4.

3 Calculate the activation energy for vacancy formation in aluminum, given that the equilibrium number of
vacancies at 500C (773 K) is 7.57  1023 m-3. The atomic weight and density (at 500C) for aluminum are,
respectively, 26.98 g/mol and 2.62 g/cm3.

Solution

Upon examination of Equation 4.1, all parameters besides Qv are given except N, the total number of
atomic sites. However, N is related to the density, (Al), Avogadro's number (NA), and the atomic weight (AAl)

according to Equation 4.2 as

N A Al
N =
AAl

(6.022  10 23 atoms / mol)(2.62 g / cm3)

=
 26.98 g / mol

= 5.85  1022 atoms/cm3 = 5.85  1028 atoms/m3



Now, taking natural logarithms of both sides of Equation 4.1,

Q
ln N v = ln N  v
kT

and, after some algebraic manipulation



N 
Qv =  kT ln  v 
 N 

 23 m3 
-5 eV/atom - K) (500C + 273 K) ln 7.57  10
=  (8.62  10  
5.85  10 28 m3 


= 0.75 eV/atom
4.4 Below, atomic radius, crystal structure, electronegativity, and the most common valence are tabulated, for
several elements; for those that are nonmetals, only atomic radii are indicated.

Atomic Radius
Element (nm) Crystal Structure Electronegativity Valence

Cu 0.1278 FCC 1.9 +2

C 0.071

H 0.046

O 0.060

Ag 0.1445 FCC 1.9 +1

Al 0.1431 FCC 1.5 +3

Co 0.1253 HCP 1.8 +2

Cr 0.1249 BCC 1.6 +3

Fe 0.1241 BCC 1.8 +2

Ni 0.1246 FCC 1.8 +2

Pd 0.1376 FCC 2.2 +2

Pt 0.1387 FCC 2.2 +2

Zn 0.1332 HCP 1.6 +2

Which of these elements would you expect to form the following with copper:
(a) A substitutional solid solution having complete solubility
(b) A substitutional solid solution of incomplete solubility
(c) An interstitial solid solution

Solution
 In this problem we are asked to cite which of the elements listed form with Cu the three possible solid
solution types. For complete substitutional solubility the following criteria must be met: 1) the difference in atomic
radii between Cu and the other element (R%) must be less than ±15%, 2) the crystal structures must be the same,
3) the electronegativities must be similar, and 4) the valences should be the same, or nearly the same. Below are
tabulated, for the various elements, these criteria.

Crystal Electro-
Element R% Structure negativity Valence
Cu FCC 2+
C –44
H –64
O –53
Ag +13 FCC 0 1+
Al +12 FCC -0.4 3+
Co -2 HCP -0.1 2+
Cr -2 BCC -0.3 3+
Fe -3 BCC -0.1 2+
Ni -3 FCC -0.1 2+
Pd +8 FCC +0.3 2+
Pt +9 FCC +0.3 2+
Zn +4 HCP -0.3 2+

(a) Ni, Pd, and Pt meet all of the criteria and thus form substitutional solid solutions
having complete solubility. At elevated temperatures Co and Fe experience allotropic transformations to the
FCC crystal structure, and thus display complete solid solubility at these temperatures.
(b) Ag, Al, Co, Cr, Fe, and Zn form substitutional solid solutions of incomplete
solubility. All these metals have either BCC or HCP crystal structures, and/or the difference between their atomic
radii and that for Cu are greater than ±15%, and/or have a valence different than 2+.
(c) C, H, and O form interstitial solid solutions. These elements have atomic radii that are
significantly smaller than the atomic radius of Cu.
4.8 What is the composition, in weight percent, of an alloy that consists of 6 at% Pb and 94 at% Sn?

Solution

In order to compute composition, in weight percent, of a 6 at% Pb-94 at% Sn alloy, we employ Equation
4.7 as

' A
CPb Pb
CPb =  100
' A C' A
CPb Pb Sn Sn

(6)(207.2 g / mol)
=  100
 (6)(207.2 g / mol)  (94)(118.71 g / mol)


= 10.0 wt%

' A
CSn Sn
CSn =  100
' A C' A
CPb Pb Sn Sn

(94)(118.71 g / mol)
=  100
 (6)(207.2 g / mol)  (94)(118.71 g / mol)


= 90.0 wt%
4.18 Some hypothetical alloy is composed of 12.5 wt% of metal A and 87.5 wt% of metal B. If the densities of metals
A and B are 4.27 and 6.35 g/cm3, respectively, whereas their respective atomic weights are 61.4 and 125.7 g/mol,
determine whether the crystal structure for this alloy is simple cubic, face-centered cubic, or body-centered cubic.
Assume a unit cell edge length of 0.395 nm.

Solution

In order to solve this problem it is necessary to employ Equation 3.5; in this expression density and atomic
weight will be averages for the alloy—that is

nAave
ave =
VC N A

Inasmuch as for each of the possible crystal structures, the unit cell is cubic, then VC = a3, or


nAave
ave =
a3N A

And, in order to determine the crystal structure it is necessary to solve for n, the number of atoms per unit

cell. For n =1, the crystal structure is simple cubic, whereas for n values of 2 and 4, the crystal structure will be
either BCC or FCC, respectively. When we solve the above expression for n the result is as follows:

avea 3 N A
n =
Aave

Expressions for Aave and aveare found in Equations 4.11a and 4.10a, respectively, which, when incorporated into

the above expression yields

 
 
 100 a 3 N
C A C B  A
  
 A  B 
n =
 
 
 100 
C A C B 
  
 AA AB 


 Substitution of the concentration values (i.e., CA = 12.5 wt% and CB = 87.5 wt%) as well as values for the

other parameters given in the problem statement, into the above equation gives

 
 
 100 (3.95  10-8 nm)3 (6.022  1023 atoms/mol)
 12.5 wt%  87.5 wt% 
 
4.27 g/cm3 6.35 g/cm3 
n =
 
 100 
 
 12.5 wt%  87.5 wt% 
 
61.4 g/mol 125.7 g/mol 

= 2.00 atoms/unit cell



Therefore, on the basis of this value, the crystal structure is body-centered cubic.
4.35 Determine the ASTM grain size number if 25 grains per square inch are measured at a magnification of 600.

Solution

This problem asks that we determine the ASTM grain size number if 8 grains per square inch are measured
at a magnification of 600. In order to solve this problem we make use of Equation 4.17:

2
 M  n 1
N M    2
 
100

where NM = the number of grains per square inch at magnification M, and n is the ASTM grain size number.
Solving the above equation for n, and realizing that NM = 8, while M = 600, we have

 M 
log N M  2 log  
100 
n 1
log 2

600 
log 8  2 log  
 100 
  1  9.2
log 2

