T.E.

(Mechanical) Batch 2017-18

ME-403 Refrigeration & Air Conditioning

Spring Semester 2020

Week No. 6
Lecture No. 1

S. M. Rizwan Azeem

1
No. CLO PLO
Apply the concepts of thermodynamics to
1 PLO-2
refrigeration cycles.
Carry out psychrometric calculations and air
2 PLO-2
conditioning cooling load estimation.
Analyze types of air conditioning systems
3 PLO-2
and air distribution systems.
Determine the performance of refrigeration
4 and air conditioning systems by conducting PLO-4
experiments.

2
Course Contents

CLO 1
Refrigeration cycles:
Reversed Carnot cycle, Vapour-compression and vapour absorption cycles, gas refrigeration cycle,
Multiple evaporator and compressor systems.
Compressor, Condenser, Evaporator, Expansion devices, cooling tower.
Refrigerants:
Desirable properties of a refrigerant, Classification of refrigerants and their comparison, designation
systems, secondary refrigerants (brine), Defrosting air circulation systems
Application of Refrigeration:
Domestic refrigerators, Water cooler, Cold storage, Ice making plants, Heat pump and Dairy industries
applications

CLO 2
Psychrometry:
Use of psychrometric chart, Relative humidity, Humidity ratio, Dry bulb, Wet bulb and Dew point
temperatures, Psychrometric processes & cycles
Cooling Load Calculations:
Indoor and outdoor design conditions of air conditioning, heating and cooling load calculation, Air
conditioning requirements for comfort and industrial processes.

CLO 3
Air distributing systems, Design and sizing of ducts, prevention of noise and vibration.
Humidifier, Dehumidifier, Fan, Pump, Blower, grills and registers, Automatic temperature and humidity
control systems, Pneumatic, electric and hydraulic systems.

CLO 4
Practicals

Refrigeration: The process of removing heat (heat is transferred from a region

of lower temperature to a region of higher temperature).

Air conditioning: In enclosed spaces, combined treatment of the air to control,

as specified, temperature, relative humidity, velocity of motion, and radiant
heat energy level, including consideration of the need for removal of airborne
particles and contaminant gases. (ASHRAE Handbook)

3
Psychrometry
• Study of the thermodynamic properties of moist air.
• Moist air is a binary mixture of dry air and water vapour.
• Each mixture component behaves as an ideal gas at the states under present
consideration.

Moist air properties

Mixture pressure: p  pa  pv where the subscript “a” refers to dry air and
“v” to water vapour present in the air.

kg of water vapour pvV RvT pv Rv pv

Humidity ratio: W     0.622
kg of dry air paV RaT pa Ra p  pv

kg of dry air is usually written as kgda

R = 8314 J/kmol·K, Ma = 28.965 kg/kmol and Mv = 18.015 kg/kmol; R = R /M

Relative humidity: The ratio of the mole fraction of water vapour in moist air
sample to the mole fraction of the water vapour in a saturated moist air sample
at the same temperature and pressure.
x p p
 v   v or   v 100 to express it as percentage.
xv ,sat pv ,sat pv,sat

Saturated air refers to the condition when   100 %.

Enthalpy: It is the sum of the enthalpies of dry air and water vapour contained
in the air.

H  H a  H v  ma ha  mv hv
H
 h  ha   mv ma  hv  ha  W hv (kJ/kgda)
ma

Selecting 0C as the reference state where ha  0 and with hv hg , we can

write h  c pa t  W hg where cpa = 1.0 kJ/kg·K.

4
 RaT RvT
Specific volume: va  (m3/kgda) and vv  (m3/kg)
pa pv

Dry-bulb temperature (DBT): The temperature of the mixture as measured by

a standard thermometer. The word ‘dry’ is used to imply that the sensor is
exposed to the vapour mixture without any liquid present.

Wet-bulb temperature (WBT): The temperature at which water evaporating

into moist air at a given dry-bulb temperature and humidity ratio can bring air
to saturation adiabatically at the same pressure.

• Unsaturated moist air flows over a water surface of infinite length in a well-
insulated chamber. Liquid water will evaporate and the humidity ratio of the
moist air will gradually increase until the air is saturated.

• The latent heat required for the evaporation of water is derived in part from
air and in part from water, thus causing a drop in temperature of the moist air
and water. At the end of this evaporation process, the moist air is always
saturated. Such a process is called an ideal adiabatic saturation process. When
saturated, the air-water mixture will then be at the wet-bulb temperature t*.

• Thus, in general, for some non-saturated vapour mixture, the dry-bulb

temperature t > t* and (t  t*) is called the wet-bulb depression.

• A psychrometer is an instrument that permits one to determine the relative

humidity of a moist air sample by measuring its dry-bulb and wet-bulb
temperatures.

Dew point temperature (DPT): The temperature of moist air saturated at the
same pressure and humidity ratio as a given specimen of humid air. If we cool
it further, water will start condensing and separates out as fog/dew.

5
Psychrometric Chart
• Provide a graphical representation of the thermodynamic properties of moist
air, various air conditioning processes and cycles.
• The grid lines, with DBT as abscissa and W (humidity ratio or absolute
humidity) as ordinate, form the basis of the psychrometric chart.
• A psychrometric chart is constructed for a specified value of barometric
pressure.

• ASHRAE psychrometric charts: 7 charts for different temperature ranges and

pressures. Most commonly used is Chart No. 1 (Standard sea-level pressure of
101325 Pa and temperature range 0 to 50C).
• Dry-bulb, wet-bulb, and dew point temperatures all coincide on the saturation
curve.
• A protractor with two scales appears at the upper left of ASHRAE Chart 1.
One scale gives the sensible to total heat ratio and the other the ratio of
enthalpy difference to humidity ratio difference.
Note: The units of humidity ratio in ASHRAE psychrometric chart are g/kgda.
That is, multiply a value in kg/kgda by 1000 to convert it to g/kgda.
Conversely, divide a value in g/kgda by 1000 to convert it to kg/kgda.

6
 T.E. (Mechanical) Batch 2017-18

ME-403 Refrigeration & Air Conditioning

Spring Semester 2020

Week No. 6
Lecture No. 2

S. M. Rizwan Azeem

1
Example 1: Calculate the rh of moist air at a dbt of 30°C and a humidity ratio
of 0.00734 kg/kgda, at a barometric pressure of 101325 Pa.

Solution: Given t = 30°C, W = 0.00734 kg/kgda; Required ϕ.

pv
W  0.622  W  p  W  pv  0.622 pv
p  pv
Wp
or pv   1.1818 kPa
0.622  W
p
  v 100 where pv,sat = psat at 30°C = 4.241 kPa (from Table A-1)
pv,sat
 ϕ = 27.87%

Alternatively use ASHRAE psychrometric chart No.1

First convert units of W from kg/kgda to g/kgda i.e. W = 7.34 g/kgda
The condition of air i.e. 30°C dbt and 7.34 g/kgda humidity ratio is marked on
the chart and the relative humidity is read to be 28%.

Example 2: For a sample of air having 22°C dbt, 30% rh at 1 atmosphere,

calculate vapour pressure, humidity ratio, vapour density and enthalpy.

Solution: Given t = 22°C, ϕ = 30%; Required pv, W, vv, h.

p
  v 100 where pv,sat = psat at 22°C = 2.642 kPa (from Table A-1)
pv,sat
0.3 = pv/2.642 or pv = 0.7926 kPa

pv 0.7926
W  0.622  0.622  or W = 0.0049 kg/kgda
p  pv 101.325  0.7926

ρv = ρaW = [(p  pv)/(RaT)]W = [(101325  792.6)/(287  295)](0.0049)

or ρv = 0.0058 kg/m3

h  c pa t  W hg = (1.0)(22)+(0.0049  2541.8) = 34.45 kJ/kgda

2
Using the psychrometric chart,
mark the state of air using the dbt
& ϕ, at point A.

From point A, draw a horizontal

line meeting the humidity ratio
scale at C, where W = 5 g/kgda or
0.005 kg/kgda.

Also va = 0.843 m3/kgda and we

know that ρv = ρaW= W/va =
0.0059 kg/m3.

Now draw a constant enthalpy line from point A and read the value on the scale
for enthalpy at point E, i.e. h =34.8 kJ/kgda

Psychrometric Processes

 Adiabatic mixing of two

streams of moist air:
Energy balance:
ma1h1  ma 2 h2  ma 3h3

Mass balance on the dry air:

ma1  ma 2  ma 3

Mass balance on the water vapour:

ma1W1  ma 2W2  ma3W3

The state point of the resulting

mixture (point 3) lies on the straight
line connecting the state points of the
two streams being mixed (points 1
and 2).
3
Example 3: A stream of 2 m3/s of outdoor air at 4°C dry-bulb temperature and
2°C thermodynamic wet-bulb temperature is adiabatically mixed with 6.25
m3/s of recirculated air at 25°C dry-bulb temperature and 50% rh. Find the dry-
bulb temperature and thermodynamic wet-bulb temperature of the resulting
mixture.

Solution:
State 1: 4°C dbt and 2°C wbt, 2 m3/s and State 2: 25°C dbt and 50% rh, 6.25
m3/s.

First show the schematic solution, and

then use the actual chart as follows.

Locate States 1 and 2 on the chart.

v1  0.789 m3/kgda, h1  13 kJ/kgda
v2  0.858 m3/kgda, h2  51 kJ/kgda
V 2
ma1  1   2.535 kgda/s
v1 0.789
V 6.25
ma 2  2   7.284 kgda/s
v2 0.858
Mass balance: ma 3  ma1  ma 2  9.819 kgda/s
Energy balance: ma 3h3  ma1h1  ma 2 h2  h3 = 41.19 kJ/kgda

Using h3 locate state 3 on line 1-2 and read the values t3 = 19.5°C, t3,wb =
14.6°C

 Sensible heating/cooling:

4
Air is passed over a heating/cooling coil. Heating/cooling of air takes place
without addition or subtraction of moisture. Q  ma  h2  h1 

5
 T.E. (Mechanical) Batch 2017-18

ME-403 Refrigeration & Air Conditioning

Spring Semester 2020

Week No. 6
Lecture No. 3

S. M. Rizwan Azeem

1
 Humidification:
Only moisture is added to air
passing through a chamber. No
other energy is added to the air, and
the moisture may be in either
vapour or liquid form. All moisture
added in the chamber is retained by
the air passing through.

Energy balance: ma  h2  h1   mwhw

Mass of water is conserved:

mw  ma W2  W1 

h h h
  2 1  hw
W W2  W1

If hw  hg1 then t2  t1 . That is air will be sensibly heated and humidified (line
12’). If hw  hg1 then t2  t1 . That is air will be sensibly cooled and humidified
(line 12”). If hw  hg1 then t2  t1 . This is pure humidification (line 12).

If water is injected at wbt of air t1* , then

the process follows the wbt line 12*.

If the water temperature is less than t1*

water is injected at wbt of air t1* , then
the process follows line 12a and if it is
greater than t1* then it follows line 12c.

2
Example 4: Moist air with a temperature of 22°C and a wet-bulb temperature
of 9°C enters a steam-spray humidifier. The mass flow rate of the dry air is 90
kg/min. Saturated water vapor at 110°C is injected into the mixture at a rate of
52 kg/h. Using the psychrometric chart, determine at the exit the humidity ratio
and the temperature.

Solution:
First show the schematic solution, and then
use the actual chart as follows.

Locate state 1 using t1 and t1*.

W1 = 1.9 g/kgda = 0.0019 kg/kgda
h1 = 27 kJ/kgda

Also mw  ma W2  W1 
90
Given that ma   1.5 kgda/s
60
52
and mw   0.0144 kg/s
3600

 W2 = 0.00115 kg/kgda = 11.5 g/kgda

Since ma  h2  h1   mwhw where hg  2691.3 (Table A-1)

 h2 = 52.8 kJ/kgda

Locate state 2 using W2 and h2 and read the corresponding dbt.

 t2 = 23.5°C.

3
 Heating and humidification:
- Two step process i.e. first sensible heating of air and then addition of water
vapour to the air stream.

- Sensible heating process: Q  ma  h2  h1  or ma  h2  h1   Q ----------- [Eq.1]

- Humidification process:
ma 1
mw  ma W3  W2   ma W3  W1  or  ----------- [Eq.2]
mw W3  W1
ma  h3  h2   mwhw ----------- [Eq.3]
h h h Q
- Using the above equations we get:  3 1   hw
W W3  W1 mw
Example 5: Moist air enters a duct at the rate of 10 kgda/s at 20°C & 50% rh.
It is heated by a 25 kW capacity heater and steam at the rate of 0.1 kg/s is
injected at 100°C. Find the rh and dbt at the outlet state, with air at 101325 Pa.

Solution: Sketch the process schematic as above. Using t1 = 20°C, ϕ1 = 50%

locate state 1; h1 =39 kJ/kgda and W1 = 7.3 g/kgda = 0.0073 kg/kgda
Given ma  10 kgda/s, mw  0.1kg/s, Q  25 kW, hw = hg at 100°C = 2676 kJ/kg

Now W2 = W1 and mw  ma W3  W2   W3 = 0.0173 kg/kgda = 17.3 g/kgda

h h h Q
From the expression  3 1   hw  h3 = 68.26 kJ/kgda
W W3  W1 mw
Use W3 and h3 to locate state 3 on the chart: t3 = 23.8°C and ϕ3 = 92%

4
 T.E. (Mechanical) Batch 2017-18

ME-403 Refrigeration & Air Conditioning

Spring Semester 2020

Week No. 7
Lecture No. 1

S. M. Rizwan Azeem

1
 Cooling and dehumidification:
- Warm air at t1 enters the cooling coil
maintained at temperature td.
- td is kept less than the dpt of the
incoming air to ensure condensation.
- Under ideal conditions air leaves at td,
but actually (due to imperfect cooling) it
leaves at a higher temperature t2.

The final state, (state 2), is then considered as the adiabatic mixture of the air at
state 1 and the saturated air at state d.
- The temperature td corresponding to point d is known as the apparatus dew
point (ADP).
- An ADP is essential to any cooling and dehumidifying process.

Energy balance: ma  h1  h2   Q  mwhw

Mass flow balance on the water in the air: ma W1  W2   mw

Combining the above two equations the total rate of heat transfer from the
moist air is given as: Q  ma  h1  h2   ma W1  W2  hw

The last term on the RHS of above equation is usually small compared to the
others and is often neglected.

t2  td W2  Wd h2  hd
By-pass factor: BF   
t1  td W1  Wd h1  hd
Contact factor: CF = 1 BF
Sensible heat load
Sensible heat factor: SHF  where the total heat load is the
Total heat load
sum of sensible and latent loads.

2
Example 6: In an air conditioning system, air at flow rate of 2 kgda/s enters the
cooling coil at 25°C and 50% rh and leaves the cooling coil at 11°C and 90%
rh. Find (a) the required cooling capacity of the coil, (b) SHF for the process,
and (c) the BF of the coil. Assume the condensate water to leave the coil at
ADP.

Solution: Sketch the process schematic

and then use the actual chart.
Parallel

Locate state 1, using t1 = 25°C and ϕ1 =

50%
 h1 = 50.5 kJ/kgda, W1 = 10 g/kgda

Locate state 2, using t2 = 11°C and ϕ2 =

90%
 h2 = 30 kJ/kgda, W2 = 7.5 g/kgda

Locate state ‘d’ by extending line 12 to the saturation curve  td = 8.5°C

(a) Q  ma  h1  h2   ma W1  W2  hw where hw = hf at 8.5°C = 35.70 kJ/kg

 Q  41.00  0.18  40.82 kW

(b) The SHF can be read from the protractor. Draw a line parallel to line 12
from the origin of the protractor to the inner scale having the SHF values.
 SHF = 0.69

t2  td
(c) BF  = 0.152
t1  td
 Heating and dehumidification (chemical dehumidification):
This process can be achieved by passing air over
a hygroscopic material which absorbs or adsorbs
the water vapor from the moisture.
Absorbents: Brines of calcium chloride, lithium
chloride, lithium bromide and ethylene glycol.
Adsorbents: Silica gel and activated alumina.
3
Basic Heating Cycle

The returned room R

air (state R) is mixed
with the required
outdoor air (state O)
at the air handling
unit.
mw
hw

The mixed air (state M) first passes through the heating coil.

Typically, the outdoor air

condition is always
cooler and less humid R
than the return air.
Therefore, the heating

process generally W
involves both heating
and humidification, with
the conditioned air
leaving at state (S). DBT 

The heated and humidified air at state (S) is then supplied into the conditioned
space which is at state (R) to complete the cycle.

Line SR is also known as space condition line or load-ratio line.

4
Basic Cooling Cycle

The returned room air

(state R) is mixed with
the required outdoor air
(state O) at the air
handling unit.

The mixed air (state M)

passes through the
cooling coil.

Typically, the outdoor

air condition is always
warmer and more humid
than the return air.
Therefore, the cooling
process generally D
involves both cooling and
dehumidification, with
the conditioned air
leaving the cooling coil
at state (S).
D
Load-ratio line
The cooled and
dehumidified air leaving
the coil at state (S) is
then supplied into the
conditioned space which
is at state (R) to complete
the cycle.

Line SR is also known as space condition line or load-ratio line.

5
Example 7: An office space has a sensible cooling load of 9 kW and a latent
load of 2.5 kW. The space is is maintained at 24C dbt and 50% relative
humidity. The outside air is at 29C dbt and 21C wbt. The supply air contains
33% by mass outside air and it is at 12.5C dbt. Calculate the total amount of
conditioned air (in m3/s), the coil ADP, by-pass factor, and capacity in TR.

Solution: The space load is QS  9 kW,

and QL  2.5 kW
Locate states O and R

QS
SHF   0.783
QS  QL
Locate state S using SHF & tS
Thus hO = 61 kJ/kgda, hR = 48.5 kJ/kgda, hS = 32.8 kJ/kgda, vS = 0.82 m3/kgda
Since Q  11.5 kW = ma,S  hR  hS  , we find ma ,S  0.7325 kgda/s and
V  ma ,S vs  0.6 m3/s

We now need to locate state M on line OR. Since ma ,S  ma ,M and it is given

that ma ,O  0.33ma ,S . Therefore, ma ,O  0.33ma ,M and ma ,R  0.67ma ,M .
The mixing of streams at states O and R implies that
ma ,O hO  ma ,R hR  ma ,M hM or 0.33ma ,M hO  0.67ma ,M hR  ma ,M hM which
yields hM = 52.6 kJ/kgda and state M is thus located. Thus tM = 26C.

To find the ADP, extend line MS to the saturation line where tD = 9.5C

tS  tD
BF  =0.1818
tM  t D

Coil load or capacity is given by QCC  ma ,M  hM  hS   ma ,S  hM  hS  which

come out to be 14.52 kW or 4.13 tons.

6
Q. A building has a calculated cooling load of 20 tons of which 5 tons is latent.
The space is to be maintained at 23°C and 50 % relative humidity. 10 % by
volume of the supplied air is outdoor air at 38°C and 50 % relative humidity.
The supply air is at 13°C. Assume atmospheric pressure to be 1 atm. Draw the
processes on the psychrometric chart and find (a) The amount and condition of
the supply air, (b) The condition and flow rate of air entering the cooling coil,
(c) SHF for the coil, and (d) ADP and coil’s bypass factor. [(a) 5.411 kg/s, (b)
4.64 m3/s, (c) 0.67, (d) 8.5°C, 0.283]

Q. A space is to be conditioned during the heating season. The space is to be

maintained at 22C dbt with a relative humidity of 30 percent. The total heating
load is 73.3 kW with a SHF of 0.8. The quantity of supply air is 2.69 kg/s and
the amount of outdoor ventilation air is 0.81 m3/s. Outdoor air is at 2C dbt and
a humidity ratio of 0.001 kg/kg da. Saturated steam at142 kPa (absolute) is
available for humidification. Determine the amount of heating required and the
amount of vapor required for humidification. [79.8 kW, 0.01 kg/s]

7
 T.E. (Mechanical) Batch 2017-18

ME-403 Refrigeration & Air Conditioning

Spring Semester 2020

Week No. 7
Lecture No. 2

S. M. Rizwan Azeem

1
Thermal Comfort: That condition of mind which expresses satisfaction with
the thermal environment. Factors that must be considered: (1) air temperature
(2) radiant temperature (3) air velocity (4) humidity (5) clothing (6) activity.

ASHRAE Summer & Winter Comfort Zones

Acceptable ranges of operative temperature and humidity (air speed  0.2 m/s,
people wearing 1.0 and 0.5 clo clothing, activity level 1.1 met).

1 met = 58.1 W/m2 (ASHRAE Fundamentals, Chapter 9, Table 4)

1 clo = 0.155 m2K/W (ASHRAE Fundamentals, Chapter 9, Tables 7 & 8)

Operative temperature: The uniform temperature of a radiantly black enclosure

in which an occupant would exchange the same amount of heat by radiation
plus convection as in the actual non-uniform environment.

2
Cooling Load Estimation

General procedure:

1. Obtain the characteristics of the building, building materials, components,

etc. from building plans and specifications.

2. Determine the building location, orientation, external shading (like adjacent

buildings).

3. Obtain appropriate weather data and select outdoor design conditions.

4. Select indoor design conditions (ASHRAE Standard 55).

5. Obtain a proposed schedule of lighting, occupants, internal equipment

appliances and processes that would contribute to internal thermal load.

 Neither economical nor practical to design equipment for the annual hottest
temperature, since the peak temperatures may occur only for a few hours over
the span of several years.

 Therefore, as a practice, the ‘design temperature and humidity’ conditions are

based on frequency of occurrence. The term “design condition” refers to the
percentage of time in a year (8760 hours), the values of dry-bulb, dew-point
and wet-bulb temperature exceed by the indicated percentage. The 0.4%, 1.0%,
and 2.0% values are exceeded on average by 35, 88, and 175 hours.

6. Calculate the space cooling load at design conditions. Assess the cooling
loads at several different times for a design day to find out the peak design
load.

3
4
5
Types of Space Cooling Loads

External Cooling Loads: Heat gains in the conditioned space from external
sources.
1. Heat gain entering from the exterior (exposed to direct solar radiation) walls
and roofs
2. Solar heat gain transmitted through the fenestrations (transparent surfaces)
3. Conductive heat gain coming through the fenestrations
4. Heat gain entering from the partition walls and interior doors
5. Infiltration of outdoor air into the conditioned space

Internal Cooling Loads: Heat gains from sources inside the conditioned space.
1. People
2. Electric lights
3. Equipment and appliances

6
The CLTD/CLF Cooling Load Calculation Method

CLTD is a theoretical temperature difference that accounts for the combined

effects of inside and outside air temp difference, daily temp range, solar
radiation and heat storage in the construction assembly/building mass. It is
affected by orientation, tilt, month, day, hour, latitude, etc. CLTD factors are
used for adjustment to conductive heat gains from exterior roofs and walls.

CLF accounts for the fact that all the radiant energy that enters the conditioned
space at a particular time does not become a part of the cooling load instantly.
The CLF values for various surfaces have been calculated as functions of solar
time and orientation and are available in the form of tables in ASHRAE
Handbooks. CLF factors are used for adjustment to heat gains due to radiation
through glass and from internal loads such as lights, occupancy, power
appliances.

External Cooling Load

 Roofs and Walls

U = design heat transfer coefficient (Table 4-4)
A = area of roof or wall
CLTD = cooling load temperature difference (Tables 4-14 & 4-15)
The CLTD value obtained from the table is adjusted as follows:
CLTDadj = CLTD + (25 – ti) + (tav – 29)
ti = indoor design temperature, tav = average outdoor temperature. The cooling
load is then calculated using the following equation:
q̇ = UACLTDadj

 Conduction and radiation load through transparent surfaces

q̇cond = UA(to  ti) and q̇sg = (SHGFmax)(SC)(CLF)A
U = design heat transfer coefficient (Table 4-4)
A = area of transparent surface
to = outdoor design temperature
ti = indoor design temperature
7
SHGFmax = maximum solar-heat gain factor (Table 4-10)
SC = shading coefficient (Table 4-11)
CLF = cooling-load factor (Table 4-12)

Thus the total heat gain through a transparent surface will be given as
q̇ = q̇cond + q̇sg

 Cooling load from partitions, ceilings, floors

q̇ = UA(ta  ti)
U = design heat transfer coefficient for partition, ceiling, or floor
A = area of partition, ceiling, or floor
ta = temperature in adjacent space
ti = indoor design temperature

Internal Cooling Load

People
q̇sensible = N (Sensible heat gain) CLF
q̇latent = N (Latent heat gain)

Sensible and latent heat gains from occupants are given in Table 4-7
N = number of people in space
CLF = cooling load factor (Table 4-9)

Lights
q̇ = W Fu Fb (CLF)
W = lighting fixture rating in watts
Fu = utilization factor or factor of installed wattage in use
Fb = ballast factor for fluorescent lamps (Fb = 1.2 for most commonly used
fluorescent fixtures)
CLF = cooling load factor (Table 4-6)

8
Appliances & Equipment
These include both sensible and any latent loads.
q̇ = W (CLF) for sensible loads
W = Appliance/Equipment rating in watts
CLF = cooling load factor (use Table 4-6)

Infiltration Air
Infiltration is the uncontrolled introduction of outside air into a building.
Air-Change Method: V̇ = (ACH)(V)/3600
V̇ = infiltration rate, m3/s
ACH = number of air changes per hour, h1
V = gross space volume, m3

The sensible and latent loads due to infiltration air are determined using:
q̇is = 1.23V̇ (to  ti)
q̇il = 3000 V̇ (Wo  Wi)

where V̇ = infiltration rate, L/s

to, ti = outside, inside air temperature, °C
Wo, Wi = outside, inside air humidity ratio, kg/kgda

Ventilation Air
The sensible and latent loads due to ventilation air are determined using:
q̇vs = 1.23V̇ (to  ti)
q̇vl = 3000 V̇ (Wo  Wi)

where V̇ = rate of supply air for ventilation purposes, L/s

to, ti = outside, inside air temperature, °C
Wo, Wi = outside, inside air humidity ratio, kg/kgda

9
 T.E. (Mechanical) Batch 2017-18

ME-403 Refrigeration & Air Conditioning

Spring Semester 2020

Week No. 7
Lecture No. 3

S. M. Rizwan Azeem

1
Example: A single-storey office building is 25 m long, 15 m wide and 3 m high. Only the
25-m-west wall and roof are exterior. Assume the thermal conditions in all other adjacent
spaces are the same as those of the office space. Determine the cooling load at 1400 hours
on July 21. Other known conditions include:
o
Latitude = 40 N; Windows (regular sheet glass, double glazed with 6 mm airspace)
occupy 12% of the wall area and light venetian blinds are used to shade the windows; Wall
2
type is F (U = 1.5 W/m K); Roof is of type 4 without suspended ceiling (U = 0.51
2
W/m K); Outside design dbt = 35°C, wbt = 25°C; Outside average dbt = 29.5°C; Indoor
design dbt = 24°C, wbt = 18°C; Schedule of occupancy: 40 people from 0800 to 1800
hours engaged in office work; Equipment load is 12.7 kW sensible and 1.8 kW latent;
Outdoor air is used for ventilation in the nonsmoking office environment; Lighting
schedule: 17.5 kW (Fb = 1.2, Fixture Y) switched on at 8:00 am for 10 hours; Infiltration
load is 0.3 ACH.

Solution: Cooling load at 1400 hours on July 21 15 m 25 m

Roof: Type 4 without suspended ceiling, 3m

U = 0.51 W/m2·K
CLTD = 24°C at 1400 hrs (Table 4-14) North
CLTDadj = CLTD + (25 – ti) + (tav – 29)
= 24 + (25 – 24) + (29.5 – 29) West

= 24 + 1.5 = 25.5°C
q̇ = UACLTDadj = (0.51)(25  15)(25.5) = 4877 W

Wall: Type F, West facing, U = 1.5 W/m2·K, with 12% of area being windows
Net wall area A = 25  3  0.88 = 66 m2
CLTD = 11°C at 1400 hrs (Table 4-15)
CLTDadj = CLTD + (25 – ti) + (tav – 29) = 12.5°C
q̇ = UACLTDadj = (1.5)(66)(12.5) = 1238 W

Windows: West facing, double glazed with 6 mm airspace, regular sheet glass,
light venetian blinds
A = 25  3  0.12 = 9 m2, U = 3.5 W/m2·K (Table 4-4)
q̇cond = UA(to  ti) = (3.5)(9)(35  24) = 347 W
q̇sg = (SHGFmax)(SC)(CLF)A = (690)(0.51)(0.53)(9) = 1679 W
SHGFmax, SC and CLF values are obtained from Tables 4-10, 4-11 and 4-12
q̇ = q̇cond + q̇sg = 2026 W

2
People: N = 40, 0800 to 1800 hrs in space, office work, non-smoking space
q̇sensible = N (Sensible heat gain) CLF = (40)(150  0.55)(0.80) = 2640 W
Sensible heat gain and CLF are found from Tables 4-7 and 4-9
q̇latent = N (Latent heat gain) = (40)(150  0.45) = 2700 W
Latent heat gain is obtained from Table 4-7
q̇ = q̇sensible + q̇latent = 5340 W

Lights: q̇ = W Fu Fb (CLF) = (17.5  103)(1.0)(1.2)(0.92) = 19320 W

CLF is given in Table 4-6

Equipment: q̇sensible = W (CLF) = (12.7  103)(0.92) = 11684 W

CLF is the same as for lights, given in Table 4-6
q̇latent = 1.8 kW = 1800 W; q̇ = q̇sensible + q̇latent = 13484 W

Infiltration: V̇ = (ACH)(V)/3600
= (0.3)(25  15  13)/3600 = 0.09375 m3/s = 93.75 L/s
q̇is = 1.23V̇ (to  ti) = (1.23)(93.75)(35  24) = 1268 W
q̇il = 3000 V̇ (Wo  Wi) = (3000)(93.75)(0.016  0.0105) = 1547 W
q̇ = q̇is + q̇il = 2815 W

Ventilation: For non-smoking office space outdoor air requirement is 2.5 L/s
per person (Table 4-1)
q̇vs = 1.23V̇ (to  ti) = (1.23)(2.5  40)(35  24) = 1353 W
q̇vl = 3000 V̇ (Wo  Wi) = (3000)(2.5  40)(0.016  0.0105) = 1650 W
q̇ = q̇vs + q̇vl = 3003 W

Total load = Space load + Ventilation load

= (4877 + 1238 + 2026 + 5340 + 19320 + 13484 + 2815) + 3003
= 49100 + 3003 = 52103 W or 14.82 tons

3
 T.E. (Mechanical) Batch 2017-18

ME-403 Refrigeration & Air Conditioning

Spring Semester 2020

Week No. 8
Lecture No. 1

S. M. Rizwan Azeem

1
Air conditioning Systems

Most air conditioning systems perform the following functions:

(1) Provide the cooling and heating energy required.
(2) Condition the supply air, that is, heat or cool, humidify or dehumidify,
clean and purify, and attenuate any objectionable noise produced by the
HVAC&R equipment.
(3) Distribute the conditioned air, containing sufficient outdoor air, to the
conditioned space.
(4) Control and maintain the indoor environmental parameters within
predetermined limits.

Classification According to Application

(1) Comfort Air Conditioning Systems
Provide occupants with a comfortable and healthy indoor environment in which
to carry out their activities. Application areas are:
Commercial sector (e.g. office buildings, shopping centres, restaurants).
Institutional sector (e.g. educational institutes, libraries, museums).
Residential sector (e.g. hotels, apartment houses, private homes).
Health care sector (e.g. hospitals, nursing homes, other health care facilities).
Transportation sector (e.g. aircraft, automobiles, trains, buses, ships).

(2) Process Air Conditioning Systems

Process air conditioning systems provide needed indoor environmental control
for manufacturing, product storage, or other R & D processes. Examples are:
Textile industry (proper control of humidity is a critical requirement).
Manufacturing industry (clean rooms for electronic products e.g. computer
chips & IC’s; production of precision instruments, tools, and equipment).
Pharmaceutical industry (very stringent temperature, humidity, and air
cleanliness control is required).
2
Central Air Conditioning Systems
All-air Systems: Spaces within a building are cooled solely by air supplied to
them from the central air-conditioning equipment.
The system is categorized by the use of air-handling units (AHU) or roof top
packages (RTP) to condition air. The conditioned air is sent through ductwork
to the occupied space where it will heat or cool the space as required, and
return via return air ducts back to the AHU or RTP. Roof top packages contain
a refrigerant cooling cycle, heating coils (connected to boilers or electric
heaters), filters, and one or more circulating fans.

Advantages:
- Greatest potential for energy conservation.
- Temperature and relative humidity control ± 0.15C and ± 0.5%, respectively.
- Good room air distribution and ventilation under all conditions of load.
- Noise in the conditioned space is minimized by proper location of the plant.
Disadvantages:
- They occupy more space.
- Retrofitting may not always be possible due to the space requirement.
- Balancing of air in large buildings requires special attention.

Air-and-water systems: Both air and water are distributed to each space to
perform the cooling function. The cooling water is used to carry away most of
the sensible energy from the conditioned space. The air provides the ventilation
required for air quality and carries away the moisture resulting from the space
latent load. These systems are mainly used in exterior spaces of buildings with
large sensible loads and where close control of humidity in the conditioned
space is not required.
Advantages:
- Individual zone control.
- Space requirement is reduced.
- The cooling coil in the conditioned space is dry, thereby problems of drainage
of condensate water and possibility of bacterial growth is eliminated.
Disadvantages:
- Operation and control are complicated due to the need for handling and
controlling both air and water.
- In general these systems are limited to perimeter zones.
3
All-water (hydronic) Systems: This system is based on the distribution of hot
or cold-water to individual fan-coil units (FCUs) located in each room of the
building. When cooling is required in the conditioned space then cold water is
circulated between the conditioned space and the plant, while hot water is
circulated through the distribution system when heating is required. Unlike air-
water systems, no primary air is separately fed indoors. However,
unconditioned ventilation air may supplied by an opening through the wall. All
water systems using fan coil units are most suitable in buildings requiring
individual room control.
Advantages:
- Occupies considerably less space, hence can be easily retrofitted.
- Individual room control is possible easily.
- Possible to use solar or waste heat for winter heating.
- Simultaneous cooling and heating is possible with 4-pipe systems.
Disadvantages:
- Requires higher maintenance compared to all air systems, particularly in the
conditioned space.
- Draining of condensate water can be messy and may also create health
problems.
- It is difficult to ensure required ventilation.
- Control of humidity, particularly during summer is difficult using chilled
water control valves.

4
All-air Systems

These are suitable for large-area buildings with many zones of conditioned
space. They comprise the following sub-systems.

Air system: Its function is to condition, transport and distribute the conditioned
air. The major components of an air system are the air-handling units (AHUs),
supply/return ductwork, terminal or VAV units, space diffusion devices, and
exhaust systems.

Water system: The water system includes chilled and hot water systems, chilled
and hot water pumps, condenser water system, and condenser water pumps.

Central plant: The refrigeration system in a central plant is usually in the form
of a chiller package. The boiler plant, consisting of boilers and accessories, is
the heat source of the heating system. Either hot water is heated or steam is
generated in the boilers.

Control system: It consists of electronic sensors, microprocessor-operated and

controlled modules. Outputs from the control modules often actuate dampers,
valves, and relays by means of pneumatic or electric actuators.

5
Schematic diagram of a central air conditioning system

Air handling unit

6
Two broad categories: Constant-volume or variable-air-volume (VAV)
systems.

(i) Single-duct, constant-volume, single-zone system

• One supply duct, through which either hot air or cold air flows, but not both
simultaneously.
• Volumetric flow rate of supply air is always maintained constant.
• System control is based on temperature and humidity ratio measured at a
single point. Zone refers to a space controlled by one thermostat. However, the
single zone may consist of a single room or one floor or whole of a building
consisting of several rooms.

Advantages:
• Simplicity of design (most basic and least complex of central all-air systems).
• Low first cost among all types of systems.
• Easiest to maintain.

Disadvantages:
• It can effectively condition only one zone.
• Single zone systems are not easily modified to serve multiple zones, should
building usage change with time.

7
(ii) Single-duct, constant-volume, multiple-zone (terminal-reheat) system
• A re-heat coil (or an electric strip heater) is located downstream of the air
handling unit near each zone.
• A thermostat in each zone controls the heat output of the reheat coil to
produce comfortable conditions.
• The supply air leaving the AHU is conditioned to meet the requirement of the
greatest cooling load in any of the zones. Any zone that requires less than
maximum cooling will have its supply air temperature increased by its terminal
reheat device.

8
Advantages:
• Relatively small space requirement.
• Excellent temperature and humidity control over a wide range of zone loads.
• It is flexible and reheat can be added or removed to accommodate changes in
zoning.

Disadvantages:
• Expensive to operate.
• These systems are energy inefficient as the system involve simultaneous use
of cooling and reheat. For this reason, use of reheat systems is strictly regulated
by most energy codes and standards.

(iii) Dual-duct, constant-volume, multiple-zone system

• Employs two air ducts; one cold air duct and one warm air duct from the air-
handler to the conditioned spaces.
• Before each zone, the cold and hot air streams are mixed in required
proportions using a mixing box, which is controlled by the zone thermostat.
• The total volume of air supplied to each zone remains constant; however, the
supply air temperature varies depending upon load.
• Return air is accomplished through a single duct system.

9
Advantages:
• Cooling in some zones and heating in other zones can be achieved
simultaneously.
• Very responsive to variations in the zone load. Thus it is possible to maintain
required conditions precisely.
• Maintains proper indoor air quality (IAQ) and room air distribution.
• No seasonal changeover is necessary.

Disadvantages:
• Occupies more space for running of two ducts.
• Each duct has to be sized to handle the entire air flow rate, if required.
• High first cost of installation.
• Not very energy efficient due to the need for simultaneous cooling and
heating of the air streams.

10
(iv) Single-duct, variable-volume, multiple-zone system
• A VAV system changes the quantity of air supplied to a space in response to
changes in loads whereas a constant volume system responds by varying the
temperature of the supply air.
• A central air-handling unit supplies air through a common duct to all spaces
conditioned by the unit.
• Each zone has a VAV box that adjusts air supply volume in response to the
zone thermostat. The temperature of supply air to each zone remains constant,
whereas its flow rate varies depending upon the load on that particular zone.

11
Advantages:
• Lower energy consumption during partial load conditions.
• Lower energy consumption also results due to lower fan power input due to
lower air flow rate.
• Energy savings of the main plant are also obtained.
• Ability to control temperatures in interior and exterior zones without under-
cooling or overcooling.
• Possible to shift airflow from one zone to another throughout the day, thus
reducing the design capacity of air circulation equipment and main ducts.

Disadvantages:
• High initial cost.
• Indoor air quality may suffer on low demand at low air flow rates.
• Supply air distribution & throw may be affected at low loads.
• Humidity control is difficult under widely varying latent loads.

12
Question. A two-zone terminal reheat system is to be designed for summer
outdoor design conditions of 32C dbt and 23C wbt. In this design 25% of the
supply air mass flow rate to each zone is to be fresh air (outside air). Standard
atmospheric pressure is assumed to exist. The cooling coil for the system is to
be selected such that the air will exit the coil saturated at 5C.

The design conditions for zone A are 22C dbt and 40% rh. For these design
conditions, zone A is predicted to have a sensible heat gain of 80 kW and a
latent heat gain of 20 kW. The design conditions for zone B are 26C dbt and
30% rh. For these design conditions, zone B is predicted to have a sensible heat
gain of 75 kW and a latent heat gain of 25 kW.

For the above design conditions, determine the following (a) the supply air
mass flow rate for zone A, (b) the required reheat capacity for zone A, (c) the
supply air mass flow rate for zone B, (d) the required reheat capacity for zone
B, and (e) the cooling coil capacity. [Ans: (a) 7.13 kgda/s (b) 43.2 kW (c) 12.25
kgda/s (d) 185.6 kW (e) 560.9 kW]

13
 T.E. (Mechanical) Batch 2017-18

ME-403 Refrigeration & Air Conditioning

Spring Semester 2020

Week No. 8
Lecture No. 2

S. M. Rizwan Azeem

1
AIR DUCT DESIGN
Main components of the air-side system in an all-air system include a supply
air duct, return air duct, outdoor air duct, exhaust duct, air filters, dampers,
various types of outlets for supply air and inlets for return air, supply and return
air fans. The function of the duct system is:
• Deliver a specified amount of air to each diffuser in the conditioned space at a
specified total pressure.
• Maintain low noise levels by limiting the air velocity, by using sound-
absorbing duct materials or liners, and by avoiding drastic restrictions in the
duct such as nearly closed dampers.

A duct system will generally have a pressure loss from about 0.65 Pa/m to
about 5 Pa/m, depending mainly on the system capacity.

Duct Construction
Two principal duct sections are (a) header or main duct or trunk and (b) branch
duct or runout.

Shapes
• Round (smaller cross-sectional and surface areas
for a given flow rate, lower pressure drop, better
rigidity/strength; requires more clear height for
installation).

• Rectangular (easier to fabricate on site,

aspect ratio ‘a:b’ close to 1:1 to reduce
pressure drop and sheet metal; avoid
aspect ratios greater than 3:1, if possible).

• Flat oval
• Flexible

2
Duct Pressure Loss
Total pressure loss = Frictional losses in straight ducts + Dynamic losses

(1) Frictional losses in straight ducts are calculated using the friction chart.

- The pressure drop in Pa/m is obtained from the chart for a given flow rate and
velocity (or diameter). Multiplying this value with the duct length gives the
frictional pressure drop.

- The friction chart can also be used to find the pressure drop for rectangular
1.30  ab 
0.625

ducts. Use the flow rate and equivalent diameter given by Deq  .
a  b
0.250

(2) Dynamic (minor) losses in fittings such as enlargements, contractions,

v2
elbows, dampers, filters etc. pm  K L where KL is the loss coefficient.
2
3
Classification of Duct Systems

Velocity Classification
High duct velocities show an economy in duct cost, but require more power
which will generate more noise. Velocities in common use are as follows:
High-velocity system, main ducts 20 m/s
High-velocity system, branch ducts 15 m/s
Medium-velocity system, b/w 10 and 15 m/s
Low-velocity system, main ducts 10 m/s
Low-velocity system, branch ducts 6 m/s
Ducts in quiet areas 3–4 m/s

Pressure Classification
The pressures are total pressure and include all losses through the air source
unit, the supply ductwork, and the air terminals, return air grilles, and return
ductwork.
Low pressure up to 1000 Pa
Medium pressure from 1000 to 1500 Pa
High pressure from 1500 to 3000 Pa

As a good engineering practice

1. Primary air ductwork (fan connections, risers, main distribution ducts) shall
be medium pressure classification.
2. Secondary air ductwork (run-outs/branches from main to terminal boxes and
distribution devices) shall be low pressure classification.

Generally speaking, duct strength, deflection and leakage are more functions of
pressure than of velocity while noise, vibration and friction loss are more
related to velocity than to pressure.

4
Duct Design Methods

Supply air is distributed to

five outlets (1 to 5), located
in five different conditioned
zones.

The letters A to I denote the

portions of the duct to
different outlets. Thus A-B
is the duct running from the
supply air fan to zone 1.

These are known as duct runs. The run with the highest pressure drop is termed
the index run.

From load and psychrometric calculations the required supply airflow rates to
each conditioned space are known.

From the building layout and the location of the supply fan, the length of each
duct run is known.

The purpose of the duct design is to select suitable dimensions of duct for
each run and then to select a fan, which can provide the required supply
airflow rate to each conditioned zone.

Due to the several issues involved, the design of an air conditioning duct
system in large buildings could be a sophisticated operation requiring the use of
software. However, the following methods are most commonly used for
simpler lay-outs such as the one shown above.

1. Velocity method

2. Equal Friction Method

3. Static Regain method

5
Velocity Method

(i) Select suitable velocities in the main and branch ducts.

(ii) Find the diameters of main and branch ducts from airflow rates and
velocities for circular ducts. For rectangular ducts, find the cross-sectional area
from flow rate and velocity, and then by fixing the aspect ratio, find the two
sides of the rectangular duct.

(iii) From the velocities and duct dimensions obtained in the previous step, find
the frictional pressure drop for main and branch ducts.

(iv) From the duct layout, dimensions and airflow rates, find the pressure losses
for all the bends and fittings.

(v) Select a fan which provides sufficient fan total pressure for the index run.

(vi) Balancing dampers have to be installed in each run. The damper in the
index run is left completely open, while the other dampers are throttled to
reduce the flow rate to the required design values.

• One of the simplest ways of duct design, for both supply and return air.
• Selection of suitable velocities in different duct runs is required, which is
based on experience.
• The method is not very efficient as it requires partial closing of all the
dampers except the one in the index run, so that the total pressure drop in each
run will be same.

For example, let A-C-G-H be the index run with a total pressure drop of 100
Pa. If the pressure drop in the shortest duct run (say, A-B) is 10 Pa, then the
damper in this run has to be closed to provide an additional pressure drop of 90
Pa, so that the required airflow rate to the conditioned zone 1 can be
maintained. Similarly the dampers in the other duct runs also have to be closed
partially, so that the total pressure drop with damper partially closed in each
run will be equal to the pressure drop in the index run with its damper left open
fully.

6
Equal Friction Method
In this method the frictional pressure drop per unit length in the main and
branch ducts is kept same. The stepwise procedure for designing the duct
system is as follows:

(i) Select a suitable frictional pressure drop per unit length.

(ii) Use the friction chart to find the diameter of the main duct from the
selected (pf/L) value and the airflow rate.

(iii) The diameters of the other duct runs, B to I are also obtained from the
friction chart.
1.30  ab 
5/8

For rectangular ducts, the equation Deq  and the selected aspect ratio
 a  b
1/4

will yield the duct dimensions for each run. The velocity of air in each duct run
is obtained from the volumetric flow rate and the cross-sectional area.

(v) The total frictional pressure drop of a run is obtained by multiplying the
frictional pressure drop per unit length and the length of that run.

(vi) The dynamic pressure losses in each duct run are obtained.

(vii) The total pressure drop in each duct run is obtained by summing up the
frictional and dynamic losses of that run.

(viii) The fan is selected to suit the index run (having the highest pressure loss).

• Simple and most widely used conventional method.

• Usually yields a better design than the velocity method.
• Generally suitable when the ducts are not too long, and it can be used for both
supply and return ducts.
• However, the equal friction method also requires partial closure of dampers in
all but the index run, which may generate noise.
• If the ducts are too long then the total pressure drop will be high and ducts
near the fan get over-pressurized.

7
 T.E. (Mechanical) Batch 2017-18

ME-403 Refrigeration & Air Conditioning

Spring Semester 2020

Week No. 8
Lecture No. 3

S. M. Rizwan Azeem

1
Example. Size the given round duct system and determine the index run, using:
(a) Velocity method, taking the velocities in the main (segments 1, 2) and
branch (segments 3, 4, 5) ducts to be 5 m/s and 3 m/s, respectively. (b) Equal
friction method, taking p/L = 0.7 Pa/m.

The pressure loss for each diffuser is 5 Pa and the loss coefficients are as
follows: Entrance 0.82, Tee (branch) 1.3, Tee (through) 0.26, Elbow (90) 0.38,
Elbow (45) 0.23, Wye (branch) 0.50, Wye (through) 0.20.

Solution: (a) Velocity method. Construct a table shown below.

Segment V̇ (m3/s) v (m/s) A = V̇/v (m2) D (m) Δp/L (Pa/m)

1 0.237 5 0.0474 0.246 1.33
2 0.166 5 0.0332 0.206 1.55
3 0.071 3 0.0237 0.174 0.78
4 0.095 3 0.0317 0.201 0.65
5 0.071 3 0.0237 0.174 0.78

(i) Enter the velocities against each segment

(ii) From simple flow rate balance enter the flow rate in each segment
(iii) Calculate the duct cross-sectional area and diameter
(iv) Then use the flow rate (in L/s) and velocity to find Δp/L for the segment
(v) Calculate the pressure drop (frictional + dynamic) in each run. This will
give us the index run.

2
Run 15
Δp = (Δp1 + Δpent) + (Δp5 + ΔpT,b + Δp90) + Δpdiff
= [(Δp/L)1 L1 + KL,ent (v12/2)] + [(Δp/L)5 L5 + (KL,T,b + KL,90) (v52/2)] + Δpdiff
= [1.33  6 + 0.82  (1.2  52)/2] + [0.78  3 + (1.3 + 0.38)  (1.2  32)/2] + 5
= 20.28 + 11.41 + 5 = 36.69 Pa

Run 123
Δp = (Δp1 + Δpent) + (Δp2 + ΔpT,t) + (Δp3 + ΔpY,b + Δp45 + Δp90) + Δpdiff
= 20.28 + [1.55  4.6 + 0.26  (1.2  52)/2]
+ [0.78  8 + (0.50 +0.23 + 0.38)  (1.2  32)/2] + 5
= 20.28 + 11.03 + 12.23 + 5 = 48.54 Pa

Run 124
Δp = (Δp1 + Δpent) + (Δp2 + ΔpT,t) + (Δp4 + ΔpY,t + Δp90 + Δp90) + Δpdiff
= 20.28 + 11.03 + [0.65  4.5 + (0.20 + 0.38 + 0.38)  (1.2  32)/2] + 5
= 20.28 + 11.03 + 8.11 + 5 = 44.42 Pa

Run 123 is the Index run.

(b) Equal friction method: Construct a table shown below.

Segment Δp/L V̇ v A = V̇/v D (m)

(Pa/m) (m3/s) (m/s) (m2)
1 0.7 0.237 3.90 0.0608 0.278
2 0.7 0.166 3.60 0.0461 0.242
3 0.7 0.071 2.85 0.0249 0.178
4 0.7 0.095 3.25 0.0292 0.193
5 0.7 0.071 2.85 0.0249 0.178

(i) Δp/L = 0.7 Pa/m in each segment

(ii) From simple flow rate balance enter the flow rate in each segment
(iii) Then use Δp/L and V̇ (in L/s) to find the velocities in each segment
(iv) Area and diameter are then easily calculated. [Note: Instead of velocity,
you can read the diameter from the friction chart at step (iii)]
(v) Calculate the pressure drop (frictional + dynamic) in each run. This will
give us the index run.

3
Run 15
Δp = (Δp1 + Δpent) + (Δp5 + ΔpT,b + Δp90) + Δpdiff
= 11.68 + 10.29 + 5 = 26.97 Pa

Run 123
Δp = (Δp1 + Δpent) + (Δp2 + ΔpT,t) + (Δp3 + ΔpY,b + Δp45 + Δp90) + Δpdiff
= 11.68 + 5.24 + 11.01 + 5 = 32.93 Pa

Run 124
Δp = (Δp1 + Δpent) + (Δp2 + ΔpT,t) + (Δp4 + ΔpY,t + Δp90 + Δp90) + Δpdiff
= 11.68 + 5.24 + 9.23 + 5 = 31.15 Pa

Run 123 is the Index run.

4
 T.E. (Mechanical) Batch 2017-18

ME-403 Refrigeration & Air Conditioning

Spring Semester 2020

Week No. 9
Lecture No. 1

S. M. Rizwan Azeem

1
Static Regain Method

Commonly used for high velocity systems with long duct runs, especially in
large systems. The design procedure is given below.

(i) Velocity in the main duct leaving the fan is selected first.

(ii) Velocities in each successive runs are reduced such that the gain in static
pressure due to reduction in dynamic pressure equals the pressure drop in the
next duct section.

For example, consider the part

of a duct run with two sections
1 and 2 before two branch take-
offs, as shown. The velocity at
1 is greater than that at 2, such
that the static pressure is same
at 1 and 2. Using the static
regain factor: pf,2 + pd,2 = R (pd,1  pd,2), where pf,2 and pd,2 are the
frictional and dynamic pressure losses between 1 and 2, and pd,1 and pd,2 are the
dynamic pressures at 1 and 2 respectively.

(iii) If section 1 is the outlet of the fan, then its dimensions are known from the
flow rate and velocity (initially selected). However, since both the dimensions
and velocity at section 2 are not known, a trial-and-error method is required to
solve the above equation and obtain the required dimensions of the section at 2.

(iv) The procedure is followed in the direction of airflow, and the dimensions
of the downstream ducts are similarly obtained.

(v) As before, the total pressure drop is obtained from the pressure drop in the
longest run and a fan is accordingly selected.

• This method yields a more balanced system and does not require unnecessary
damping.
• However, as velocity reduces in the direction of airflow, the duct size may
increase in the airflow direction.

2
Example. Find the main duct dimensions by the static regain method for the
system shown in the figure, assuming a static regain factor of 0.75. The
velocity at the inlet to the duct is 8.5 m/s and the loss coefficients are: Entrance
0.70, Tee (through at B) 0.35, Tee (through at C) 0.40, Elbow (90) 0.22.

1 m3/s 1 m3/s 1 m3/s

A
Fan
Plenum
10 m B 10 m C 20 m

Solution:
 Segment AB: V̇AB = 3 m3/s, vAB = 8.5 m/s
 AAB = 0.353 m2 and DAB = 670 mm

 Segment BC: V̇BC = 2 m3/s, R = 0.75, KL,T = 0.35

ΔpSR,BC = R(/2)[(vAB)2 – (vBC)2] = (0.45)[(8.5)2 – (vBC)2] -------- (Eq. 1)
ΔpBC = ΔpBC,f + ΔpBC,d = [(Δp/L)BC LBC + KL,T (vBC2/2)]
= (10)(Δp/L)BC + (0.21)(vBC2) -------- (Eq. 2)

Trial and error solution for segment BC:

vBC (m/s) Δp/L (Pa/m) ΔpSR,BC (Pa) ΔpBC (Pa)
7.0 0.79 10.46 18.19
6.5 0.67 13.50 15.57
6.25 0.60 14.93 14.20
6.3 0.61 14.65 14.43
 vBC = 6.3 m/s, at which condition ABC = 0.317 m2 and DBC = 636 mm

3
 Segment CD: V̇CD = 1 m3/s, R = 0.75, KL,T = 0.40, KL,90 = 0.22
ΔpSR,CD = R(/2)[(vBC)2 – (vCD)2] = (0.45)[(6.3)2 – (vBC)2] -------- (Eq. 3)
ΔpCD = ΔpCD,f + ΔpCD,d = [(Δp/L)CD LCD + (KL,T + KL,90)(vCD2/2)]
= (20)(Δp/L)CD + (0.372)(vCD2) -------- (Eq. 4)

Trial and error solution for segment CD:

vCD (m/s) Δp/L (Pa/m) ΔpSR,CD (Pa) ΔpCD (Pa)
5.0 0.52 6.61 19.70
4.0 0.30 10.66 11.95
3.9 0.28 11.02 11.26
 vCD = 3.9 m/s, at which condition ABC = 0.256 m2 and DCD = 571 mm

4
 T.E. (Mechanical) Batch 2017-18

ME-403 Refrigeration & Air Conditioning

Spring Semester 2020

Week No. 9
Lecture No. 2

S. M. Rizwan Azeem

1
ACOUSTICS & NOISE CONTROL

Sound waves in air are variations in pressure above and below atmospheric
pressure. Sound pressure is measured in Pascals (Pa).
Sound Intensity: The amount of energy that is transported past a given area of
the medium per unit of time is known as the intensity of the sound wave.
Intensity = Power/Area (W/m2).
The Threshold of Hearing and the Decibel Scale: The faintest sound that a
human ear can detect is known as the threshold of hearing (intensity  1012
W/m2). The scale that is frequently used to measure intensity is referred to as
decibel scale.
I
dB  10log10 where Iref = 1012 W/m2
I ref

Source Intensity (W/m2) Intensity Level (dB)

Threshold of Hearing 1012 0
Whisper 1010 20
Normal Conversation 106 60
Busy Street Traffic 105 70
Threshold of Pain 10 130
Military Jet Takeoff 102 140
Instant Perforation of Eardrum 104 160

Noise: Noise may be defined as any unwanted sound. Sound becomes noise
when it
• Is too loud
• Is unexpected (e.g., the sound of breaking glass)
• Is uncontrolled (e.g., a neighbor’s lawn mower)
• Happens at the wrong time (e.g., a door slamming in the middle of the night)
• Contains unwanted tones (e.g., a whine, whistle, or hum)
• Is distracting (e.g., an adjacent telephone conversation or undesirable music)
• Is unpleasant (e.g., a dripping tap)
• Relates to unpleasant experiences (e.g., a mosquito buzz or a siren wail)
• Is any combination of the previous examples

2
Typical paths through which sound
is transmitted in HVAC Systems.

A widely used method of providing

information on the spectrum content
of noise is the use of the noise
criterion (NC) curves and numbers.

In general, levels below an NC of 30

are considered to be quiet, whereas
levels above an NC of 50 are
considered noisy.

Sound Source Path No.

Circulating fans; grilles; registers; diffusers; unitary equipment in room 1
Induction coil and fan-powered VAV mixing units 1,2
Unitary equipment located outside of room served; remotely located air-handling equipment, such as fans, blowers, 2,3
dampers, duct fittings, and air washers
Compressors, pumps, and other reciprocating and rotating equipment (excluding air-handling equipment) 4, 5, 6
Cooling towers; air-cooled condensers 4, 5, 6, 7
Exhaust fans; window air conditioners 7, 8
Sound transmission between rooms 9, 10

No. Transmission Paths Noise Reduction Methods

1 Direct sound radiated from sound source to ear Only by selecting quiet equipment.

Reflected sound from walls, ceiling, and floor Adding sound absorption to room and to equipment location.
2 Air- and structure-borne sound radiated from casings Design duct and fittings for low turbulence; locate high-
and through walls of ducts and plenums is transmitted velocity ducts in noncritical areas; isolate ducts and sound
through walls and ceiling into room plenums from structure with neoprene or spring hangers.
3 Airborne sound radiated through supply and return air Select fans for minimum sound power; use ducts lined with
ducts to diffusers in room and then to listener by Path sound absorbing material; use duct silencers or sound plenums
1 in supply and return air ducts.
4 Noise transmitted through equipment room walls and Locate equipment rooms away from critical areas; use
floors to adjacent rooms masonry blocks or concrete for mechanical equipment room
walls; use floating floors in mechanical rooms.
5 Vibration transmitted via building structure to adjacent Mount all machines on properly designed vibration isolators;
walls and ceilings, from which it radiates as noise into design mechanical equipment room for dynamic loads; balance
room by Path 1 rotating and reciprocating equipment.
6 Vibration transmission along pipes and duct walls Isolate pipe and ducts from structure with neoprene or spring
hangers; install flexible connectors between pipes, ducts, and
vibrating machines.
7 Noise radiated to outside enters room windows Locate equipment away from critical areas; use barriers and
covers to interrupt noise paths; select quiet equipment.
8 Indoor noise follows Path 1 Select quiet equipment.
9 Noise transmitted to an air diffuser in a room, into a Design and install duct attenuation to match transmission loss
duct, and out through an air diffuser in another room of wall between rooms; use crosstalk silencers in ductwork.
10 Sound transmission through, over, and around room Extend partition to ceiling slab and tightly seal all around; seal
partition all pipe, conduit, duct, and other partition penetrations.

3
 T.E. (Mechanical) Batch 2017-18

ME-403 Refrigeration & Air Conditioning

Spring Semester 2020

Week No. 9
Lecture No. 3

S. M. Rizwan Azeem

1
HVAC Control Systems
An HVAC control system has four basic elements: Sensors, Controllers,
Controlled devices, Source of energy.

1. Sensor: It measures actual value of controlled variable such as temperature,

humidity or flow and provides information to the controller.
Analog sensors are used to monitor continuously changing conditions. The
analog sensor provides the controller with a varying signal such as 0 to 10V.
Digital sensors are used to provide two position open or closed signal such as a
pump that is on or off. The digital sensor provides the controller with a discrete
signal such as open or closed contacts.
Typical sensors used in HVAC systems provide measurements of temperature,
relative humidity, pressure, volume flow rate, air velocity, and liquid level.

2. Controller: It receives input from sensor, processes the input and then
produces intelligent input signal for controlled device.

3. Controlled device: It acts to modify controlled variable as directed by

controller. These include control valves, heating and cooling coils, dampers,
actuators, pumps & fans.

4. Source of energy: It is needed to power the control system. Control systems

use either a pneumatic or electric power supply.
2
Aims of HVAC Control Systems: They are used for the following benefits:

 Lower energy cost  Lower operations cost

 Increase flexibility  Ensure quality building environment

Types of Control Systems: There are 5 different types of HVAC Control

Systems, as described below.

1. Direct Acting Systems: The simplest form of controller is direct-acting,

comprising a sensing element which transmits power to a valve through a
capillary, bellows and diaphragm. The measuring system derives its energy
from the process under control without amplification by any auxiliary source of
power which makes it simple and easy to use.

2. Electric / Electronic Systems

3
In residential and small commercial applications, low voltage electrical
controls are most common. A transformer is used to reduce the 115/220 volt
alternating current (AC) to a nominal 24 volts. This voltage signal is controlled
by thermostats, and can open gas solenoid valves, energize oil burners or
solenoid valves on the DX coil, control electric heat, operate two position
valves and damper or turn on-off fans and pumps.

An electronic control system can be enhanced with visual displays that show
system status and operation.

3. Pneumatic Systems: The most popular control system for large buildings
historically has been pneumatics which can provide both on-off and modulating
control.

Compressed air with an input pressure can be regulated by thermostats and

humidistat. By varying the discharge air pressure from these devices, the signal
can be used directly to open
valves, close dampers, and
energize other equipment. The
copper or plastic tubing carry
the control signals around the
building, which is relatively
inexpensive. The pneumatic
system is very durable, is safe
in hazardous areas where
electrical sparks must be
avoided, and most importantly,
is capable of modulation, or
operation at part load condition. While the 24-volt electrical control system
could only energize a damper fully open or fully closed, a pneumatic control
system can hold that damper at 25%, 40% or 80% open. This allows more
accurate matching of the supply with the load.

Pneumatic controls use clean, dry & oil free compressed air, both as the control
signal medium and to drive the valve stem with the use of diaphragms.

4
4. Microprocessor
Systems

Direct Digital Control

(DDC) is the most
common deployed
control system today.
The sensors and output
devices (e.g.,
actuators, relays) used
for electronic control
systems are usually the
same ones used on
microprocessor-based
systems. The
distinction between
electronic control
systems and
microprocessor-based systems is in the handling of the input signals. In an
electronic control system, the analog sensor signal is amplified, and then
compared to a set point or override signal through voltage or current
comparison and control circuits. In a microprocessor-based system, the sensor
input is converted to a digital form, where discrete instructions (algorithms)
perform the process of comparison and control. Most subsystems, from VAV
boxes to boilers and chillers, now have an onboard DDC system to optimize the
performance of that unit. A communication protocol known as BACNet is a
standard protocol that allows control units from different manufacturers to pass
data to each other.

5. Mixed Systems: Combinations of controlled devices are possible. For

example, electronic controllers can modulate a pneumatic actuator. Also,
proportional electronic signals can be sent to a device called transducer, which
converts these signals into proportional air pressure signals used by the
pneumatic actuators. A sensor-transducer assembly is called a transmitter.

5
 T.E. (Mechanical) Batch 2017-18

ME-403 Refrigeration & Air Conditioning

Spring Semester 2020

Week No. 10
Lecture No. 1

S. M. Rizwan Azeem

1
Example: Consider a two-stage compression refrigeration system operating
between the pressure limits of 1.2 MPa and 200 kPa with R-134a as the
working fluid. The refrigerant leaves the condenser as a saturated liquid and is
throttled to a flash chamber operating at 0.45 MPa. Part of the refrigerant
evaporates during this flashing process, and this vapor is mixed with the
refrigerant leaving the low-pressure compressor. The mixture is then
compressed to the condenser pressure by the high-pressure compressor. The
liquid in the flash chamber is throttled to the evaporator pressure and cools the
refrigerated space as it vaporizes in the evaporator. The mass flow rate of the
refrigerant through the low-pressure compressor is 0.15 kg/s. Assuming the
refrigerant leaves the evaporator as a saturated vapor and the isentropic
efficiency is 80% for both compressors, determine (a) the mass flow rate of the
refrigerant through the high-pressure compressor, (b) the rate of heat removal
from the refrigerated space, and (c) the COP of this refrigerator.

Solution:

3’

2
3
(*) s3’ can also be found from the superheated property table.

0.4 MPa 0.6 MPa

h (kJ/kg) s (kJ/kg K) h (kJ/kg) s (kJ/kg K)
404.78 1.7263 410.67 1.7178
411.12 1.7483 411.12 1.7189
414.00 1.7583 418.97 1.7455

p (MPa) s (kJ/kg K)
0.40 1.7483
0.45 1.7401
0.60 1.7189

4
5
 T.E. (Mechanical) Batch 2017-18

ME-403 Refrigeration & Air Conditioning

Spring Semester 2020

Week No. 10
Lecture No. 2

S. M. Rizwan Azeem

1
Example: Moist air is introduced into a room at a dry-bulb temperature of
15°C. Moist air leaves the room at 25°C dry-bulb temperature and 19°C wet-
bulb temperature. The sensible rate of heat gain for the space is 9 kW. A rate of
moisture gain of 0.0015 kg/s occurs from the space occupants. This moisture is
assumed as saturated water vapor at 30°C. Find the required wet-bulb
temperature and volume flow rate of the supply air.

Solution:

At 30C, hg = 2556.4 kJ/kg (Table A-1)

- Identify the process

∆ℎ Q̇
= + ℎ𝑤 = 8556.4 kJ/kg = 8.5564 kJ/g
∆𝑊 𝑚̇𝑤

∆ℎ
- With the protractor establish a reference line of direction = 8.5564 kJ/g.
∆𝑊

- Parallel to this reference line, draw a straight line on the chart through state 3.
The intersection of this line with the 15C dbt line is state 1.

Thus t1* = 14.1C

- Energy balance on the air:

𝑚̇𝑎 ℎ1 + 𝑄̇ + 𝑚̇𝑤 ℎ𝑤 = 𝑚̇𝑎 ℎ3

𝑚̇𝑎 (ℎ3 − ℎ1 ) = 𝑄̇ + 𝑚̇𝑤 ℎ𝑤

𝑄̇ +𝑚̇𝑤 ℎ𝑤 9+(0.0015)(2556.4)
𝑚̇𝑎 = = = 0.885 kgda/s
ℎ3 −ℎ1 54−39.5

v1 = 0.828 m3/kgda

𝑉1̇ = 𝑣1 𝑚̇𝑎 = 0.733 m3/s

2
Example: A winter air conditioning system supplying air to a space at the rate
of 2 kg/s has a heater and steam humidifier as the processing units. The total
heat loss from the space is 28 kW and the SHF is 0.6. The space is maintained
at 21C dbt and 15C wbt. The supply air contains 60% by mass of recirculated
room air and 40% by mass of outdoor air. The outdoor air is at 7C dbt and
10% relative humidity. Humidification is carried out by spraying saturated
steam at 120C into the air stream. Sketch the cycle on a skeleton
psychrometric chart. Calculate the space sensible and latent heat loads, the rate
of heat input by the heater and the rate of moisture addition by the humidifier.

3
Solution:

DBT

kJ/g

4
 T.E. (Mechanical) Batch 2017-18

ME-403 Refrigeration & Air Conditioning

Spring Semester 2020

Week No. 10
Lecture No. 3

S. M. Rizwan Azeem

1
Example: A two-zone terminal reheat system is to be designed for summer
outdoor design conditions of 32C dbt and 23C wbt. In this design 25% of the
supply air mass flow rate to each zone is to be fresh air (outside air). Standard
atmospheric pressure is assumed to exist. The cooling coil for the system is to
be selected such that the air will exit the coil saturated at 5C.

The design conditions for zone A are 22C dbt and 40% rh. For these design
conditions, zone A is predicted to have a sensible heat gain of 80 kW and a
latent heat gain of 20 kW. The design conditions for zone B are 26C dbt and
30% rh. For these design conditions, zone B is predicted to have a sensible heat
gain of 75 kW and a latent heat gain of 25 kW.

For the above design conditions, determine the following (a) the supply air
mass flow rate for zone A, (b) the required reheat capacity for zone A, (c) the
supply air mass flow rate for zone B, (d) the required reheat capacity for zone
B, and (e) the cooling coil capacity.

Solution:

Locate state 6, 7, 1 on saturation

line at 15C.

Locate state 2a (15C, 40%)

𝑄̇𝑠,𝐴 = 80 kW, 𝑄̇𝑙,𝐴 = 20 kW

 SHFA = 0.80

State 1a will lie on the constant W

line drawn from state 6.

Use the protractor with SHFA to locate state 1a. Thus t1a = ___________ C

2
Locate state 2b (26C, 30%)

𝑄̇𝑠,𝐵 = 75 kW, 𝑄̇𝑙,𝐵 = 25 kW

 SHFB = 0.75

State 1b will lie on the constant W

line drawn from state 6.

Use the protractor with SHFB to

locate state 1b.
Thus t1b = ___________ C

The sensible heat gain for the two zones can be expressed as under.

𝑄̇𝑠,𝐴 = 𝑚̇𝑎,1𝑎 𝑐𝑝 (𝑡2𝑎 − 𝑡1𝑎 )  𝑚̇𝑎,1𝑎 = ___________ kgda/s

𝑄̇𝑠,𝐵 = 𝑚̇𝑎,1𝑏 𝑐𝑝 (𝑡2𝑏 − 𝑡1𝑏 )  𝑚̇𝑎,1𝑏 = ___________ kgda/s

Energy supplied at the reheat terminals:

𝑄̇𝑟ℎ,𝐴 = 𝑚̇𝑎,1𝑎 𝑐𝑝 (𝑡1𝑎 − 𝑡1 ) = ____________ kW

𝑄̇𝑟ℎ,𝐵 = 𝑚̇𝑎,1𝑏 𝑐𝑝 (𝑡1𝑏 − 𝑡1 ) = ____________ kW

- Locate state 2,3 using energy balance

- Locate state 4 using mass and energy balance (32C dbt, 23C wbt)

- Locate state 5 using mass and energy balance

- Cooling coil load:

𝑄̇𝑐𝑐 = 𝑚̇𝑎,5 [(ℎ5 − ℎ6 ) − (𝑊5 − 𝑊6 )ℎ𝑓,6 ] = ________ kW