values and ranges for forces and moments), the simplified procedures of [fib Model Code] or
[Guidelines for the certification of wind turbines (Germanischer Lloyd)] may be followed, as described in
this section.
Where the local codes do not give clear indications for fatigue checks, the fatigue resistance of concrete
shall be calculated according to [EN 1992 section 6.8]:

⎛ f ⎞
f cd , fat = k1β cc (t 0 ) f cd ⎜1 − ck ⎟
⎝ 250 ⎠
where k1 can be kept equal to 0.85 unless lower values are found in applicable codes, βcc may be lower
than 1 if loads are applied before the complete curing of concrete, fcd and fck are the design and
characteristic cylinder compressive strength of concrete (safety factor for concrete shall not be less than
1.50).
An adequate concrete resistance to fatigue stresses is ensured if

σ c ,max σ c ,min
≤ 0.5 + 0.45 ≤ 0.9
f cd , fat f cd , fat

where σ c , max and σ c ,min are respectively the maximum and the minimum achieved stress values

calculated in the same location for the same fatigue DLC.

In a similar way steel stresses shall be checked. The maximum stress range for steel ( Δσ max ) under

the relevant load cases shall be checked against the characteristic fatigue strength.

Δσ Rsk
γ F , fat Δσ max ≤
γ s , fat
Δσ Rsk shall be defined in accordance with the applicable code for the considered number of cycles. If

local standards are not available, the S-N curves, as reported in EN-1992 should be used, see the
following Figure 33:
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Figure 33 S-N curve for steel

where N* is set equal to 106, Δσ Rsk

*
=162,5 MPa, A=fy in MPa, k1=5 and k2=9.

Safety factor for loads (gF,fat) and for materials (gs,fat) shall be found in the applicable codes.

When the WTG manufacturer supplies the fatigue loads in multiple cycles, the analysis shall be
performed using a cumulative damage approach. The cyclic actions on the WTG may be grouped in
several steps, each one with a mean value and a range. The “Rain flow” procedure described in
[Guidelines for Design of Wind Turbines (DNV/Risø)] is a widely recognized method to define those
values and the corresponding estimated number of cycles. The number of cycles (ni) defined by the
WTG manufacturer for a certain step shall be compared to the number of cycles causing the element
failure for the corresponding stress level (Ni). Summing the ratio of the two values for all the i blocks,
an evaluation of the cumulative damage ratio D is calculated:

ni
∑N i
=D
i

Values of D must be lower than 1.0; more restrictive values may be found in applicable codes.

10. DESIGN DOCUMENTATION CONTENTS

10.1. Calculation report and design optimization

The report produced by the designer shall include all the design assumptions and the features of the
software used for the calculation. Commonly used software, such as SAP2000 by Computer and
Structures, are preferable. The designer shall provide, together with the calculation report, suitable files
to evidence and verify the design results. Original input and output files of the used software shall be
provided to EGP (FEM models, both structural and geotechnical).
The following data shall be summarized and clearly reported by the designer:
• all safety factors required by the applicable codes and adopted in the calculation (see Table 13 as
an example);
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Table 13 Summary of safety factors

• the ratio between the applied actions and the resisting values:
Geotechnical verifications
Overturning check Mstab/Mover
Gapping:
unfactored Operational load % compressed
unfactored Extreme Load % compressed
Bearing capacity check Qapplied/Qallowable
Sliding check Vd/Vres
Pile checks (if used) Ndes,pile/Nres,pile
Structural Checks
Radial Reinforcement Mdes,radial/Mres,radial
Circular Reinforcement Mdes,circular/Mres,circular
Shear reinforcement Vdes/Vres
Table 14 Working ratios
• the synthetic parameter (Key Performance Index) defined to verify the quantities of steel:
KPI = (890 x Qs + 94 x Qc)/M
where:
Qs: quantity of steel in metric tons
Qc: quantity of concrete in m3
M: dimensioning unfactored bending moment (kNm)
As an indication: KPI factors closer to 1,0 are optimal (i.e. if KPI is 1.10, the total cost of the
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foundation is about 10% higher than the optimal).

The designer shall evaluate the quantities and factors in a preliminary phase and provide all the
relevant data to EGP. After the evaluation of the KPI and the evaluation of the working ratio by EGP, if
the solution is considered acceptable by EGP, the designer shall complete the detailed design; the
Designer is in any case requested to provide an optimized solution to EGP, respecting the applicable
local codes, the requirements of this specification and the site conditions.

10.1.1. Typical table of content

The following table of content shall be used as guideline in order to clearly show the design assumptions
and all the relevant results.
Introduction
a. description of the plant
b. description of the involved area
c. general environmental site characteristics (Seismic Classification, Wind Class)
2. Reference document, codes and drawings
3. Material characteristics (Physical and Mechanical)
a. concrete
b. reinforcing steel
c. embedded anchorage
4. Description of geotechnical properties
a. foundation design stratigraphy
b. mechanical characteristics of soil types
5. Loads analysis
a. wind loads
b. seismic actions
c. other live and operational Loads
d. loads combinations (SLS and ULS)
6. Design checks
a. geotechnical checks
i. settlements
ii. bearing capacity
iii. sliding
iv. overturning
v. global stability
b. structural checks (SLS and ULS, Fatigue)
i. raft and pedestal checks
ii. piles check
iii. tower anchorage check
iv. …..
7. Work execution requirements (Concreting, drainage, steel cage execution and site
Controls)
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8. Specifications for tests and monitoring

9. Maintenance program
10. Design Performance Indexes
a. applied safety factors
b. element resistance vs main design actions
c. material quantities and KPI
d. …
11. Annexes
a. manufacturer data sheet
b. structural modeling
c. input/output software files
d. settlements and stress figures
e. summary of most critical structural sections and relevant checks
f. ...

10.2. Construction drawings

The following requirements shall be followed for the foundation drawings to maintain uniformity.
As an example, Annex B shows a construction drawing.
All drawings shall be in AUTOCAD format and dimensions shall be in mm and in m. An instruction may
be provided to the designer in order to have a layout in accordance with EGP standards and document
labeling.
The construction drawings shall contain:
• all relevant information shall be shown: such as plant identification, plant location, type of
wind turbine, manufacturer, etc.
• reference to relevant drawings, such as overall key plans or relevant detail drawings
• the main dimensions of the concrete foundation (formwork dimensions)
• the quantities of concrete, separately for raft, pedestal, lean concrete and piles (if
present)
• the position of each reinforcing bar
• the length of bars, specifying the value for each mark
• the weight of bars, specifying the value for each mark and the total amount
• the quantities of grout
• the drainage of rain water in the foundations area during works execution and
The drawings shall also contain the general notes for material properties and works execution:
- Concrete:
• the concrete grade for raft, pedestal, piles and lean concrete
• the exposure class
• the aggregates size (max and min)
• the concrete cover
• the slump class required before pouring
• test to be performed for concrete acceptance at site
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• requirements for extreme weather conditions

• the recommendation for a proper curing of concrete
• additional specifications shall be included if considered relevant by the designer (such as
the use of particular admixture)
- Reinforcing steel:
• the steel quality and the code considered for the classification
• the minimum required anchorage length (expressed as function of the bar diameter) in
different position (i.e. top or bottom)
• the allowable bending diameters
• the minimum length of hooks
• the correct indication of bar length
• the bars for supporting and keeping in place the reinforcement layers
• Additional information regarding the reinforcement bars, such as the sequence of
installation, shall be included.
- Anchor bolts:
• the anchor bolts class
• the anchor bolt position
• the installation sequence, if necessary
• the acceptable installation tolerances
- Grout:
• mechanical properties
• main specifications and procedures (i.e. mixing procedures, pouring methods, etc.)
• minimum time and resistance required before bolt tensioning
- Backfilling:
• the backfilling weight density adopted by the designer in the calculation
• the soil definition and the required grain size distribution
• the sequence of compaction and the required compaction ratio to be reached
• tests to be performed
• prevention to backfilling removal
- Excavation:
• procedures to be followed for excavations
• the tests to be performed at foundation level for its acceptance
• requirements for the slope inclination
• precaution to be followed to reduce the disturbance at the foundation level
- Pile foundations:
• the procedure for concrete removal for the portion exceeding the cut off level,
• the number, type and location of non destructive test to be conducted, if required
• the pile load tests to be performed, the test load to be achieved and the procedure (with
reference to the applicable code)
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11. WORKS EXECUTION REQUIREMENTS

The procedures described in this section aim to give guidelines for a correct execution of foundation
works at site and shall be considered by the designer and shown on the construction drawings, as
stated in the previous section.
Tests here required for materials, soil or piles shall be considered as a minimum. More stringent rules
may be required by applicable codes or considered necessary by EGP due to particular conditions, such
as reliability of workmanship or quality procedures for materials production.
For requirements on formwork geometry and tolerances, concreting (placing, compaction), curing and
protection (temperature control, compounds) and post-concreting operations, reference is made to the
standard EN 13670 / ISO 22966 “Execution of Concrete Structures”. For the reinforcement laying
(cutting, bending, assembly and welding), the EN ISO 17660 standard applies, too.

Drainage system
Proper drainage mechanism for surface water shall be defined and properly reported on construction
drawings. All the details of the drainage system to be implemented in order to assure a dry working
area during the construction shall be reported in the drawings.
For foundations laying on clayey soils, a drainage system to be placed at the base of the foundation is
also recommended. Construction drawings shall report all the details.

Compaction of foundation subgrade

The compaction of foundation soil shall be performed in the shortest possible time after excavation. The
presence of fine soil at the foundation level shall be avoided. If necessary, existing soil shall be
replaced. Prior to execute the layer of lean concrete, after beating the foundation soil, at least two load
tests with plate of side 30 to 50 cm will be performed. The acceptable deformation modulus shall be
defined by the designer, but shall never be less than 30 MPa The two tests must be carried out at an
equal distance from the foundation centre, diametrically opposed to each other. The test is not required
if bedrock layer is found at a small depth. Test shall be performed in accordance with ASTM D1196 / BS
1377-part 9.
The excavation procedure shall assure the lowest foundation subgrade alteration. Particular care shall
be placed in executing excavation with blasting.

Compaction of backfill
The compaction of backfill shall be started only after the concrete of the WTG foundation has reached
an adequate ageing but not less than 7 days. The use of small compactors is preferable to avoid
damages in the early stages of concrete strengthening. The backfill shall be placed in layers, whose
maximum thickness shall be 30cm. Compaction requirements (as stated in the construction drawings)
shall be checked at each layer.

Reinforcing Steel Bar

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Steel bar supply must be in accordance with the local codes in force. In general each batch must be
tagged and well identified in terms of production data and material characteristics.
Steel bars shall be stored in such a way that corrosion and deformation are prevented. Preferably bars
shall be divided and kept separated for type and diameter. Besides all the requirements for the
certification of the steel manufacturers and the inspections required by applicable codes, additional
tests may be required by EGP for the bars stored on site.

Position of anchorage system

Before starting the concreting of the foundation the position of anchor bolts or steel embedded ring and
the planarity of base plate shall be checked simultaneously by the Foundation contractor and WTG
Supplier\Executer to validate the positioning tolerance requirements. All the necessary precautions shall
be provided in order to keep reinforcement and anchor devices in the correct position during casting
activities.

Concrete Quality Control

The concrete must be pre-qualified by the supplier with a proper set of tests and laboratory analysis to
describe the physical, chemical and mechanical characteristics of the chosen Mix Design in accordance
with the Design Requirements. All the pre-qualification tests must be collected in the relevant Concrete
Qualification Reports.
During the construction activities all checks required by the local codes shall be performed to verify the
concrete characteristics. As minimum, three samples shall be prepared, at homogenous intervals, for
every 100 m3 of concrete, with a minimum of three samples for smaller structures or for each
concreting volume poured in different days. Besides, in order to asses a proper workability of fresh
concrete, slump shall be measured according to EN 12350-2/ ASTM C143 before placing the concrete
and compared with the slump class specified on the construction documents.
Additional tests on hardened concrete may be required by EGP (see EN 12504 part 1 to 5) to verify the
strength. Destructive tests are described in EN 12504-1 (cored specimens). It is here highlighted that, if
such a test is requested, the steps below shall be followed:
• remove the concrete cover, in order to expose reinforcing bars;
• execute the coring between bars;
• use a core diameter at least three times the maximum aggregate diameter;
• extract the specimen length at least twice the core diameter.

Concrete pouring
Concrete shall be poured just after mixing. The time for transportation after concrete mixing shall be
kept as low as possible (less than one hour).
Concrete shall be preferably poured in subsequent fresh layers. When this is not possible, the hardened
surface shall be properly roughened and all loose parts removed, bonding agents on top of the
hardened concrete should be used. Forms shall be clean and the reinforcing bars shall be rust free. A
proper placement of concrete shall avoid segregation of aggregates and displacement of steel bars and
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forms. The use of hose for concrete pumping shall be considered, to avoid free drop from more than
1.5m. Adequate space between the steel reinforcement shall be provided during the design phase (see
Figure 12) and shall be verified at site before starting the concreting. Immediately after placing, the
concrete shall be properly compacted by means of vibrators. The use of membrane-forming compounds
to prevent the loss of moisture during the early stage of curing of concrete may conform to ASTM C309.

Concreting in adverse weather conditions

Proper curing of concrete should be performed to achieve the necessary concrete design strength. The
loss of moisture shall be avoided, possibly keeping the exposed surfaces wet for the first few days.
Particular care shall be used for hot weather conditions and concreting activities shall be avoided with
temperatures above 40°C.
Freezing of fresh concrete shall be avoided when works are executed in cold weather. Concrete must be
prepared and poured, guaranteeing the following:
• before the pour, all the surfaces in contact with concrete (foundation, forms, reinforcements,
anchoring parts, etc.) be at a temperature greater than +5°C; any snow or ice must be removed;
• aggregates shall be unfrozen or, in any case, free of ice on the surface and free of frozen lumps;
• use of wood forms or insulated metal forms;
• protection of the exposed concrete surfaces, by means of thermal panels such as, for example,
sheets of foamed polystyrene, so as to prevent the loss of the heat of hydration and to maintain a
temperature higher than 10° C on the surfaces ;
• utmost care shall be taken in vibrating and compacting the concrete;
• temperature of the mix at the time of pouring higher than +10°C, which may be achieved even
by a suitable system of preheating the aggregates and/or the mixing water; in this case,
however, the temperature of the mix must never exceed 25°C;
• keeping the forms and protections for a minimum of 3 days after pouring.
In case of hot weather concreting, the concrete mix shall be designed considering adequate admixture.
The following precautions should be taken on site:
• provide adequate shadow to aggregates;
• reduce the water temperature;
• replace a portion of water with ice.

Execution of grouting
The indication of the grout manufacturer shall be followed for a proper grout preparation. During the
first grouting execution, if necessary, the supervision of grout manufacturer technicians may be
required in order to validate the procedures and properly train the contractor workers. In case of
adverse climatic conditions the construction contractor shall issue dedicated documentation to EGP
describing the execution procedures and the precautions to the taken at site for handling of materials,
preparation and pouring of grout.
At least six (6) grout samples shall be taken during the pouring of the grout. Three (3) samples shall be
used in order to define the grout resistance before the anchor bolt tensioning. Tests results shall be
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issued to EGP. In case of deviation of the grout properties at the age of tests from the properties
defined by the manufacturer at the same age, the anchor bolts tensioning shall not be started (even if
the minimum required resistance for bolt tensioning has been reached).

Execution of piles
Bored cast in situ piles shall preferably be used for the foundation of wind turbine generators.
Segregation of aggregates shall be avoided in pumping concrete, through a flexible pressure hose
placed down to the bottom of the hole. In case of loose soil materials, a permanent case shall be put in
place. The reinforcement arrangement shall be such that all possible interferences during pouring are
avoided.
The portion of concrete in excess from the cut-off level shall be removed, avoiding all possible damage
to rebars and properly exposing them. The lean concrete layer for the piles cap shall be laid down as
soon as possible in order to prevent soil to impair the connection. All loose material shall be removed
before starting the concreting of the pile cap.

Tests on piles
The design resistance of piles shall be checked during the geotechnical characterization in order to have
a proper design. After the execution the following tests will be performed for:
• axial compression load (according to ASTM D1143)
and, if required:
• axial tensile load (according to ASTM D3689);
• lateral load (according to ASTM D 3966).
Based on the number of executed piles and on the soil heterogeneity, the number of tests shall be
defined. The following minimum requirements shall be respected:
• 1 pile test if N≤20
• 2 pile tests if 21<N≤50
• 3 pile tests if 51<N≤100
• 4 pile tests if 101<N≤200
• 5 pile tests if 201<N≤500
A lower number of tests on executed piles may be performed if trial piles have been previously tested.
During the construction phase, the quality of the execution shall be verified by means of non destructive
tests. Cross-hole tests or sonic tests are here suggested. Cross hole tests are performed in pipes
previously installed inside the reinforced concrete piles. The pipes shall be arranged at 120°C, properly
sealed at the junctions and closed at their lower end; they shall be fixed to the reinforcement in order
to keep their mutual distance constant along the pile length.
Cross hole tests shall be performed in compliance with standard ASTM D 6760.
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Figure 34 Pre-installed pipes for cross-hole test

Sonic tests on reinforced concrete piles are performed with sound meters able to emit sonic pulses and
detect sound waves by percussion. The test is performed by installing an accelerometer on top of the
element and hitting the head of the pile with a nylon hammer to generate a compression wave whose
speed (between 3500 m/s and 4000 m/s for piles poured on site) is related to the quality of concrete.
The steps for the test must comply with standard ASTM D 5882.
Non destructive tests shall be performed at least on 1/3 of the executed piles, randomly selected. The
procedure shall be agreed with EGP before starting any activity.