A computer network is a collection of interconnected computers and other devices

which are able to communicate with each other and share hardware and software
resources. In this context, the term interconnected means that there exists a path through
which data can be transmitted from one computer/device to another.
Why do we have computer networks? Are there any advantages of
networked computers over stand alone computers? Yes, there are many.
A few of these advantages are :

1. Resource Sharing
2. Cost saving
3. Collaborative user interaction
4. Time saving
5. Increased storage
In a networked computer lab when print command is given on one computer
the document may be printed by the printer which is attached to some other
computer. This printer is able to print documents from multiple users on the
network. It means that the printer is being shared by more than one users. This
is an example of resource sharing, and this is possible only when the
computers are interconnected to form a network. Similarly other resources
like Hard Disk, DVD Drive, and Scanner etc. can also be shared on a
computer network. Software resources like Application Software's, Anti-Virus
tools etc. can also be shared on computer networks. You can very easily
conclude that this resource sharing also leads to cost-saving.
Let us take one more example of a school. Here we assume
that all the computers in the school are connected to one main
computer (called server). After the exams, teachers have to
exchange marks with each other for result preparation. So all
the teachers enter the marks class wise for their respective
subjects at one centralized location and from there the class
teachers can copy the marks of their classes and can prepare
the result. This way data is shared on a computer network.
Similar is the case with other computerized organizations
also. Let us take another example of collaborative user
interaction. If we are working on a computer which is a part
of a computer network, we can communicate with any other
user of the network through e-mail or chatting. It takes
negligible time to send and receive messages and watch live
videos of one another irrespective of terrestrial distances. If
the e-mail or chatting is done for some useful purpose, it
leads to increased productivity, cost-saving as well as time-
saving.
On a network, same data may be replicated on multiple computers to ensure the
availability of data in the case of some computer getting faulty. For example, when you
save your java applications on your computer, you can also store their copies on some
other networked computers in your lab. This way your work will be available even if
your computer develops some fault or somehow your programs are deleted from your
computer. Similarly, on large networks also the data is replicated on multiple computers
as if a huge storage area is available to store multiple copies of the data. All these
advantages are there for a small organization like a school as well as for big business
organizations and for governments. Today, small as well as big organizations, and
governments keep their data on secured large scale computers called servers. They
share this data with authorized users. This ensures security. Customer care cells of
companies share the resources and data and they also communicate among themselves
as well as with customers with the help of computer networks only.
To form a computer network a lot of hardware devices are
required. Some of these devices along with their functionalities
are mentioned in the next part of the presentation.
Computers on a network are able to share data and other resources.
They are also able to communicate among themselves. To make all
this possible there must be some medium over which the data can
travel from one computer to another. A medium of data transmission
over a computer network is called a channel or a transmission
medium. Channels may be guided (wired) or unguided (wireless).
Wired Media
A number of various types of cables are used to transfer data over
computer networks. These are Twisted Pair Cable, Co-axial
Cable, and Optical Fiber Cable. Let us know about these in some
details.

1. Twisted Pair Cable

This is probably the most widely used cable for creating small computer
networks. It contains four twisted pairs covered in an outer shield. These
pairs are color coded. An RJ-45 connecter is used to connect this cable to
a computer.
Co-axial cable (or coax) :
A coaxial cable consists of two conductors that share a common axis. The
inner conductor is a straight wire and the outer conductor is a shield that
might be braided or a foil.

Characteristics of Co-axial cable:

1. It can carry data for a larger distance (185m - 500m) at a stretch.
2. Less susceptible to electromagnetic fields.
3. Bulkier and less flexible than twisted pair.
3. Due to its thickness (1cm diameter) and less flexibility, it is difficult to
install as compared to twisted pair cable.
Optical Fiber cable :
Optical Fibers are long, thin strands of glass about the thickness of a human hair. They
are arranged in bundles called optical fiber cables and used to transmit data through
light signals over long distances. These optical fibers are arranged in bundles of
hundreds and thousands and are protected by the cable's outer covering, called jacket.

Characteristics of Optical Fiber Cable:

1.It can carry data for a very large distance at a stretch.
2. Not susceptible to electromagnetic fields.
3. Specially skilled people are required to install optical fiber cables.
4. Till date it is the most expensive and at the same time the most efficient cable
available for computer networks.
 Wireless Media

Electromagnetic waves are used for wireless communication over computer networks.
Frequencies of waves are measured in Hertz (Hz). As the frequencies of
electromagnetic waves change, their properties also change. Based on their
frequencies, electromagnetic waves are categorized into various categories. These
categories are (in increasing order of frequencies):
1. Radio waves,
2. Microwaves
3. Infrared radiation,
4. Visible light
5. Ultraviolet
6. radiation,
7. X-rays,
8. Gamma rays.
o Radio Waves –
Radio waves have a frequency range of 3 KHz to 3GHz. Radio waves are used for
communication over distances ranging from a few meters (in walkie-talkies) up to
covering an entire city. These waves are easy to generate, can travel long distances and
can penetrate buildings easily. That's why they are widely used for communication, both
indoors and outdoors. Cordless phones, AM and FM radio broadcast, Garage door
openers etc. Are examples of radio wave transmission.
Characteristics of Radio Wave Transmission :
1. These waves are Omni-directional, so the transmitting and receiving antennas
need not be aligned.
2. Relatively inexpensive than wired media.
3. The transmission can be interfered by motors or other electrical equipment
4. It offers ease of communication over difficult terrain
5. Less secure mode of transmission
o Micro Waves -
Micro waves have a frequency range of 300MHz (0.3 GHz) to 300 GHz. This range has
some overlapping portion (0.3GHz - 3GHz) with radio waves as there is no clear-cut
demarcation between radio waves and micro waves. Microwaves travel in straight lines
and cannot penetrate any solid object. Therefore for long distance microwave
ccommunication, high towers are built and microwave antennas are put on their tops.
Characteristics of Micro Wave Transmission:
1. Free from land acquisition rights
2. Relatively inexpensive than wired media
3. Offers ease of communication over difficult terrain
4. The transmission is in straight lines so the transmitting and receiving antennas need
to be properly aligned ( line of sight transmission)
Infrared Waves -
Infrared waves have a frequency range of 300 GHz to 400 THz. If you recall
VIBGYOR spectrum of light, you will also recall that red light has the lowest frequency
(400THz - 484THz) in this spectrum. Infrared waves are so called because they have a
frequency range of just less than that of red light. These waves are used for short range
communication (approx. 5m) in a variety of wireless communications, monitoring, and
control applications. Home-entertainment remote-control devices, Cordless mouse, and
Intrusion detectors are some of the devices that utilize infrared communication.

Characteristics of Infrared Wave Transmission:

1.It is a line of sight transmission; therefore information passed to one device is not
leaked to another device.
2. No government license is required for their use
3. It is a line of sight transmission, therefore at a time only two devices can
communicate.
4. The waves do not cross any solid object in between
5. Performance drops with longer distances
Bluetooth -
Bluetooth technology uses radio waves in the frequency range of 2.402 GHz to 2.480
GHz. This technology is used for short range communication (approx. 10m) in a variety
of devices for wireless communication. Baby monitors, door openers, and cell phones
are some of the devices that utilize Bluetooth communication.

Characteristics of Bluetooth Transmission:

1. Line of sight between communicating devices is not required. (Think Why?)
2. Bluetooth can connect up to eight devices simultaneously.
3. Slow data transfer rate (up to 1Mbps).
Satellite Link -
Satellite links are used for very long distance wireless communication which may range
from intercity to intercontinental. Transmission from the earth to a satellite is known as
uplink. Transmission from a satellite to the earth is known as downlink. There are
multiple micro wave frequency bands which are used for satellites links. Frequency
used for uplink varies from 1.6 GHz to 30.0 GHz and that for downlink varies from
1.5GHz
Characteristics of Transmission using satellite link:
1. Satellites cover large area of earth
2. Since communication over very long distances is possible, this becomes a
commercially attractive option.
3. This system is expensive
4. Requires legal permissions.
Other than the transmission media many other devices are required to
form computer networks. Some of these devices are discussed in the next
part of the presentation:
NIC:
Any computer which has to be a part of a computer network must have an NIC
(Network Interface Card / Unit) installed in it. A computer communicates with other
computers on a network with the help of an NIC only. Now a days, in most of the PCs
and the laptops, NIC is an integral part of the motherboard.

Hub:
Hub is a device that allows us to connect multiple computers/devices together in a network. A
hub has ports into which the cables from individual computers' NICs are inserted. This way each
computer's NIC is connected to hub and hence all the computers are connected together.
Whenever a computer has to send some information to some other computer(s), the information
is sent by the NIC to the hub. Then the hub retransmits this information to the other computers
attached to it. The computer(s) for which the information is intended receive(s) this information
and accept(s) it. Other computers on the network simply reject this information.
Switch:
A switch is an intelligent hub. It looks exactly like a hub. It has the same function as that of
a hub: to connect multiple computers/devices in a network. But the difference between the
two is in the way they re-transmit the received information. Unlike a hub, instead of
broadcasting (sending to each device attached to it) the received information, a switch sends
the information selectively only to those computers for which it is intended. This makes a
switch more efficient than a hub.

Repeater:
When the data is transmitted over a network for long distances, the data signal gets
weak after certain distance. This distance depends on the data transfer range of
transmission channel being used and can be from a few meters to a few kilometers. If
the signal becomes weak, it cannot reach its destination. Therefore, some device is
required which can re-strengthen the data signal before it gets too weak. Repeater is
such a device. A repeater regenerates the received signal and re-transmits it to its
destination
Gateway:
A Gateway is a device, which is used to connect different types of
networks and perform the necessary translation so that the connected
networks can communicate properly.
A Topology is an arrangement of physical connections among nodes in a
network. Some network topologies have been discussed in the next part
of the presentation.
Bus Topology:
In bus topology all the nodes are connected to a main cable called backbone. If any
node has to send some information to any other node, it sends the signal to the
backbone. The signal travels through the entire length of the backbone and is received
by the node for which it is intended. A small device called terminator is attached at each
end of the backbone. When the signal reaches the end of backbone, it is absorbed by the
terminator and the backbone gets free to carry another signal. This prevents the
reflection of signal back on the cable and hence eliminates the chances of signal
interference.
Characteristics of Bus topology:
1.It is easy to install.
2. It requires less cable length and hence it is cost effective.
3. Failure of a node does not affect the network.
4. In case of cable (backbone) or terminator fault, the entire network breaks
down.
5. Fault diagnosis is difficult.
6. At a time only one node can transmit data.
Star Topology:
In star topology each node is directly connected to a hub/switch. If any node has to send
some information to any other node, it sends the signal to the
hub/switch. This signal is then broadcast (in case of a hub) to all the nodes but is
accepted by the intended node(s). In the case of a switch the signal is sent only to the
intended node(s).
Characteristics of Star topology:
1. It is more efficient topology as compared to bus topology.
2. It is easy to install
3. It is easy to diagnose the fault in Star topology.
4. It is easy to expand depending on the specifications of central hub/switch
5. Failure of hub/switch leads to failure of entire network
Tree Topology:
Tree topology is a combination of bus and star topologies. It is used to combine
multiple star topology networks. All the stars are connected together like a bus. This
bus-star hybrid approach supports future expandability of the network.
Characteristics of Tree topology:
1. It offers easy way of network expansion
2. Even if one network (star) fails, the other networks remain connected and working.
A network protocol is a set of rules for communication among networked
devices. Protocols generally includes rules of how and when a device can send
or receive the data, how is the sent data packaged, and how it reaches its
destination. There are a number of protocols defined for computer networks.
Here we discuss three of them - HTTP, TCP/IP, PPP.
HTTP (Hyper Text Transfer Protocol):
HTTP is used to transfer all files and other data (collectively called resources) from one
computer to another on the world wide web. When an HTTP client (a browser) sends a
request to an HTTP server (web server) , the server sends responses back to the client.
This transfer of requests and responses is done following HTTP protocol.

PPP (Point to Point Protocol):

It is a protocol for direct communication between two computers, typically a personal
computer connected by phone line to a server. Most Internet service providers (ISPs)
use PPP for customer dial-up access to the Internet. PPP is used over many types of
physical networks including cellular telephone, serial cable, phone line, trunk
line, specialized radio links, and fiber optic links.
TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol):
It is the basic protocol of the Internet. Communication between two computers on
internet is done using TCP/IP protocol. When data is to be sent from one computer to
another over internet, it is first broken into smaller packets which are actually sent.
When these packets are received by the receiver computer, they are assembled into the
original message. This job of dividing the original message into packets and re-
assembling the received packets into the original message is done following TCP
protocol.
A computer network may span any amount of geographical area. It can be on a table, in
a room, in a building, in a city, in a country, across continents or around the world. On
the basis of area covered computer networks are classified as:
PAN - Personal Area Network
LAN - Local Area Network
MAN - Metropolitan Area Network
WAN -Wide Area Network
PAN (Personal Area Network):
A PAN is a network of Communicating devices (Computer, Phone, MP3/MP4
Player, Camera etc.) in the proximity of an individual. It can cover an area of a few meters
radius. When you have to transfer songs from one cell phone to another, you set up a PAN of
two phones. When files are transferred from a PC to an MP3 player, a PAN is set up
between the two. There can also be multiple devices in PAN. A PAN can be set up using
guided media (USB cable) or unguided media (Bluetooth, Infrared).

MAN (Metropolitan Area Network):

A MAN is a network of computing/communicating devices within a city. It can cover an
area of a few kilometers to a few hundred kilometers radius. A network of schools, or
banks, or Government offices etc., within a city, are examples of MANs. A MAN is usually
formed by interconnecting a number of LANs and individual computers. All types of
communication media (guided and unguided) are used to set up a MAN. A MAN is typically
owned and operated by a single entity such as a government body or a large corporation. A
good example of a MAN is the interconnected offices of a state government.
LAN (Local Area Network):
A LAN is a network of computing/Communicating devices in a room, building, or
campus. It can cover an area of a few meters to a few kilometers radius. A networked
office building, school, or home usually contains a single LAN, though sometimes one
building can contain a few small LANs (Like some schools have independent LANs in
each computer lab.). Occasionally a LAN can span a group of nearby buildings. In
addition to operating in a limited space, a LAN is owned, controlled, and managed by a
single person or organization. A LAN can be set up using wired media (UTP cables, Co-
axial cables etc.) or wireless media (Infrared, radio waves). If a LAN is setup using
unguided media, it is known as
WLAN (wireless LAN).
WAN (Wide Area Network):
A WAN is a network of computing/communicating devices crossing the limits of a
city, country, or continent. It can cover an area of over hundreds of kilometer radius. A
network of ATMs, BANKs, National Government Offices, International Organizations'
Offices etc., spread over a country, continent, or covering many continents are examples
of WANs. WANs usually contain a number of interconnected individual
computers, LANs, MANs, and maybe other WANs. All types of communication media
(guided and unguided) are used to set up a WAN. The best known example of a WAN is
the internet.
Computer networks are communication highways on which the data travels. Data
travels on a network when an e-mail is sent or received, any transaction is made using a
credit or a debit card, a web site is accessed, chatting is done, or any other work is done
on a network. Data travelling over a network is vulnerable to attacks and thefts. There
are some people who want to illegally access this data for any reason: using a
credit/debit card data for shopping, using a company's data to sell it to some rival
company, to find the kind of web sites a person accesses, or may be hundreds of other
reasons. These people may sometimes also want to destroy the data on its way, or block
the services of some resources or sites. As the data goes from one point to another point
on the Internet, for example, it may pass through several points along the way, giving
other users the opportunity to access, and even alter it. Even other users on your system
may maliciously transform your data. Unauthorized access to your system may be
obtained by intruders, who then use advanced knowledge to impersonate you, steal
information or even deny your access to your own resources. Therefore, there is always
a threat of some kind of attacks on computer networks’ security.
Denial of service attacks:
A Denial of Service (DoS) attack is an attempt to make one or more network resources
unavailable to their legitimate users. Examples of such attacks
are:
1. Denial of Access to Information: Corrupting, Encrypting, or changing the
status of information so that it is not accessible to its legitimate user.
2. Denial of Access to Application: Forced shutting of an application as soon as the user opens
it.
3. Denial of Access to Resources: Blocking a resource, may be a printer or
scanner or USB port, of a computer from proper working.
4. Denial of Access to a Website: Continuously sending bulk requests to a website so that it is
not available to any other user.
Snooping:
In context of network security, snooping refers to gaining unauthorized access to
another person's or organization's data. This may be done in a number of ways:

1.By getting someone's login information by casually watching what he/she is typing.
2.Reading the files on someone's computer in an unauthorized manner
3. Using some software's which keeps track of the activities and data being sent or
received on someone's computer.
Eavesdropping –
In context of network security Eavesdropping refers to unauthorized access to another
person's or organization's data while the data is on its way on the network.
This may be done in a number of ways:
1. By setting up parallel telephone lines.
2. By installing some software (spyware) in the target computer.
3. By installing some receiver which captures the data while on its way.
Login-Password:
By assigning login names and strong passwords to the users of a system, it can be
ensured that only authorized people access a computer. This helps in increasing the
computer as well as network security. A strong password is the one which is easy to
remember for the user but difficult (almost impossible) for the others to guess
successfully. On the other hand a weak password is generally the name of a person or
organization, the registration number of a vehicle, year of birth of a person and so on.
A weak password can be cracked in a few attempts.
Firewall:
A firewall is a hardware device or a software that is installed to monitor
the data entering the computer/Network or leaving it. A firewall permits
only that data to enter or leave a computer/Network for which
permissions have been granted by the computer/network administrator.

Anti Virus Software:

These days anti-virus softwares work against not only the virus but also
against almost all kinds of malware. Therefore by installing a full version
legal (not the pirated one or freeware) anti-virus software network
security can be increased.
File Permissions:
A data file on a computer can be created, read, or modified. An application file can be
run or executed. Accordingly, different rights (privileges) can be given to different users
of a computer to perform one or more of these tasks. This way by giving appropriate
rights to respective users, computer security as well as network security can be
increased.
4G
The scenario of how computers are networked is changing very fast. Before full
implementation of a technology, a new technology is visible at the horizon. One such
new technology is 4G. 4G stands for fourth generation of mobile technology. Change
from one generation to another involves a major advancement in the technology used.
1G technology was used in the first mobile phones. Today we are living in the world of
3G. Soon, 4G will rule the mobile market. Unlike previous generations of mobile
technology, 4G mobile technology will be used for internet access on computers
also, and it will be totally wireless! 4G will provide internet access, high quality
streaming video and "anytime, anywhere" voice and data transmission at a much faster
speed than 3G. The feature of 4G is also referred to as "MAGIC" (Mobile multimedia;
Anytime/anywhere; Global mobility support; Integrated wireless solution; Customized
personal services).
In computer networking, cloud computing is a phrase used to describe a variety
of computing concepts that involve a large number of computers connected through a
communication network such as the Internet. It is very similar to the concept of utility
computing. In science, cloud computing is a synonym for distributed computing over a
network, and means the ability to run a program or application on many connected
computers at the same time. The phrase is often used in reference to network-based
services, which appear to be provided by real server hardware, and are in fact served up
by virtual hardware, simulated by software running on one or more real machines. Such
virtual servers do not physically exist and can therefore be moved around and scaled up
or down on the fly without affecting the end user, somewhat like a cloud becoming
larger or smaller without being a physical object.
 A computer network is a collection of interconnected computers and other
 devices which are able to communicate with each other.
 Communication Media are the links over which the data is sent from one node
 to another over a network.
 Hardware devices used to form a network are: Cables, NIC, Hub, Switch,
 Repeater, and Gateway.
 Repeaters are used to regenerate the signal which gets weakened during its
 transmission. Repeater are generally used to connect two networks which are
 more than 80 m apart.
 Gateway is a device which connects two different types of networks.
 On the basis of area covered by a network it is categorized as PAN, LAN, MAN, or
 WAN.
 Physical arrangement of computers in a network is called network topology.
 Basic network topologies are bus, star and tree.
 Each machine on a network is identified by its IP address.
 Conversion of domain name into IP address is done by DNS (Domain Name
 Server)
 Denial of service, snooping and intrusion are some common threats for network
 security.
 Network security can be increased by applying some preventive methods.