Gondwana Research 23 (2013) 394–402

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Gondwana Research
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GR focus review

The building blocks of continental crust: Evidence for a major change in the tectonic
setting of continental growth at the end of the Archean
Kent C. Condie a,⁎, Alfred Kröner b
a
Department of Earth and Environmental Science, New Mexico Institute of Mining & Technology, Socorro, New Mexico 87801, USA
b
Institut für Geowissenschaften, Universität Mainz, 55099 Mainz, Germany, and Beijing SHRIMP Center, Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences, 26 Baiwanzhuang Road, 100037 Beijing, China

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Oceanic arcs are commonly cited as primary building blocks of continents, yet modern oceanic arcs are most-
Received 8 August 2011 ly subducted. Also, lithosphere buoyancy considerations show that oceanic arcs (even those with a felsic
Received in revised form 26 September 2011 component) should readily subduct. With the exception of the Arabian–Nubian orogen, terranes in post-
Accepted 29 September 2011
Archean accretionary orogens comprise b 10% of accreted oceanic arcs, whereas continental arcs compose
Available online 22 October 2011
40–80% of these orogens. Nd and Hf isotopic data suggest that accretionary orogens include 40–65% juvenile
Keywords:
crustal components, with most of these (>50%) produced in continental arcs.
Oceanic arcs Felsic igneous rocks in oceanic arcs are depleted in incompatible elements compared to average continental
Continental growth crust and to felsic igneous rocks from continental arcs. They have lower Th/Yb, Nb/Yb, Sr/Y and La/Yb ratios,
Arc accretion reflecting shallow mantle sources in which garnet did not exist in the restite during melting. The bottom line
Continental crust production of these geochemical differences is that post-Archean continental crust does not begin life in oceanic arcs. On
the other hand, the remarkable similarity of incompatible element distributions in granitoids and felsic vol-
canics from continental arcs is consistent with continental crust being produced in continental arcs.
During the Archean, however, oceanic arcs may have been thicker due to higher degrees of melting in the
mantle, and oceanic lithosphere would be more buoyant. These arcs may have accreted to each other and to
oceanic plateaus, a process that eventually led to the production of Archean continental crust. After the Archean,
oceanic crust was thinner due to cooling of the mantle and less melt production at ocean ridges, hence, oceanic
lithosphere is more subductable. Widespread propagation of plate tectonics in the late Archean may have led
not only to rapid production of continental crust, but to a change in the primary site of production of con-
tinental crust, from accreted oceanic arcs and oceanic plateaus in the Archean to primarily continental
arcs thereafter.
© 2011 International Association for Gondwana Research. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
2. Data input and uncertainties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
3. Post-Archean (b 2.5 Ga) arcs and continental growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396
3.1. Subduction of oceanic arcs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396
3.2. Distribution of arcs in accretionary orogens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396
3.3. Where is juvenile crust produced in accretionary orogens? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
3.4. Felsic components in oceanic arcs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
4. Discussion and conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
Appendix A. Supplementary data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400

⁎ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (K.C. Condie).

1342-937X/$ – see front matter © 2011 International Association for Gondwana Research. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.gr.2011.09.011
 K.C. Condie, A. Kröner / Gondwana Research 23 (2013) 394–402 395

1. Introduction considered as pristine components of accreted terranes. Rock volume

proportions are estimated from geologic maps and measured strati-
Continents are often thought to be the products of accretion of graphic sections (Condie, 1993). Distinction between juvenile and
oceanic arcs (Kusky and Polat, 1999; Stern, 2008; Xiao et al., 2010a). reworked crustal components uses results from Nd and Hf isotopic
Taylor (1967) was among the first to show that the bulk composition studies (Condie and Chomiak, 1996; Condie, 2007; 2008; Condie et
of continents is similar to andesite, and because andesite was as- al., 2011). One of the major uncertainties is the volume of accreted
sumed to represent the composition of oceanic arcs, the simplest terranes. We have used published seismic sections from the LITHOP-
way to form continents is by the amalgamation of oceanic arcs. We ROBE studies in Canada and the COCORP results in the United States
now know, however, that oceanic arcs are not andesitic in composi- to constrain the shapes and sizes of accreted terranes at depth in
tion, but basaltic (or in a few cases basaltic andesite) (DeBari and Laurentia (Hammer and Clowes, 2004; Cook and Erdmer, 2005;
Sleep, 1991), and their composition must be changed to make felsic Cawood et al., 2009). In Proterozoic terranes of the Southwest United
continental crust. This is necessary even for the Izu-Bonin arc, which States, terrane volumes are estimated from surface exposure distribu-
may have a tonalitic mid-crustal layer based on seismic velocity distri- tions and seismically determined crustal thicknesses (Levander et al.,
bution (Kodaira et al., 2007). Just how oceanic arc crust is changed has 2011). In the Arabian–Nubian shield, an assumed average crustal
been the subject of numerous studies, and almost always necessitates thickness of 38 km is used to calculate terrane volumes (Mooney et
recycling of mafic and ultramafic restites into the mantle by some pro- al., 1985; Stern and Johnson, 2010). Crustal thicknesses in the Central
cess of delamination (DeBari and Sleep, 1991; Clift et al., 2005). In addi- Asian orogen are estimated from data in Zorin (1999) and Makarov et
tion, it requires a significant incompatible-element enriched mantle al. (2010) (and references therein). More details of our methods and
source (Pearcy et al., 1990; DeBari and Sleep, 1991). This all pre- associated uncertainties are described in Condie and Chomiak, 1996;
supposes that oceanic arcs are indeed the building blocks of continents, Condie, 2007; 2008; and Condie et al., 2011. Over the years, numerous
an assumption which has not been adequately evaluated. A related investigators have shared unpublished data with us to improve the reli-
question is that of how continents formed in both the early and ability of our estimates. Results for this study are compiled in Appendix
late Archean and whether the process involved the same mechanism 1 and are shown graphically in Fig. 1.
as after the Archean. Chemical compositions are from published data in our continually
It is these questions that are addressed in this study, particularly updated database of specific rock types, examples of which have been
focusing on the role of oceanic arcs in continental growth by accretion published from time to time (Condie, 1993; 1994; Condie and Chomiak,
and by production of felsic magmas in oceanic arcs. Because the con- 1996; Condie, 2008). Uncertainties of element concentrations used in
trasting roles of oceanic and continental arcs are important in conti- our terrane analysis are also given in these references. Estimating the ju-
nental evolution, we first need to distinguish between these two venile crustal input into terranes is always a challenge. We have made
types of arcs. The most obvious distinction is that oceanic arcs form use of whole-rock Nd and zircon Hf isotopic databases compiled from
on oceanic lithosphere and continental arcs form on continental lith- published data (Condie, 1998; Condie, 2007; 2008; Wang et al., 2009;
osphere. However, in practice this distinction may not be useful since Belousova et al., 2010; Condie et al., 2011 and references cited therein).
the bottoms of arc successions are mostly not exposed at the surface. εHf in zircons varies significantly and reflects the proportion of recycled
Hence, we must rely on indirect evidence such Nd, Hf and other ra- zircons in igneous rocks. If for instance, εHf >+5 is assumed to represent
diogenic isotopic ratios that are sensitive to the ages and composition juvenile additions, the juvenile component can range from as low as 30%
of the basement upon which arcs are constructed. Both xenoliths and to more than 50% in continental arcs (Mueller et al., 2008; Sun et al.,
zircon xenocrysts, which are common in many continental arc igneous 2008; Kemp et al., 2009; Miskovic and Schaltegger, 2009; Ravikant et
rocks, are critical in applying isotopic tracers to characterize magmatic al., 2009; Belousova et al., 2010). We have used combined data from
sources. Complicating the distinction between arcs is the fact that oce-
anic arcs can transition into continental arcs as, for instance, occurs in
the eastern Aleutian Islands today (Fliedner and Klemperer, 2000). In Continental Arc
a few instances, such as the Peninsular Range batholith in southern Oceanic Arc TECTONIC SETTINGS IN
Continental Rift ACCRETIONARY OROGENS
California (Lee et al., 2007) and two Paleozoic arcs in Ireland (Draut
Micro-craton
et al., 2009), oceanic arcs may accrete to the continents where they LIP-Oceanic Island
thicken and evolve into continental arcs within 10–20 Ma. Oceanic Crust
The term “island arc” is widely used in the literature to refer to 100
arcs constructed on oceanic lithosphere. However, as exemplified by
continental margin arcs such as Japan and the Sunda arc in Indonesia,
Appalachians
Cordillera

both of which are island arcs, this is not always the case. Island arcs
ARABIAN-

Central Asian
Japan

80
NUBIAN

may form on either oceanic or continental lithosphere. To avoid this

Proterozoic
SWUS
Cumulative Percent

ambiguity, we use the terms oceanic and continental arc to refer to

arcs built on oceanic and continental lithosphere, respectively, and
SUNDALAND

avoid the term island arc. 60

2. Data input and uncertainties

40
To evaluate the question of how important oceanic arcs are in con-
tinental growth, it is necessary to identify the tectonic settings of ter-
ranes accreted to continents. Most terranes involve more than one
tectonic setting and tectonic settings can change with time as plate 20
scenarios evolve. To identify ancient tectonic settings in this study,
emphasis is given to petrotectonic assemblages including their geo-
chemistry, and when available, to the abundances and compositions 0
of pre-collisional plutons. Because syn- and post-collisional plutons 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
almost always involve varying amounts of older sources from both Fig. 1. Estimated volume distribution of tectonic settings in accretionary orogens. Un-
the underlying craton and older accreted terranes, they cannot be certainties ≤20%. See Appendix 1 for data.
396 K.C. Condie, A. Kröner / Gondwana Research 23 (2013) 394–402

Nd and Hf isotopic results to estimate the juvenile fractions. From these collisions (Celebes and Taiwan), all of these arcs appear to be sub-
results we use a value of 90% for the juvenile component of oceanic tec- ducting (Yamamoto et al., 2009b). The best documented example of
tonic settings (crust, arc, island, rifted margin and plateau); in contrast, a modern subducting oceanic arc is the Izu-Bonin arc, which is
our estimates for continental arcs range from 40 to 50%. To assess uncer- being subducted beneath Honshu in Japan (Yamamoto et al., 2009b;
tainties in these percentages, we have varied estimates from 80 to 100% Isozaki et al., 2010; Stern, 2011). This arc, which is even thicker
juvenile input for oceanic settings and from 30 to 60% for continental arcs (20–35 km) than the Cloos upper limit of 15 km, has been subducting
and find relatively small changes (b 30%) in the estimated volumes of ju- beneath Japan for at least the last 17 Ma. Seismic tomographic images
venile input for specific accretionary orogens. Our final estimates for show that although a minor amount is being scraped off the top dur-
each terrane are summarized in Appendix 1. ing collision, most of the arc is subducting into the mantle. Another
case for on-going accretion of an oceanic arc to continental crust is
3. Post-Archean (b2.5 Ga) arcs and continental growth recorded by the collision of the Luzon arc with Taiwan (Defant et
al., 1990; Clift et al., 2010). Two factors seem to account for the arc ac-
3.1. Subduction of oceanic arcs cretion (Dimalanta and Yumul, 2004): 1) the Luzon arc has an unusu-
ally thick crust (26–30 km) and thus the oceanic lithosphere is
An obvious constraint on whether oceanic arcs are important in relatively buoyant, and 2) there is a significant transcurrent compo-
continental growth is to see whether modern oceanic arcs are sub- nent along the collisional boundary.
ducting or accreting to continental margins. Cloos (1993) was one Hence, both buoyancy considerations and observed collisions of
of the first to evaluate the buoyancy effect on terranes colliding oceanic arcs with continental crust show that oceanic arcs should
with continental crust and whether such terranes should subduct or mostly subduct. If we assume that 20 km is approximately the
accrete. He showed that a density contrast of ≥0.1 g/cm 3 between upper limit for an arc to completely subduct (Fig. 2), most oceanic
converging plates is required for subduction of the plate with greatest arcs should partly or completely subduct.
density. Furthermore, his analysis indicates that only oceanic
arcs ≥ 15 km thick resist subduction and at least partially accrete to 3.2. Distribution of arcs in accretionary orogens
continental margins. Stern (2011) has argued that oceanic arcs can
entirely disappear from the geologic record by subduction. Recent The final test of how important oceanic arcs are to continental
studies of Hatcher et al. (2011) show that if there is a felsic compo- growth is that of just how abundant they are in accretionary orogens.
nent present (as for instance in the Izu Bonin arc), some of the arc From the data in Appendix 1, the relative abundances of tectonic set-
may be underplated beneath the over-riding plate. Because many tings in post-Archean arcs are shown in Fig. 1. Although there is con-
modern oceanic arcs have thicknesses b15 km, they should readily siderable variability in tectonic setting abundances between orogens,
subduct (Fig. 2). Continental arcs, in contrast, which typically have it is very clear that with exception of the Arabian–Nubian orogen,
crustal thicknesses of >30 km should not subduct. Surprisingly, oceanic arcs are not an important component of accretionary orogens.
buoyancy considerations indicate that oceanic plateaus also must be Less than 10% of the American Cordillera and Appalachian orogens
≥30 km to resist subduction. comprise remnants of oceanic arcs (Condie and Chomiak, 1996; Monger
These predictions are testable by studies of modern oceanic arcs and Nokleber, 1996; Nance et al., 2002; Condie, 2007; Murphy et al.,
colliding with continental crust (Hall, 2008; Yamamoto et al., 2011) and in Japan the volume is b2% (Isozaki, 1996; Isozaki et al.,
2009a; Xiao et al., 2010a). Classic examples occur in Indonesia and 2010; Jahn, 2010; Xiao et al., 2010a, 2010b). With exception of the Talk-
the Philippines where several oceanic arcs are colliding with conti- eetna arc that accreted to Alaska 150 Ma (Clift et al., 2005; Rioux et al.,
nental margins. With exception of two arcs with transpressive 2007), most accreted oceanic arcs in the Cordillera and Appalachians
are small, highly deformed remnants scraped off and squeezed between
other terranes (Hatcher, 1987; Murphy et al., 2004; Johnston, 2008;
5 Murphy et al., 2011). Although Sengör et al. (1993) and Sengör and
Oceanic arcs Natal'in (1996) reported oceanic arcs in the Central Asian orogen,
Continental arcs later studies have not confirmed these observations. Recent studies
Subductable Nonsubductable or
show that on average, the Central Asian orogen contains only about
4
partly subductable 10% of oceanic arcs (Badarch et al., 2002; Windley et al., 2007; Sun et
al., 2008; Rojas-Agramonte et al., 2011). Only in the Neoproterozoic
Arabian–Nubian orogen do oceanic arcs exceed 20%, averaging about
40% (Stern, 2002; Hargrove et al., 2006; Ali et al., 2009) (Fig. 1). If we in-
3
clude the modern Sundaland orogen in Indonesia, studies show that
Count

most colliding oceanic arcs in this orogen do not survive, with an aver-
age of only 10% of the orogen comprising accreted (or accreting) oceanic
arcs (Hall, 2008). The Mazatzal-Yavapai orogen in the southwestern
2
United States is perhaps the only Paleoproterozoic accretionary orogen
where terranes and tectonic settings have been quantitatively described
(Condie, 1986; Karlstrom et al., 2001). If the outcrops of this orogen are
representative, again oceanic arcs seem to comprise b10% by volume.
1
The most widespread tectonic setting in all but the Sundaland oro-
gen is that of continental arcs, which make up 40–80% of accretionary
terranes. Phanerozoic orogens typically contain around 50% of conti-
0 nental arcs (Fig. 1). These arcs, which include large amounts of felsic
12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 to intermediate volcanics, formed on older felsic crust or in a few in-
Crustal Thickness (km) stances, formed on accreted oceanic arcs (such as the Talkeetna arc in
Alaska [Clift et al., 2005]). When deeper levels of erosion expose the
Fig. 2. Crustal thickness distribution in arcs.
root zones of these arcs, calc-alkaline batholiths are widespread
Chief sources including the literature cited in these sources: Miller and Christensen
(1994); Fliedner and Klemperer (2000), Holbrook et al. (1999), Tatsumi et al. (2008), (Lee et al., 2007). In the Cordillera and Appalachians, most continen-
Condie (2011), and Hughes and Mahood (2011). tal arcs erupted onto older continental crust, and in the case of the
 K.C. Condie, A. Kröner / Gondwana Research 23 (2013) 394–402 397

Appalachians, many formed on remnants of Precambrian cratons Juvenile other DISTRIBUTION OF

(micro-cratons) (Nance et al., 2002; Murphy et al., 2004). Much of Juvenile Cont arc
Juvenile Oceanic arc JUVENILE CRUST
the modern Sunda arc system in Indonesia also formed on older con- 70
tinental crust of Sundaland (Hall, 2008; Sevastjanova et al., 2011). 65.4%
63.4%
The widespread distribution of continental arcs in Proterozoic oro-
gens of the southwestern United States reflects closure of continental 60
back arc basins in which large amounts of arc volcanics and sedi-
52.1%
ments were preserved (Condie, 1986). Not all continental arcs, how-
50
ever, are sites of continental growth as exemplified by the Andes in
44%

Cumulative Percent
South America, where subduction erosion recycles continental crust 43%
41%
back into the mantle (Stern, 2011).
40
Other tectonic settings in accretionary orogens vary considerably
in relative abundance. Micro-cratons, which represent rifted pieces
of Precambrian cratons, comprise significant volumes of the Cordille- 30
ra, Appalachian, Central Asian and Sundaland orogens. Examples in-
clude Avalonia in the Appalachian orogen and Tarim on the margin
of the Central Asian orogen. In contrast, accreted micro-cratons are 20
trivial in the Japan, Arabian–Nubian and Proterozoic Laurentia oro-
gens (Morag et al., 2011) (Fig. 1). Oceanic LIPs and islands also com-
prise a small proportion of orogens, reaching an average maximum of 10
about 10% in Japan and the Central Asian orogens. Oceanic crust can
be accreted either as ophiolites (incl. dismembered ophiolites) or as
0
remnants of ocean-floor volcanics and pelagic sediments, but only Cordillera Appalachians Japan ANS Central Asian Proterozoic
in the Japan orogen does it comprise a significant volume of the ac- n = 68 n = 43 n = 19 n = 13 n = 25 SWNA
creted terranes (Isozaki, 1996). n = 17

Fig. 3. Estimated volume distribution of juvenile continental crust in accretionary oro-

3.3. Where is juvenile crust produced in accretionary orogens? gens. ANS, Arabian-Nubian orogen; SWUSA, southwestern United States.
Major sources for Nd and Hf isotopic data, including literature cited in these sources:
The next question to address is just where in accretionary orogens Eisele and Isachens (2001), Bahlburg et al. (2009), Ali et al. (2009), Condie (2007,
is juvenile continental crust produced. From our ever-increasing da- 2011), Condie et al. (2011) Murphy and Nance (2002), Samson and Patchett (1991),
Jahn (2010), Sevastjanova et al. (2011), Morag et al. (2011).
tabase of Nd and Hf isotopes in igneous rocks of accretionary and col-
lisional orogens, it is possible to identify which tectonic settings
contribute most to the production of juvenile continental crust. As and plutons occur in some arcs and in fact some oceanic arcs are bi-
shown by several earlier studies (Condie, 2007 and references there- modal with both mafic and felsic components and very few have in-
in), accretionary orogens are the primary sites for production of con- termediate compositions (Ishizuka et al., 2003). However, oceanic
tinental crust, at least since the end of the Archean. Our current arcs differ dramatically in bulk composition from continental arcs,
database as summarized in Fig. 3 (from data in Appendix 1) indicates the latter of which are dominated by intermediate to felsic compo-
that between 40 and 65% of post-Archean accretionary orogens are nents (Bryant et al., 2006; Kadioglu et al., 2006). Continental arcs
composed of juvenile continental input (Sun et al., 2008). We consider are generally unimodal in composition with a peak in SiO2 near 65%,
these estimates as maxima, because post-collisional plutonic compo- whereas oceanic arcs are mafic or bimodal with a peak near 52% SiO2
nents are not included, since later plutonic phases can involve large (Korsch et al., 2011).
amounts of reworked older continental crust (Jahn, 2010). If the oro- Could the felsic components in oceanic arcs represent the first
gens we have studied (Figs. 1 and 3) are representative, it is clear that stages in the development of continental crust? If so, continental
in most orogens, oceanic arcs contribute ≤10% of the juvenile compo- crust could actually begin to be produced in oceanic arcs before
nent in accretionary orogens, and this component is chiefly mafic in they collide with continents. A comparison, however, of incompatible
composition. Even the Neoproterozoic Arabian–Nubian orogen in trace element distributions shows that felsic igneous rocks formed in
Saudi Arabia is reported to have large numbers of recycled zircons in oceanic arcs differ significantly in composition from continental crust.
the plutonic components (Kennedy et al., 2007; Morag et al., 2011), First of all, with exception of Rb, Ba and Th, oceanic felsic components
and thus the orogen as a whole may contain consider volumes of are not enriched in incompatible elements like continental arcs
recycled continental crust. (Fig. 4; data given in Appendix 2). On incompatible element spider-
So where is most of the juvenile continental crust produced in ac- grams, they have Nb and Ta contents similar to the light REE (no
cretionary orogens? Again, continental arcs move to the head of the Nb-Ta anomalies) and do not show Sr anomalies, both of which are
line (Fig. 3). More than 50% of the total juvenile continental crust in characteristic of continental arc felsic components and upper conti-
accretionary orogens resides in and was produced in continental nental crust. The most striking trend in oceanic felsic components is
arcs. With exception of Japan where a significant amount of oceanic the gradual depletion in incompatible elements from Hf to Nb, a
crust was scraped off during accretion, other tectonic settings such trend that is opposite to that observed in continental felsic compo-
as oceanic crust, islands and plateaus contribute b 10% to the total ju- nents (alternatively this could be interpreted as unfractionated REE
venile input into accretionary orogens. with a positive Zr–Hf anomaly and negative Nb–Ta anomaly). An ex-
ception to this trend has recently been reported in granodiorite from
3.4. Felsic components in oceanic arcs a small knoll in the Izu-Bonin back arc basin, which has incompatible
element distributions very much like continental crust (Tani et al.,
Although felsic igneous rocks are not widespread in oceanic arcs, 2011a). The origin and significance of this occurrence is not yet clear.
they may be important if they are the first signs of development of con- Both continental crust and felsic igneous rocks from continental
tinental crust. Although seismic data indicate that most oceanic arcs do arcs are characterized by relatively high La/Yb and Sr/Y ratios reflecting
not contain significant felsic components at depth (Izu-Bonin is an ex- relatively deep melting at convergent margins where garnet remains in
ception [Yamamoto et al., 2009b]), relatively minor felsic volcanics the restite retaining Y and heavy REE (Martin, 1993; Condie, 2008). This
398 K.C. Condie, A. Kröner / Gondwana Research 23 (2013) 394–402

garnet did not remain in the restite. These differences are also evident
on the Pearce diagram showing Th/Yb vs Nb/Yb (Fig. 6). These element
100 ratios clearly separate the MORB-OIB mantle array from a subduction
component as recorded by enrichment in Th relative to Yb. The modern
arc array is also shown on the figure. Although most arc felsic igneous
rocks fall in or above this arc array on Fig. 6, only felsic components
PM-Normalized Value

from continental arcs have high values of both ratios and are similar
in composition to average upper and bulk continental crust. The rela-
10 tively low Yb in these rocks again points to residual garnet in the
sources. In contrast, oceanic arc felsic components have strikingly low
values of these ratios recording thinner crust, no residual garnet in the
sources, and sources depleted in Th relative continental arcs. Felsic com-
ponents from LIPs show considerable variation, depending on whether
1 they have a subduction component in their sources (Fig. 6). Felsic igne-
ous rocks from ophiolites (mostly plagiogranites) fall just above the
MORB-OIB array, showing that they have a minor subduction
Continental arc component.
UC
Oceanic arc
The bottom line of these geochemical differences is that continental
crust does not begin life in oceanic arcs. Accretion of oceanic arcs to con-
0. tinents does not yield the correct composition for significant felsic
Rb Ba Th Nb Ta La Ce Sr Nd Zr Hf Sm Eu Ti Gd Y Yb
input. On the other hand, the remarkable similarity of incompatible el-
Fig. 4. Primitive-mantle normalized incompatible element distributions in average ement distributions in granitoids and felsic volcanics from continental
upper continental crust (UC) compared to average felsic igneous rocks from continen- arcs is consistent with most continental crust being produced in conti-
tal and oceanic arcs. nental arcs.
Sources: UC, Rudnick and Gao (2003); continental and oceanic arcs, Append. 2; primitive
mantle (PM), Sun and McDonough (1989).
4. Discussion and conclusions

is illustrated in Fig. 5 where (La/Yb)n and Sr/Y ratios each lie in the Although most post-Archean oceanic arcs appear to have been
range of 5 to100. Felsic LIPs (large igneous provinces) also typically largely subducted as discussed above, Draut et al. (2002; 2009)
fall at the low end of this range. In contrast, felsic igneous components have made a case for accretion of two early Paleozoic oceanic arcs
formed in oceanic arcs have very low values of these ratios (typically b 3 to continental crust in Ireland. The accretion resulted in production
for [La/Yb]n and b 10 for Sr/Y; Fig. 5), similar to ratios in plagiogranites of felsic magmas that were both intruded and extruded and may
from ophiolites. These magmas formed at shallower depths where have contributed to production of new continental crust. However,
the average composition of felsic components in these oceanic arcs
Oceanic arcs falls with continental arcs on both the La/Yb–Sr/Y and Th/Yb–Nb/Yb
Continental arcs FELSIC IGNEOUS ROCKS graphs (Figs. 5 and 6), indicating that when the felsic magmas were
100
LIP felsics produced the accreted oceanic arcs had thickened and evolved into
Ophiolite felsics continental arcs. Thus, the felsic input that “drove” the composition

Oceanic arcs
Continental arcs FELSIC IGNEOUS ROCKS
EI
WI 10 LIP felsics EPRB
10 Ophiolite felsics WI
EPRB
EI
(La/Yb)n

WPRB
Izu
WPRB Izu
Whundo
ARC ARRAY
1

1 Whundo
Th/Yb

MORB-OIB
ARRAY
Upper Continental Crust
Archean Upper Continental Crust 0.1
Bulk Continental Crust
0.1
0.1 1 10 100 1000
Sr/Y
Upper Continental Crust
Archean Upper Continental Crust
Fig. 5. Distribution of felsic igneous rocks from different tectonic settings on a (La/Yb)
Bulk Continental Crust
n–Sr/Y diagram. Data from Condie (2008) and Appendix 2. Felsic igneous rocks include
volcanic, hypabyssal, and plutonic components (pre-collisional granitoids only). LIP, large 0.01
igneous province; WI and EI, average felsic igneous rocks from western and eastern Ireland 0.1 1 10 100
(Draut et al., 2002; 2009); EPRB and WPRB, eastern and western Peninsular Range batho- Nb/Yb
lith, California (Lee et al., 2007); Izu, Kofu granitic complex, Izu-Bonin arc (Saito et al.,
2007); Whundo arc, western Pilbara, Western Australia (Smithies et al., 2005). Each data Fig. 6. Distribution of felsic igneous rocks from different tectonic settings on a Th/Yb–Nb/Yb
point is the average value from a given site and continental crust averages are from Rudnick diagram (after Pearce, 2008). Data from Condie (2008) and Appendix 2. Other information
and Gao (2003). in Fig. 5.
 K.C. Condie, A. Kröner / Gondwana Research 23 (2013) 394–402 399

of the mafic arc to a composition like continental crust occurred after GREENSTONE BASALTS
1
the oceanic arc had accreted and evolved into a continental arc (or
perhaps in part during accretion). Whatever the processes of melting
and delamination that led to production of the felsic igneous rocks, 0.9
they clearly occurred in a continental and not an oceanic setting.
78
The possibility of rapid evolution of accreted oceanic arcs into con- 0.8
tinental margin arcs has been pointed out by previous investigators 80
(Pearcy et al., 1990; DeBari and Sleep, 1991; Lee et al., 2007). Lee et

Arc/(Arc + Non-arc)
al. (2007) proposed that two geochemically different phases of the 0.7 45
Pennisular Range batholith in southern California reflect an accreted
oceanic arc (western phase WPRB) and a continental arc (eastern 0.6
47
phase EPRB), respectively. On our geochemical diagrams (Figs. 5
and 6), the average composition of both phases plots with continental
0.5
arc felsic components (WPRB perhaps overlapping with oceanic arc
felsics [Fig. 5]). Again, this suggests that both phases of the batholith
formed in a continental arc environment. Another example of a con- 0.4 20
tinental batholith produced during and after collision of an oceanic
arc with continental crust is the Tanzawa plutonic complex in Japan,
0.3
where the Izu-Bonin arc is being subducted beneath Honshu (Tani
et al., 2011b). Hence, it appears that calc-alkaline batholiths are pro-
duced only after accretion and thickening during and after collision 0.2
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500
of oceanic arcs with continental crust. Such a condition is necessary
Age (Ma)
for the arc root to begin to melt and produce felsic magmas with con-
tinental rather than oceanic geochemical signatures. Fig. 7. The ratio of arc to non-arc + arc greenstones with age. Arc and non-arc green-
Another line of evidence that has been used to support oceanic stone basalts are distinguished using a combination of geochemical and lithologic
arcs in making continents is that high-Mg andesite may be the prima- data as described in Condie (1994; 2003; 2005); data are also given in these sources,
although spreadsheets are continually updated with new published results. Number
ry magma type in most or some oceanic arcs. Because high-Mg andes-
refers to the number of greenstones, vertical bars to one standard deviation of the
ite is similar in composition to average bulk continental crust mean values.
(Kelemen, 1995; Tatsumi, 2006), continental crust may be the product
of in-situ fractionation of high-Mg andesite magma giving rise to felsic
components and depleted mafic/ultramafic components, the latter of andesites to total (largely mafic) volcanics can serve as an approxi-
which delaminate and are returned to the mantle. If this mechanism mate proxy for the ratio of continental to oceanic arcs in arc-type
is viable, oceanic arcs could indeed be important building blocks of con- greenstones. This ratio shows a dramatic change at the end of the Ar-
tinental crust. However, continental crust is complex and includes chean, before which the ratio is mostly b0.5 and after which it is com-
many components of different volumes, composition and age. Some monly >0.5 (Fig. 8). There are only two arcs in our Archean arc
components are exotic and have been tectonically mixed into the greenstone database (Norseman–Wiluna in Western Australia and
crust during plate collisions. In places, such as the Archean of southern Nyanzian in Kenya) that are typical continental arcs. If we use a
India, even the deep crust includes large volumes of sedimentary car- ratio of 0.5 as the approximate boundary between oceanic and
bonate and quartzite. Different erosion levels of the continental crust
exposed at Earth's surface and xenolith populations that sample the ARC-TYPE GREENSTONES
1.2
lower crust show that continental crust cannot have evolved from one
type of parental magma, such as high-Mg andesite. Any model that
calls upon fractionation of a single magma type to produce continental
crust is completely unrealistic. Thus, a possible similarity in composition 1
of high-Mg andesite and continental crust should not be used to support
a genetic connection between the two.
Although oceanic arcs do not appear to be major components in 0.8
continental growth after the Archean, this may not have been the
FV+AND/Total

case during the Archean, and especially during the late Archean Norseman-Wiluna
when plate tectonics was fully operational (Condie and Kröner, Nyanzian
0.6
2008; Wyman and Kerrich, 2009). Archean cratons may be composed
Continental arcs
of accreted terranes (Boily et al., 2009), although not all investigators
Oceanic arcs
agree with this interpretation (Maurice et al., 2009). Many studies
confirm that the Superior craton in Canada comprises accreted ocean- 0.4
ic arcs and oceanic LIPs (Kusky and Polat, 1999), but it also includes
some micro-cratons such as the Minnesota River Valley terrane.
Some investigators have interpreted early and middle Archean green- 0.2
stones in SW Greenland as accreted oceanic arcs (Polat et al., 2008;
Nutman and Friend, 2009). Supporting the widespread distribution
of subduction in the late Archean is a rapid increase in the number 0
of arc-type greenstones, a trend which continues into the early Paleo- 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000
proterozoic (Fig. 7) with the greenstones in West Africa and South Age (Ma)
America (Condie, 2003). At these locations, the Birimian and Transa-
Fig. 8. Plot showing the ratio of felsic volcanics (FV)+ andesites (AND) to total volcanics
mazonian greenstones and associated granitoids represent significant in arc greenstones as a function of age. Each point is the average value from a given green-
new additions of continental crust, perhaps still involving oceanic arc stone belt.
collisions (Abouchami et al., 1990). The ratio of felsic volcanics and Data from Condie (1994; 2003; 2005) with continued updates.
400 K.C. Condie, A. Kröner / Gondwana Research 23 (2013) 394–402

Arc-Type Greenstone Basalts arc In contrast, after the Archean, oceanic crust became thinner due to
UC arc continental cooling of the mantle and less melt production at ocean ridges, and
arc oceanic
hence, the oceanic lithosphere should be more subductable. Oceanic
arcs would be less likely to accrete to continental margins. Wide-
1 spread propagation of plate tectonics in the late Archean, thus may
CA have led not only to rapid production of continental crust, but also
OA to a change in the primary site of production of continental crust
Th/Yb

from oceanic arcs and oceanic plateaus in the Archean to continental

PM arcs thereafter.
0.1
Acknowledgments
NMORB
We appreciate two in-depth reviews of an earlier version of the
manuscript by Ali Polat and Hugh Smithies, which resulted in improving
0.01 the manuscript.
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000
Age (Ma)
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Fig. 9. Th/Yb ratio in arc greenstone basalts with age. Each point is the average from a
specific greenstone belt. Data from Condie (1994; 2003; 2005) with continued updates. Supplementary data to this article can be found online at doi:10.
PM, primitive mantle and NMORB from Sun and McDonough (1989) and UC, upper
1016/j.gr.2011.09.011.
continental crust, from Rudnick and Gao (2003); CA and OA, continental and oceanic
arcs, respectively.
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Stern, C.R., 2011. Subduction erosion: rates, mechanisms, and its role in arc magmatism
and the evolution of the continental crust and mantle. Gondwana Research 20,
284–308. Kent Condie is professor of geochemistry at New Mexico
Stern, R.J., 2002. Crustal evolution in the East African Orogen: a neodymium isotopic Institute of Mining and Technology, Socorro, NM where
perspective. Journal of African Earth Sciences 34, 109–117. he has taught since 1970. Prior to that time he was at
Stern, R.J., 2008. Neoproterozoic crustal growth: the solid Earth system during a critical Washington University in St. Louis, MO (1964–1970).
episode of Earth history. Gondwana Research 14, 33–50. Textbook, Plate Tectonics and Crustal Evolution, which is
Stern, R.J., Johnson, P., 2010. Continental lithosphere of the Arabian plate: a geologic, widely used in upper division and graduate courses in
petrologic and geophysical synthesis. Earth-Science Reviews 101, 29–67. the Earth Sciences, was first published in 1976 and has
Sun, S.S., McDonough, W.F., 1989. Chemical and isotopic systematics of oceanic ba- gone through four later editions. In addition Condie has
salts: implications for mantle composition and processes. In: Saunders, A.S., written a beginning historical geology textbook with
Norry, M.J. (Eds.), Magmatism in Ocean Basins: Geological Society of London, coauthor Robert Sloan, Origin and Evolution of Earth
42, pp. 313–345. Special Publication. (Prentice-Hall, 1998), an advanced textbook, Mantle Plumes
Sun, M., Yuan, C., Xiao, W., Long, X., Xia, X., Zhao, G., Lin, S., Wu, F., Kroener, A., 2008. and Their Record in Earth History (Cambridge University
Zircon U–Pb and Hf isotopic study of gneissic rocks from the Chinese Altai: pro- Press, 2001), and a research treatise, Archean Greenstone
gressive accretionary history in the early to middle Paleozoic. Chemical Geology Belts (Elsevier, 1981). His most recent book, written as an upper division/graduate text-
247, 352–383. book, is Earth as an Evolving Planetary System (Elsevier, 2005; second edition 2011).
Tani, K., Dunkley, D.J., Chang, Q., Hirahara, Y., Shukuno, H., Tatsumi, Y., 2011a. Granite He also has edited two books, Proterozoic Crustal Evolution (Elsevier, 1992) and Archean
knoll: the first direct evidence for the formation of continental like granodiorite Crustal Evolution (Elsevier, 1994). His CD ROM, Plate Tectonics and How the Earth Works
crust in an intra-oceanic arc. VII Hutton Symposium, Granites and Related Rocks, are widely used in upper division Earth Science courses in the United States and Europe.
Avila, Spain, 4–9 July 2011. Condie's research, primarily dealing with the origin and evolution of continents and the
Tani, K., Dunkley, D.J., Kimura, J.-I., Wysoczanski, R.J., Yamada, K., Tatsumi, Y., 2011b. early history of the Earth, has over the years been sponsored chiefly by the U. S. National
Syncollisional rapid granitic magma formation in an arc–arc collision zone: evi- Science Foundation. He is author or co-author of over 800 articles published scientific
dence from the Tanzawa plutonic complex, Japan. Geology 38, 215–218. journals.
Tatsumi, Y., 2006. High-Mg andesites in the Setouchi volcanic belt, Southwestern
Japan: an analogy to Archean magmatism and continental crust formation? Annual
Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 2006 (34), 467–499.
Tatsumi, Y., Shukuno, H., Tani, K., Takahashi, N., Kodaira, S., Kogiso, T., 2008. Structure Alfred Kröner is Professor emeritus at the University of
and growth of the Izu-Bonin-Mariana arc crust: 2. Role of crust–mantle transfor- Mainz (Germany) and an Honorary Visiting Professor in
mation and the transparent Moho in arc crust evolution. Journal of Geophysical Re- the Beijing SHRIMP Center, Chinese Academy of Geologi-
search 113 BO2203, doi: 10.1029/2007JB005121. cal Sciences. He obtained a PhD from the University of
Taylor, S.R., 1967. The origin and growth of continents. Tectonophysics 4, 17–34. Cape Town, South Africa, in 1968 and worked as an explo-
Van Kranendonk, M.J., 2010. Two types of Archean continental crust: plume and plate ration geologist in Windhok, Namibia, in 1969 before
tectonics on early Earth. American Journal of Science 310, 1187–1209. returning to the University of Cape Town as Senior Research
Wang, C.Y., Campbell, I.H., Allen, C.M., Williams, I.S., Eggins, S.M., 2009. Rate of growth of Fellow of the Precambrian Research Unit (1970–1976). In
the preserved North American continental crust: evidence from Hf and O isotopes 1977 he was appointed to the Chair of General and Regional
in Mississippi detrital zircons. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 73, 712–728. Geology at the University of Mainz that he occupied until
Windley, B.F., Alexeiev, D., Xiao, W., Kröner, A., Badarch, G., 2007. Tectonic models for 2006. He was a Visiting Scientist at Stanford University,
accretion of the Central Asian orogenic belt. Journal of the Geological Society of USA, the Australian National University in Canberra, as well
London 164, 31–47. as Curtin University of Technology and the University of
Wyman, D., Kerrich, R., 2009. Plume and arc magmatism in the Abitibi subprovince: Western Australia (UWA), both in Perth. He is a Honorary Fellow of the Geological Soci-
implications for the origin of Archean continental lithosphere mantle. Precambrian eties of America and South Africa, a Honorary Professor of Northwestern University, Xi'an,
Research 168, 4–22. China, and was Vice-President of the European Geoscience Union (2000–2003). He was
Xiao, W., Han, C., Yuan, C., Sun, M., Zhao, G., Shan, Y., 2010a. Transitions among also co-editor of Precambrian Research (1984–2007) and is co-editor of Terra Nova and
Mariana-, Japan-, Cordillera- and Alaska-type arc systems and their final juxtapo- Associate Editor of Gondwana Research. His main interest is in Precambrian crustal evo-
sitions leading to accretionary and collisional orogenesis. Geological Society of lution and zircon geochronology.
London 338, 35–53 Special Publication.