§3.

7 Homomorphisms

Shaoyun Yi

MATH 546/701I

University of South Carolina

Summer 2021

Shaoyun Yi Homomorphisms Summer 2021 1 / 16

Review (Brief Version of Exam II Review)

A group isomorphism φ : (G1 , ∗) → (G2 , ·) Find/Verify φ

Lagrange’s Theorem If |G | = n < ∞ and H ⊆ G , then |H| n.

Cayley’s Theorem Every group is isomorphic to a permutation group.
Cyclic group: Infinite: ∼
= Z & Finite: ∼
= Zn multiplicative G
Dihedral group Dn of order 2n
Alternating group An of order n!/2

Product of two subgroups is not always a subgroup.

If h−1 kh ∈ K for all h ∈ H, k ∈ K , then HK is a subgroup. G abelian

Direct product of (two n) groups: e.g., Zn ∼

= Zp1α1 × · · · Zpmαm ϕ(n)
The order of an element is the lcm of the orders of each component.

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Group Homomorphism
A function φ : (G1 , ∗) → (G2 , ·) is a group homomorphism if
φ(a ∗ b) = φ(a) · φ(b) for all a, b ∈ G1 .

Every isomorphism is a homomorphism, but conversely not true.

Example 1 (Determinant of an invertible matrix, n > 1)
Let G1 = GLn (R) and G2 = R× . Define φ : G1 → G2 by φ(A) = det(A).
φ is a group homomorphism. [Why?] However, φ is not an isomorphism.
φ is not one-to-one since different matrices could have the same det.
φ is onto. e.g., consider a diagonal matrix diag(a, 1, . . . , 1) for any a ∈ R× .

Example 2 (Parity of an integer)

Define φ : Z → Z2 by φ(n) = [n]2 . φ is a homomorphism. [Why?]
But φ is not an isomorphism since it is not one-to-one. [Why?] φ is onto.
Parity of an integer: n is even ⇔ φ(n) = [0]2 & n is odd ⇔ φ(n) = [1]2
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Properties of Homomorphisms

Let φ : (G1 , ∗, e1 ) → (G2 , ·, e2 ) be a group homomorphism.

i) φ(e1 ) = e2 .
ii) φ(a−1 ) = (φ(a))−1 for all a ∈ G1 .
iii) φ(an ) = (φ(a))n for all a ∈ G1 and all n ∈ Z.
iv) If o(a) = n in G1 , then o(φ(a)) in G2 is a divisor of n.

Proof: Proofs of i)-iii) are the same as in the case of a group isomorphism.
i) φ(e1 ) · φ(e1 ) = φ(e1 ∗ e1 ) = φ(e1 ) φ(e1 ) = e2 .
i)
ii) φ(a) · φ(a−1 ) = φ(a ∗ a−1 ) = φ(e1 ) = e2 φ(a−1 ) = (φ(a))−1 .
iii) Just as in the case of an isomorphism, use an induction argument.
iii) i)
iv) (φ(a))n = φ(an ) = φ(e1 ) = e2 . Thus o(φ(a))|n. [Why?]

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Examples

Example 3 (Exponential functions for groups)

Let G be a group and a ∈ G . Define φ : Z → G by φ(n) = an for all n ∈ Z.
φ is a homomorphism since φ(n + m) = an+m = an am = φ(n) · φ(m).
φ is onto if and only if G = hai. φ is one-to-one if and only if o(a) = ∞.

Example 4 (Linear functions on Zn )

For a fixed m ∈ Z, define φ : Zn → Zn by φ([x]) = [mx] for all [x] ∈ Zn .
φ is well-defined: If x ≡ y (mod n), then mx ≡ my (mod n).
φ is a homomorphism since φ([x] + [y ]) = · · · = φ(x) + φ(y ).
φ is one-to-one and onto if and only if (m, n) = 1.
Linear congruence mx ≡ y (mod n) has a solution if and only if (m, n)|y .
Let d = (m, n). If d|y , then there are d distinct solutions modulo n.

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Homomorphisms Defined on Cyclic Groups
Let C = hai. Define a homomorphism φ : C → G by φ(a) = g . φ(am ) = g m
It follows that φ is completely determined by its value on a. [Why?]
If o(a) = n < ∞, then o(g )|n since g = φ(a) and φ is a homomorphism.

Any homomorphism φ : Zn → Zk is completely determined by φ([1]n ).

Say, φ([1]n ) = [m]k with o([m]k )|n. So n · [m]k = [nm]k = [0]k k|mn.

φ([x]n ) = [xm]k defines a homomorphism if and only if k|mn.

Every homomorphism φ : Zn → Zk must be of this form.
φ(Zn ) is the cyclic subgroup generated by [m]k since φ([1]n ) = [m]k .
φ is onto if and only if [m]k is a generator of Zk , i.e., (m, k) = 1.

e.g., φ : Z10 → Z5 with φ([1]10 ) = [2]5 is an onto homomorphism.

However, φ is not one-to-one. For example, φ([1]10 ) = φ([6]10 ) = [2]5 .
In fact, if 5|(x − y ), then φ([x]10 ) = φ([y ]10 ). [Why?]
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Kernel and Image of a Homomorphism
Let φ : G1 → G2 be a group homomorphism. The kernel of φ is the set
ker(φ) = {x ∈ G1 | φ(x) = e2 } ⊆ G1 .
The image of φ is the set im(φ) = {φ(x) | x ∈ G1 } ⊆ G2 .
Recall that φ : Z10 → Z5 with φ([1]10 ) = [2]5 is an onto homomorphism.
im(φ) = Z5 . And ker(φ) = {[0]10 , [5]10 }. [Why?]
Revisit Example 3: Exponential functions for groups
Define φ : Z → G by φ(n) = an for all n ∈ Z. Then φ is a homomorphism.
By definition, ker(φ) = {n | an = e}.
If o(a) = m < ∞, then ker(φ) = hmi = mZ.
If o(a) = ∞, then ker(φ) = {0}. φ is 1-to-1 in this case. [Why?]
In either case, ker(φ) is a subgroup of Z.
By definition, im(φ) = {an | n ∈ Z} =: hai, which is a subgroup of G .
φ is onto if and only if G = hai.
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More Properties of Homomorphisms
Let φ : G1 → G2 be a group homomorphism.
i) ker(φ) is a subgroup of G1 .
ii) im(φ) is a subgroup of G2 .
iii) φ is one-to-one if and only if ker(φ) = {e1 }.
iv) φ is onto if and only if im(φ) = G2 .

Proof: i) ker(φ) is nonempty since e1 ∈ ker(φ). For a, b ∈ ker(φ), to show

ab −1 ∈ ker(φ) : φ(ab −1 ) = φ(a)φ(b −1 ) = φ(a)φ(b)−1 = e2 e2−1 = e2 .
ii) im(φ) is nonempty since e2 ∈ im(φ). For x, y ∈ im(φ), to show xy −1 ∈ im(φ)
Say φ(a) = x and φ(b) = y for some a, b ∈ G1 . So xy −1 = · · · = φ(ab −1 ).
§3.4
iii) φ is one-to-one ⇐⇒ φ(x) = e2 implies x = e1 , i.e., ker(φ) = {e1 }.
iv) It is clear that φ is onto if and only if im(φ) = G2 .
Let φ : G1 → G2 be a group homomorphism. Assume that φ is onto.
If G1 is abelian (resp. cyclic), then G2 is also abelian (resp. cyclic).
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Let φ : G1 → G2 be a group homomorphism. Assume that φ is onto.
i) If G1 is abelian, then G2 is also abelian.
ii) If G1 is cyclic, then G2 is also cyclic.

Proof: i) For x, y ∈ G2 , there exist a, b ∈ G1 s.t. φ(a) = x, φ(b) = y .

!
xy = φ(a)φ(b) = φ(ab) = φ(ba) = φ(b)φ(a) = yx.
ii) Let G1 = hai for a generator a ∈ G1 . To show G2 = hφ(a)i.
hφ(a)i ⊆ G2 : 3 [Why?]
G2 ⊆ hφ(a)i : To show every element y of G2 is a power of φ(a).
We can write y = φ(b) for some b ∈ G1 . [Why?]
We can also write b = am for some m ∈ Z. [Why?] This implies that
y = φ(b) = φ(am ) = (φ(a))m .

Two comments:
i) and ii) are not necessarily true if φ is not onto.
If o(a) = n in G1 , then o(φ(a)) in G2 is a divisor of n. (See slide # 4)
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Homorphisms Between Cyclic Groups
In slide # 6, we define a homomorphism φ : Zn → Zk by φ([x]n ) = [mx]k .
Recall φ well-defined ⇔ k|mn. Every homomorphism φ : Zn → Zk is of this form.
Find all homomorphisms from Z to Z, from Z to Zn , and from Zn to Z.
Let m be a fixed integer. Define a function φ : Z → Z by φ(x) = mx.
Then φ is a homomorphism. Every homomorphism must be of this form.
Proof: φ is a homomorphism since φ(x + y ) = · · · = φ(x) + φ(y ).
φ is completely determined by its value on 1. [Why?] Say φ(1) = m ∈ Z.
For x ∈ Z+ , φ(x) = φ(1 + · · · + 1) = φ(1) + · · · + φ(1) = xφ(1) = mx.
For x ∈ Z− , so x = −|x| : φ(x) = φ(−|x|) = −φ(|x|) = −m|x| = mx.
Let [m]n ∈ Zn . Define a function φ : Z → Zn by φ(x) = [mx]n .
Then φ is a homomorphism. Every homomorphism must be of this form.
Proof: The proof is the same as for homomorphisms Z → Z.
The only homomorphism Zn → Z is defined by φ([x]n ) = 0 for [x]n ∈ Zn .
Proof: o([x]n ) = d o(φ([x]n ))|d. But in Z, only 0 has a finite order. 
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Normal Subgroup

Let φ : G1 → G2 be a homomorphism.
Let g be any element in G1 . Then gkg −1 ∈ ker(φ) for all k ∈ ker(φ).

Proof: φ(gkg −1 ) = φ(g )φ(k)φ(g −1 ) = φ(g )e2 φ(g )−1 = e2

A subgroup H of the group G is called a normal subgroup if ghg −1 ∈ H

for all h ∈ H and g ∈ G .

For a homomorphism φ : G1 → G2 , ker(φ) is a normal subgroup of G1 .

1) If H = G or H = {e}, then H is normal.
2) Any subgroup of an abelian group is normal.

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How (Normal) Subgroups are Related via a Homomorphism
Let φ : G1 → G2 be a homomorphism.
i) If H1 is a subgroup of G1 , then φ(H1 ) is a subgroup of G2 .
ii) If φ is onto and H1 is normal in G1 , then φ(H1 ) is normal in G2 .
iii) If H2 is a subgroup of G2 , then φ−1 (H2 ) is a subgroup of G1 .
iv) If H2 is normal in G2 , then φ−1 (H2 ) is normal in G1 .
Proof: i) Nonempty: e2 ∈ φ(H1 ). For x, y ∈ φ(H1 ), there exist a, b ∈ H1
with φ(a) = x and φ(b) = y , and xy −1 = · · · = φ(ab −1 ) ∈ φ(H1 ).
ii) Let x ∈ G2 and y ∈ φ(H1 ). To show xyx −1 ∈ φ(H1 ).
There exist g ∈ G1 s.t. φ(g ) = x [Why?] and y = φ(h) for some h ∈ H1 .
xyx −1 = · · · = φ(ghg −1 ) ∈ φ(H1 ) [Why?]
iii) Note that φ−1 (H2 ) := {a ∈ G1 | φ(a) ∈ H2 }. Nonempty: e1 ∈ φ−1 (H2 ).
For any a, b ∈ φ−1 (H2 ), ab −1 ∈ φ−1 (H2 ) since φ(ab −1 ) ∈ H2 [Why?].
iv) Let g ∈ G1 and h ∈ φ−1 (H2 ). To show ghg −1 ∈ φ−1 (H2 ).
This is true since φ(ghg −1 ) = · · · = φ(g )φ(h)(φ(g ))−1 ∈ H2 [Why?].
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Equivalence Relation on G1 Associated with φ : G1 → G2
Natural equivalent relation on G1 : For a, b ∈ G1 , a ∼φ b if φ(a) = φ(b),
and write [a]φ as the equivalence class of a ∈ G1 . Set G1 /φ := {[a]φ }.

The multiplication of equivalence classes in the set G1 /φ is well-defined,

and G1 /φ is a group under this multiplication. The natural projection

π : G1 → G1 /φ

defined by π(a) = [a]φ is a group homomorphism.

Proof: Multiplication is well-defined: to show ac ∼φ bd if a ∼φ b, c ∼φ d.
!
φ(ac) = φ(a)φ(c) = φ(b)φ(d) = φ(bd). ac ∼φ bd
Associativity: For all a, b, c ∈ G1 , [a]φ ([b]φ [c]φ ) = · · · = ([a]φ [b]φ )[c]φ .
Identity [e]φ : [e]φ [a]φ = [ea]φ = [a]φ & [a]φ [e]φ = [ae]φ = [a]φ
Inverses [a−1 ]φ : [a−1 ]φ [a]φ = [a−1 a]φ = [e]φ & [a]φ [a−1 ]φ = [aa−1 ]φ = [e]φ
Thus, G1 /φ is a group under the multiplication of equivalence classes.
π is a homomorphism: For all a, b ∈ G1 , π(ab) = · · · = π(a)π(b).
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An Important Theorem
The set of equivalence classes G1 /φ = {[a]φ }, [a]φ = {b ∈ G1 | φ(b) = φ(a)}.

We know π : G1 → G1 /φ defined by π(a) = [a]φ is a group homomorphism.

Theorem
Let φ : G1 → G2 be a homomorphism. There exists a group isomorphism
φ : G1 /φ → φ(G1 ) defined by φ([a]φ ) = φ(a) for all [a]φ ∈ G1 /φ.
π φ ι
G1 → G1 /φ → φ(G1 ) → G2 gives φ = ι ◦ φ ◦ π, ι is the inclusion mapping
Proof: well-defined: If [a]φ = [b]φ , then φ([a]φ ) = φ(a) = φ(b) = φ([b]φ ).
one-to-one: If φ([a]φ ) = φ([b]φ ), then φ(a) = φ(b). Thus [a]φ = [b]φ .
onto: im(φ) = {φ([a]φ ) | a ∈ G1 } = {φ(a) | a ∈ G1 } = im(φ) = φ(G1 )
φ is a group homomorphism: For any [a]φ , [b]φ ∈ G1 /φ,
φ([a]φ [b]φ ) = φ([ab]φ ) = φ(ab) = φ(a)φ(b) = φ([a]φ )φ([b]φ ).

Looking ahead: Fundamental Homomorphism Theorem G1 / ker(φ) ∼

= im(φ)
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Fundamental Homomorphism Theorem
Let φ : G1 → G2 be a homomorphism, and a, b ∈ G1 . TFAE:
(1) φ(a) = φ(b), i.e., a ∼φ b, i.e., [a]φ = [b]φ ;
(2) ab −1 ∈ ker(φ);
(3) a = kb for some k ∈ ker(φ);
(4) b −1 a ∈ ker(φ);
(5) a = bk for some k ∈ ker(φ);
Proof: (1) ⇒ (2) φ(ab −1 ) = · · · = e2 ab −1 ∈ ker(φ).
(2) ⇒ (3) ab −1 = k ∈ ker(φ) a = kb. (3) ⇒ (1) φ(a) = · · · = φ(b).
Similarly, we can show that (1) ⇒ (4) ⇒ (5) ⇒ (1).
In proof of Lagrange’s theorem: Let H be a subgroup of the group G .
For a, b ∈ G define a ∼ b if ab −1 ∈ H. Then ∼ is an equivalence relation.
Let H = ker(φ). Write G / ker(φ) for G /φ. So G1 /φ ∼
= φ(G1 ) becomes
Fundamental Homomorphism Theorem G1 / ker(φ) ∼
= φ(G1 ) = im(φ)
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Application: Characterization of Cyclic Groups
2nd Theorem in §3.5
Every cyclic group G is isomorphic to either Z or Zn for some n ∈ Z+ .

Use Fundamental Homomorphism Theorem G1 / ker(φ) ∼

= im(φ)):
Given G = hai, define φ : Z → G by φ(m) = am . By Example 3, φ is onto.
If o(a) = ∞, then φ is one-to-one. So the equivalence classes of the
factor set Z/φ are just the subsets of Z consisting of single elements,
and thus Z itself. Thus Z/ ker(φ) = Z/φ = Z ∼ = im(φ) = G .
If o(a) = n < ∞, then am = ak ⇔ m ≡ k (mod n), i.e., φ(m) = φ(k)
if and only if m ≡ k (mod n). This implies that Z/ ker(φ) = Z/φ is
the additive group of congruence classes modulo n. Thus Zn ∼= G.
e.g., Define φ : Z → Zn by φ(x) = [x]n . So φ is an onto homomorphism.
ker(φ) = nZ. By Fundamental Homomorphism Theorem, Z/nZ ∼ = Zn .
We just use G1 / ker(φ) to replace G1 /φ without its formal definition right now.
Looking ahead: We will give a formal proof of G1 / ker(φ) ∼= im(φ) in §3.8.
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