EJ728840

Play Behaviors and Social Interactions of a Child Who Is Blind: In Theory and Practice - JVIB - February 2006
JVIB February 2006 • Volume 100 • Number 2
Play Behaviors and Social

Interactions of a Child Who Is
Blind: In Theory and Practice
Marie Celeste
Abstract: This case study describes the play behaviors and social interactions
of a preschool-age girl who is blind and has no additional disabilities. The data
obtained from the assessment protocol indicated that although the participant
was developmentally at or above age level in most domains, she demonstrated
limited play behaviors and compromised social interactions. The results
reinforce the variability of social competence skills in young children with
visual impairments.
The construct of play evolves continuously throughout early

childhood. Initially, infants and toddlers demonstrate solitary play
that evolves into parallel and then social play. Solitary and
parallel play are both nonsocial, meaning that a child plays alone
although in the presence of his or her peers. As play evolves from
nonsocial to social, it is critical for children to be able to initiate
and maintain interactions with their peers (Brownell, 1986;
Guralnick, 1999b; Rubin & Coplan, 1992). Social play requires
that children demonstrate strategies to gain entry into peer groups,
resolve conflicts, and maintain interactions with other children.
Preschool-age children with disabilities often have difficulty

engaging in positive social interactions. They are typically unable
to demonstrate peer-related social competence and, as a result,
engage in more solitary play than do their typical peers
(Guralnick, Connor, Hammond, Gottman, & Kinnish, 1996a,
http://www.afb.org/jvib/jvib000203.asp (1 of 26)3/1/2006 2:54:34 PM

1996b; McConnell & Odom, 1999). Studies have found that

children who are visually impaired (that is, are blind or have low
vision) do not display a full range of play behaviors and
demonstrate compromised social interactions (Rettig, 1994;
Sacks, Kekelis, & Gaylord-Ross, 1992; Warren, 1984). This
report of a case study describes the play behaviors and social
interactions of a preschool-age child who is blind and has no
additional disabilities.
Review of the literature

Children with disabilities
Children with disabilities receive fewer positive responses to their

social bids or attempts to engage in social interactions and, as a
result, demonstrate less interest in their peers, which makes them
more prone to social isolation (Guralnick et al., 1996a, 1996b;
Guralnick & Groom, 1987; Kopp, Baker, & Brown, 1992;
McConnell & Odom, 1999; Odom, Zercher, Li, Marquart, &
Sandall, 1998). In addition, they are rarely sought out as resources
by their peers, infrequently serve as role models, and are the least
preferred play partners of typical children (M. Brown & Gordon,
1987; Guralnick & Groom, 1987). Young children with
disabilities are likely to develop an unusual pattern of peer-related
social behaviors that, if left unaltered, can lead to later difficulty
with adjustment (Guralnick & Groom, 1987; Parker & Asher,
1987).
Children who are visually impaired
Studies have indicated that children who are visually impaired

demonstrate play behaviors that are predominantly exploratory in
nature. These children engage less frequently in manipulative
play, or the functional use of toys, and demonstrate more
stereotypical behavior during play (Adelson & Fraiberg, 1974;

Parsons, 1986; Rettig, 1994; Sacks et al., 1992; Skellenger & Hill,
1994; Troster & Brambring, 1994; Warren, 1984). In addition,
they infrequently engage in symbolic, highly imaginative, or role
play and spend more time in solitary play or interacting with
adults than with their sighted peers (Adelson & Fraiberg, 1974;
Anderson, Dunlea, & Kekelis, 1984; Anderson & Kekelis, 1985;
Erwin, 1993; Parsons, 1986; Rettig, 1994; Sacks et al., 1992;
Schneekloth, 1989; Skellenger & Hill, 1994; Troster &
Brambring, 1993, 1994; Warren, 1984). These limitations may be
due to their inability to see how other children gain entry to play
groups or sustain participation in group interactions. Hoben and
Lindstrom (1980) found that visually impaired students initiated
and responded less frequently to interactions that were initiated
by their classmates than did their sighted peers. Sacks et al.
(1992) observed that these children are less likely to respond to
their peers' interests or to offer compliments to other children.
MacCuspie (1992, 1996) found that children who were visually

impaired were inclined to have fewer friends and sometimes
confused "assigned school buddies or helpers" with true friends.
Jones and Chiba (1985) discovered that these children were
rejected by their classmates more than were other groups of
disabled students. In peer sociometric measures, they were rated
as "popular" by students who were identified as "unpopular" by
their peers (Jones, Lavine, & Shell, 1972). As a result, peer-
related social interactions are often severely compromised in
children with visual impairments. Thus, social play may give rise
to feelings of frustration, rather than self-efficacy and
independence, which characterize the social experience of typical
children.
Inclusion
A founding principle of inclusion is to give children with special

needs equal opportunities to participate fully in regular education

classrooms with children who are not disabled. However, studies

have shown that for some students with special needs, placement
in regular education classrooms without appropriate social
supports has resulted in social isolation and, ultimately, a more
restrictive environment (Gresham, 1981; Sacks et al., 1992).
Therefore, classroom teachers need to make the development of
social competence a priority for children with special needs.
Efforts to include students with special needs are most effective
when teachers are actively involved in assessing the students and
helping them acquire appropriate social skills. It is critical for
children who are visually impaired to be taught the social skills
that are necessary to interact effectively with their peers. It is also
important that the children's ability to implement these skills
successfully is carefully monitored (Kekelis & Sacks, 1988;
Sacks et al., 1992).
Methodology
This article presents a case study of the play behaviors and social
interactions of a girl in preschool who is blind and has no
additional disabilities. The evaluation methods included
developmental and adaptive assessments, structured play
observations (during "free play" in the classroom, day care, and
home), and interviews (with parents, peers, teachers, and
caregivers). Gathering data from multiple sources and through
varied methods provides a comprehensive picture of a child's
social competence, including the type of play (solitary, parallel,
group, and so forth) and the quality and efficacy of social
interactions (McConnell & Odom, 1999; McFall, 1982; Pogrund
& Fazzi, 2002; Tremblay, Strain, Hendrickson, & Shores, 1981).
The participant
The participant was an African American-Hispanic girl aged 4

years, 6 months, who was blind, as a result of Peter's anomaly

with secondary glaucoma, and had no neurological or physical

handicaps. She had severely reduced vision in her left eye (OS),
and no vision in her right eye (OD). She held items within two
inches of her left eye (nasally) for viewing and was unable to
track identified playmates or adults beyond arm's reach. Although
she executed routes to desired objectives within familiar
environments indoors and outdoors, she was unable to explore her
surroundings visually. A precane device had been introduced;
however, the participant did not require it for travel within
familiar environments and only utilized it in unfamiliar
environments during instruction periods.
The participant was admitted to early intervention services at the

age of 4 months. I am a certified teacher of students with visual
impairments and a licensed orientation and mobility instructor
and have served in that capacity with her since she was 6 months
old. The girl received direct vision services on a weekly basis for
the duration of her early intervention services. In addition, she
participated regularly in a local "gymboree" program that
provided structured motor and social opportunities. Most recently,
she was enrolled in group swim lessons, a Brownie troop, and
Suzuki piano lessons. At age 3, she began to attend an inclusive
preschool program. I have continued to provide vision services at
the rate of three (two-hour) sessions per week.
Settings
Preschool
The participant attended an independent preschool program half

days (from 8:30 a.m. to 11:30 a.m.) five days per week. The class
consisted of 18 4-year-old children (7 boys and 11 girls), and the
student-to-teacher ratio was 9:1. The two teachers were both
experienced, holding advanced degrees in early childhood
education and early childhood special education. The children in

the class were diverse with regard to developmental level, special

needs, and ethnicity and race. Three of them were familiar to the
participant from the previous school year.
The preschool classroom was arranged for solitary and small- and
large-group activities. It included a fine motor area with beads
and puzzles, a light table with related materials, a fully equipped
art area with easels, a reading nook (with braille adapted books), a
writing center (including materials for producing braille), and a
housekeeping area. The daily schedule included free-play
activities; circle time; choice time; snack time; and then either a
motor, library, art, or music activity.
As part of their preschool curriculum, the children were exposed

to responsive, age-appropriate classroom discussions that
addressed the concept of disability. The teachers responded to the
children's questions about visual impairment, and the participant
was encouraged to describe her visual limitations to her peers.
Although I facilitated the participant's participation in classroom
activities and provided instruction in compensatory skill areas, I
took care to include the participant's sighted classmates in most
activities.
Day care
To extend her social opportunities, her parents enrolled the

participant in a five-day-a-week community after-school day care
program from 11:30 a.m. to 4:00 p.m., where she had access to an
additional cohort of peers who ranged in age from 2 to 8. This
program was organized around activity centers (such as
housekeeping, building, and fine-motor activities) with a variety
of manipulatives, board games, and developmentally appropriate
toys.
Home

The participant resides with both parents (she has no siblings) in a

single-family home. The family lives in close proximity to her
grandparents, aunts, uncles, and cousins of various ages. Play
observations in the home took place in the family room, where
many of her toys are located. In addition to traditional family-
room furniture, there are two boxes and a bookcase that house an
ample variety of developmentally appropriate toys, as well as a
"play kitchen," a small table, and chairs.
Instrumentation
Developmental assessment
The Battelle Developmental Inventory (BDI; Newborg, Stock,

Wnek, Guidibaldi, & Svinicki, 1988) is a standardized, norm-
referenced, individually administered assessment battery of key
developmental skills in the personal or social, adaptive, motor,
communication, and cognitive domains. Although the normative
sample did not include children with visual impairments, it was
selected for this research because it allows for adaptive
administration and scoring procedures for children with
impairments. (It should be noted that a revision of the BDI, the
BDI-2, was in publication at the time of this research, but was not
yet available for public use.)
The Oregon Project for Visually Impaired and Blind Preschool

Children (OR; D. Brown, Simmons, & Methvin, 1991) was also
administered. It is a criterion-referenced instrument that was
specifically developed for young children with visual
impairments. It is not intended to provide a precise developmental
age score; rather, it provides estimates of age-functioning levels
in each of eight domains: cognitive, language, socialization, self-
help, fine motor, gross motor, vision, and compensatory skills.
The skills in each domain are developmentally sequenced and
arranged in age categories. All major skills, including the

prerequisite skills for orientation and mobility and braille, are

included.
Adaptive behavior assessment
The participant's preschool classroom teachers served as

collective respondents for assessing the participant's adaptive
behavior on the Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales (VABS)
classroom edition (Sparrow, Balla, & Cicchetti, 1983). The
VABS includes 244 items that assess adaptive behavior in the
classroom. It was designed to assess personal and social
functioning and is organized around four behavioral domains:
communication (receptive, expressive, and written), daily living
skills (personal, domestic, and community), socialization
(interpersonal relationships, play and leisure time, and coping
skills), and motor skills (gross and fine). The VABS provides for
percentile ranks and stanines (for the domain and composite
scores), adaptive levels (by percentile groups), and age
equivalents (by raw score conversions). The "adaptive behavior
composite" summarizes the child's performance in all four
domains. It should be noted that the normative sample for the
VABS did not include children with visual impairments.
Structured play observations
The participant was observed during free play in the preschool

(60 minutes), day care (40 minutes), and home (20 minutes)
settings for a total of 120 minutes (10 minutes per session), over a
two-week period. Observations were recorded in 10 1-minute
intervals. The observations were analyzed using the Play
Observation Scale (POS; Rubin, 2001) and the Individual Social
Behavior Scale (ISBS; Guralnick & Groom, 1987). The POS is a
measure of social participation and cognitive play. It has proved
useful in determining age and gender differences in children's
play, socioeconomic status differences in play, effects of the

ecological setting of play, individual differences in play, and the

social contexts within which the various forms of cognitive play
are distributed. Researchers have also used the POS in studies of
children with developmental and learning disabilities.
The instrument provides a framework for coding play and

nonplay behavior. The cognitive play categories (functional,
constructive, dramatic, and games with rules) are nested within
the social play categories (solitary, parallel, and group) (Rubin,
2001). It is recommended that behavior be observed in brief
intervals (10 seconds to 1 minute), followed by time for coding
(to be kept as close to 5 seconds as possible). An Observation
Coding Sheet is provided, on which the observer records the
child's predominant activity during the allotted time. The
instrument provides a means to record the most predominant
behavior that is observed during the interval. It is suggested that
to obtain a valid measure of the child's general play styles, no
more than 5 minutes of behavior should be recorded on any given
day, but that a minimum of 15 minutes of POS data should be
gathered.
The ISBS is a measure of peer-related social behaviors that was

developed by Guralnick and Groom (1987) as an adaptation of the
earlier work by White and Watts (1973). It provides a framework
for identifying and coding peer interactions. Observers record the
occurrence of individual social behaviors, such as joins peers in a
specific activity, expresses hostility toward peers, leads in peer
activities, follows a peer's lead, refuses to follow the lead of a
peer, use of a peer and the participant as a resource, takes an
unoffered object, defends property, attention-seeking behavior of
peer and participant, and efforts of a peer and the participant to
seek agreement. It is recommended that a maximum of 10
minutes of behavior be observed in one day in short intervals (10
seconds to 1 minute). The ISBS provides a series of codes with
associated behaviors. The observer is directed to indicate (using
the codes) all the behaviors that are observed during the set
interval on a recording sheet. The instrument provides for the
recording of the range and frequency of social interaction
behaviors with peers.
I developed a single, "blended" coding sheet, divided to provide

for recording in 10 1-minute intervals. Using a stopwatch, I timed
the intervals, observing and then recording the predominant play
or nonplay behavior (as indicated by the POS) and all the peer
interaction behaviors (as indicated by the ISBS) that I observed.
The recording time between intervals ranged from 5 to 15 seconds.
In this study, I used a modified version of the observation

schedule (60 minutes of "free-play" over a two-week period in 1-
minute intervals) and observational instrumentation (POS and
ISBS), used by Guralnick, Hammond, and Connor (2003) and
Guralnick et al. (1996a). Those studies described the play
behavior and social interactions of young children with
developmental delays. It should be noted that in those studies,
observations were conducted in the preschool settings only. This
study expanded the settings in which observation took place to
include the day care and home settings.
Interviews
Interviews were conducted with the participant's parents, teachers,

and day care provider, and narrative notes of the interviews were
recorded. In addition, a sociometric peer rating scale was
collected from the classmates. On a 3-point Likert rating scale,
the children were asked to sort Polaroid photographs of their
classmates into three boxes (3 = like to play with all the time, 2 =
like to play with most of the time, and 1 = do not like to play
with). Sociometric ratings were calculated by determining the
mean ratings of individual children, subgroups of boys and girls,
and the class overall (McConnell & Odom, 1999).

Limitations
There are several limitations to the study. Given the nature of the
single-case design, the generalizability of the results of this study
may be limited. Furthermore, the instrumentation included the use
of the BDI (Newborg et al., 1988) and the VABS (Sparrow et al.,
1983), neither of which included visually impaired children in its
normative sample. In addition, all the data collection and coding
were conducted by a single individual, thereby not providing for
interrater reliability.
Data Analysis
Developmental and adaptive assessment measures were

administered and scored. Structured play observations were
scheduled and simultaneously coded using the ISBS and the POS.
The ISBS and the POS are designed to facilitate coding of the
frequency of behaviors. Open-ended interviews were then
conducted with the participant's preschool teachers, day care
provider, and parents. The notes of those interviews were
analyzed for trends within the narratives. A sociometric peer
rating scale was collected from the classmates, on an individual
basis, outside the classroom setting. The analysis of the data
included primarily descriptive statistics (frequencies, percentages,
means, and standard deviations).
Results
Developmental assessment
The BDI (Newborg et al., 1988), and the OR (D. Brown et al.,
1991) were used for the developmental assessment. Table 1
presents a summary of the domain scores attained by the child on
the BDI, which is a norm-referenced instrument that provides raw
scores, percentile ranks, z-scores, t-scores, and age equivalents.
Table 2 presents a summary of the participant's performance on

the OR, which is a criterion-referenced instrument that provides
"estimated age function levels" only. The results are described in
terms of age-functioning levels.
The participant demonstrated skills at or above her age level in

the cognitive, gross motor, and communication domains in both
the BDI and the OR (see Tables 1 and 2), as well as in the
receptive and expressive subdomains of the BDI. The child
demonstrated a delay in the fine motor domain on both
instruments (see Tables 1 and 2). In the fine motor domain of the
BDI, she was unable to demonstrate skills such as folding paper,
copying lines and shapes, and cutting on a line with scissors. The
OR identifies several of these skills as typically delayed in
children who are visually impaired.
Adaptive behavior assessment
Table 3 presents a summary of the scores on the VABS classroom

edition (Sparrow et al., 1983). The participant scored below her
chronological age level in the socialization domain, with
moderately low functioning in each of the subdomains of
interpersonal relationships, play, and personal and coping skills.
Play-based observations
The participant was observed during free play in the preschool

(60 minutes), day care (40 minutes), and home (20 minutes)
settings for a total of 120 minutes (10 minutes at each session),
over a two-week period. Observations were recorded in 10 1-
minute intervals. The observations were coded using the POS
(Rubin, 2001), during which the predominant play activity that
was observed was recorded. In addition, the frequency and type of
the interactions with peers were coded using the ISBS (Guralnick
& Groom, 1987).

Preschool.
In the classroom setting, the participant spent 50% of the total

time in solitary play while engaged in exploratory activities. For
example, she sat away from her peers, examining toys visually
(holding each one up to her left eye, examining it, putting it
down, and then picking up another one). She simultaneously
engaged in private speech, developing elaborate stories that
included both fictional and nonfictional characters. During this
time, she did not respond to her classmates' attempts to gain her
attention or engage her. She spent approximately 20% of the total
time in parallel play, engaged in constructive activities. She
played independently, at the block center or the fine-motor area,
in proximity to other children and aware of them (occasionally
turning to listen to their conversations and smiling when
something humorous was said) but had no direct interaction with
them. She spent 20% of the total time in child-initiated and child-
monitored group play, engaged in functional motor activities on
the tire swing, where she was verbally interactive and took turns
pushing the other children.
Day care.
In the day care setting, the participant spent approximately 50%

of the total time in solitary play, engaged in an exploratory
activity (visually examining small manipulatives while engaged
in private speech). She spent just over 25% of the time observed
in parallel play, engaged in constructive activities (assembling
puzzles) and 25% of the time observed in group play, engaged in
a dramatic activity. For example, she and a peer arranged two
chairs side by side and pretended to pilot an airplane traveling to
various cities and developed a complex plot on which to base
their activities.
Home.
In the home setting, the participant engaged in solitary play only,

since no other children were present. During one of the sessions,
she was engaged in constructive play (assembling Duplo building
blocks), and during the other session, she engaged in dramatic
play (using dolls to develop a scenario that included a princess
and a castle, with the landing of a stairway as a stage).
An examination of specific interactions with peers yielded some

interesting patterns of behavior (see Figure 1). The participant did
not lead or follow the lead of peers (indirectly) in either the
classroom or day care settings. Although she did not actively
refuse to follow the lead of her peers, she did not respond to their
indirect attempts to include her. In addition, she did not use her
peers as a resource (as a means of obtaining information or help)
and frequently failed to respond to their attempts to use her as a
resource. Similarly, she did not seek agreement from her peers
and frequently failed to respond to their efforts to seek agreement
from her. While she sought the attention of peers in both settings
(by attempting to show them a toy or asking a question), she
frequently failed to respond to their attention-seeking behavior.
Interviews
Interviews were conducted with the child's parents, teachers, day

care provider, and classmates to obtain additional qualitative
information on her play behaviors and social interactions. When
asked about the participant's interactions with other children in
the class, the preschool teacher said:
She almost never attempts to initiate interactions with other children.

She will ask them, "What's your name?" or "Who are you?" and when
the other children respond, she doesn't attempt to engage them in
continued conversation. When she participates in conversation, she is
rarely the one to terminate the interaction. The other children usually go
away or loose interest.

When asked about the frequency and form of play that the child
engages in, the teacher replied, "She plays alone mostly or next to
other children, but rarely in cooperative play." When asked what
types of toys and play equipment the participant usually selects,
she responded, "Puzzles, but not to assemble, mostly to look at …
clay … blocks. The block area is her favorite activity." When
asked if the child offers toys to her classmates as a means of
gaining their attention or access to play groups, she responded,
"She will share if asked, but she never offers toys otherwise."
When the day care provider was asked what toys and materials
the participant enjoys most, she responded, "Blocks and floor
puzzles. She'll stick with an activity for a long time. She chooses
the same toys and gets upset if you tell her to choose something
else." When asked about the child's frequency and form of play,
the day care provider stated, "She prefers to play alone mostly.
She will play next to other children, but other than [child's name],
she doesn't really play 'with' the other children." She also noted
that the participant
prefers adults. She'll try to engage adults more than children. She'll ask
you questions or hold your hand in order to get and keep your attention.
She doesn't do that with the children. In fact, until recently, if she
wanted a child to go to a certain play area with her, she would grab the
child's arm and try to drag the child with her… . Other children try to
baby her--she doesn't like that.
The interviews with the peers took the form of a sociometric peer
rating scale. The children were asked to sort photographs of their
classmates into three categories: like to play with all the time, like
to play with most of the time, and do not like to play with. As is
shown in Table 4, the mean of the participant's peer ratings was
2.00. Although this mean rating was less than that of the class
mean, it was not the least of the scores, since it was greater than
that of one classmate (Boy 6) and identical to that of two
classmates (Girl 5 and Boy 7). The mean ratings of the remaining

six boys and nine girls were greater than that of the participant.
Table 4 presents a summary of the rating responses of the other
children with regard to the participant.
Discussion
The literature has shown that delays in the language, motor, or
cognitive domains can have a direct impact on a child's social
competence (Guralnick, 1990; Guralnick, 1999a; Rettig, 1994).
However, the participant in this study demonstrated skills that
were at or above her age level in these areas, with only subtle
delays in fine motor skills. Nor did she exhibit any stereotypic or
"negative behaviors," such as anxiety (crying or whining),
hovering, aggression (antagonistic behavior), or excessive rough-
and-tumble play that can have a detrimental effect on social
interactions (Rubin, 2001). Yet, she demonstrated limited play
behaviors and compromised social interactions.
The results of this study support the findings of previous research

(Erwin, 1993; Rettig, 1994; Skellenger & Hill, 1994; Troster &
Brambring, 1993, 1994; Warren, 1984). The participant
demonstrated predominantly solitary play behavior. She spent
most of the total time that she was observed engaged in nonsocial
play and only 20% of the time in social play. According to the
categories of nonsocial play identified by Guralnick et al. (2003),
the participant spent half the time engaged in solitary passive play
(in which she chose to play alone) and approximately one-third of
the time engaged in reticent play (she was attentive to the actions
and conversations of her peers but made no attempt to join them).
She reportedly preferred interaction with adults over interaction
with her peers, a consequence of which may be a "self-imposed"
social isolation from peers. However, contrary to the literature,
the participant frequently engaged in highly imaginative role play
(whether alone or with others).

Similarly, although the participant frequently failed to respond to

the advances of her peers, the peers continued to seek her
attention. No instances of solitary active play (showing an interest
in peers but being rejected or ignored by them) was recorded.
These results contradict those of MacCuspie (1992, 1996) and
Jones and Chiba (1985), who found that school-aged children
with visual impairments were less frequently sought out and were
even rejected by their peers. It should be noted that the
participant's failure to respond to her peers' advances translated
into missed opportunities to interact. Over time, it may lead to a
reduced number of social bids from her peers, thus reducing the
likelihood of her peers responding to her bids favorably.
As was mentioned earlier, Jones et al. (1972) found that children

with visual impairments were rated as "popular" by students who
were identified as "unpopular" by their peers. This was not
necessarily the case in this study. A summary of the participant's
sociometric peer ratings (see Table 4) indicated that two of the
four classmates who identified the participant as someone they
like to play with all the time had mean peer ratings that were
equal to or greater than the class mean rating (2.176). Of her 17
classmates, 9 indicated that the participant was someone they like
to play with most of the time, and only 4 indicated that she was
someone they do not like to play with at all. It appears that even
though the participant frequently failed to respond to the advances
of her classmates and had difficulty sustaining interactions with
them, she was identified by all but 4 of her 17 classmates as
someone they liked to play with all or most of the time.
The participant's difficulty initiating and sustaining interactions

with her peers was a major finding of this study. This difficulty
may be attributed, in part, to an inability to make use of the visual-
social cues of her peers. The participant was unable to model the
strategies that are necessary for gaining entry into already-formed
dyads and triads or to sustain participation in group interactions.
As a result, most of her interactions were brief and were

terminated by the other children. The participant's difficulty
sustaining interactions with peers may provide insight into why
she chose solitary and parallel play more frequently than group
play and did not engage in games with rules (that require
reciprocal skills similar to active conversation).
The participant's immediate need is to acquire skills to facilitate

her successful participation in group interactions. The literature
has indicated that children who are unfamiliar with each other
require less developed "entry skills" to join in ongoing activities.
As children become more acquainted with one another,
increasingly sophisticated entry skills are required (Coplan,
Gavinski-Molina, Lagace-Seguin, & Wichmann, 2001; Coplan &
Rubin, 1998; Coplan, Rubin, Fox, Calkins, & Stewart, 1994;
Guralnick & Groom, 1987; Guralnick et al., 2003). This finding
suggests that children with disabilities, who have difficulty
establishing social interactions with their typical peers, are
unlikely to be able to do so over time without direct intervention.
It is interesting that the preschool teacher did not interpret the
child's approaching a peer to ask "Who are you?" as having
initiated an interaction, since the participant did not appear to
make an attempt to continue the conversation. This finding may
indicate the need to provide teachers with information on how to
interpret the subtle modes of communication that children who
are visually impaired often depend on. It is likely that by this
question, the participant was attempting to initiate conversation,
but was unable to maintain the interaction beyond the initial
exchange.
Implications for the field

The development of social competence must be a priority for
children who are visually impaired, even those who appear to be
developing typically. The children's play behaviors and social

interactions should be assessed, and a structured plan of

intervention should be provided. Professionals in the field must
identify strategies that work and provide consistent, long-term
support to children with visual impairments because research has
indicated that short-term solutions are rarely effective (Sacks et
al., 1992).
It is important that social skills intervention be implemented as

early as possible before atypical patterns develop. To support the
social development of young children who are visually impaired,
teachers, parents and other providers of care, and peers need
information on how to interpret behavioral cues and recognize the
children's attempts to interact. It is essential to provide visually
impaired children with a repertoire of social skills that facilitate
their entry into social groups and to prepare them to sustain
interactions. These skills should be introduced in the early
preschool years and as soon as new groups of children are
established with a continued emphasis on more developed entry
skills as children become more closely acquainted.
Simply including children with visual impairments in typical

settings is not enough to ensure that they become full members of
the classroom or day care community. Even in the highest-quality
environments with supportive professionals, educators must
remain sensitive to the social challenges of children who are
visually impaired, or their inclusion in typical environments can
result in reduced social opportunities and isolation.
References
Adelson, E., & Fraiberg, S. (1974). Gross motor development in
infants blind from birth. Child Development, 45, 114-126.
Anderson, E. S., Dunlea, A., & Kekelis, L. S. (1984). Blind

children's language: Resolving some differences. Journal of

Child Language, 11, 645-664.
Anderson, E. S., & Kekelis, L. S. (1985, March). Language

input and language acquisition: Evidence from special
populations. Paper presented at the 17th annual Child Language
Research Forum, Stanford University, Stanford, CA.
Brown, D., Simmons, V., & Methvin, J. (1991). The Oregon

Project for Visually Impaired and Blind Preschool Children.
Medford, OR: Jackson Education Service District.
Brown, M., & Gordon, W. (1987). Impact of impairment on

activity patterns of children. Archives of Physical Medicine and
Rehabilitation, 68, 828-832.
Brownell, C. (1986). Convergent developments: Cognitive-

developmental correlates of growth in infant/toddler peer skills.
Child Development, 57, 275-286.
Coplan, R., Gavinski-Molina, M., Lagace-Seguin, D., &

Wichmann, C. (2001). When girls versus boys play alone:
Nonsocial play and adjustment in kindergarten. Developmental
Psychology, 37, 464-474.
Coplan, R., & Rubin, K. (1998). Exploring and assessing

nonsocial play in the preschool: The development and validation
of the preschool behavior scale. Social Development, 7, 72-91.
Coplan, R., Rubin, K., Fox, N., Calkins, S., & Stewart, S.
(1994). Being alone, playing alone, and acting alone:
Distinguishing among reticence and passive and active solitude
in young children. Child Development, 65, 129-137.
Erwin, E. J. (1993). Social participation of young children with

visual impairments in specialized and integrated environments.
Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, 87, 138-142.
Gresham, F. (1981). Social skills training with handicapped

children: A review. Review of Educational Research, 51, 139-
176.
Guralnick, M. (1990). Peer interactions and the development of

handicapped children's social and communicative competence.
In H. Foot, M. Morgan, & R. Shute (Eds.), Children helping
children (pp. 275-305). Sussex, England: John Wiley & Sons.
Guralnick, M. (1999a). The assessment of peer relations.

Seattle: University of Washington Press.
Guralnick, M. (1999b). Family and child influences on the peer-

related social competence of young children with developmental
delays. Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities
Research Review, 5, 21-29.
Guralnick, M., Connor, R., Hammond, M., Gottman, J., &

Kinnish, K. (1996a). Immediate effects of mainstreamed settings
on the social interactions and social integration of preschool
children. American Journal on Mental Retardation, 100, 359-
377.
Guralnick, M., Connor, R., Hammond, M., Gottman, J., &

Kinnish K. (1996b). The peer relations of preschool children
with communication disorders. Child Development, 67, 471-489.
Guralnick, M., & Groom, J. (1987). The peer relations of mildly

delayed and nonhandicapped preschool children in
mainstreamed playgroups. Child Development, 58, 1556-1572.
Guralnick, M., Hammond, M., & Connor, R. (2003). Subtypes

of nonsocial play: Comparisons between young children with
and without developmental delays. American Journal on Mental
Retardation, 108, 347-362.
Hoben, M., & Linstrom, V. (1980). Evidence of isolation in the

mainstream. Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, 74, 289-
292.
Jones, R., & Chiba, C. (1985). Social skills assessment and

intervention (final report). Bethesda, MD: National Institute of
Child Health and Human Development.
Jones, R., Lavine, K., & Shell, J. (1972). Blind children

integrated in classrooms with sighted children: A sociometric
study. New Outlook for the Blind, 66, 75-80.
Kekelis, L. S, & Sacks, S. Z. (1988). Mainstreaming visually

impaired children into regular education programs: The effects
of visual impairment on children's social interactions with peers.
In S. Z. Sacks, L. S. Kekelis, & R. J. Gaylord-Ross (Eds.), The
development of social skills by visually impaired children (pp.
59-82). San Francisco: San Francisco State University.
Kopp, C., Baker, B., & Brown, K. (1992). Social skills and their
correlates: Preschoolers with developmental delays. American
Journal on Mental Retardation, 96, 357-366.
MacCuspie, P. A. (1992). The social acceptance and interaction

of visually impaired children in integrated settings. In S. Z.
Sacks, L. S. Kekelis, & R. J. Gaylord-Ross (Eds.), The
development of social skills by blind and visually impaired
students: Exploratory studies and strategies (pp. 83-102). New
York: American Foundation for the Blind.
MacCuspie, P. A. (1996). Promoting acceptance of children

with visual disabilities: From tolerance to inclusion. Halifax,
Nova Scotia: Atlantic Provinces Special Education Authority.

McConnell, S., & Odom, S. (1999). A multimeasure

performance-based assessment of social competence in young
children with disabilities. Topics in Early Childhood Special
Education, 19(2), 67-74.
McFall, R. (1982). A reformulation of the concept of the social

skill. Behavioral Assessment, 4, 1-33.
Newborg, J., Stock, J., Wnek, L., Guidibaldi, J., & Svinicki, J.
(1988). Battelle Developmental Inventory (BDI). Allen, TX:
DLM.
Odom, S., Zercher, C., Li, S., Marquart, J., & Sandall, S. (1998,
March). Social relationships of preschool children with
disabilities in inclusive settings. Paper presented at the
Conference on Research Innovations in Early Intervention,
Charleston, SC.
Parker, J. G., & Asher, S. R. (1987). Peer relations and later

personal adjustment: Are low-accepted children at risk?
Psychological Bulletin, 102, 357-389.
Parsons, S. (1986). Function of play in low vision children. Part

2: Emerging patterns of behavior. Journal of Visual Impairment
& Blindness, 80, 777-784.
Pogrund, R. L., & Fazzi, D. L. (2002). Early focus: Working

with young children who are blind or visually impaired and
their families (2nd ed.). New York: American Foundation for
the Blind.
Rettig, M. (1994). The play of young children with visual

impairments: Characteristics and interventions. Journal of
Visual Impairment & Blindness, 88, 410-420.
Rubin, K. (2001). The Play Observation Scale (POS) (rev.).

College Park, University of Maryland.
Rubin, K., & Coplan, R. (1992). Peer relationships in childhood.

In M. Bornstein & M. Lamb (Eds.), Developmental psychology:
An advanced textbook (3rd ed., pp. 519-578). Hillsdale, NJ:
Lawrence Erlbaum.
Sacks, S. K., Kekelis, L. S., & Gaylord-Ross, R. J. (Eds.).

(1992). The development of social skills by blind and visually
impaired students: Exploratory studies and strategies. New
York: American Foundation for the Blind.
Schneekloth, L. H. (1989). Play environments for visually

impaired children. Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness,
83, 196-201.
Skellenger, A., & Hill, E. (1994). Effects of a shared teacher-

child play intervention on the play skills of three young children
who are blind. Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, 88,
433-445.
Sparrow, S., Balla, D. A., & Cicchetti, D. V. (1983). Vineland

Adaptive Behavior Scales (VABS). Circle Pines, MN: American
Guidance Service.
Tremblay, A., Strain, P., Hendrickson, J., & Shores, R. (1981).

Social interactions of normally developing preschool children:
Using normative data for participant selection and target
behavior selection. Behavior Modification, 5, 237-253.
Troster, H., & Brambring, M. (1993). Early motor development

in blind infants. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology,
14, 83-106.
Troster, H., & Brambring, M. (1994). The play behavior and

play materials of blind and sighted infants and preschoolers.
Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, 88, 421-432.
Warren, D. (1984). Blindness and early childhood development

(2nd ed., rev.). New York: American Foundation for the Blind.
White, B. L., & Watts, J. C. (1973). Experience and

environment (vol. 1). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Marie Celeste, Ed.D., assistant professor of special education,

Loyola College in Maryland, 109 Beatty Hall, 4501 North
Charles Street, Baltimore, MD 21210; e-mail: <mceleste@loyola.
edu>.
Download braille-ready file
Download ASCII text file
Previous Article | Next Article | Table of Contents
JVIB, Copyright © 2006 American Foundation for the Blind. All

rights reserved.
Search JVIB | JVIB Policies | Contact JVIB | Subscriptions |

JVIB Home
If you would like to give us feedback, please contact us at

[email protected].

www.afb.org | Change Colors and Text Size | Contact Us | Site Map |

Site Search Go
About AFB | Press Room | Bookstore | Donate | Policy Statement
Please direct your comments and suggestions to [email protected]

Copyright © 2006 American Foundation for the Blind. All rights reserved.

EJ728840

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

EJ728840

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

EJ728840

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Play Behaviors and Social Interactions of a Child Who Is Blind: In Theory and Practice - JVIB - February 2006

JVIB February 2006 • Volume 100 • Number 2

Play Behaviors and Social

The construct of play evolves continuously throughout early

Preschool-age children with disabilities often have difficulty

http://www.afb.org/jvib/jvib000203.asp (1 of 26)3/1/2006 2:54:34 PM

1996b; McConnell & Odom, 1999). Studies have found that

Review of the literature

Children with disabilities receive fewer positive responses to their

Children who are visually impaired

Studies have indicated that children who are visually impaired

http://www.afb.org/jvib/jvib000203.asp (2 of 26)3/1/2006 2:54:34 PM

MacCuspie (1992, 1996) found that children who were visually

A founding principle of inclusion is to give children with special

http://www.afb.org/jvib/jvib000203.asp (3 of 26)3/1/2006 2:54:34 PM

classrooms with children who are not disabled. However, studies

The participant was an African American-Hispanic girl aged 4

http://www.afb.org/jvib/jvib000203.asp (4 of 26)3/1/2006 2:54:34 PM

with secondary glaucoma, and had no neurological or physical

The participant was admitted to early intervention services at the

The participant attended an independent preschool program half

http://www.afb.org/jvib/jvib000203.asp (5 of 26)3/1/2006 2:54:34 PM

the class were diverse with regard to developmental level, special

As part of their preschool curriculum, the children were exposed

To extend her social opportunities, her parents enrolled the

http://www.afb.org/jvib/jvib000203.asp (6 of 26)3/1/2006 2:54:34 PM

The participant resides with both parents (she has no siblings) in a

The Battelle Developmental Inventory (BDI; Newborg, Stock,

The Oregon Project for Visually Impaired and Blind Preschool

http://www.afb.org/jvib/jvib000203.asp (7 of 26)3/1/2006 2:54:34 PM

prerequisite skills for orientation and mobility and braille, are

Adaptive behavior assessment

The participant's preschool classroom teachers served as

Structured play observations

The participant was observed during free play in the preschool

http://www.afb.org/jvib/jvib000203.asp (8 of 26)3/1/2006 2:54:34 PM

ecological setting of play, individual differences in play, and the

The instrument provides a framework for coding play and

The ISBS is a measure of peer-related social behaviors that was

I developed a single, "blended" coding sheet, divided to provide

In this study, I used a modified version of the observation

Interviews were conducted with the participant's parents, teachers,

http://www.afb.org/jvib/jvib000203.asp (10 of 26)3/1/2006 2:54:34 PM

Developmental and adaptive assessment measures were

Table 2 presents a summary of the participant's performance on

The participant demonstrated skills at or above her age level in

Adaptive behavior assessment

Table 3 presents a summary of the scores on the VABS classroom

The participant was observed during free play in the preschool

http://www.afb.org/jvib/jvib000203.asp (12 of 26)3/1/2006 2:54:34 PM

In the classroom setting, the participant spent 50% of the total

In the day care setting, the participant spent approximately 50%

In the home setting, the participant engaged in solitary play only,

An examination of specific interactions with peers yielded some

Interviews were conducted with the child's parents, teachers, day

She almost never attempts to initiate interactions with other children.

http://www.afb.org/jvib/jvib000203.asp (14 of 26)3/1/2006 2:54:34 PM

http://www.afb.org/jvib/jvib000203.asp (15 of 26)3/1/2006 2:54:34 PM

The results of this study support the findings of previous research

http://www.afb.org/jvib/jvib000203.asp (16 of 26)3/1/2006 2:54:34 PM