2.

3: The Terminated Lossless Line

Microwave engineers want to work with total voltage and current when possible and the art of design
synthesis usually requires relating the total voltage and current world of a lumped element circuit to the
traveling voltage world of transmission lines. This section develops the important abstractions that enable the
total voltage and current view of the world to be used with transmission lines. The first step in this process is
in Section 2.3.1 where total voltages and currents are related to forward- and backward-

Figure 2.3.1 : A terminated transmission line.

traveling voltages and currents. Insight into traveling waves and reflections is presented in Section 2.3.2.
Important abstractions are presented first for the input reflection coefficient of a terminated lossless line in
Section 2.3.3 and then for the input impedance of the line in Section 2.3.4. The last section, Section 2.3.5,
presents a view of the total voltage on the transmission line and describes the voltage standing wave concept.

2.3.1 Total Voltage and Current on the Line

Consider the terminated line shown in Figure 2.3.1 (a). Assume an incident or forward-traveling wave, with
traveling voltage 𝑉 0+ 𝑒−ȷ𝛽𝑧 and current 𝐼0+ 𝑒−ȷ𝛽𝑧 propagating toward the load 𝑍𝐿 at 𝑧 = 0 . The characteristic
impedance of the transmission line is the ratio of the voltage and current traveling waves so that
𝑉 0+ (𝑧) 𝑉 0+ 𝑒−ȷ𝛽𝑧 𝑉 0+ (0) 𝑉 0+
= = = = 𝑍0 (2.3.1)
𝐼0+ (𝑧) 𝐼0+ 𝑒−ȷ𝛽𝑧 𝐼0+ (0) 𝐼0+

The reflected wave has a similar relationship (but note the sign change):

𝑉 0− 𝑒ȷ𝛽𝑧 𝑉 0−
= = 𝑍0 (2.3.2)
−𝐼0− 𝑒ȷ𝛽𝑧 −𝐼0−

The load 𝑍𝐿 imposes an additional constraint on the relationship of the total voltage and current at 𝑧 = 0 :
𝑉𝐿 𝑉 (𝑧 = 0)
= = 𝑍𝐿 (2.3.3)
𝐼𝐿 𝐼(𝑧 = 0)
When 𝑍𝐿 ≠ 𝑍0 there must be a reflected wave with appropriate amplitude to satisfy the above equations. Now
the total voltage

𝑉 (𝑧) = 𝑉 0+ 𝑒−ȷ𝛽𝑧 + 𝑉 0− 𝑒ȷ𝛽𝑧 (2.3.4)

and the total current, 𝐼(𝑧) , is related to the traveling current waves by
𝑉 0+ 𝑉 0−
𝐼(𝑧) = 𝑒−ȷ𝛽𝑧 − 𝑒ȷ𝛽𝑧 = 𝐼0+ 𝑒−ȷ𝛽𝑧 (2.3.5)
𝑍0 𝑍0
+ 𝐼0− 𝑒ȷ𝛽𝑧

Thus at the termination of the line (𝑧 = 0) ,

𝑉 (0) 𝑉 0+ + 𝑉 0−
= 𝑍𝐿 = 𝑍0 +
𝐼(0) 𝑉 0 − 𝑉 0−
This can be rearranged as the ratio of the reflected voltage to the incident voltage:
𝑉 0− 𝑍𝐿 − 𝑍0
=
𝑉 0+ 𝑍𝐿 + 𝑍0

This ratio is defined as the voltage reflection coefficient at the load,

𝑉 0− (0) 𝑉 0− 𝑍𝐿 − 𝑍0
Γ𝐿 = Γ 𝐿𝑉 = = = (2.3.6)
𝑉 0+ (0) 𝑉 0+ 𝑍𝐿 + 𝑍0

That is, at the load

𝑉 0− = Γ 𝐿 𝑉 0+ (2.3.7)

The relationship of the traveling waves on the line can also be described using the transmission coefficient 𝑇
(this is the capital Greek letter tau which looks the same as the English letter ‘T’.)
The voltage transmission coefficient from a port at position 𝑧 to a port at position 0 is (for the transmission
line)
𝑉 0+ (at end of line) 𝑉 0+ (0)
𝑇 = 𝑇𝑉 = = (2.3.8)
𝑉 0+ (at start of line) 𝑉 0+ (𝑧)
𝑉 0+
= = 𝑒ȷ𝛽𝑧
𝑉 0+ 𝑒−ȷ𝛽𝑧

The relationship in Equation (2.3.6) can be rewritten so that the input load impedance can be obtained from
the reflection coefficient:
1 + Γ𝑉
𝑍𝐿 = 𝑍0 (2.3.9)
1 − Γ𝑉
Similarly, the current reflection coefficient can be written as
𝐼0− −𝑍 𝐿 + 𝑍 0
Γ𝐼 = = = −Γ 𝑉 (2.3.10)
𝐼0+ 𝑍𝐿 + 𝑍0

The voltage reflection coefficient is used most of the time, so the reflection coefficient, Γ , on its own refers to
the voltage reflection coefficient, Γ 𝑉 = Γ .
There are several special cases that are noteworthy. The most important of these is the case when there is no
reflected wave and Γ = 0. To obtain Γ = 0, the value of load impedance, 𝑍𝐿 , is equal to 𝑍0 , the characteristic
impedance of the transmission line as seen in Equation (2.3.6).
The total voltage and current waves on the line can be written as

𝑉 (𝑧) = 𝑉 0+ [𝑒−ȷ𝛽𝑧 + Γ𝑒ȷ𝛽𝑧 ] (2.3.11)

𝑉 0+
𝐼(𝑧) = [𝑒−ȷ𝛽𝑧 − Γ𝑒ȷ𝛽𝑧 ] (2.3.12)
𝑍0
From Equations (2.3.11) and (2.3.12) it can be seen that the total voltage and current on the line consist of
superpositions of incident and reflected waves.

Example 2.3.1: Forward- and Backward- Traveling Waves at an Open Circuit

A lossless transmission line is terminated in an open circuit. What is the relationship between the
forward- and backward-traveling voltage waves at the end of the line?
Solution
At the end of the line the total current is zero, so that 𝐼 + + 𝐼 − = 0 and so

− +
=−
 𝐼 − = −𝐼 + (2.3.13)
The forward- and backward traveling voltages and currents are related to the characteristic impedance by

𝑍0 = 𝑉 + /𝐼 + = −𝑉 − /𝐼 − (2.3.14)
Note the change in sign, as a result of the direction of propagation changing but the positive reference for
current is in the same direction. Substituting for I− at the termination,
+
𝑉 = −𝑉 − 𝐼 + /𝐼 − = −𝑉 − 𝐼 + /(−𝐼 + ) = 𝑉 −
(2.3.15)
Thus the total voltage at the end of the line, 𝑉 TOTAL , is 𝑉 + + 𝑉 − = 2𝑉 + . Note that the total voltage at the
end of the line is twice the incident (forward-traveling) voltage.

Example 2.3.2: Current Reflection Coefficient

A load consists of a shunt connection of a capacitor of 10 pF and a resistor of 60 Ω . The load terminates a
lossless 50 Ω transmission line. The operating frequency is 5 GHz .
a. What is the impedance of the load?
b. What is the normalized impedance of the load (normalized to 𝑍0 of the line)?
c. What is the reflection coefficient of the load?
d. What is the current reflection coefficient of the load?
Solution
a. 𝐶 = 10 ⋅ 10−12 F; 𝑅 = 60 Ω; 𝑓 = 5
⋅ 109 Hz; 𝜔 = 2π𝑓; 𝑍0 = 50 Ω
𝑍𝐿 = 𝑅||𝐶 = (1/𝑅 + ȷ𝜔𝐶 )−1 = 0.168
− ȷ3.174 Ω
b. 𝑧𝐿 = 𝑍𝐿 /𝑍0 = 3.368 ⋅ 10−3 − ȷ0.063 .
c. This is the voltage reflection coefficient. Γ 𝐿 = (𝑧𝐿 − 1)/(𝑧𝐿 + 1) = −0.985 − ȷ0.126 .
= 0.993∠187.3 ∘
d. Γ 𝐼𝐿 = −Γ 𝐿 = 0.985 + ȷ0.126 .
= 0.993∠(187.3 − 180)∘ = 0.993∠7.3 ∘

2.3.2 Forward- and Backward-Traveling Pulses

Reflections at the end of a line produce a backward-traveling signal. Forward- and backward-traveling pulses
are shown in Figure 2.3.2 (a) for the situation where the resistance at the end of the line is lower than the
characteristic impedance of the line (𝑍𝐿 < 𝑍0 ) . The voltage source is a step voltage that is zero for time 𝑡 < 0 .
At time 𝑡 = 0 , the step is applied to the line and it begins traveling down the line, as shown at time 𝑡 = 1 . This
voltage step moving from left to right is called the forward-traveling voltage wave.
At time 𝑡 = 2 , the leading edge of the step reaches the load, and as the load has lower resistance than the
characteristic impedance of the line, the total voltage across the load drops below the level of the forward-
traveling voltage step. The reflected wave is called the backward-traveling wave and it must be negative, as it
adds to the forward-traveling wave to yield the total voltage. Thus the voltage reflection coefficient, Γ , is
negative and the total voltage on the line, which is all that can be directly observed, drops. A reflected, smaller,
and opposite step signal travels in the backward direction and adds to the forward-traveling step to produce
the waveform shown at 𝑡 = 3 . The impedance of the source matches the transmission line impedance so that
the reflection at the source is zero. The signal on the line at time 𝑡 = 4 , the time for round-trip propagation on
the line, therefore remains at the lower value. The easiest way to remember the polarity of the reflected pulse
is to consider the situation with a short-circuit at the load. Then the total voltage on the line at the load must
be zero. The only way this can occur when a signal is incident is if the reflected signal is equal in magnitude
but opposite in sign, in this case Γ = −1 . So whenever |𝑍𝐿 | < |𝑍0 | , the reflected pulse will tend to subtract
from the incident pulse.
The opposite situation occurs when the resistance at the load is higher than the characteristic impedance of
the line (Figure 2.3.2 (b)). In this case the reflected pulse has the same polarity as the incident signal. Again, to
remember this, think of the open-circuited case. The voltage across the load doubles, as the reflected pulse has
the same sign as well as magnitude as that of the incident signal, in this case Γ = +1 . This is required so that
the total current is zero.
A more illustrative situation is shown in Figure 2.3.3 , where a more

Figure 2.3.2 : Reflection of a voltage pulse from a load: (a) when the resistance of the load, 𝑅 𝐿 is lower than the
characteristic impedance of the line, 𝑍0 ; and (b) when 𝑅 𝐿 is greater than 𝑍0 .

Figure 2.3.3 : Reflection of a pulse on an interconnect showing forward- and backward-traveling pulses.
𝑍𝐿 > 𝑍0 .
complicated signal is incident on a load that has a resistance higher than that of the characteristic impedance
of the line. The peaking of the voltage that results at the load is typically the design objective in many long
digital interconnects, as less overall signal energy needs to be transmitted down the line, or equivalently a
lower current drive capability of the source is required to achieve first incidence switching. This is at the price
of having reflected signals on the interconnects, but these are dissipated through a combination of line loss
and absorption of the reflected signal at the driver.

2.3.3 Input Reflection Coefficient of a Lossless Line

The reflection coefficient looking into a line varies with position along the line as the forward- and backward-
traveling waves change in relative phase. Referring to Figure 2.3.4 , at a distance ℓ from the load (i.e., 𝑧 = −ℓ ),
the input

Figure 2.3.4 : Terminated transmission line: (a) a transmission line terminated in a load impedance, 𝑍𝐿 , with
an input impedance of 𝑍in ; and (b) a transmission line with source impedance 𝑍𝐺 and load 𝑍𝐿 .

Figure 2.3.5 : The forward-traveling wave 𝑣+ (𝑡, 𝑧) = |𝑉 + | cos(𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽𝑧) = |𝑉 + | cos and the backward-traveling
(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙(𝑧))
wave 𝑣− (𝑡, 𝑧) = |𝑉 + | cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝛽𝑧) = |𝑉 + | cos . The phase, 𝜙 , of the forward-traveling wave becomes
[𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙(𝑧)]
increasingly negative along the line as 𝑧 increases, and when reflected the phase 𝜙 of the backward-traveling
wave becomes increasingly negative as the wave moves away from the load (i.e. as 𝑧 decreases).
reflection looking into a terminated lossless line is
𝑉 − (𝑧 = −ℓ) 𝑉 − (𝑧 = 0)𝑒−ȷ𝛽ℓ
Γ in |𝑧=−ℓ = = (2.3.16)
𝑉 + (𝑧 = −ℓ) 𝑉 + (𝑧 = 0)𝑒+ȷ𝛽ℓ
𝑉 − (𝑧 = 0) 𝑒−ȷ𝛽ℓ
= = Γ 𝐿 𝑒−ȷ2𝛽ℓ
𝑉 + (𝑧 = 0) 𝑒+ȷ𝛽ℓ
Note that Γ in has the same magnitude as Γ 𝐿 but rotates in the clockwise direction (becomes increasingly
negative) at twice the rate of increase of the electrical length 𝛽ℓ .
It is important to graphical concepts introduced later that there be a full appreciation for the angle of Γ in
becoming increasingly negative at twice the rate at which the electrical length of the line increases. Figure 2.3.5
is a way of visualizing this. The transmission line here is 𝜆/4 long with an electrical length of 90∘ and is
terminated in a load with reflection coefficient Γ 𝐿 = +1 . At position 𝑧 = 0 the forward-traveling voltage wave
is 𝑣+ (𝑡, 0) = |𝑉 + | cos(𝜔𝑡) , and this then propagates down the line in the +𝑧 direction. The forward-traveling
voltage at point 𝑧 = 𝜆/8 at 𝑡 = 0 will be the same as the voltage at 𝑧 = 0 at a time one-eighth of a period in the
past. The voltage at 𝑧 = 𝜆/8 is 𝑣+ (𝑡, 𝜆/8) = |𝑉 + | cos(𝜔𝑡 − 2π/8) , i.e. there is a phase rotation of −45∘ . Then at
𝑧 = 𝜆/4 , 𝑣+ (𝑡, 𝜆/4) = |𝑉 + | cos(𝜔𝑡 − 2π/4) , i.e. at time 𝑡 = 0 there is a phase rotation of −90∘ relative to 𝑣+ (0, 0) ,
and this is the negative of the electrical length of the line. The voltage wave reflects at the load and becomes a
backward-traveling wave. Here Γ 𝐿 = +1 and so, at the load, the phase of the backward- and forward-traveling
waves are the same. The backward-traveling wave continues to travel in the −𝑧 direction and its phase at 𝑡 = 0
becomes increasingly negative as 𝑧 gets closer to the input of the line. The phase of the backward-traveling
wave at 𝑧 = 0 is rotated −90∘ with respect to the backward-traveling wave at the load, and has rotated −180∘
relative to the forward-traveling wave at 𝑧 = 0 . For a lossless line, in general, the angle of
Γ in = [phase of 𝑉 − (𝑧 = 0) relative to the phase of 𝑉 + (𝑧 = 0)] + (the phase of Γ 𝐿 ) = .
−2(electrical length of the line)
+ (the phase of Γ 𝐿 )

2.3.4 Input Impedance of a Lossless Line

The impedance looking into a lossless line varies with position, as the forward- and backward-traveling waves
combine to yield position-dependent total voltage and current. At a distance ℓ from the load (i.e., 𝑧 = −ℓ ), the
input impedance seen looking toward the load is
𝑉 (𝑧 = −ℓ)
𝑍in |𝑧=−ℓ = (2.3.17)
𝐼(𝑧 = −ℓ)
1 + |Γ|𝑒ȷ(Θ−2𝛽ℓ) 1 + Γ 𝐿 𝑒ȷ(−2𝛽ℓ)
= 𝑍0 = 𝑍0
1 − |Γ|𝑒ȷ(Θ−2𝛽ℓ) 1 − Γ 𝐿 𝑒ȷ(−2𝛽ℓ)
Another form is obtained by substituting Equation (2.3.6) in Equation (2.3.17) :
(𝑍𝐿 + 𝑍0 )𝑒ȷ𝛽ℓ + (𝑍𝐿 − 𝑍0 )𝑒−ȷ𝛽ℓ
𝑍in = 𝑍0
(𝑍𝐿 + 𝑍0 )𝑒ȷ𝛽ℓ − (𝑍𝐿 − 𝑍0 )𝑒−ȷ𝛽ℓ
𝑍𝐿 cos(𝛽ℓ) + ȷ𝑍0 cos(𝛽ℓ)
= 𝑍0
𝑍0 cos(𝛽ℓ) + ȷ𝑍𝐿 cos(𝛽ℓ)
𝑍𝐿 + ȷ𝑍0 tan 𝛽ℓ
= 𝑍0 (2.3.18)
𝑍0 + ȷ𝑍𝐿 tan 𝛽ℓ
This is the lossless telegrapher’s equation. The electrical length, 𝛽ℓ , is in radians when used in
calculations.

2.3.5 Standing Waves and Voltage Standing Wave Ratio

The total voltage on a terminated line is the sum of forward- and backward-traveling waves. This sum
produces what is called a standing wave. Figure 2.3.6 shows the total and traveling waveforms on a line
terminated in a reactance and evaluated at times equal to multiples of an eighth of a period. Here the traveling
waves have the same amplitude indicating that the termination of the line is reactive, |Γ| = 1 . The interesting
property here is that the total voltage appears as a standing wave with fixed points called nodes where the total
voltage is always zero. This is more easily seen in Figure 2.3.7 (a), where the total voltage is overlaid for many
times. If the termination has resistance, then the magnitude of the backward-traveling wave will be less than
that of the forward-traveling wave and the overlaid total voltage is as shown in Figure 2.3.7 (b). This is still a
standing wave, but the minima are now not zero. The envelope of this standing wave is shown in Figure
2.3.7 (c), where there is a maximum amplitude 𝑉 max and a minimum amplitude 𝑉 min .
Now this situation will be examined mathematically to relate the standing wave to the reflection coefficient. If
Γ = 0, then the magnitude of the total voltage on the line, |𝑉 (𝑧)| , is equal to |𝑉 0+ | anywhere on the line. For
this reason, such a line is said to be “flat.” If there is reflection the magnitude of the total voltage on the line is
not constant (see Figure 2.3.7 (b)). Thus from Equations (2.3.11) and (2.3.12) :

|𝑉 (𝑧)| = |𝑉 0+ ||1 + Γ𝑒2ȷ𝛽𝑧 | = |𝑉 0+ ||1 (2.3.19)

+ Γ𝑒−2ȷ𝛽ℓ |
Figure 2.3.6 : Evolution of a standing wave with a reactive load as the sum of forward- and backward-traveling
waves (to the right and left, respectively) of equal amplitude evaluated at times 𝑡 equal to eighths of the period
𝑇 . At 𝑡 = 𝑇 /8 and 𝑡 = 5𝑇 /8 the total voltage everywhere on the line is zero.

Figure 2.3.7 : Standing waves as an overlay of waveforms at many times: (a) when the forward-and backward-
traveling waves have the same amplitude; (b) when the waves have different amplitudes; and (c) the envelope
of the standing wave. N is a node (a minimum) and AN is an antinode (a maximum). Nodes, N, are separated
by 𝜆/2. Antinodes, AN, are separated by 𝜆/2.
where 𝑧 = −ℓ is the positive distance measured from the load at 𝑧 = 0 toward the generator. Or, setting
Γ = |Γ|𝑒ȷΘ ,

|𝑉 (𝑧)| = |𝑉 0+ | ∣∣1 + |Γ|𝑒ȷ(Θ−2𝛽ℓ) ∣∣ (2.3.20)

where Θ is the phase of the reflection coefficient (Γ = |Γ|𝑒ȷΘ ) at the load. This result shows that the voltage
magnitude oscillates with position 𝑧 along the line. The maximum value occurs when 𝑒ȷ(Θ−2𝛽ℓ) = 1 and is given
by
𝑉 max = |𝑉 0+ |(1 + |Γ|) (2.3.21)

Similarly the minimum value of the total voltage magnitude occurs when the phase term is 𝑒ȷ(Θ−2𝛽ℓ) = −1 , and
is given by
𝑉 min = |𝑉 0+ |(1 − |Γ|) (2.3.22)

A mismatch can be defined by the voltage standing wave ratio (VSWR):

𝑉 max (1 + |Γ|)
VSWR = = (2.3.23)
𝑉 min (1 − |Γ|)
Also
VSWR − 1
|Γ| = (2.3.24)
VSWR + 1
Notice that in general Γ is complex, but VSWR is necessarily always real and 1 ≤ VSWR ≤ ∞ . For the matched
condition, Γ = 0 and VSWR = 1 , and the closer VSWR is to 1 , the closer the load is to being matched to the
line and the more power is delivered to the load. The magnitude of the reflection coefficient on a line with a
short-circuit or open-circuit load is 1 , and in both cases the VSWR is infinite.
To determine the position of the standing wave maximum, ℓ max , consider Equation (2.3.20) and note that at
the maximum

Θ − 2𝛽ℓ max = 2𝑛𝜋, 𝑛 = 0, 1, 2, … (2.3.25)

Here Θ is the angle of the reflection coefficient at the load:
2𝜋
Θ − 2𝑛𝜋 = 2 ℓ max (2.3.26)
𝜆𝑔

Thus the position of the voltage maxima, ℓ max , normalized to wavelength is

= ( − 𝑛) ,
ℓ max 1 Θ
𝑛 = 0, −1, −2, … (2.3.27)
𝜆𝑔 2 2𝜋

Similarly the position of the voltage minima is (using Equation (2.3.20) )

Θ − 2𝛽ℓ min = (2𝑛 + 1)𝜋 (2.3.28)

After rearranging the terms,

= ( − 𝑛 + ),
ℓ min 1 Θ 1
(2.3.29)
𝜆𝑔 2 2𝜋 2
𝑛 = 0, −1, −2, …
Summarizing from Equations (2.3.27) and (2.3.29) :
1. The distance between two successive maxima is 𝜆𝑔 /2 .
2. The distance between two successive minima is 𝜆𝑔 /2 .
3. The distance between a maximum and an adjacent minimum is 𝜆𝑔 /4 .
4. From the measured VSWR the magnitude of the reflection coefficient |Γ| can be found. From the measured
ℓ max the angle Θ of Γ can be found. Then from Γ the load impedance can be found.
In a similar manner to that above, the magnitude of the total current on the line is
|𝑉 0+ |
|𝐼(ℓ)| = ∣1 − |Γ|𝑒ȷ(Θ−2𝛽ℓ) ∣∣ (2.3.30)
𝑍0 ∣
Hence the standing wave current is maximum where the standing-wave voltage amplitude is minimum, and
minimum where the standing-wave voltage amplitude is maximum.
𝑍in in Equation (2.3.18) is a periodic function of length with period 𝜆/2 and it varies between 𝑍max and 𝑍min ,
where
𝑉 max
𝑍max = = 𝑍0 × VSWR and (2.3.31)
𝐼min
𝑉 min 𝑍0
𝑍min = =
𝐼max VSWR

Example 2.3.3: Standing Wave Ratio

In Example 2.3.2 the load consisted of a capacitor of 10 pF in shunt with a resistor of 60 Ω . The load
terminated a lossless 50 Ω transmission line. The operating frequency is 5 GHz .
a. What is the SWR ?
b. What is the current standing wave ratio (ISWR )? (When SWR is used on its own it is assumed to refer
to VSWR .)
Solution
a. From Example 2.3.2 Γ 𝐿 = 0.993∠187.3 ∘ and so

1 + |Γ 𝐿 | 1 + 0.993
VSWR = = = 285
 1 + |Γ 𝐿 | 1 + 0.993
VSWR = = = 285
1 − |Γ 𝐿 | 1 − 0.993
b. ISWR = VSWR = 285

Example 2.3.4: Standing Waves

A load has an impedance 𝑍𝐿 = 45 + ȷ75 Ω and the system reference impedance, 𝑍0 , is 100 Ω .
a. What is the reflection coefficient?
b. What is the current reflection coefficient?
c. What is the SWR ?
d. What is the ISWR ?
e. The power available from a source with a 100 Ω Thevenin equivalent impedance is 1 mW . The source is
connected directly to the load, 𝑍𝐿 . Use the reflection coefficient to calculate the power delivered to 𝑍𝐿 .
f. What is the total power absorbed by the Thevenin equivalent source impedance?
g. Discuss the effect on power flow of inserting a lossless 100 Ω transmission line between the source and
the load.
Solution
a. The voltage reflection coefficient is
Γ𝐿 = (𝑍𝐿 − 𝑍0 )/(𝑍𝐿 + 𝑍0 )
= (45 + ȷ75 − 100)/(45 + ȷ75 + 100)
= (93.0∠(2.204 rads))
/(163.2∠(0.4773 rads))
= 0.570∠(1.726 rads) = 0.570∠98.9 ∘ = (2.3.32)
𝑉
−0.0881 + ȷ0.563 = Γ
b. The current reflection coefficient is
Γ 𝐼 = −Γ 𝑉 = 0.0881 − ȷ0.563 (2.3.33)
= 0.570∠(98.9 ∘ − 180∘ ) = 0.570∠81.1 ∘
c. The SWR is the VSWR , so
𝑉 max 1 + |Γ 𝑉 |
SWR = VSWR = = (2.3.34)
𝑉 min 1 − |Γ 𝑉 |
1 + 0.570
= = 3.65
1 − 0.570
d. The current SWR is ISWR = VSWR .
e. To determine the reflection coefficient of the load, begin by developing the Thevenin equivalent circuit
of the load. The power available from the source is 𝑃𝐴 = 1 mW , so the Thevenin equivalent circuit is

Figure 2.3.8
The power reflected by the load is
𝑃𝑅 = 𝑃𝐴 |Γ 2𝐿 | = 1 mW ⋅ (0.570)2
= 0.325 mW

and the power delivered to the load is

𝑃𝐷 = 𝑃𝐴 (1 − |Γ 2𝐿 |) = 0.675 mW
 f. It is tempting to think that the power dissipated in 𝑅 TH is just 𝑃𝑅 . However, this is not correct.
Instead, the current in 𝑅 TH must be determined and then the power dissipated in 𝑅 TH found. Let the
current through 𝑅 TH𝑐𝑑𝑜𝑡 be 𝐼 , and this is composed of forward-and backward-traveling components:

𝐼 = 𝐼 + + 𝐼 − = (1 + Γ 𝐼 )𝐼 +

where 𝐼 + is the forward-traveling current wave. Thus

1 + 2 1
𝑃𝐴 = |𝐼 | 𝑅 TH = |𝐼 + |2 × 100 = 1 mW
2 2
= 10−3 W

so 𝐼 + = 4.47 mA , and
𝐼 = (1 + Γ 𝐼 )𝐼 + = (1 + 0.0881 − ȷ0.563)
× 4.47 × 10−3 A, |𝐼| = 5.48 mA

The power dissipated in 𝑅 TH is

1 2 1
𝑃TH = |𝐼 | 𝑅 TH = (5.48 × 10−3 )2 𝑅 TH (2.3.35)
2 2
= 1.50 mW

The circuit is that shown in part (e) and so the current in 𝑅 TH is the same as the current in 𝑍𝐿 . Thus
the power delivered to the load 𝑍𝐿 is due to the real part of 𝑍𝐿 :
1 2 1
𝑃𝐷 = |𝐼 | ℜ(𝑍𝐿 ) = (5.48 × 10−3 )2 × 45 (2.3.36)
2 2
= 0.676 mW
g. Inserting a transmission line with the same characteristic impedance as the Thevenin equivalent
impedance will have no effect on power flow.

VSWR Measurement
The measurement of standing waves can be used to calculate the impedance of a load. The device that does
this measurement, called a slotted line, is shown in Figure 2.3.9 (a). A probe is inserted a small distance into
the transmission line to measure the electric field. The RF electric field produces an RF voltage on the probe
that is rectified by the diode detector. The DC voltage at the output of the detector is proportional to the total
voltage on the line. The probe can be moved along the line and the ratio of 𝑉 max to 𝑉 min determined. This is
just the VSWR . To find the complex load impedance it is also necessary to determine the position of the node
of the standing wave. From the measured VSWR the magnitude of the reflection coefficient |Γ| can be found.
From the measured ℓ max the angle Θ of 𝛾 can be found. From 𝛾 the load impedance can be found. This is
demonstrated in the next example.

Figure 2.3.9 : Measurement of standing waves: (a) coaxial slotted line; (b) schematic of slotted line; (c)
measured standing wave.
 Example 2.3.5: Slotted Line Measurement of Impedance
A slotted line is used to determine the properties of the standing wave on a terminated 50 Ω line see
Figure 2.3.7 (c). 𝑉 max = 5 V and 𝑉 min = 2 V , and the first minimum is 2 cm from the load. The guide
wavelength is 10 cm . What is the load impedance 𝑍𝐿 ?
Solution
Now VSWR = 𝑉 max /𝑉 min = 5/2 = 2.5 . So from Equation (2.3.24)
VSWR − 1 2.5 − 1
|Γ| = |Γ 𝐿 | = = (2.3.37)
VSWR + 1 2.5 + 1
= 0.428
Equation (2.3.29) and the position of the first node can be used to determine the angle of Γ 𝐿 . For the first
node (minimum), 𝑛 = 0 and

= ( + )
ℓ min 1 Θ 1
(2.3.38)
𝜆𝑔 2 2𝜋 2

Rearranging,

( 𝜆𝑔 2)
ℓ 1
Θ = 2𝜋 2 min − radians (2.3.39)

Now ℓ min = 2 cm and 𝜆𝑔 = 10 cm . So, in degrees,

( 𝜆𝑔 2)
ℓ min 1
Θ = 360 2 − (2.3.40)

= 360 (2
10 )
2 1
− = −36∘
10
Thus Γ 𝐿 = 0.428∠(−36∘ ) = 0.3463 − ȷ0.2516 , so the load impedance is (where 𝑍0 = 50 Ω )

𝑍𝐿 = 𝑍0 (
1 − Γ𝐿 )
1 + Γ𝐿
= 83.2 − ȷ51.3 Ω (2.3.41)

2.3.6 Summary
This section related the physics of traveling voltage and current waves on lossless transmission lines to the
total voltage and current view. First the input reflection coefficient of a terminated lossless line was developed
and from this the input impedance, which is the ratio of total voltage and total current, derived. At any point
along a line the amplitude of total voltage varies sinusoidally, tracing out a standing wave pattern along the
line and yielding the VSWR metric which is the ratio of the maximum amplitude of the total voltage to the
minimum amplitude of that voltage. This is an important metric that is often used to provide an indication of
how good a match, i.e. how small the reflection is, with a VSWR = 1 indicating no reflection and a VSWR = ∞
indicating total reflection, i.e. a reflection coefficient magnitude of 1 .