Studies in 20th Century Literature

Volume 4 Article 7
Issue 2 Special Issue on African Literature

1-1-1980

Sembène Ousmane's Xala: The Use of Film and Novel as

Revolutionary Weapon
Kenneth Harrow
Michigan State University

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Sembène Ousmane's Xala: The Use of Film and Novel as Revolutionary Weapon

Abstract
Sembène Ousmane's Xala was written as a novel and made into a film in 1974. It is a biting attack upon
the newly risen bourgeois class that has ascended to power and wealth in Senegal since independence.
The ideological framework of Xala rests upon Marxist assumptions adapted to and modified by the
circumstances in Africa. The distinctively Senegalese features which mark Sembène's portrayal include
Muslim and traditional religious beliefs which form the basis of the class oppression and the sexism
depicted in Xala. They also supply the title to the work since xala means impotency in Wolof, and it is
described with great humor by Sembène, as the result of a marabout's curse. Sembène's treatment of the
theme of class oppression focuses upon the great disparities that exist between the wealthy, elite classes
and the impoverished masses, especially the beggars and cripples who live on the streets of Dakar. By
focusing upon the issue of acculturation in the film, and by emphasizing the importance of imagery
related to sight and the act of seeing, Sembène effectively overcomes the deficiencies of the novel in
creating the film version of Xala.

Keywords
Sembène Ousmane, Xala, film, novel, bourgeois, Marxism, sexism, oppression, classes, impoverishment,
imagery, sight, act of seeing

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 Harrow: Sembène Ousmane's Xala: The Use of Film and Novel as Revolutionar

SEMBENE OUSMANE'S XALA:

THE USE OF FILM AND NOVEL AS
REVOLUTIONARY WEAPON

KENNETH HARROW
Michigan State University

Sembene Ousmane's works, originally inspired by the struggle

against colonial domination, now reflect the revolutionary intellec-
tual's protest against corrupt statism. Xala' was conceived as such
a revolutionary tool, and as such stands both against the corruption
of the contemporary, neo-colonialist establishment and for the
basic values of the revolution of the common people. But this idea
of a «true» revolution advocated by Sembene is not a simple
transplantation of European ideology-it is marked by the par-
ticular nature and demands of Senegal's situation. Classical Marx-
ist thought combines with African social and religious configura-
tions: together they must be seen as a package, as encompassing a
total political Weltanschauung in which revolution today presses its
demands as insistently as did the movement for independence in the
past.
Written in 1974, and made into a film the same year, Sembene
Ousmane's Xala offers us a unique opportunity to compare the ef-
fectiveness of African film and novel as vehicles for social and
political protest. The structure of the plot is a simple one: El Hadji
Abdou Kader Beye, the protagonist, decides to celebrate his finan-
cial success since Independence by taking a third wife, N'Gone,
despite the feelings of his first two wives. On his wedding night he
finds himself struck by xala, an impotency resulting from a curse.
He attempts to find the cause, which he suspects lies with one of his
other wives, and seeks a cure with marabouts, Muslim spiritual
authorities credited with strong magical powers. In the end we learn
that El Hadji was a thief, as well as a corrupt businessman, and
that it was not one of his wives but a man he had robbed who ex-
177
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acted the revenge.

The title «El Hadji» is a Muslim honorific denoting
venerableness and religious devotion: in Xala, El Hadji is a symbol
for an exploitative capitalism merged with an equally corrupt
government, for a religious hypocrisy linked to the oppression of
women and the abuse of traditional authority. He thus affords
Sembene the opportunity to attack a host of ills in one character.
Historical Muslim resistance to European colonalism
developed from the early days of French penetration into the in-
terior of Senegal. There were extensive campaigns led by Lat Dior
and Samori Toure in the 19th century, and mass movements like
those of the Mourids and the Hamalists which extended to the pre-
sent day. To many, Independence marked the culmination of a
long struggle. In both novel and film, Xala begins with images of El
Hadji acconpanying other black business leaders as they take over
the Chamber of Commerce formerly occupied by the French. The
formal espousal of official «revolution,» now dubbed «African
socialism» by Senegal's head of state, is portrayed in this scene in
which the prominent African Muslim joins with other blacks in
replacing their earlier European masters.
Of the same generation as her husband, Adja Awa Astou, El
Hadji's first wife, converted from Christianity (her name had been
Renee) to Islam, signaling, in the novel, that same revolt against the
past. Now, as a Muslim, she represents the highest religious ideals
set forth by her and El Hadji's new faith. She had accompanied her
husband to Mecca on the traditional pilgrimage, thus winning for
herself the honorific «Adja,» the female equivalent of «El Hadji.»
She is totally obedient and submissive to her husband: she accepts
polygamy without dissent, and even bows to El Hadji's discrimina-
tion against her conjugal and sexual rights in favor of his other
wives-again without a word of protest. She demands only that her
religious, moral and social respect be maintained. When El Hadji
urges her to enter her co-wife's house on the way to his third's wed-
ding, she refuses to leave the car. Her dignity as «Awa,» first wife,
demands that she be the honored one to whom the others must
defer, not vice versa. When her husband becomes impotent, she
protects his dignity by refusing to allow the subject to be discussed,
particularly by her modern, revolutionary daughter, Rama. In all
this she is an exemplary Muslim wife. But for the Marxist, this
represents delusion, not heroism: «The door closed, leaving Adja
Awa Astou alone again. As others isolate themselves with drugs she
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obtained her daily dose from her religion» (p. 25).

At its worst the Muslim faith serves, in the Marxist views of
the novel, as an instrument used by the men to oppress the women.
El Hadji, who is not particularly devout, uses this, his «patrimoine
religieux,» as he calls it in the film, as an excuse for taking a young,
beautiful creature as his third wife. When his daughter objects, he
slaps her forcefully and evokes religious tradition, exploited here
most blatantly for egotistical purposes.
The special stamp of El Hadji's Islamic convictions is marked
by the incorporation of traditional religious beliefs: fetishes, pro-
tective amulets, potions, spells and curses all appear prominently in
Xala. Indeed, the title, Xala, reinforces this fact: xala, meaning im-
potency, is a Wolof, not an Arabic, Muslim term. However, even
when extensively assimilated with Islam in the practices of the
marabouts, these traditional beliefs do not lose their antipodal op-
position to Westernized cultural and religious practices, and
therefore do not come to be associated with colonialist or neo-
colonialist models. They are not overtly acknowledged by the
dominant governing elite, whose affected acculturation is heavily
satirized, particularly in the film. Rather, they remain the province
of the villagers and the urban poor, the last, sad weapons of beg-
gars and the poverty stricken who lack the arsenal of Western
values. The marabouts and beggars who cause and cure the xala are
all indigent or non-Westernized. For Sembene they represent the
masses-not defined abstractly an economic class like the urban
proletariat-but simply the masses of African people who have
refused or not had the chance to accept modern European ways and
have generally suffered from the Western presence.
In contrast to them, the wealthy bourgeois Africans, many
engaged in trade and finance and enjoying the government's
favors, have risen to occupy the places of the former white col-
onialists. If the country is still indebted to France economically,
and is indebted to and controlled by the metropolitan country as
much as ever, still a new bureaucracy and infrastructure of African
origins has sprung up, often the most visible sign of the corruption
which casts its shadow over the masses in their slums and villages.
The Mercedes now have chauffeurs for black «hommes affaires;»
businessmen are portrayed as cynical and corrupt middlemen ac-
ting as stooges for the silent and invisible forces of an ever-
dominant European capital.
As with most African questions, the reality of everyday life

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does not leave one with pure choices, but rather midway between
the two poles of the modern European and the traditional African
worlds. A character caught strikingly thus is Rama, El Hadji's
eldest daughter. El Hadji wishes that this daughter had been a son
(as did Okonkwo in Things Fall Apart), since she is both more
courageous and less mercenary than his other children. In the novel
she drives a Fiat, and by dress and ideological choice asserts her
identity as a modern African against both European «Tomism»
and African, Islamic traditionalism. It is she alone who tells her
father of her opposition to his third marriage and refuses to accept
polygamy for herself when the time comes. In the film version her
revolutionary role is made more visible and is accentuated. Instead
of a Fiat, she is on a mobylette, out for all the city to see. Her hair
is plaited in the traditional African fashion, not straightened in the
modern European style. And her University work involves transla-
tions into Wolof, not French, which she refuses to speak in the
film.
Yet she enjoys the fruits of her father's corruptly earned
wealth, and all her actions take on somewhat the air of a bad cons-
cience. This point is brought out at the end of the novel in which
the differences between her and the lumpenproletariat are stressed.
When the host of beggars and cripples comes to Adja Awa Astou's
house and attacks El hadji, Rama is filled with indignation and
anger. Her loyalties divided, her bad conscience-or is it bad
faith?-leaves her «bursting with anger. Against whom? Against
her father? Against those wretched people? She who was always
ready with the words 'revolution' and 'new social order' felt deep
within her breast something like a stone falling heavily into her
heart, crushing her» (p. 112). Rama's position must have been the
most compelling of all, for the successful revolutionary author
himself whose own dilemmas are most accurately reflected in her
anguish.
Except for Rama, the women are generally portrayed as vic-
tims. The first and only faithful wife, Adja Awa Astou, suffers
deeply but patiently because of her husband's polygamous
choices-enduring the decline in his favors and, in the end, of his
fortunes as well. Her nobility is admirably figured in her majestic
bearing and, in the film, in the telling roar of the sea and the wind
which accompany her as she leaves the wedding celebrations of the
third wife. She dresses in traditional fashion and belongs to a
generation older than that of the other two wives-but still her villa
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and wealth, all bestowed by El Hadji, place her in the ranks of the
new African bourgeoisie, living in the suburban, luxurious quarters
of Dakar with their well-trimmed yards and well-patrolled streets.
The pathos of her victimization, like the purity of her religious
beliefs, is thus qualified by her material conditions.
The second wive, Oumi N'Doye, wears an elaborate wig and
dresses in modern European clothes in a sexually appealing style. In
the film especially she is played as a domineering, almost castrating
female. In the novel her function as servant to El Hadji's sexual
and worldly tastes is accentuated. Above all, her mercenary
qualities, seen in conjunction with her style and place in the mar-
riage, clearly accord with the classical Marxist doctrine which holds
that in the bourgeois marriage the woman is exploited and her role
is reduced to little more than that of a prostitute. In the novel this
aspect of Oumi's nature is emphasized when El Hadji's fortunes
collapse and she deserts him to become, probably once again, a
high fashion woman of easy virtue.
The third wife, N'Gone, is purely a sexual object. She is seen,
not heard. In the novel her more vulgar features are emphasized, as
is her inconsequential and shallow personality. She is depicted as
being the adjunct or counterpart of her «mother,» actually her
aunt, the Badyen, who arranges the marriage and clearly
manipulates El Hadji with the beautiful young girl as bait. The
helplessness of N'Gone is reflected in the impotency of her aunt,
whose two former husbands have both died and who cannot now
find herself a third due to the superstitious belief that husbands die
in threes. However, the Badyen is not left bereft of powers. It is she
who knows how to challenge the foolish male ego of El Hadji and
to seduce him with her niece. She is characterized in the novel as
manipulative and greedy, but with the particular insensitivity of the
victim, who grasps with the anxiety of the threatened, aware of
having no other recourse to power.
She is thus a counterpart to El Hadji himself and to all the cor-
rupt businessmen who resemble her in their own practices, mirror
her situation in their own life style, and yet, ironically, have ex-
ploited her counterparts in all of their own women. Love and
hatred, as with the African-European relationship, are also
reflected in the male-female relationships because they are based
upon power, upon an authority which devolves not from natural
gifts or venerable customs but from force wielded always for selfish
interest.

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Along with the position of women, it is the question of

language which bears particularly upon the African context of
revolutionary ideology in Xala. The issue of language lies at the
core of acculturation-the process of replacing the African cultural
identity with the European. The image of European modernity has
held out an attraction that all the rhetoric of Negritude and strug-
gling for liberation have not been able to diminish. For the poor
and illiterate, the modern American gangster movies, Kung Fu and
«Spaghetti» Westerns continue to serve «la mission civilisatrice,»
along with the French cooperants who still teach African
schoolchildren throughout their former colonies, still using the
French language and focusing upon traditional French subjects
such as French, not African, geography, history, and literature.
The unforgettable, anguished cries of the North African writers,
Jean Amrouche and Mouloud Feraoun still testify eloquently to the
continuing crisis of identity introduced by the process of accultura-
tion: «I feel that I'm condemned to being different, to an irreduci-
ble and disturbing singularity...I am Algerian, and I think that I am
completely French. »2 «Good Lord, what am I...Let someone tell
me what I am! Ah yes! That isn't enough.»3
In Algeria the government has attempted to solve this problem
by the policy of Arabization, in which the education in the early
school years is carried out exclusively in Arabic. Nonetheless, the
universities still rely upon French language instruction to a large ex-
tent, and the replacement of French by Arabic in Maghrebian
culture has not yet occurred for the vast majority of Maghrebian
authors.
For Sembene Ousmane, too, the question of language is of
major importance. A recurring theme in Xala is the opposition bet-
ween Wolof and French: the young, revolutionary Rama insists
upon conversing in Wolof, El Hadji in French. In the novel, Rama
and her fiance, Pathe, have a pact to speak in Wolof, and they fine
each other when one of them slips and lapses into French.
References are made, in the film, to Kaddu, a Wolof language
newspaper which associates itself with the plight of the poor
African. Language is the weapon of struggle par excellence, and it
both answers and raises complex questions which elude simplistic
solutions.
For example, the Awa, Adja Awa Astou-the former
Renee-now speaks only in Wolof, and it is in her family that the
struggle against Muslim polygamy and neo-colonaial French
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cultural models takes place. In contrast, the household of Oumi

N'Doye, the second wife, has capitulated completely to modern
bourgeois fashion: «Oumi N'Doye had prepared her aye in a spirit
of rivalry. A reunion meal. The menu culled from a French fashion
magazine... The table was laid in a French way. There were various
hors d'oeuvres and veal cutlets. The C6tes de Provence rose kept
the bottle of French mineral water company in the ice-bucket...»
(p. 55). Of course, this carries through with all the characters: the
greedier children of Oumi are raised in the French manner; the
businessmen conduct their Chamber of Commerce meetings in
emulation of their former colonial rulers; El Hadji and the other
bourgeois constantly affect French mannerisms, even when they
eject El Hadji from their number. Here the president proclaims, in
the best of Gallic tones, the preeminence of that tradition at the
final Chamber meeting in the film: «Memes les injures dans la
tradition la plus pure de la francophonie» (Even insults are to be in
the purest francophonic tradition).
The spoken word corresponds to the class divisions which are
strikingly visible to the eye-clothing, food, manners, even
religion-and it is here, in their presentation, that we see the core of
the problem posed by Xala. Sembene Ousmane has written this
polemical novel in the very language his heroes oppose, the
language of the oppressors-language used here as a purely and
totally European cultural expression. As a successful novelist, he
has learned to make skillful use of the oppressors' tools, but not in
a revolutionary sense. The banal composition and trite
polemics-often couched in purely sociological jargon (e.g., «It is
worth knowing something about the life led by urban polygamists.
It could be called geographical polygamy, as opposed to rural
polygamy...etc» (p. 66), betray a tradition of naturalism that dates
from Zola and that has scarcely improved on the original. The
dilemmas faced by Sembene in choice of style and language are
known to most successful African writers who insist upon represen-
ting the interests of a class from which their success has removed
them. Ngugi's solution, which was to bring his most recent play,
written in Kikuyu, to the villages, gave a greater immediacy to his
political message, and earned him more than a year in prison.
Kateb Yacine turned to the same solution in creating a «popular»
Arab language troupe of players in France. In the novel version of
Xala the contradictions for Sembene are heightened by the fact that
he must use French to identify those moments when his characters

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are supposed to be speaking in Wolof.

But what he dares not do in the novel-that is, write in
Wolof-he triumphantly affirms in the film. Sembene thus solves
the one great dilemma of the committed African writer by turning
to a medium in which he communicates with the uneducated classes
without betraying his ideals. The emphasis on language, which he
can now give with clear conscience in the film, is made visibly ap-
parent to a much greater degree than in the novel. When Rama
visits her father in his office, she insists upon speaking Wolof while
he responds in French. The novel doesn't contain these lines-nor
El Hadji's fury when he finally explodes at his daughter. In the
film, El Hadji is forced to defend himself against his former
business colleagues; at the height of the polemic he assumes his
daughter's position, using the same expletive with which she had
belabored him, «salauds,» and requests permission to address them
in Wolof. The tables are turned on El Hadji, and his former col-
leagues are aware of the implicit ideology behind his request: they
angrily refuse him. The novel does not contain any of this dialogue.
In the film the stately bearing of Adja Awa Astu is complemented
by her speech in Wolof; Oumi N'Doye's pretentiousness is
underscored by her obviously studied use of French. The novel can-
not convey any of this. The importance of the newspaper, Kaddu,
as a revolutionary instrument is stressed in the film, omitted in the
novel. Subtitles cannot be used in novels.
Without having to sacrifice his former audience-we in the
West are obviously still available as readers as well as
viewers-Sembene has succeeded in broadening his appeal, and
more importantly, extending his message to his Senegalese com- -

patriots in a way that doesn't betray what he is advocating. Here we

must seek consistency and not judge the film on critical aesthetic
grounds which ignore its ideological purposes. The film is more ef-
fective than the novel not because of a more sophisticated use of
the medium, but because of a more appropriately conceived rap-
port between visual image and theme, and a more effective oral
dimension. The wedding ceremony, for example, is filled with
numerous small touches used exclusively in the film, such as the fat
man picking his nose, the gay waiter saying «shee-it,» the «oreos»
joking about getting away from blacks in Spain and from
«Negritude» in Europe-in short, the whole African bourgeois
nouveau riche in all its pretentious crudeness, blindness, vulgarity,
and condescension. A little touch-the coins El Hadji throws to the
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beggars are retrieved by them only at the pleasure of a soldier who

filches one for himself. Crude power is displayed in crude
style-without extravagant color or plush sets, lacking in
sophisticated camera techniques-and yet it is as memorable as the
paraplegics whose forlorn presence is felt lingering on the street
corner. When El Hadji, piqued by their implacable gaze, has them
cast out of his sight, the cripples and beggars doggedly return to
haunt their wealthy counterparts, the new elite who have risen from
their ranks by thieving, and how are afraid of seeing their own im-
age figured in the others' anguish.
The film and novel both portray the rich as usurpers and op-
portunists whose pretensions to European culture disguise their re-
cent ascension from the street. They hate the street and its poverty
for reminding them of that fact-a point reinforced particularly in
the film. In the novel El Hadji complains about the beggars to the
president: «These beggars should be locked up for good» (p. 33).
However, in the film he has the president call the police to have the
street cleared of the dechets humains, claiming that they would hurt
tourism, that independence should have brought an end to the sight
Th film version gives greater emphasis to
their presence. We are always aware of the poor people in the
streets, from the opening shot, to the wedding reception, to El
Hadji's return to his shop. They gather in crowds when there's an
accident (and even to see the film being made!). We see them ship-
ped to the barren plains outside of town, returning painfully to the
streets by crawling and dragging themselves back in the heat of the
day. It is their presence, so much less visible in the novel, which
goes far in defining the character of the film's setting and its at-
mosphere.
This dimension is carried further in the crowd scene involving
the accident in which we see a man from the country being robbed.
He had taken the savings of his drought-stricken village to town to
buy grain and seeds for the new planting season, and now lost
everything. We see the thief take the money, buy some fancy
clothes, and eventually replace El Hadji on the council of the
Chamber of Commerce. The Marxist point, that private property is
theft and that the ruling class is composed of thieves, is reinforced.
At the end we learn that El Hadji had also stolen the property of his
clan, and we realize that the thief is merely reenacting El Hadji's
crime and that the cycle has come full circle: thieves will continue to
be wheeled in and out of place as each dog turns on the other, mak-

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ing pacts with the others when necessary, but never forming a truly
living community. The poor, in contrast, must band together in
order merely to survive. Their misery finds relief in the fraternity
created by the commonly shared conditions of their existence. They
have learned the law of survival, banding together, and can thus
cope with misfortune far greater than El Hadji's.
In the novel bourgeois life and values are underscored by the
use of imagery related to sight and the act of seeing. Almost every
emotional response is evoked in terms of ocular reactions. The
characters are even defined by the appearance of their eyes, as in
the case of Adja, characterized by the «frankness in her almond-
shaped eyes» (p. 11). When she was hurt by El Hadji, «her eyes
were lifeless» (p. 14). People are constantly looking away, or down,
or at someone, so as to convey pain or disinterest. The co-wives
«watch» the third's happiness (p. 23). Adja, unhappy, has «tiny
bright dots (shining) in her eyes» (p. 25). When Yay Bineta and the
Badyen check to see if N'Gone has been deflowered, they arrive at
the door and knock: «The two women exchanged glances. A vague
anxiety appeared in their eyes. The Badyen turned the knob and
slowly pushed the door open. She peered hesitantly inside. She was
met by the blue light of the room. Frowning, she looked around»
(p. 21. my stress).
The characters become cameras, and their expressions poses
for the lens of the others-what the existentialists call being-for-
others. This imagery recurs throughout the novel and is reinforced
by El Hadji's reliance upon «seers» and his vulnerability to the
curse of a blind beggar. What he doesn't want to see-the obverse
image of himself in the street beggars and cripples-is really his
own hypocritical, shallow self. A «Hadj» who drinks and steals,
evoking his «religious patrimony» to justify his greed and desire for
a pretty, young wife; who sleeps through the hours of prayer and
seeks a cure from holy men so he can fornicate; whose prosperity is
won by theft and who lacks in real charity for the poor-in all
respects is really the opposite of a pilgrim of great piety, which is
the meaning of the title «Hadj.» Sembene describes this man's pro-
blems in terms of seeing, since being, for such a superficial and cor-
rupted bourgeois, resides in the eye-in the impressions created by
such wedding presents as a car with a bow around it, by Western
businessmen's clothes which replace the African dress, and above
all, by an awareness of the other as an object to be seen and judged,
and which in turn sees and judges on the basis of appearance.
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The obvious superiority of the film medium for expressing this

theme is reinforced by an extended treatment of the contrast bet-
ween wealthy and indigent. The wealthy are seen frequently in-
doors with elaborate clothes and hairdoes, often cleaning and
fumigating the foul odors left by the poor. The colors and clothes
of the poor complement the washed-out walls and the large ex-
panses of the open space. Eyeglasses, at times ostentatiously
manipulated, sunglasses, references to blindness, and meaningful
looks exchanged between the women, all call attention to the visual
element.
The fourth dimension added on the filmtrack is the music,
often that of a kora, which, like the insistent intrusions of the
dechets humains on the barely enclosed space of the wealthy,
weaves like the thread that joins the beggar's chant to El Hadji's
xala. In the film the idological statement is total: the shocking con-
ditions of the lower classes cannot be hidden from sight. El Hadji's
xala must become public knowledge, like the Badyen's official
verification of his deflowering of his third wife. His checks must
bounce in public, in the end, as he goes bankrupt. His fall from for-
tune's graces must entail the loss of his public position on the board
of the Chamber of Commerce. Just as the marabout reimposes the
xala, the revolution must take place under the gaze of the poor, in
whose hatred the dialectical negative is expressed.
This is the meaning of the final scene, that El Hadji's cure
must consist in his debasement, as the poor were debased, in his
humiliation, which is also their lot, so as to end his isolation from
them. Our senses and sensibilities are challenged in this, and in the
frankness exposed in the other scenes intended by Sembene not just
to epater la bourgeoisie, but to force the viewer to confront a pain-
ful reality. Only on the basis of such harsh truth can change and
growth take place. Only with clairvoyance can revolution pass
beyond the rhetoric of the established authorities. The collective ex-
orcism of the xala at the end, the communal spitting on El Hadji,
represents a revolutionary, fetishistic action, and also a class-
conscious assertion of cultural values which alone can give life to a
real African socialism if it is not to betray itself in the «language»
of the oppressor.
In Africa, to change a wealthy, but impotent expropriator into
a poor but normal man is no small feat: magic, curses, and a life-
time of dedication are required. For Sembene Ousmane such enor-
mous forces as these lie in the grasp of the people whose power to

Published by New Prairie Press 11

 Studies in 20th & 21st Century Literature, Vol. 4, Iss. 2 [1980], Art. 7

188 STCL, Vol. 4, No. 2 (Spring 1980)

change their condition must also be exercised if there is ever to be a

revolution. This devotion to the masses and their viewpoint ex-
plains his ideological orientation, his turn to filmmaking, and the
greater success he achieves in the film rather than in the written ver-
sion of Xala.

NOTES

1. Sembene Ousmane, Xala (Westport: Lawrence Hill and Co., 1976), trans. Clive
Wake. All references to the novel, Xala, will be denoted by parenthetical indications
to the pages after each quotation. Quotations from the film will be given in French
without footnote or page number.
2. «L'Eternel Jugurtha,» Etudes Mediterrangennes, 2ieme trimestre, 1963, 11,
pp. 53-54.
3, Mouloud Feraoun, Journal (Paris: Editions de Seuil, 1962), pp. 70-71.

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DOI: 10.4148/2334-4415.1084 12