CHAPTER 7

DIGITAL TRANSMISSION OF CABLES

7.1 Introduction

With the continuous growth of digital services, and the need to utilize the existing
analog telephone network, coaxial cable network, and also the cable TV network,
various technical developments and studies were conducted to send digital over these
cable networks.
In this chapter we will consider digital transmission over different cables as fol-
lows,
1. Digital transmission over telephone network.
2. Digital transmission over long distance coaxial cable.
3. Digital transmission over cable TV network.

7.2 Digital Transmission Over Telephone Network

Telephone networks either dial up or leased line is one of the major medium for
digital transmission. The most widely used approaches are,
Communication Systems I, First Edition. 141
By Osama A. Alkishriwo Copyright c 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
142 DIGITAL TRANSMISSION OF CABLES

1. Voice band modems.

2. Wide band modems.

3. Digital subscriber loop system (DSL).

7.2.1 Transmission Parameters

Transmission parameters that determine data communication performance over 4 kHz
telephone circuits are:

Attenuation distortion

Envelope delay distortion

Noise

Phase jitter

Level variation

Depending on the modem design, some of these parameters may have little effect
on performance. For most modems, however, the amplitude and phase character-
istics are of primary importance due to intersymbol interference that results from
amplitude and phase distortion.

Attenuation distortion is specified by a limit placed on the loss at any frequency

in the passband relative to the loss at a reference frequency (800 Hz). As be-
fore CCITT recommendation G132 allows up to 9 dB variation from the value
expected at 800 Hz reference frequency.

Envelope delay distortion: The time delay between input and output waveforms
is called phase delay, defined as Tp = β/ω sec. This phase delay varies with
frequency. The difference between phase delay at two frequencies is called (de-
lay distortion) defined by Td = β2 /ω2 − β1 /ω1 . For modulated waveforms,
the envelope of the signal may also suffer distortion due to difference in prop-
agation time between any two specified frequencies. This (envelope delay) or
group delay distortion is defined as the variation in the slope of the phase shift
characteristics. Te = dβ/dω.
Envelope delay distortion is expressed relative to a reference frequency (800 Hz
or 1000 Hz). As an example, envelope delay found in a voice channel of an
AT&T. As channel bank is shown below. We notice that maximum delay occur
at the band edges, and minimum delays at the center of the band. Envelope delay
distortion is specified by the maximum variation in envelope delay permitted
over a band of frequencies.
According to AT&T specification the envelope delay distortion variation be-
tween frequencies 800−2600 Hz is 1.75 ms and between 1000 to 2400 is 1 ms.
 DIGITAL TRANSMISSION OVER TELEPHONE NETWORK 143

Figure 7.1 Envelope delay distortion of A5 channel.

This distortion can be minimized by introducing equalization to reach, envelope

delay distortion variation between 1000 Hz − 2600 Hz a value of 0.1 ms and
between 600 − 2600 Hz value of 0.3 ms and between 500 − 2800 Hz a value
of 0.6 ms.

Phase jitter arises from incidental frequency or phase modulation about the de-
sired transition times of the data signal. Phase jitter contributes to data errors by
reducing the receiver margin to other impairments. Sources of phase jitter in-
cludes instabilities in power supplies and in oscillators used to generate carrier
frequencies in FDM equipment. The most common frequency components of
jitter are found at power frequencies (50 or 60 Hz), ringing current (say 20 Hz)
and in harmonics of these frequencies.

From the previously mentioned transmission parameters, two critical parameters

namely attenuation distortion, and envelope delay distortion can be corrected by
equalization. The remaining characteristics can be corrected by careful selection
of the circuit configuration. An equalizer performs two functions,

1. Using the amplitude of the reference, the equalizer (amplitude equalizer) adds
attenuation or gain to other frequencies until the entire amplitude response is
flat.

2. The delay equalizer adds delay to center frequencies in order to match the delay
found at the band edge.

The overall result is to flatten the amplitude response and envelope delay charac-
teristics to a specified tolerance relative to values at the reference frequency. Equal-
ization can be performed by,

The users equipment.

The telephone company equipment.

The combination of the two.

A user provided modem is likely to include a form of equalization which may be

fixed or adjustable.

Fixed or compromise equalizers are based on the average characters of a large

number of telephone circuits.
144 DIGITAL TRANSMISSION OF CABLES

Adjustable equalizers are either manual or automatic. Automatic adaptive equal-

ization is now a standard features in modem of data rate more than 4800 bps.
Equalization provided by telephone company is known as conditioning and is avail-
able in different grades for voice band channels. Circuit conditioning may be per-
formed at various points in the transmission system.
At the transmitter side, known as pre-equalization. It is suitable if the line
characteristics are known.
At the receiver side, known as post equalization. This is most commonly used
in practice.
At the gate way nodes for long haul international circuit known as midpoint
equalization.

EXAMPLE 7.1

To check the variation of amplitude distortion, and delay distortion, assume that
a telephone channel is modeled as RC low pass filter with cut off frequencies
B = 4 kHz. Check if the variations in amplitude and the delay distortion are
within the permissible limit. Consider the following frequencies
(a) 400 Hz.
(b) 3000 Hz.
(c) 3600 Hz.

SOLUTION

1
B= = 4 kHz
2πRC
1
H(f ) = p
1 + (f /B)2
If Y (f ) = X(f )H(f )
At the refference frequency 800 Hz
1
H0 = H(f )|f =800 = q
= 0.981
800 2
1 + 4000

(a) 400 Hz

1
Ha = H(f )|f =400 = q = 0.995
400 2


1+ 4000
 DIGITAL TRANSMISSION OVER TELEPHONE NETWORK 145

Ha 0.995
The variation at f = 400 Hz ⇒ =
H0 0.981
 
0.995
or in dB = 20 log = 0.123 dB
0.981
which is below the limit of 4.3 dB

(b) 3000 Hz

1
Hb = H(f )|f =3000 = q
2 = 0.8
1 + 3000
4000
   
Hb 0.8
20 log = 20 log = −1.8 dB
H0 0.981
which is below the limit of 4.3 dB

(c) 3600 Hz

1
Hc = H(f )|f =3600 = q = 0.74
3600 2


1+ 4000
   
Hc 0.74
20 log = 20 log = −2.4 dB
H0 0.981
which is below the limit of 8.7 dB

For the pahse, θ(f ) = tan−1 (f /B)

(a) 400 Hz

 
−1 400
β|400 Hz = − tan = −5.71o = 354.29o = 6.18 rad
4000
6.18
Tda = = 2.46 ms
2π400
Tda − Td = 2.46 ms − 1.21 ms = 1.25 ms
which is below the limit of 1.75 ms

(b) 3000 Hz

 
−1 3000
β|3000 Hz = − tan = −36.87o = 323.13o = 5.64 rad
4000
5.64
Tdb = = 0.3 ms
2π3000
Tdb − Td = 0.3 ms − 1.21 ms = −0.91 ms
which is below the limit of 1.75 ms
 146 DIGITAL TRANSMISSION OF CABLES

(c) 3600 Hz

 
3600
β|3600 Hz = − tan−1 = −41.99o = 318.01o = 5.55 rad
4000
5.55
Tdc = = 0.25 ms
2π3600
Tdc − Td = 0.25 ms − 1.21 ms = −0.96 ms
which is below the limit of 1.75 ms

7.2.2 Voice Band Modems

Modems may be classified as follows,

Asynchronous or synchronous
Two wire or four wire
Half or full duplex
Dial network or leased line
Modem means modulation/demodulation, the data is used to modulate a carrier. A
carrier is simply cosine wave tone to modulate it by changing its amplitude, fre-
quency or phase as the data change. In other words the types of modems are,
Amplitude shift keying ASK
Frequency shift keying FSK
Phase shift keying PSK
They may be binary or M-ary modems. The modems may be low speed asyn-
chronous modem or high speed asynchronous modem, or synchronous. The FSK
modems are used for asynchronous transmission. The bit rates that are commonly
in use are: 600 bps, 1200 bps, and 2400 bps. The mark frequency is 1300 Hz or
1200 Hz for half duplex and the space frequency is 2100 Hz or 2200 Hz for half
duplex. For the duplex FSK modems the frequencies used are: 2225 Hz for mark
and 2025 Hz for space in one direction. In the other direction 1270 Hz for marks
and 1070 Hz for space. The DPSK modems are used for synchronous transmission.
The bit rate used are
2400 bps CCITT V.26 4DPSK fc = 1800 Hz
4800 bps CCITT V.27 8DPSK fc = 1800 Hz
9600 bps CCITT V.29 16QAM fc = 1700 Hz

14400 bps modems are basically similar to V29 type of 9600 bps modem, the bits
are taken six at a time so that the modem is signaling at a rate of 2400 band as in
V.29.
 DIGITAL TRANSMISSION OVER TELEPHONE NETWORK 147

ITU recommendation V specifies FSK modem for a 600/1200 bps operating in

the general switched telephone network as indicated in Table 7.1,

Table 7.1
Mode Mark frequency Space frequency
Mode 1 up to 600 bps 1300 Hz 1700 Hz
Mode 2 up to 1200 bps 1300 Hz 2100 Hz

The modern transmission rates beyond the limitation of FSK modems are com-
monly implemented using DPSK. Four phase DPSK is a universal standard for 2400 bps
while 8DPSK is a universal standard for 4800 bps, and 16QAM modem is used for
9600 bps, and 64QAM is implemented with 16 kbps modem. Table below illus-
trates transmission characteristic of standard high speed modem. Other important

Table 7.2 Transmission characteristics of standard high speed modems.

Characteristic ITU Rec. V.26 ITU Rec. V.27 ITU Rec. V.29
Data rate 2400 bps ± 0.01% 4800 bps ± 0.01% 9600 bps ± 0.01%
Modulation rate 1200 sym./s ± 0.01% 1600 sym./s ± 0.01% 2400 sym./s ± 0.01%
Carrier frequency 1800 ± 1 Hz 1800 ± 1 Hz 1700 ± 1 Hz
Spectrum shaping N/A 50% Raised cosine N/A
Modulation type 4DPSK 8DPSK 16QAM
Equalization Fixed compromise Automatic adaptive Automatic adaptive
Scrambler N/A Self syn. with length 27 − 1 Self syn. with length 223 − 1

transmission characteristic of voice band modem is:

1. Synchronization mode: modems operate with asynchronous or synchronous in-

terface with the data terminal equipment (DTE). Synchronous data terminals
use a clock provided by either the DTE or modem. In general, low speed modem
(below 1200 bps operate asynchronously and high speed modem synchronously.

2. Transmission mode: most modems operate with simultaneous two way data
exchange (duplex). When the modulator and demodulator share the same line,
however, half duplex transmission is required in which the modem can transmit
and receive data but not simultaneously. Simplex modems can only transmit or
receive data.

3. Calling mode,

Originate modems: can access telephone line and initiate transmission.

Answer modems: can respond to a call but cannot initial one.
Originate/Answer modems: can perform both functions.
148 DIGITAL TRANSMISSION OF CABLES

4. Terminal interface: compatibility between the DTE and modem requires that
data, timing, and control lines be specified, standard interfaces have been devel-
oped by EIA and ITU-T.
5. Line interface: In general half duplex modems interface with two wire lines,
and duplex modem interface with four wire lines. For low speed transmission,
however, modems can be designed to operate duplex over two wire lines by use
of separate frequency bands between transmit and receive carriers.
6. Echo suppressors: Echoes are a problem on long distance telephone connec-
tions especially by satellite. Echo suppressor solve this problem by detecting
the direction of transmission of the talking person and introducing loss into the
return transmission path. However for duplex data transmission, echo suppres-
sors must be disabled or removed. In AT &T network echo suppressors are
disabled by a single frequency tone within the band 201 to 2240 Hz applied for
at least 400 ms. The echo suppressor remains disabled as long as there is a con-
tinuous energy in the channel. Any interruption in the data signal over 100 ms
in duration reactivates the echo suppressors. Now a days echo suppressors are
replaced by echo canceller.

7.2.3 Wideband Modems

Wide band modems on analog telephone network utilizes FDM are used on the level
of group and super group to send data rates above 20 kbps. Earliest application of
group modems allowed data rates of 19.2 or 38.4 kbps using simple ASK, FSK, or
PSK modulation. Recent standards for group modems have been based on 8n kbps
standard, based on 8 kHz sampling frequency.
These standards are based on ITU-T recommendation as shown in Table 7.3.

Table 7.3 Transmission characteristic of ITU recommended group modems.

Characteristic ITU Rec. V.35 ITU Rec. V.36 ITU Rec. V.37
Data rate 48 kbps (n = 6) 48, 56, 64, and 96, 112, 128, 144, and
72 kbps (n=6,7,8,9) 168 kbps (n=12,14,16,18,21)
Equalization N/A N/A Automatic adaptive
Modulation type AM suppressed 3 level partial 7 level partial
carrier response response
Scrambler Self syn. with Self syn. with Self syn. with
length 220 − 1 length 220 − 1 length 220 − 1

It is observed that for data rates above 72 kbps automatic adaptive equaliza-
tion techniques have been applied to group modem design resulting in rates up to
168 kbps as specified by ITU-T recommendation V.37.
The next level in FDM Hierarchy is the 240 kHz bandwidth super group. Data
rates of the order of 250 kbps can be transmitted via a super group modem. By using
 DIGITAL TRANSMISSION OVER TELEPHONE NETWORK 149

efficient modulation techniques and adaptive equalization a data rate of 800 kbps is
achieved. An increasing demand for wide band digital transmission over existing
analog microwave systems has led to the development of wide band modems that
interface directly with an analog radio.
With the increase use of PCM repeated lines, modems have been developed to
allow direct interface of PCM and TDM equipment with analog FM radio or directly
to the line, thereby eliminating the need for converters between FDM and TDM
systems as shown in Fig. 7.2. The transmit and receive filters are shaping filters

Figure 7.2 Digital transmission over line or radio.

of the raised cosine or partial response type. The general characteristic of partial
response filter is shown in Fig. 7.3.

Figure 7.3 Partial response filter characteristic.

Existing FDM transmission systems can be adapted to simultaneously carry a

digital within the base band of the cable or microwave system. Three basic methods
have been used. Their names indicate where the digital spectrum is located with
respect to the FDM spectrum. These methods are:
Data under voice (DUV)
Data in voice (DIV)
Data above voice (DAV) or data over voice (DOV)
1. Data under voice (DUV) technique
AT &T uses its existing microwave radio systems to carry 1.544 M bps data
150 DIGITAL TRANSMISSION OF CABLES

via the DUV technique. The AT &T U 600 master group occupies the band
from 564 kHz to 3084 kHz. So that the lower 564 kHz of base spectrum is
available for data transmission. Figure 7.4 indicates the scheme used to transmit
1.544 M bps data within the lower 564 kHz band. The base band spectrum of
the AT &T data under voice (DUV) technique is shown in Fig. 7.4.

(a)

(b)

Figure 7.4 Data under voice (DUV) system used for transmission of 1.544 M bps.

Figure 7.5 Base band spectrum of AT &T data under voice transmission system.

The function of scrambler at the receiver–transmitter is to convert the bipolar

signal to a unipolar format and then scrambles the signal to prevent discrete
spectral components that could interfere with the FDM channels. The encoder
converts the binary input to a four level rate of 772 k symbols/sec. The class 4
partial response filter shapes the digital signal, resulting in a seven–level signal
with a spectral nul at 386 kHz. The DUV receiver reconstruct the 1.544 M bps
bipolar signal from the seven level partial response signal by the inverse func-
tion of the transmitter.
 DIGITAL TRANSMISSION OVER TELEPHONE NETWORK 151

2. Data above voice (DAV) technique

This technique requires that the data spectrum be translated above the FDM
spectrum. FSK, PSK and other digital techniques can be used to place the
data in the desired frequency spectrum. An advantage of DAV technique over
DUV is that FDM signal and any service channels do not require translation.
The DAV system for 2.048 M bps transmission over FDM system has been
recommended by G941 and has been developed in hardware.

3. Data in voice (DIV) technique

This technique has not been as commonly used as DUV or DAV. However a pro-
vision of 6.312 M bps DIV transmission in place of 1232 kHz master group is
given in ITU-T recommendation G941. The advantage of hybrid digital/analog
transmission is the ability to carry digital and analog signals over a signal mi-
crowave or cable system when there is not sufficient analog or digital traffic to
justify separate systems.

7.2.4 Digital Subscriber Loop System (DSL)

DSL is a service that offers a faster internet connection (144 kbps to 6 M bps) than
standard dial up connections (56 kbps) over twisted pair copper telephone lines. The
DSL connect customer site with continuous connection to the internet (ISP) and use
of the phone at the same time by using splitter on modem. DSL technology utilizes
more of the frequencies in copper line by splitting line frequencies, using the higher
frequencies for data and the lower frequencies for voice and fax (0 to 4 kHz voice,
10 to 2.2 M Hz for data).

Figure 7.6 DSL system layout.

152 DIGITAL TRANSMISSION OF CABLES

Digital information is encoded in an analog carrier signal using QAM, this ex-
plains how up to 6 M bps can be carried in bandwidth of only 2.2 M Hz. At cus-
tomer premises a DSL router or modem connect the DSL line to LAN or individual
computer, at central office the DSL line connect to the modem as shown in Fig. 7.6.
The low pass filter splitter is blocking any frequency above 4 kHz ensuring
that voice transmission over the telephone is not disturbed during data transmission.
Wide band transformer channel capable of transmitting the high speed data is used.
The main parameters of this WB transformer are total harmonic distortion (THD),
insertion loss, and matching impedance.
There are many types of DSL such as,

1. Asymmetric DSL (ADSL)

ADSL is one form of DSL. It is called asymmetric because most of its two way
or duplex BW is devoted to 6.1 M bps down stream to customer and 640 kbps
up stream to central office. The high down stream means that telephone will
be able to bring motion video, audio, 3-D images. ADSL is sharing media and
require to share BW with neighbors in the working area. A good rule of thumb is
that each average user sending e-mail or small data files occupies about 20 kbps.
So a 144 kbps DSL circuit would theoretically support 7 users or PC’s.

2. Splitter less DSL (DSL lite)

Splitter less ADSL is essentially a slower ADSL that does not require split-
ting of the line at user end but manages to split it for the user remotely at ISP.
This saves the cost of ADSL. Lite provides data rate of 128 kbps up stream to
6 M bps.

3. High bit rate DSL (HDSL)

The main characteristics of HDSL is that symmetrical, an equal amount of BW
is available in both directions. For this reason, the maximum data carried is
slower than ADSL, HDSL can carry E1 stream.

4. Very high data rate DSL (VDSL)

VDSL is developing technology that promises much higher data rates over rel-
atively short distances (between 51 M bps and 55 M bps over line up to 300
meter).

5. ISDN-DSL (IDSL)
IDSL is really closer to integrated service digital network (ISDN) data interface
at 128 kbps.

The following table illustrates the main type of DSL.

The main advantages of DSL are

1. Always on service.

2. Use phone and internet services simultaneously.

3. Provides up to 40 times faster than dial up modem.

 ASYMMETRIC DIGITAL SUBSCRIBER LINE (ADSL) 153

Table 7.4 Characteristics for main types of DSL.

DSL Description Data rate Data rate 0.5 mm cable Number Application
type down stream up stream distance limit of pairs
IDSL ISDN-DSL 128 kbps 128 kbps 6 km 1 Data only no voice
DSL Splitter 1.54 M bps to Depend on 6 km 1 Do not have to install
lite less 6 M bps service 6 km 1 splitter at customer side
HDSL High bit 2 M bps 2 M bps 4 km 1, 2 E1 service
rate DSL
VDSL Very high 12.9 to 1.6 to 1.5 km at 12.9 M bps 1 ATM
bit rate DSL 54 M bps 2.3 M bps 300 m at 54 Mbps network
ADSL Asymmetric 1.55 to 16 to 5.5 km at 2.M bps 1 Used for internet
DSL 6 M bps 640 kbps 4 km at 6 Mbps and web access

4. Multicomputer on single DSL line.

5. Dedicated connection, no more busy signals and dropped connections.

7.3 Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line (ADSL)

7.3.1 Background
ADSL has the characteristic that the data can flow faster in one direction than the
other, asymmetrically. Service providers usually implement ADSL for internet con-
nection. The higher speed direction is used for download from the internet, and the
lower speed for the upload from the user.
ADSL is the most common type offered to home users in many places due to
technical and marketing reasons. On the technical side, the crosstalk at the DSLAM
(Digital Subscriber Line Access Multiplexer) in the central office (Exchange) due to
many circuits connected to it is more than that at the customer premises. Thus the
data sent from the user will suffer more crosstalk noise at the central office DSLAM,
thus tower speed can be supported. On the other hand, the download signal from the
central office DSLAM modem can have more transmit power on the nosiest port thus
it can support higher speed.
For conventional ADSL, down stream rates start at 256 kbps and reaches typi-
cally 8 M bps within 1.5 km of the DSLAM equipped central office or remote ter-
minal. Upstream rates stand at 64 kbps and reached 256 kbps but can go as high
as 1024 kbps. The distance length of the ADSL depends on the type of the cable,
the SNR, signal attenuation, and other transmission factors. Figure 7.7 shows ADSL
connection.
154 DIGITAL TRANSMISSION OF CABLES

Figure 7.7 ADSL Connection.

7.3.2 ADSL Standards

Different standards of ADSL were adopted by ITU. These standards have different
speeds and utilize different bands. Table 7.5 shows these standards. The indicated
downstream and upstream rates are theoretical maximum, the ADSL access utilize
1.1 M Hz band, while ADSL 2+ utilize 2.2 M Hz band.

Table 7.5 Characteristics for main types of DSL.

Standard Name Standard Type Downstream rate Upstream rate
(Mbps) (Mbps)
ANSI T1.413-1998 issue 2 ADSL 8 M bps 1 M bps
ITU G.992-1 ADSL (G.DMT) 8 M bps 1 M bps
ITU G.992-2 ADSL Lite 1.5 M bps 0.5 M bps
ITU G.992-3/4 ADSL 2 12 M bps 1 M bps
ITU G.992-3/4 Annex J ADSL 2 12 M bps 3.5 M bps
ITU G.992-3/4 Annex L ADSL 2 12 M bps 1 M bps
ITU G.992-5 ADSL 2+ 24 M bps 1 M bps
ITU G.992-2 Annex L ADSL 2+ 24 M bps 1 M bps
ITU G.992-2 Annex M ADSL 2+ 24 M bps 3.5 M bps

7.3.3 How does ADSL Work?

ADSL utilize two separate frequency bands, one for upstream and one for down-
stream; ADSL uses frequency division multiplexing to exploit the 1 M Hz capacity
of twisted pair. There are three elements for the ADSL approach as shown in Fig.
7.8.

1. The lowest 25 kHz is reserved for voice i.e for the plain old telephone service
(POTS). The voice utilize the band from 0 to 4 kHz only, the addition band-
width is to prevent crosstalk between voice and data channels.
 ASYMMETRIC DIGITAL SUBSCRIBER LINE (ADSL) 155

2. Use either FDM or echo cancellation to allocate two bands as shown in Fig.
7.8(b).

3. Use FDM within the upstream and downstream bands. In this case a single bit
stream is split into multiple parallel bit streams and each portion is carried in
separate frequency bands.

(a)

(b)

Figure 7.8 ADSL Channel Configuration, (a) Frequency division multiplexing scheme, and
(b) Echo cancellation.

When echo cancellation is used, the entire frequency band for the upstream chan-
nel overlaps the lower portion of the downstream channel. This has two advantages
over the FDM scheme.

1. The echo cancellation design is more flexible for changing upstream capacity.
The upstream channel can be extended upward without running into the down-
stream; instead, the area of overlap is extended.

2. The higher the frequency, the greater the attenuation. With the use of echo
cancellation, more of the downstream bandwidth is in the “good part of the
spectrum.

The disadvantage of the use of echo cancellation is the need for echo cancellation
logic on both ends of the line as shown in Fig. 7.9.
156 DIGITAL TRANSMISSION OF CABLES

Figure 7.9 Echo cancellation scheme.

In the standard ADSL, the band from 25.875 kHz to 138 kHz is used for up-
stream communication, while the band from 138 kHz to 1104 kHz is used for
downstream communication as shown in Fig. 7.10.

Figure 7.10 Frequency plan for ADSL.

7.3.4 Discrete Multi Tone Modulation (DMT)

The available transmission band (upstream or downstream) is divided into a number

of 4 kHz subchannels. The DMT uses multiple carrier signals at different frequen-
cies sending some bits on each subchannel. On the initialization, the DMT modem
send out test signal on each subchannel to determine the signal–to–noise ratio. The
modem then assigns more bits to subchannels of more SNR and less bits to subchan-
nels of less SNR quality. Each subchannel can carry a data rate from 0 − 60 kbps.
General block diagram for DMT transmission is shown in Fig. 7.11. After initial-
ization the bit stream to be transmitted is divided into a number of sub-streams one
for each subchannel, where the sum of the data rates of sub-streams is equal to the
total data rate. Each sub-stream is modulated using QAM. Each QAM signal occu-
pies a specific frequency band so these signals can be combined by simple addition
to produce the composite signal for transmission.
Present ADSL/DMT designs employ 256 downstream sub-channels. In theory
with each 4 kHz subchannel can carry 60 kbps, then it is possible to transmit at a
rate of 15.36 M bps. In practice transmission impairments prevent achievements of
 DATA TRANSMISSION OVER LONG DISTANCE COAXIAL CABLE SYSTEM 157

Figure 7.11 DMT transmitter.

this data rate. Current implementation operate at from 1.5 to 9 M bps depending on
the line distance and quality.

7.4 Data Transmission Over Long Distance Coaxial Cable System

7.4.1 General Description

Coaxial cables are widely used for local area network (LAN). But for point to point
long distance digital transmission its use is limited due to the use of fiber optic ca-
bles. As a result the main link design objective in this time is to adopt and expand
existing frequency division multiplexing (FDM) coaxial cable link to digital trans-
mission system by using the same repeater location of the FDM system. Therefore
the design methodology starts from the given cable dimension to determine the pos-
sibility to serve the link without repeaters. If not, calculate the number of remote
power repeaters which require housing and power feeding source.
The configuration of the digital transmission coaxial cable system is the same
as that of FDM analog system. But the repeaters in this digital transmission are
regenerative repeaters where signal received, sampled, applied to decision device,
and regenerate the digital signal and retransmit it to the next repeater as shown in
Fig. 7.12.

7.4.2 Link design methodology of digital coaxial cable system

To design the system, follow the following steps:
158 DIGITAL TRANSMISSION OF CABLES

Figure 7.12 Configuration of digital coaxial cable system.

1. Find transmission distance.

2. Find transmission capacity (speed).
3. Find cable dimension 2a/2b. This is obtained from the existing system, or select
typical available cable dimension.
4. Define the transmission performance objective. This is obtained by selecting
the appropriate error rate required, usually it is obtained from ITU recommen-
dations, usually 10−6 is used.
5. Define typical transmission power (PT ). This is obtained from system technical
data of the available technologies.
6. Define receiver sensitivity (PR ) for a given performance objective. This is ob-
tained from the error probability curve by specify performance objectives. This
is sometimes obtained from system technical data.
7. Define operation frequency. This depend on the available equipment used in the
system, it is obtained from system technical data.
8. Define required margin level (PM) based on allowance for tolerance on source
level, receiver sensitive path loss. Allowance for environment temperature vari-
ance, where the cable attenuation can be increased by 0.2% per centigrade at
frequency above 1 M Hz.
9. Calculate maximum allowable cable loss (L). It is necessary to determine max-
imum loss coefficient of the coaxial cable to be selected, and whether the route
can be serviced without repeaters. Maximum allowable cable loss is given by:

L = Pt − PR − P M
where,
PT : Transmission power in dBm
PR : Receiver sensitivity in dBm
P M : System margin in dB

Then obtain the maximum cable loss coefficient αc given by:

αc = L/D
 DATA TRANSMISSION OVER LONG DISTANCE COAXIAL CABLE SYSTEM 159

where,
L : Maximum allowable cable loss
D : Link distance in km

10. Calculate cable attenuation coefficient (α):

Substitute the cable dimension, operating frequency, in the following formula,

√ √
132.1763 × 10−6  f 1 1


a + b
α= dB/km
log(b/a)
where,
a : Radius of inner conductor in cm
b : Radius of outer conductor in cm
f : Operating frequency in Hz
 : Effective relative dielectric constant

Then check if the conditions of the following formulas are satisfied

αc ≥ α (7.1)

 
Zs + Zo
RL ≤ 20 log (7.2)
Zs − Zo dB

138
Zo = √ b

(7.3)
 log a

where
RL : System required return loss in dB
Zo : Cable characteristic impedance
Zs : Transmitter and receiver characteristic impedance
If the above conditions are not satisfied, modify the variable used by reselecting
system components to satisfy the conditions, otherwise introduce repeaters in the
link. If the link can not be realized by one section, introduce appropriate number
of repeater sections taking into consideration coaxial cable loss coefficient, available
transmitter power, and receiver sensitivity of each repeater, and remote power feed
limitation, as follows:

Maximum allowable loss L = PT − PR − P M dB (7.4)

Maximum repeater section length d = L/αCT km (7.5)

160 DIGITAL TRANSMISSION OF CABLES

where:
αCT is typical loss coefficient of the cable.
 
D
Number of repeaters without terminal repeater NR = Largest integer − 1(7.6)
d
Maximum number of remote power repeaters (DR) in one direction fed by the
main repeater is given by:
 
WT
NRM = (7.7)
WRE + WDR
where,
WT : DC power transmitted through the cable in one direction. That is Pt = 2Wr =
Total D.C power fed through the cable in two directions.
WRE : DC power dissipation by each repeater
WDR : Power dissipated by repeater section length given by:

0.055
WDR = × d × I2 (7.8)
a2
where,
I: Input current in A
a: Inner radius of inner conductor in cm
d In km

Number of main repeaters NM R is given by,

 
NR
NM R = Largest integer −1 (7.9)
NRM
Maximum repeater section length and number of repeaters can be modified ac-
cording to the previous existing system. It is assumed that transmitter and repeaters
has the same PT .

7.5 Cable Modems

Cable modems are devices that allow high speed access to the internet over a cable
TV network. A cable modem is more powerful, and capable of delivering data at 500
times faster as compared to analog modems.
How does cable modem work?
In a cable network data from the network to user is referred to as downstream; where
as data from user to network is referred to as upstream.
Cable modem receives at user using 64/256 QAM
Cable modems capable of delivering 30 − 40 M bps in the 6 M Hz cable (CATV).
This is approximately 500 times faster than a 56 kbps modem. The data from user
 DATA CABLES 161

M=64 M=256
k=6 k=8
can reduce bandwidth to 1/6 can reduce bandwidth to 1/8
can carry 96 kbps can carry 128 kbps

is modulated using QPSK/16QAM. Transmitter with data rates from 320 kbps −
10 M bps. The upstream and downstream may be configured to match subscriber
needs. A subscriber can continue to receive CATV services while simultaneously
receiving data on cable modem to be delivered to a PC using a splitter as shown in
Fig. 7.13.

Figure 7.13 Subscriber receives CATV service and data using splitter.

The block diagram of cable modem is shown in Fig. 7.14. The point χ is either
standard telephone line or QPSK/16QAM modem over a two way cable system.

Figure 7.14 Block diagram of cable modem.

7.6 Data Cables

Up until the late 1980’s thick or thin coaxial cable was typically used for 10 M bps
networks. However, around that time UTP (unshielded twisted Pair) became more
162 DIGITAL TRANSMISSION OF CABLES

commonly used because it is easy to install and less expensive. UTP CAT3 and
CAT4 were used for a quite limited emergence of 100 base–TX networks meant a
quick shift to CAT5. After the year 2000 (1000 Base–TX) Ethernet LAN created
a need for another specification, now being replaced by CAT6 cable and there is
a developing standard for CAT7. In the context of UTP type of cable use, the only
categories of interest are CAT3, CAT4, CAT5, CAT6 and CAT7. CAT is abbreviation
for the category number that defines that performance of building telecommunication
cabling as outlined by the Electronic Industries Association (EIA) standards.

1. Cat Cable Standards and Components

a. CAT5 cable is a multi-pair (usually 4 pairs) high performance cable that

consists of twisted pair conductors, used mainly for data transmission. Ba-
sic CAT5 cable was designed for characteristics of up to 100 M Hz. It is
typically used for Ethernet networks running at 10 or 100 M bps. The typi-
cal cable length is short. A 100 m length is common.
b. CAT5e cable, also known as enhanced category 5, is designed to support
duplex fast Ethernet operation and Gigabit Ethernet. The main differences
between CAT5 and CAT5e are in the performance characteristics. CAT5e
has stricter specifications for FEXT (far end cross–talk) and NEXT (near
end cross–talk), attenuation, and Return Loss (RL) than those for CAT5.
Although CAT5e is a 100 M Hz standard as CAT5 but it has the capacity to
handle more bit rate than CAT5.
c. CAT6 cable provides higher performance than CAT5e and features more
stringent specification for crosstalk and system noise. The quality of the
data transmission depends upon the performance of the components of the
channel. To transmit according to CAT6 specification, jacks, patch cables,
patch cross connect, and cabling must all meet CAT6 standards. The CAT6
components are usually tested individually and together for performance. In
general all CAT6 components must be backward compatible with CAT5e,
CAT5, and CAT3. If lower category components are used with CAT6 com-
ponents then the channel will achieve the transmission performance of the
lower category. For example if CAT6 cable is used with CAT5e jacks, the
channel will perform at a CAT5e level.

2. Cable Connections
Data patch cables can be wired in different ways,

a. Straight through cables are those in which each Pin of a connector is con-
nected to the same pin of the other as shown in Fig. 7.15(a).
These types of cables are used to patch between different equipment e.g.
PC’s to a hub. In general if a cable has a given color wiring on both ends, it
is called a straight through cables.
b. Cross over cables are those in which pins are cross connected as shown in
Fig. 7.15(b). These are used to patch between similar types of PC to another
 DATA CABLES 163

(a) (b)

Figure 7.15 Cable Connection, (a) Straight through cable, and (b) Cross cable.

PC, e.g. to make PC’s talk to each other we need to connect one PC to the
receive pair of the other PC and vice versa. In this case cross over cables is
used not straight through cables.
c. Cable color codes: The standards say that connectors should be cables with
specific color code. There are two standard layouts. If a cable has the same
layout on both ends, it is straight through type. If it has one layout on one
send and another layout on the other end it is cross over cable. The two
layouts are shown in Fig. 7.16 (a) and (b). They are 568A code cable and
568B code cable end.

(a) (b)

Figure 7.16 Cable color codes, (a) 568B cable code, and (b) 568A cable end.

d. RJ-45 Connector: EIA specifies RJ-45 (1508877) connectors for UTP cable.
It consists of 8 pins such that 4 pairs can be connected to it. It is compact,
modular, and male type. It is crimped on the end of the cable. The pin No.1
164 DIGITAL TRANSMISSION OF CABLES

is identified by looking at the connector end with the cable running away
from you. So it is the first pin at the right as shown in Fig. 7.17(a).
e. RJ-45 Jack: EIA specifies RJ-45 Jacks for UTP. It is a female component
in a wall plate or patch panel, etc. The pin numbering where looking at the
cavity in the wall is shown m Fig. 7.17(b).

(a) (b)

Figure 7.17 RJ-45, (a) Plug (male), and (b) Jack (female).

f. Patch panel: It is basically a set of jacks condensed into a single panel.

Possible connection configurations are 12, 24, 48 and 96 ports.